INDEX

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

INTRODUCTION RECONISSANCE SURVEY ANGLE MEASUREMENT LEVELLING TRIANGULATION TACHEOMETRY PLANE TABLE CONTOUR PLOTTING OBSERVATION TABLES

1.INTRODUCTION
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction and elevation. It also includes the art of establishing points by predetermining angular and linear measurements. The application of surveying requires skill as well as the knowledge of mathematics, physics, and to some extent, astronomy. It is a technique of preparing the map of an area. In all Engineering Projects the preparations of accurate plans and sections is the first necessity.

In this survey camp, i.e. in Survey Camp 2009(Dec 10 Dec 23), we got the project, TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP OF PEC, in which we have to plot the prominent features of PEC on the map with the help of various surveying techniques. Topography is meant by the shape or configuration of the earths surface. The basic purpose of topographical map is to indicate the three dimensional relationships for the terrain of any given area of land. Thus, on a topographic map, the relative positions of the points are represented both horizontally as well as vertically.

To get a comprehensive idea of the area, we explored the area looking in prominent points/ features that we have to show on the map and also we looked for any difficulty that we might encounter in future while plotting the points on the sheet. This type of process of exploring the area in detail and looking for points where we can set our instrument to get the points on sheet is known as Reconnaissance.

After reconnaissance, we got the rough map of the area and the points where we will set our instrument i.e. instrument stations.

We first selected one instrument station from where we wanted to commence our work, but, the problem was that we were not aware of the elevation of that point w.r.t. mean sea level (Reduced Level of that point), as with the help of that R.L., we have to find out and plot the R.L of points that we have to show on the map.

So, for that purpose, we have gone to Regulatory End of Sukhna Lake, whose R.L. was known to us, and which was approximately 3 Kms from our college. With the help of Levelling Instrument, we got the R.L of the points that were in the way from Sukhna Lake to College. So, finally we got the R.L of the point from where we have to commence our work.

In college, we used the instruments like Total Station, Plane Tabling with telescopic alidade to get the R.L of various points and to plot those points on the sheet.

CAMP SITE

PEC MAP

2.RECONNAISSANCE

SURVEY

A reconnaissance survey provides data that enables design engineers to study the advantages and disadvantages of a variety of routes and then to determine which routes are feasible. You begin by finding all existing maps that show the area to be reconnoitered. In reconnaissance, studying existing maps is as important as the actual fieldwork. Studying these maps and aerial photographs, exist, will often eliminate an unfavorable route from if any further

consideration, thus saving your reconnaissance field party much time and effort. Contour maps give essential information about the relief of an area. Aerial photographs provide a quick means for preparing valuable sketches and overlays for your field party. Direct aerial observation gives you an overview of an area that speeds up later ground reconnaissance if the region has already been mapped. Begin the study of a map by marking the limits of the area to be reconnoitered and the specified terminals to be connected by the highway. Note whether or not there are any existing routes. Note ridgelines, water courses, features. Look without too for terrain much mountain that will Use gaps, and similar control grades permit simplicity moderate

excavating.

in alignment and

have a good balance of cuts and fills; or use a profile arrangement that makes it possible to fill depressions with the cut taken from nearby high places. Mark the routes that seem to fit the needs and that should be reconnoitered in the field. From the map study, determine grades,

estimate the amount of clearing required, and locate routes that will keep excavation to a minimum by taking advantage of terrainconditions. Mark stream crossings and marshy areas as possible locations for fords, bridges, or culverts. Have the reconnaissance field party follow the route or routes marked earlier during the map study. Field reconnaissance provides you with an opportunity for checking the actual conditions on the ground and for noting any discrepancies in the maps or aerial photographs. Make notes of soil conditions, availability of construction materials, such as sand or gravel, unusual grade or alignment problems, and requirements for clearing and grubbing. of reference points, control obstacles, landslides, Take photographs or make sketches points, or structure any sites, other terrain unusual

washouts,

circumstances. Your reconnaissance survey party will usually carry lightweight instruments that are not precise. Determine by compass the direction and angles. Determine the approximate elevations by an aneroid barometer or altimeter. Use an Abney hand level (clinometer) to estimate elevations and to project level lines. Other useful items to carry are pocket tapes, binoculars, pedometer and pace tallies, cameras, watches, maps, and field notebooks. Keep design reconnaissance survey. considerations in mind while running a

Remember that future operations may require further expansion of the route system presently being designed. Locate portions of the new route, whenever possible, along roads or trails that already exist. Locate them on stable, easily drained, high-bearing-strength soils. Avoid swamps, marshes, low-bearing-strength soils, sharp curves, and routes requiring large amounts of earthmoving. Keep the need for bridges and drainage structures to a minimum. When the tactical situation permits, locate roads in forward combat zones where they can be concealed and protected from enemy fire. The report you turn in for the reconnaissance field party must be as complete as

possible; it provides the major data that makes the selection of the most feasible route or routes possible.

3.ANGULAR MEASUREMENT
Surveying and navigation often rely on the measurement of two phenomena in order to determine position, those of distance (already covered in lectures) and direction or bearing. These lecture notes will introduce the concept of bearings and cover the instrumentation that has been developed over the centuries to facilitate the determination of relative and absolute 'bearing'. In order to start, we will look at the definition of some terms specific to the determination of direction. 3.1 Definitions: Directions: - Simply that, a direction (over there). Bearings: - A direction relative to a datum

Whole-circle bearings: The direction of survey lines is generally expressed as an angle measured from a reference meridian, generally north, commencing from 0 degrees (0) and increasing clockwise to 360 degrees (35959'60"). Bearings are never expressed as "North, X degrees East". Angles: - The arithmetic difference between two directions or bearings. Reference meridians: True north (through the geographic poles about which the Earth rotates) Magnetic north (through which lines of magnetic flux pass) Grid north - An arbitrary meridian (one adopted for a particular project) - a mathematically determined value Magnetic meridian: - The direction of the earth's magnetic lines of force. This varies with date, time and locality. Magnetic declination - The angle between the magnetic and true meridians. Angle measurement is a fundamental part of surveying field

observations, as the combination of a direction and a distance gives a polar vector to a point and hence a unique location of that point in space. The instruments that have been developed to facilitate angle (or direction) measurement are the magnetic compass , the sextant and the theodolite. 3.2 The Magnetic Compass

The Magnetic Compass is an instrument which indicates the whole circle bearing from the magnetic meridian to a particular line of sight. It consists of a needle or disc magnetised so that it will align itself with the direction of the Earth's magnetic flux, and some type of index scale so that numeric values for the bearing can be determined. See diagram below.

The magnetic bearing is related to true bearings as follows:

d = Magnetic declination (positive when clockwise) qt = True bearing qm = Magnetic bearing qt = q m + d 3.3 Variations in Declination The geophysical phenomena that generate the Earth's magnetic flux are still not fully understood. It is known that magnetic north moves quite considerably over time, and has even reversed polarity in prehistory. Some of the phenomena that effect the direction of

magnetic flux (and hence magnetic north) are known as variations in declination and are as follows: Variation Secular variation Diurnal variation Cause Amount of

Dd Rotation of magnetic pole around In 1933 - 8 geographic pole. Effect of sun during the day up to In 1970 -

10' Irregular variation Sunspot activity Irregular variation Electrical storm (cont)

959'E up to 5 up to 5

Conclusion: Magnetic north is generally too unreliable for use as a survey datum! 3.4 Local Attraction The needle of the compass can also be 'attracted' by metallic objects close to the point of observation. These objects cause local aberrations in the direction of magnetic flux, and give rise to an effect known as local attraction. These local disturbances in the Earth's magnetic field are often due to large iron masses, electric cables, fences, cars and so on. They tend to occur locally, and if detected can sometimes be compensated for in survey procedures. Magnetic anomalies caused by underground minerals are a problem for surveyors, but form the basis of many mineral exploration techniques so the news is not all bad. Where a closed traverse consisting of compass bearings and distances has been performed around a parcel of land (see later) it is possible to compensate for the effects of local attraction and to distribute 'angular misclosure'.

This will be covered in more detail later but in summary the procedure consists of: i. ii. iii. iv. v. measuring forward and back bearing of each line computing angles and angle misclosure (misclosure = [180(n - 2)] - S angles) {(n-2) - S angles} ) adjusting each angle by adding to each recomputing bearings from adjusted angles. (The bearing of one line must be known or assumed). The presence or otherwise of local attraction can be determined from the difference between a 'forward' bearing and a 'reverse' bearing observed from, and to, a station. If I was to measure from Point A to Point B, and then from Point B back to Point A the difference in the bearings should be 180. Any variation in this in excess of what would be expected from random error would be most likely due to local attraction. Needless to say both forward and reverse bearings are always observed when using a compass for traversing. 3.5 Compasses There are two main types of magnetic compasses used in the field by surveyors navigators and orienteers: the Sunnto type and the prismatic type, as well as compass-theodolites. There are others like the gyro-compass which are used in inertial navigation systems, however they will not be addressed here. Both the Sunnto type and the Prismatic type are held in the hand for use, and are therefor subject to poor centring and an unstable platform. The effects of this are reduced over long sight lines, which, when combined with the vagaries of the magnetic meridian, combine to make the compass a reconnaissance or inventory tool only. Neither

the instruments nor the basis upon which they work are sufficiently stable for any sort of precision work. 3.6 Measuring Horizontal Angles With Total Station

Instruments

Horizontal angles are measured in horizontal planes. To eleminate instrumental errors and increase precision, angle measurements should be repeated an equal number of times in each of the direct and reversed modes, and the average taken. In the notes 1. the identification of the angle being measured is recorded in column (1) 2. the value of the first reading of the angle is placed in column (2) 3. it is only recorded for checking purposes, the fourth (final) reading is tabulated in column (3) 4. the mean of the four readings, which produce the final angle, is given in column (4)

3.7 Measuring Horizontal Angles by The Direction Method

4. LEVELLING

4.1 General The primary reference at water-level recording stations is a set of stable bench-marks, installed in locations where their level should not change. Upon initial set-up of a station, the levels of the relevant parts of the installation are established and recorded by means of accurate levelling. At least every two years, the levels of the staff gauges, sensor level, internal gauge, tower structure and benchmarks should be measured relative to each other as a check that records are not in error due to bank subsidence or other movement. Accurate levelling is thus a particularly important part of site establishment, installation and quality assurance. All staff shall be thoroughly familiar with its theory and practice. Levelling and surveying methods are also used for measurements of river channel and lake configurations. Often, less accurate methods can be used for this work than for water-level recording stations, although the techniques are common. 4.2 Definitions Differential levelling is the term applied to any method of measuring directly with a graduated staff the difference in elevation between two or more points. Precise levelling is a particularly accurate method of differential levelling which uses highly accurate levels and with a more rigorous observing procedure than general engineering levelling. It aims to achieve high orders of accuracy such as 1 mm per 1 km traverse. A level surface is a surface which is everywhere perpendicular to the direction of the force of gravity. An example is the surface of a completely still lake. For ordinary levelling, level surfaces at different elevations can be considered to be parallel. A level datum is an arbitrary level surface to which elevations are referred. The most common surveying datum is mean sea-level (MSL),

but as hydrological work is usually just concerned with levels in a local area, we often use: An assumed datum, which is established by giving a benchmark an assumed value (e.g. 100.000m) to which all levels in the local area will be reduced. It is not good practice to assume a level which is close to the actual MSL value, as it creates potential for confusion. A reduced level is the vertical distance between a survey point and the adopted level datum. A bench mark (BM) is the term given to a definite, permanent accessible point of known height above a datum to which the height of other points can be referred. It is usually a stainless steel pin embedded in a substantial concrete block cast into the ground. At hydrological stations rock bolts driven into bedrock or concrete structures can be used, but structures should be used warily as they themselves are subject to settlement. The locations of benchmarks shall be marked with BM marker posts and/or paint, and recorded on the Station History Form. A set-up refers the position of a level or other instrument at the time in which a number of observations are made without mooring the instrument. The first observation is made to the known point and is termed a backsight; the last observation is to the final point or the next to be measured on the run, and all other points are intermediates. A run is the levelling between two or more points measured in one direction only. The outward run is from known to unknown points and the return run is the check levelling in the opposite direction. A close is the difference between the starting level of the initial point for the outward run and that determined at the end of the return run. If the levels have been reduced correctly this value should be the same as the difference between the sum of the rises and falls and also the difference between the sum of the backsights and foresights. Height of Collimation is the elevation of the optical axis of the telescope at the time of the setup.

The line of collimation is the imaginary line at the elevation. Orders of levelling refer to the quality of the levelling, usually being defined by the expected maximum closing error. Order Precision order First order Second order Third order Purpose Deformation surveys Major levelling control Minor levelling control Levelling for construction Table Levelling closes The accuracy requirements for water-level stations relate to the standards; for further information refer to next section. Change points are points of measurement which are used to carry the measurements forward in a run. Each one will be read first as a foresight, the instrument position is changed, and then it will be read as a backsight. 4.3 Equipment The level, its tripod, the staff and the staff bubble are all precision items of equipment upon which the accuracy of the work is highly dependent. They shall be kept correctly calibrated, and be used and stored with care. Levels shall be carried in vehicles in a padded box, case or shelf in addition to the normal case, and staves shall be kept in a canvas or plastic sleeve to prevent damage to the face and entry of dirt. Levels A level is basically a telescope attached to an accurate levelling device, set upon a tripod so that it can rotate horizontally through 360. Normally the levelling device is a bubble, but modern ones incorporate a pendulum. There are three basic types of level, shown in figure below. Maximum close (m) 0.001 x km 0.003 x km 0.007 x km 0.012 x km

(a) Dumpy levels These are more basic levels often used in construction work. The telescope is rigidly attached to a single bubble and the assembly is adjusted either by means of a screwed ball-joint or by footscrews which are adjusted first in one direction, then at 90. (b) Tilting levels This type of level is fitted with a circular bubble for preliminary approximate levelling and a main bubble which is attached to the telescope. For each observation (not setup) the main bubble is viewed through an eyepiece and the telescope tilted by a fine screw to bring the two ends of the bubble into coincidence. (c) Automatic levels This more modern type of level is now in general use. It has a compensator which consists of an arrangement of three prisms. The two outer ones are attached to the barrel of the telescope. The middle prism is suspended by fine wiring and reacts to gravity. The instrument is first leveled approximately with a circular bubble; the compensator will then deviate the line of sight by the amount that the telescope is out of level. Staves The levelling staff is a box section of aluminium or wood, which will extend to 3 or 5 m in height by telescoping, hinging or addition of sections. One face has a graduated scale attached for reading with the cross-hairs of the level telescope. These faces can vary in pattern and graduation; 5mm graduations should be the maximum for accurate levelling of gauging stations. Many staves used these days are of aluminium because of its durability. However aluminium has a co-efficient of thermal expansion of 0.000023m/metre of length/C and this can cause some potential inaccuracies. For instance, "Survey Chief" and "Brookeades" staves are standardised at 27C, and in very cold weather these staves could be

as much as 3mm too short over their full length. For low temperature work consult the temperature table for each staff which should be with its "instruction manual" or printed on the staff itself. Staff bubbles These are generally a small circular bubble on an angle plate which is held against one corner of the staff to ensure that the staff is held in a vertical position. If the staff is not held vertical, the reading will be too large and may be significantly in error. A staff bubble shall be used at all times. If one is not available, the "chainman" (staff operator) shall rock the staff slowly back and forth about the vertical in a line towards the instrument. The observer notes the smallest reading which will occur when the staff is vertical.

4.4 Care of equipment ensure that tripod screws and hinges are kept tight. always transport the level in a padded box. when removing from the box lift it by the centre and not by the eyepiece or objective end of the telescope. screw it firmly onto the tripod, whilst holding it in one hand (make certain that it is not cross-threaded and that threads are compatible). when carrying the level tripod assembly in the field, support it over the shoulder or, in bush, crooked over an arm with the telescope unclamped (i.e. free to rotate). automatic levels should not be carried in a vertical or near-vertical position, as the compensator will swing about and be prone to damage. staves are too much of a precision item of equipment to be used in place of a slasher, vaulting pole, etc. staves shall be transported in their protective cases to protect the face from damage. wooden staves which become wet should be dismantled and dried out before storing away.

 any moisture which is evident in an instrument must be allowed to disperse by storing the level out of its case in a warm room. Should it persist after several days the instrument may require specialist servicing. 4.5 Checking the levels accuracy Levels can move out of adjustment so that their line of sight (line of collimation) is not truly horizontal. This will cause errors in readings which become greater as the viewing distance increases. However if a backsight and a foresight are exactly equi-distant from the instrument, the error in each sighting will cancel each other out. This feature can be used to check the accuracy of a level by the following simple method which is depicted in figure below install three pegs or marks firmly in the ground at distances of 30 m apart in a straight line; the centre peg is only to mark the distance, but the outside two shall be firm enough for reliable change points set up the level over the centre peg and read the staff on each of the outside pegs in turn. Book these values and calculate the height difference. This will be a true height difference, as the distances are equal and any errors will be self-compensating set up the level about 4 m to the far side of one of the outside pegs. Read the staff on the peg 4 m away and then on the one 64 m away. Book these values and calculate the apparent height difference compare the two height differences; if the instrument is in adjustment (i.e. its collimation is true) they will be within 5 mm.

A method for checking the level accuracy If the instrument's collimation appears to be out, recheck by repeating the process. Then, whilst setup at one of the outside locations, adjust the instrument (according to the manufacturer's instructions) so that it reads the correct value on the far staff, checking it against the near one. Two staves are useful for this. This type of level check shall be carried out at least once per year, preferably just prior to carrying out a round of station inspections. The details and results of the checks shall be recorded in a numbered level book and be readily retrievable as a quality record, and the date of this calibration check shall also be recorded in the instrument inventory. 4.6 Levelling procedures (a) Setting up Backsight and foresight distances should be approximately equal to avoid any errors due to collimation, refraction or earth curvature.

 Distances must not be so great as to not be able to read the graduations accurately. The points to be observed must be below the level of the instrument, but not lower than the height of the staff. (b) Elimination of parallax Parallax is the apparent movement of the image produced by movement of the observer's eye at the eyepiece. It is eliminated by focusing the telescope on infinity and then adjusting the eyepiece until the cross-hairs appear in sharp focus. The setting will remain constant for a particular observer's eye. (c) Booking level books or loose-leaf levelling sheets shall be numbered and indexed in a register. details of the site, work, date, observer, chainman, booker, weather, wind, instrument and any other relevant items shall be entered. enter the first observation (which is on a known point) in the Backsight column, and sufficient detail in the Remarks column to identify it. Enter the point's R.L. zero from the site register or plate on the BM, etc. enter all other points on subsequent lines as intermediates except the point chosen as the foresight. Identify them in the Remarks column as above. Enter the foresight on a further line in the Foresight column. change the instrument to the next setup. Enter the following backsight on the same line as the previous foresight but in the Backsight column. repeat the above procedure at each setup on the outward run then reverse it to work back to the starting point on the return run. The furthest point out is treated as for all other change points. 4.7 Reducing the levels

Two methods are in general use; the "rise and fall" method and the "height of collimation" method. The latter reduces levels relative to the instrument height. As it has inferior in-built checks it should not be used and will not be covered here. The "rise and fall" methods shall be used for reduction of all site levelling. Reduction shall be carried out on site before packing up to ensure that the levelling has been done correctly. calculate the rises and fall between successive points and book them in the appropriate column (one can determine whether each shot is a rise or fall by the following rule of thumb: a higher value on top denotes a rise; a higher value on the bottom denotes a fall) add up the backsight and foresight columns for the entire traverse and note the difference between them; this is the close add up the rises and falls for the entire traverse, and compare the difference between them with the difference between the backsights and foresights; they should be the same carry the reduced levels in the R.L. column down the page by adding or subtracting the appropriate rise and fall values to the successive values of R.L. The final value of the original starting point will differ from the original value by the amount of the close. If the levelling has been done correctly and all arithmetic reductions are correct, the differences between total backsights and foresights, total rises and falls, and starting and finishing R.L.'s should be the same. This difference is the close; and for site inspection purposes it should be within 2mm or 6mm, depending upon which water-level standard is being followed, 3mm or 10mm. 4.8 Level books

All levelling shall be booked in either level books or levelling sheets which shall be retained as permanent records .Level books shall be numbered so that they can be referenced on station history and inspection forms . They should be stored in fire-proof storage as for original record. They should also include an index. Levelling sheets shall be filed in time-sequential order in site files, and also need to be infire-proof storage as for level books.

5.TRIANGULATION
This method triangulation requires that distances be measured only at the beginning, at specified intervals, and at the end of the survey. Both the triangulation method and the traverse method of control are based on the character of the terrain, and not on the degree of precision to be attained; that is, each system is equally precise under the conditions in which each is used. Discussion of triangulation in this chapter normally is limited to

triangles having sides less than 3,000 yards in length and to triangulation nets that do not extend more than 25,000 yards. The triangulation method is used principally in situations where the chaining of distances is impossible or infeasible except with the use of electronic measuring devices. Suppose you want to locate a point, say, point C, which is offshore; and the measured baseline, AB, is located on the shore. In this situation the triangulation method is used because the chaining of distances is impossible. The chaining of long distances, especially in rough country, also is not always possible; therefore, triangulation is used to establish horizontal control in largearea surveys. In some large-area surveys conducted by triangulation, you must consider factors involving the curvature of the earth; hence, in such cases, geodetic triangulation is involved. Whether or not the curvature of the earth must be considered depends upon the area covered and the precision requirements of the survey. The error resulting in horizontal measurements when you ignore the curvature of the earth amounts to about 1 foot in 34 1/2 miles. This means that in most ordinary surveying, an area of 100 square miles may be plane-triangulated without significant error. In this discussion we are concerned with plane triangulation only. For a discussion of geodetic triangulation, you should refer to commercial publications. This section contains information on the three types of

triangulation networks and the usual procedure for conducting a triangulation survey. Also covered are primary and secondary triangulation stations, types of signals used in marking triangulation stations, and checking for precision and locations of points. 5.1 Supervision and triangulation surveys In triangulation surveys, the duties of the EA1 are those of party chief; that is, he directs the triangulation survey. He keeps the triangulation notes and should be at the spot where any important measurement is made so that he can verify the readings personally. He is for selecting triangulation stations and erecting responsible

triangulation signals and towers. He determines the degree of precision to be attained. He also performs the computations necessary to determine horizontal locations of the points in the triangulation system by bearing and distance. Triangulation is used extensively as a means of control for topographic and similar surveys. A triangulation system consists of a series of triangles. At least one side of each triangle is also aside of an adjacent triangle; two sides of a triangle may form sides of adjacent triangles. By using the two lines are measured in each triangulation method of control, you do not need to measure the length of every line. However, systemone line at the beginning and one at the closing of the triangulation system. These lines are called base lines and are used as a check against the computed lengths of the other lines in the system. The recommended length of a base line is usually one sixth to one fourth of that of the sides of the principal triangles. The transcontinental system established by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (now the National Geodetic Survey) is an example of an extensive high-order triangulation network to establish control across the United States.

Chain of single triangles.

5.2 Types of triangulation networks In triangulation there are three types of triangulation networks (or nets). They are the chain of of single triangles, chain of of Single polygons, and chain quadri- laterals. Chain

Triangles The simplest triangulation system is the chain of single triangles shown in
figure 15-15.

Suppose AB is the base line and ABC

measures 780.00 feet in length. Suppose, also, that angle A (that is, the observed angle BAC) measures 9854 and that angle measures 3242. (In actual practice you will use more precise values than these; we are using rough values to simplify the explanation.) Subtracting the sum of these two angles from 180, we get 4824 for angle ACB. Next, solve for sides BC and AC by using the law of sines as follows:

Now that you know how to find the length of BC, you can proceed in the same manner to determine the lengths of BD and CD. Knowing the length of CDcan proceed in the same manner to determine the lengths of CE and DE, knowing the length of DE, you can determine the lengths of DF and EF, and so on. You should use this method only when locating inaccessible points, not when a side of the triangle is to be used to extend control. In comparison with the other systems about to be described, the chain of single triangles has two disadvantages. In the first place, it can be used to cover only a relatively narrow area. In the second place, it provides no means for cross-checking computed distances using computations made by a different route. In
figure 15-15,

for example, the only way to compute the

length of BC is by solving the triangle ABC, the only way to compute the length of CD is by solving the triangle BCD (using the length of BC previously computed); and so on. In the systems about to be described, a distance maybe computed by solving more than one series of triangles. Technically speaking, of course, a triangle is a polygon; and therefore a chain of single triangles could be called a chain of polygons. However, in reference to triangulation figures, the term chain of polygons refers to a system in which a number of adjacent triangles are combined to forma polygon, as shown in
figure

15-16.

Within each polygon the common vertex of the triangles that

compose it is an observed triangulation station (which is not the case in the chain of quadrilaterals described later). You can see how the length of any line shown can be computed by two different routes. Assume that AB is the base line, and you wish to determine the length of line EF. You can compute this length by solving triangles ADB, ADC, CDE, and EDF, in that order, or by solving triangles ADB, BDF, and FDE, in that order. You can also see that this system can be used to cover a wide territory. It can cover an area extending up to approximately 25,000 yards in length or breadth.

Chain of polygons.

6. TACHEOMETRY
6.1 Introduction This method of survey consists of using either a level, theodolite or specially constructed tacheometer to make cross hair intercept readings on a levelling staff. As the angle subtended by the crosshairs is known, the distance can be calculated.

6.2 Definition Tacheometry is an optical solution to the measurement of distance. The word is derived from the Greek Tacns, meaning 'swift', and metrot, meaning 'a measure'. Present day methods of tacheometry can be classified in one of the following three groups. The last two groups will not be covered in these notes. 1. Stadia System: The theodolite is directed at the level staff and the distance is measured by reading the top and bottom stadia hairs on the telescope view. For further information about this process is provided in Theodolite Tacheometry 2. Electronic Tacheometry: Uses a total station which contains an EDM, able to read distance by reflecting off a prism. 3. Subtense Bar system: An accurate theodolite, reading to 1" of arc, is directed at a staff, two pointings being made and the small subtended angle measured. 4. Optical Wedge system: A special theodolite with a measuring device in front of the telescope s directed at a staff. One pointing of the instrument is required for each set of readings. There are two types of instruments used for stadia surveying. In the first type the distance between the two stadia hairs in the theodolite telescope is fixed. In the second type of equipment the distance between the stadia hairs is variable, being measured by means of a micrometer.The most common method used involves the fixed hair

tacheometer, or

theodolite.The

notes below shows the calculation of the

distance (D) from the centre of the fixed hair tacheometer to a target.

From the diagram, triangles AOB, aOb are similar OX Ox = U V = AB ab

Also if OF = f = focal length of object lens then u= u= 1/U (U/V) (AB/ab ) AB is obtained by subtracting the reading given on the staff by the lower stadia hair from the top one and is usually denoted by s (staff intecept), and ab the distance apart of the stadia lines is denoted by i. This value i is fixed, known and constant for a particular instrument. U= D= (f/i) (f/i) .s +f .s + (f + c) + 1/V .f + f .f + f = 1/f (lens equation) and multiply both sides by (Uf).

The reduction of this formula would be simplified considerably if the term f/i is made some convenient figure, and if the term (f + c) can be made to vanish. D = Cs + k In practice, the multiplicative constant generally equals 100 and the additive constant equals zero.This is certainly the case with modern instruments by may not always be so with older theodolites. The values are usually given by the makers but this is not always the case. It is sometimes necessary to measure them in an old or unfamiliar instrument. The simplest way, both for external and internal focussing instruments, is to regrad the basic formula as being a linear one of the form: D = Cs + k a. On a fairly level site chain out a line 100 to 120m long, setting pegs at 25 to 30 metre intervals. b. Set at up at one end and determine two distances using tacheometer or theodolite, one short and one long. hence C and K may be determined. i.e D1 (known) = Cs1 (known) . +k D2 (known) = Cs2 (known) +k

Distance

Readings Uppe Centr r e

Lowe r

Intervals Uppe Lowe r r

Total

Stadi 30.000 55.000 90.000 a 1.43 3 1.71 0 2.35 2 D =Cs + k 30.00 = 0.300 * C + k 90.00 = 0.900 * C + k therefore C = 100 & K = 0 1.28 3 1.43 5 1.90 2

Stadi a 1.13 3 1.16 0 1.45 2 0.15 0 0.27 5 0.45 0 0.15 0 0.27 5 0.45 0 0.300 0.220 0.900

Any combination of equations gives the same result, showing that the telescope is anallatic over this range, to all intents and purposes. In order to avoid errors due to differential refraction of light through the atmosphere, the lower stadia reading should not be too low on hot days, generally not less than 0.5m. With respect to earth curvature both stadia readings are equally affected and there is no effect on the value of the intercept. Correction for curvature on the distance and level should be applied if the sight lengths are long enough. The theory discussed so far, in
Constants The Stadia System, Measurement of Tacheometric

and

Refraction and Curvature,

all applies to the situation where the staff

is held vertically and the line of sight of the telescope is horizontal. It is very seldom, however, that this situation occurs in practice. Generally a theodolite is sighted to a level staff held vertically (by use of a staff bubble), which gives rise to the situation below.

Since the staff is not at right angles to the line of sight of the instrument, the intercept cut on the staff by the stadia hairs will be too large. Let the actual distance between upper and lower stadia be s and the required projection of it at right angles to IQ be s1 \ D = Cs1 + K, but s1 = s cos q In practice, the slope distance D is not often required. What we really want is S, the horizontal distance and V the vertical distance between the trunnion axis of the telescope and the point of the staff cut by the centre hair. Now S= = V= = = D cos q Cs cos2 q + k cos q D sin q Cs cos q sin q + k sin q Cs sin 2q + k sin q 2

Also

So now the horizontal distance S = Cs cos2 q + K cos q, and the vertical component is given by V = Cs cos q sin q + K sin q. In practice these can be reduced to:

S = 100 s cos2 q and V = 100 s cos q sin q The difference in height between the two points is given by: DH =HI + V - CL, and the Relative Level (R.L.) of the point is given by RL = RLA + HI + 100 s cos q sin q - CL The use of these formulae gives the three dimensional location of the point. It is quite easy to determine the coordinates of the point if the bearing is measured as well as the staff intercepts and vertical angle, which of course is the standard field procedure.

7.PLANE TABLE
7.1History The earliest mention of a plane table dates to 1551 in Abel Foullon's "Usage et description de l'holomtre", published in Paris.[3] However, since Foullon's description was of a complete, fully-developed instrument, it must have been invented earlier.A brief description was also added to the 1591 edition of Digge's Pantometria.]The first mention of the device in English was by Cyprian Lucar in 1590. Some have credited be incorrect. The plane table became a popular instrument for surveying. Its use was widely taught. Interestingly, there were those who considered it a substandard instrument compared to such devices as the
theodolite, Johann Richter,

also known as Johannes Praetorius, a

Nuremberg

mathematician, in 1610 with the first plane table, but this appears to

since

it was relatively easy to use. By allowing the use of graphical methods rather than than mathematical calculations, it could be used by those with less education than other instruments. 7.2 Plane table construction

A plane table cutaway.

This shows a plane table with part of the surface of the table cut away to show the mounting on the tripod. The mount allows the table to be levelled. On the table, the
alidade

with telescopic sight is seen

A plane table consists of a smooth table surface mounted on a sturdy base. The connection between the table top and the base permits one to level the table precisely, using
bubble levels,

in a horizontal plane. The

base, a tripod, is designed to support the table over a specific point on land. By adjusting the length of the legs, one can bring the table level regardless of the roughness of the terrain. 7.3 Use of a plane table In use, a plane table is set over a point and brought to precise horizontal level. A drawing sheet is attached to the surface and an
alidade

is used to sight objects of interest. The alidade, in modern

rule

examples of the instrument a interest.

with a

telescopic sight,

can then be used to

construct a line on the drawing that is in the direction of the object of

By using the alidade as a surveying level, information on the topography of the site can be directly recorded on the drawing as elevations. Distances to the objects can be measured directly or by the use of
stadia marks

in the telescope of the alidade.

7.4 Alidade Jump to:

navigation, search Adelaide.

Not to be confused with

A simple alidade for use with a

ceiling projector

Several examples of alidade

An alidade (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform a task. This task can be, for example, to draw a line on a plane table in the direction of the object or to measure the angle to the object from some reference point. Angles measured can be horizontal, vertical or in any chosen plane.

The alidade was originally a part of many types of scientific and astronomical instrument. At one time, some alidades, particularly those used on graduated circles as on astrolabes, were also called diopters.[1] With modern technology, the name is applied to complete instruments such as the plane table alidade.

Modern alidade types

A U.S. Navy sailor using a telescopic alidade.

The alidade is the part of a

theodolite

that rotates around the

vertical axis, and that bears the horizontal axis around which the
telescope

(or visor, in early telescope-less instruments) turns up or

down.

In a

sextant

the alhidade is the turnable arm carrying a mirror and

an index to a graduated circle in a vertical plane. Today it is more commonly called an index arm.

Alidade tables have also long been used in the bearing to a suitable
scale, forest fire.

fire towers

for sighting

topographic map

of the local area, with a

is oriented, centered and permanently mounted on

a leveled circular table surrounded by an arc calibrated to true north of the map and graduated in degrees (and fractions) of arc. Two vertical sight apertures are arranged opposite each other and can be rotated along the graduated arc of the horizontal table. To determine a bearing to a suspected fire, the user looks through the two sights and adjusts them until they are aligned with the source of the smoke (or an observed monitored for smoke).
lightning

strike to be

7.5 Telescopic sight

Types Telescopic sights are classified in terms of the optical magnification and the objective lens diameter, e.g. 1050. This would denote 10 times magnification with a 50 mm objective lens. In general terms, larger objective lens diameters, due to their ability to gather larger amounts of light, provide a larger exit pupil and hence provide a brighter image at the eyepiece. On fixed magnification sights the magnification power and objective diameter should be chosen on the basis of the intended use. There are also telescopic sights with variable magnification. The magnification can be varied by manually operating a zoom mechanism. Variable sights offer more flexibility regarding shooting at varying ranges, targets and light conditions and offer a relative wide field of view at lower magnification settings. The syntax for variable sights is the following: minimal magnification maximum magnification objective lens, for example, 3940. Confusingly, some older telescopic sights, mainly of German or other European manufacture, have a different classification where the second part of the designation refers to 'light gathering power.' In these cases, a 481 (4 magnification) sight would be presumed to have a brighter sight picture than a 2.570 (2.5 magnification), but the objective lens diameter would not bear any direct relation to picture brightness, as brightness is affected also by the magnification factor. Typically objective lenses on early sights are smaller than modern sights, in these examples the 481 would have an objective approximately 32mm diameter and the 2.570 might be approximately 25mm. Optical parameters

Telescopic sights are usually designed for the specific application for which they are intended. Those different designs create certain optical parameters. Those parameters are: Magnification The ratio of the focal length of the eyepiece divided into the focal length of the objective gives the linear magnifying power of telescopes. A magnification of factor 10, for example, produces an image as if one were 10 times closer to the object. The amount of magnification depends upon the application the telescopic sight is designed for. Lower magnifications lead to less susceptibility to shaking. A larger magnification leads to a smaller field of view. Objective lens diameter The diameter of the objective lens determines how much light can be gathered to form an image. It is usually expressed in millimeters. Field of view The field of view of a telescopic sight is determined by its optical design. It is usually notated in a linear value, such as how many meters (feet) in width will be seen at 100 m (or 100 yd), or in an angular value of how many degrees can be viewed. Exit pupil Telescopic sights concentrate the light gathered by the objective into a beam, the exit pupil, whose diameter is the objective diameter divided by the magnifying power. For maximum effective light-gathering and brightest image, the exit pupil should equal the diameter of the fully dilated iris of the human eye about 7 mm, reducing with age. If the cone of light streaming out of the eyepiece is larger than the pupil it is going into, any light larger than the pupil is wasted in terms of providing information to the eye. However, a larger exit pupil makes it easier to put the eye where it can receive the light: anywhere in the large exit pupil cone of light will do.

This ease of placement helps avoid vignetting, which is a darkened or obscured view that occurs when the light path is partially blocked. And, it means that the image can be quickly found which is important when aiming at game animals that move rapidly. A narrow exit pupil telescopic sight may also be fatiguing because the instrument must be held exactly in place in front of the eyes to provide a useful image. Finally, many people in Europe use their telescopic sights at dusk, dawn and at night, when their pupils are larger. Thus the daytime exit pupil of about 3 to 4 mm is not a universally desirable standard. For comfort, ease of use, and flexibility in applications, larger telescopic sights with larger exit pupils are satisfying choices even if their capability is not fully used by day.

7.6 Reticles Rangefinder reticle. Telescopic sights come with a variety of different
reticles,

ranging from

the traditional crosshairs to complex reticles designed to allow the shooter to estimate accurately the range to a target, to compensate for the bullet drop, and to compensate for the
windage

required due to

crosswinds. A user can estimate the range to objects of known size, the size of objects at known distances, and even roughly compensate for both bullet drop and wind drifts at known ranges with a reticleequipped scope. For example, with a typical
Leupold

brand duplex 16 MOA reticle (of a

type as shown in image B) on a fixed power scope, the distance from post to post (that is, between the heavy lines of the reticle spanning the center of the scope picture) is approximately 32 inches (81.3 cm)

at 200 yards (183 m), or, equivalently, approximately 16 inches (40.65 cm) from the center to any post at 200 yards. If a target of a known diameter of 16 inches fills just half of the total post-to-post distance (i.e. filling from scope center to post), then the distance to target is approximately 200 yards (183 m). With a target of a diameter of 16 inches that fills the entire sight picture from post to post, the range is approximately 100 yards. Other ranges can be similarly estimated accurately in an analog fashion for known target sizes through proportionality calculations. Holdover, for estimating vertical point of aim offset required for bullet drop compensation on level terrain, and horizontal windage offset (for estimating side to side point of aim offsets required for wind effect corrections) can similarly be compensated for through using approximations based on the wind speed (from observing flags or other objects) by a trained user through using the reticle marks. The less-commonly used holdunder, used for shooting on sloping terrain, can even be estimated by an appropriately-skilled user with a reticle-equipped scope, once the slope of the terrain and the slant range to target are both known. There are two main types of reticles:

Wire reticles Etched reticles

7.7 Spirit level A spirit level or bubble level is an instrument designed to indicate whether a surface is level or plumb. Different types of spirit levels are used by carpenters, stone masons, bricklayers, other building trades workers, surveyors, millwrights and other metalworkers, and serious videographers.

Original spirit levels had two banana-shaped curved glass vials at each viewing point and were much more complicated to use. In the 1920s, Henry Ziemann, the founder of Empire Level, invented the modern level with a single vial. These vials, common on most ordinary levels today, feature a slightly curved glass tube which is incompletely filled with a liquid, usually a yellow-colored 'spirit' (a synonym for ethanol), leaving a bubble in the tube. A spirit such as Ethanol is used due to its very low viscosity. This provides an ideal element for a bubble to travel the tube quickly and settle accurately with minimal interference generated from surface tension between the transfer fluid and the glass housing. Most commonly, spirit levels are employed to indicate how horizontal (level) or how vertical (plumb) a surface is. Some are also capable of indicating the level of a surface between horizontal and vertical to the nearest degree. The crudest form of the spirit level is the bull's eye level: a circular flat-bottomed device with the liquid under a slightly convex glass face which indicates the center clearly. It serves to level a surface in two perpendicular directions, while the tubular level only does so in the direction of the tube. The most sophisticated spirit levels are guaranteed accurate to five-tenthousandth of an inch (.0005) per inch and are much easier to read because of their blue colour. Where a spirit level must also be usable upside-down, the banana-shaped tube is replaced by a barrel-shaped tube. The upper internal surface of the tube is thus always of the appropriate shape.

A spirit level

7.8 Plumb-bob A plumb-bob or a plummet is a weight, usually with a pointed tip on the bottom, that is suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line, or plumb-line.

A plumb-bob The instrument has been used since the time of the ancient Egyptians by bricklayers, masons, and carpenters to ensure that their constructions are "plumb", or perfectly upright. It may also be used in surveying to sight a point on the ground that is not readily visible. Small plumb bobs are included in the kits of various instruments such as levels and theodolites. They are used to set the instrument exactly over a fixed datum marker, prior to taking fresh readings.[citation needed] Plumb-bobs and chalk lines are often sold as a single tool. 7.9 Use Up until the modern age, on most tall structures, plumb-bobs were used to provide vertical datum lines for the building measurements. A section of the scaffolding would hold a plumb line that was centered over a datum mark on the floor. As the building proceeded upwards the plumb line would also be taken higher, still centered on the datum.

Many cathedral spires, domes and towers still have brass datum marks inlaid into their floors, that signify the center of the structure above.

Plumb-bob with scale as an inclinometer Although a plumb-bob and line alone can only determine a vertical, if mounted on a suitable scale the instrument may also be used as an inclinometer to measure angles to the vertical. The early skyscrapers used heavy plumb-bobs hung on wire in their lift wells. The weight would hang in a container of oil to dampen any swinging movement, functioning as a shock absorber. 7.10 Determining centre of gravity of an irregular shape Students of figure drawing will also make use of a plumb line to find the vertical axis through the center of gravity of their subject and lay it down on paper as a point of reference. The device used may be purpose-made plumb lines, or simply makeshift devices made from a piece of string and a weighted object, such as a metal washer. This plumb line is important for lining up anatomical geometries and visualizing the subject's center of balance.

8. PLOTTING CONTOURS
Contours are lines that join points of equal value, in topographic surveying contours represent points of equal height. It is difficult to observe contours directly in the field, generally they are derived from field observations. There are two methods for acquiring survey data for the production of contours, one using predetermined gridded data points and the other using nonuniformly spaced data points. There are various benefits and shortcomings with both methods. 8.1 Gridded Data Points The points where height observations are taken are predetermined and their locations are marked on the ground using an appropriate survey technique. This then defines a group of rectangular prisms (see diagram) that have known horizontal side dimensions (and a known plan area for use in volume computations, see later).

The sides of the prisms travel over the surface of the ground between points of a certain reduced level, and are assumed to change linearly between the corners of the prisms. Somewhere between two points at the corners of a prism will be a point on the line that has a value corresponding to the required contour value, generally a whole metre

or regular fractions thereof. The location of this point is then determined by interpolating along the side of the prism.

In each of the interpolations the grid unit is known so the computations are simple and readily automated. This is the only benefit of using gridded data, there are however serious shortcomings. The establishment of the grid in the field is tedious and time consuming, but more importantly the location of the grid points is independent of the topography. The grid ignores changes in grade, ridge lines or creek banks, and is not an accurate method of describing the terrain. It is not recommended for use as a topographic survey method, especially as the advent of computer reduction and plotting packages has eliminated the hand computations. 8.2 Non-Uniformly Spaced Data Points The field method of using non-uniformly spaced data points allows the topography to be accurately represented. Observations are usually made to actual topographic features such as changes in grade, tops and toes of banks or batter slopes, distinct boundaries and so on. This is easily performed in the field using tacheometric survey techniques, there is no need to establish points on a predetermined pattern. While this is the most accurate representation of the terrain, the computations involved are greatly increased in volume. The same interpolations are performed as with gridded data (the mathematics

are exactly the same) but now for each pair of points the horizontal distance between them must be calculated or measured off the plan. Computer packages make this very easy, but if the computations are being performed by hand then the amount of work is substantial. These sets of data points are known as TINs (Triangulated Irregular Networks) and Digital Terrain Models. Examples of these are found in the notes on Volumes.