Student Binder

Global Maritime and Transportation School
at the United States Merchant Marine Academy
QMED
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO THE DIESEL ENGINE DIESEL ENGINE SYSTEMS o INTRODUCTION o OPERATION PROCEDURES o ENGINE PERFORMANCE o BASIC ENGINE COMPONENTS o CYCLE OPERATIONS o COOLING WATER SYSTEMS o AIR INTAKE/EXHAUST SYSTEMS o LUBE OIL SYSTEMS TURBOCHARGERS GOVERNORS 2. SHIPBOARD STEAM POWER PLANTS INTRODUCTION MARINE PROPULSION STEAM SYSTEM COMPONENTS STEAM AND WATER SYSTEMS BOILERS FUEL SYSTEMS STEAM TURBINES TURBINE ACCESSORIES AND AUXILIARIES 3. FUEL OIL SYSTEMS FUEL MAKE UP FUEL/LUBE OIL PURIFICATION FUEL SCHEMATICS 4. AUXILIARY SYSTEMS HEAT EXCHANGERS PURIFIERS LUBRICATION AND ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT OILY WATER SEPARATORS SANITARY SYSTEMS AIR COMPRESSOR SYSTEMS 5. EVAPORATORS 6. PUMPS/PACKING /VALVES AND STRAINERS 7. GAUGES AND THERMOMETERS 8. HYDRAULICS / STEERING GEAR 9. BEARINGS 10. SHIP CONSTRUCTION 11. GENERAL FIREFIGHTING EMERGENCY SIGNALS LIFEBOATS 12. OIL POLLUTION LEGISLATION OIL RECORD BOOK 13. MACHINE SHOP TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS MACHINE SHOP 14. WELDING AND PIPEFITTING 15. MARINE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
16. ELECTRICAL
KINGS POINT, NEW YORK 11024-1699 PHONE (516) 773-5120 FAX: (516) 773-5353
QMED
DIESEL ENGINES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DIESEL ENGINES 1. INTRODUCTION 2. BASIC ENGINE COMPONENTS 3. CYCLE TYPES TWO CYCLE AND FOUR CYCLE (2 OR 4 STROKE) 4. COOLING WATER SYSTEM 5. AIR INTAKE AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS 6. FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM 7. LUBE OIL SYSTEM TURBOCHARGERS GOVERNORS
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1.. INTRODUCTION TO THE DIESEL ENGINE 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE DIESEL ENGINE

On August 10, 1893, the French born Dr. Rudolph Diesel, working at Machinen Fabrik Augsburg got an engine with a single cylinder, 10 foot in diameter, to run under its own power. However, the operation was not continuous. This engine incorporated the thoughts and ideas put down by Dr. Diesel in a paper titled The Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Engine. Dr. Diesel was a thermal engineer, a connoisseur of the arts, a linguist and a social theorist. Diesels invention was characterized by three items: 1) heat transfer by natural process, 2) markedly creative design, and 3) it was initially motivated by sociological needs. Primarily Dr. Diesel wanted to use locally available fuels and he found the steam engines very wasteful. The first successful compression-ignition engine was completed on the last day of 1896. It was a collaboration between Dr. Rudolph Diesel and the engineering staff at Machinen Fabrik Augsburg. (Machinen Fabrik Augsburg-Nurmburg is now known as MAN.) This engine was a result of the work on the 1892 engine and the subsequent improvements. The engine produced 20 horsepower at 172 RPM. There was a delay to develop commercial applications and franchising but this was all accomplished by 1898. The first commercial application in the United States was the construction of a Busch-Sulzer engine for the Augustus Busch Brewery (now Budweiser) in St. Louis in 1898. Burmeister & Wain Shipyard, in Denmark, launched the first ocean going diesel vessel in 1912. The original concept of the compression-ignition engine was based on the use of coal dust being blasted into the cylinder by high-pressure air. This would give the needed air and the combustible fuel in the cylinder heated by compression. This did not really work very well. Even when Diesel got around to using liquid fuel, being injected by high pressure air, the engine did not work all that well because of Diesels insistence that the engine run at constant temperature. In 1912 mechanical injection replaced pneumatic (blast) injection for the first time. Over the years the mechanical injection gained acceptance and gradually blast injection disappeared. During the fuel crisis of the mid 1970s coal dust and blast injection was again revisited because of the abundance of coal. Because of advances in metallurgy the engine worked better but subsequent crude oil surpluses (read prices not as high as predicted back in 1973 and 1974) stopped development. At this time engines were also run on a variety of oils including peanut oil. In the late 1960s and early 1970s there was a rapid increase in the size of the cylinders and the horsepower output of the engines installed on ocean going vessels. These engines were built prior to the first oil crisis when bunker oil was quite inexpensive. At the onset of the oil crisis there was a movement to slow many of these super large bore engines down to reduce fuel consumption. Scavenge box fires; metal fatigue and fuel pump problems were encountered. However, in solving these problems the engines became much more fuel efficient, the cooling systems got better, the metallurgy and forces during the cycle became better understood and turbochargers became more efficient. This period also signaled the demise of the ported only engine, because of its inefficiencies. One of the keys to increasing horsepower is increasing the mean effective pressure. To do this required losing the exhaust port and adding an exhaust valve to certain engines.
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During the same time period there was a concurrent movement towards automation on vessels and reduction in crew sizes. This further pushed the engine manufacturers to improve reliability and life of engine components. Oiling of rocker gear on slow speed engines, normally done by the watch, had to be changed. This, coupled with timing issues, brought about hydraulically operated exhaust valves on slow speed engines. Similarly, as the understanding of the metallurgy got better, larger medium speed engines, with a lot more horsepower got produced. While there were a few failures there were great strides made in the construction of engines, the use of better metals, increased mean effective pressures and understanding of the fuel oils that ran the diesel engines. From the mid 1970s to the mid 1980s there were a lot of changes in diesel engines that remain today. One key element in the history of the diesel engine is the fuel available to burn in the engine and the cost of the fuel. Until the late 1940s all diesel engines ran on diesel oil, an oil with a specific gravity of about 0.85. In the late 1940s the British successfully ran a vessel on heavy oil. This was accomplished by heating the oil up to the proper point for atomizing the fuel. Today almost all large horsepower engines run on heavy fuel in the marine world. Today diesel engines are found everywhere because of their longevity and fuel efficiency. Diesels are the predominant engine of choice for marine propulsion, heavy truck and construction equipment.
STEPS TOWARD PROGRESS Better Metallurgy and Lubrication More effective turbocharging Higher MEP Better Cooling Schemes Better control of valve timing
OBJECTIVES OF ADVANCEMENTS Increase fuel efficiency Reduce weight per horsepower Increase reliability Reduce and simplify maintenance Reduce operating and life cycle costs
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ADVANCES IN DIESEL ENGINES THROUGH THE 20TH CENTURY Mechanical Injection Introduced 1930s Supercharging of engines 1940s (late) Proving capable of burning heavy oil 1950s Improved cooling of cylinders (bore cooling) 1960s Advances in Lubrication Development of standards for torque settings Rapid advances in horsepower output Introduction of unattended engine rooms 1970s Degradation of fuel quality Improvements in metallurgy Variable timing on some engines 1980s Super Long Stroke engines introduced
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2.. BASIC ENGINE COMPONENTS 2 BASIC ENGINE COMPONENTS

DIESEL ENGINE VERSUS GASOLINE ENGINE The best way to describe a diesel engine is to compare it with an ordinary gasoline engine such as the one you have in your car. Both engines are of the internal combustion design since they burn fuel within the cylinders, the basic difference being the means of igniting the fuel. The gasoline engine is a spark ignition type engine which utilizes a spark to ignite a fuel / air mixture. The diesel engine is a compression ignition type engine that relies upon the heat generated by compressing the air in the cylinder to ignite finely atomized fuel introduced into the cylinder by an injector. Although they operate with the same major components, the components of the diesel engine (of equal horsepower) are heavier since they must withstand greater dynamic forces and more concentrated stress due to the greater combustion pressure (Figure 1).
FIGURE 1 - SECTIONAL VIEW OF A LIQUID-COOLED DIESEL ENGINE.
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The greater combustion pressure is the result of the higher compression ratio. In a gasoline engine the compression ratio (which controls the compression temperature) is limited by the detonation and pre-ignition quality of the air-fuel mixture. In the diesel engine the compression ratio can be as high as 24:1 or as low as 14:1 because diesel engines compress only air. A high compression ratio is one of the factors, which contributes to the high efficiency of the diesel engine. Gasoline engines are self-speed-limiting because of their air-intake limitations. Engine speed is controlled by the butterfly valve in the carburetor, which controls the airflow into the intake manifold. The airflow meters the gasoline flow and therefore limits the engine speed. Diesel engines are not self-speed-limiting. Intake air for combustion is not restricted, and therefore the cylinders always have more than enough air to support combustion. The engine speed (rpm) is controlled by the amount of fuel injected into the cylinders. Diesel engines can accelerate at a rate of more than 2,000 revolutions per second (rev/s); therefore they require a speed limiter (the governor). A diesel engine requires no ignition system because the fuel is injected (forced into the combustion area) as the piston comes to the top of its compression stroke. The fuel vaporizes and ignites as it comes in contact with the hot air, which has been compressed by the piston. The engine's fuel system controls the quantity of fuel injected by the fuel nozzles into the combustion chamber, when the fuel enters the combustion chamber and for how long the duration of injection exists. CYLINDER BLOCK AND OIL PAN - The cylinder block forms the framework of a liquidcooled diesel engine. It is generally a single unit made from cast iron. The air-cooled diesel engine usually has a separate cast-iron crankcase and individual cylinder blocks. The cylinder block has openings for the cylinder sleeve (cylinder liner), oil and water passages, and bores for the crankshaft and camshaft bearings. The upper half of a water-cooled cylinder block contains the water jackets. The lower half of the cylinder block where the crankshaft, camshaft followers, and pushrods are located is called the crankcase. An oil pan, which is bolted to the crankcase, forms the oil reservoir for the lubrication system (Figure 1). CRANKSHAFT - The crankshaft is made of forged steel and has precision machined and hardened main bearings and connecting-rod journals (Figure 2). The offset cranks of the crankshaft are balanced for proper weight distribution to ensure even force during rotation. Some crankshafts use counterbalance weights (or a gear train) to achieve balancing. The crankshaft rotates in its main bearings and lubricating oil from the drilled passages within the cylinder block feeds the main bearings. Drilled passages in the crankshaft allow lubricating oil to flow to the connecting-rod journals. A crankshaft thrust bearing is used to prevent excessive end movement.
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FIGURE 2 - SCHEMATIC OF A TYPICAL CRANKSHAFT AND COMPONENTS CONNECTING ROD The connecting rod is designed for optimum bearing performance. The H profile spreads the combustion forces over a large bearing area, thus reducing oil film pressure and wear. It is made from drop-forged, heat-treated steel and is the link between the crankshaft and the piston. It is bored at each end, and in the upper bearing bore (piston-pin bore) a bushing is inserted in which the piston pin is placed. The lower bearing bore (crankpin bore), is split in half, with the lower half called the connecting-rod cap. One-half of the connecting rod bearing fits tightly into the rod cap, and the other half fits into the connecting rod. When the connecting rod is fitted on the crankshaft connecting rod journal and the crankshaft rotates, the connecting rod and piston move up and down. There is a separation between the rod and the bearing cap, with the serrated surface at an angle to the two hydraulically tightened bolts for optimal pressure distribution on this area. The connecting rod has an exceptional long service life in comparison with other designs due to the optimized force distribution.
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THE CONNECTING ROD IS A THREE-PIECE MARINE DESIGN, WHERE COMBUSTION FORCES ARE DISTRIBUTED OVER A MAXIMUM BEARING AREA AND WHERE THE RELATIVE MOVEMENTS BETWEEN MATING SURFACES ARE MINIMIZED. PISTON OVERHAULING IS POSSIBLE WITHOUT TOUCHING THE BID END BEARING AND THE BEARING CAN BE INSPECTED WITHOUT REMOVING THE PISTON. THE THREE-PIECE DESIGN ALSO REDUCED THE PISTON OVERHAULING HEIGHT
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STANDARD CONNECTING RODS
ARTICULATED CONNECTING ROD FORK AND BLADE CONNECTING ROD
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7 - NUT 8 - STOP PIN 11 - BODY 12 - CAP 13 - FITTED BOLT
14 - FREE BOLT 27 - LOWER BEARING SHELL 29 - UPPER BEARING SHELL 216 - BUSHING
CYLINDER SLEEVE - The cylinder sleeve (cylinder liner) forms the combustion chamber walls. When the cylinder sleeve is in direct contact with the coolant it is referred to as a wet sleeve. When the cylinder sleeve is indirectly in contact with the coolant (that is, the sleeve is enclosed in the cylinder), it is referred to as a dry sleeve. It is through the cylinder sleeve contact with the coolant or cylinder block that efficient cooling is achieved. Wet sleeves have special sleeve seals that seal the coolant at the lower end of the cylinder sleeve and block. The
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accurately machined surfaces of the sleeve flange, cylinder block, and cylinder-head gaskets form the seal at the cylinder block surface (top deck).
DRY LINERS
WET LINERS
LINER WITH INTEGRAL WATER JACKET
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PISTON AND PISTON RINGS The piston and its piston rings act as a piston pump while moving up and down in the cylinder sleeve. Pistons are made from aluminum or cast-iron alloy. Piston rings are made from cast-iron alloy, and compression rings are commonly chrome-plated. The two main functions of the piston and piston rings are to seal the lower side of the combustion chamber and to transmit the pressure of compression and combustion via the piston pin and connecting rod to the crankshaft. Piston rings also transmit heat from the piston to the cylinder walls and into the water jacket. The piston ring grooves are hardened to maximize the life of the piston. This piston ring pack is designed for top performance and low lube oil consumption. The pack includes two compression rings and two oil scraper rings. The piston pin is made from a solid round bar of extra-high tensile steel. The ends are sealed with frozen-in plugs, thus reducing the stress concentration on the pin.
FIGURE 3 - EXPLODED VIEW OF A K-MODEL CYLINDER-BASED COMPONENTS
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COMPOSITE PISTON WITH NODULAR CAST IRON SKIRT
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CYLINDER HEAD AND VALVES - The cylinder head is cast as a one-piece unit, Figure 3. It is the upper sealing surface of the combustion chamber. It may serve one, two, three, four, or six cylinders, and contains either two or four valves per cylinder. The valve guides, which guide the valve stem during the opening and closing of the valve, are pressed into the cylinder head. Intake valves and seats, in conjunction with the valve mechanisms, control the entry of air into the combustion chamber via the intake manifold. The exhaust valve and seat, along with the valve mechanism, control and release the combustion pressure from the combustion chamber into the exhaust manifolds. TIMING GEARS, CAMSHAFT, AND VALVE MECHANISM - The timing gears, Figure 4, transmit rotary motion to the camshaft(s) and at the same time maintain a fixed relation between the crankshaft and camshaft(s). The camshaft rotates on friction bearings mounted in the camshaft housing. The rotary motion of the camshaft is transmitted to the followers, thereby causing the followers and pushrods to move up and down, the rocker arms to pivot, and the valves to open and close. On engines where the camshaft is located above the valve stem
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(overhead), the cam lobes open and close the valves by directly pushing each valve's cam follower.
PROFILES OF INTAKE AND EXHAUST CAMS
TYPES OF CAMS AND CAM FOLLOWERS
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FIGURE 4 - VIEW ONTO TIMING GEARS OF A DETROIT V ENGINE TIMING-GEAR COVER AND VALVE COVER - The timing gear cover encloses the gear train, seals the crankshaft, and sometimes seals the external drive shafts. The timing gear cover sometimes has bearings or support shafts for the timing gear, idler gear, and fuel-injection-pump drive gear. The valve cover encloses the upper part of the cylinder head and the valve mechanism. FLYWHEEL - The flywheel serves three purposes. First, through its inertia, it reduces vibration by smoothing out the power stroke of the cylinders. Second, it is the mounting surface of the clutch pressure plate and the friction surface for the clutch. (When a fluid clutch is used, the impeller is splined or bolted to the flywheel.) Third, the "shrunk on" flywheel ring gear is used for transmitting cranking motor power to the crankshaft.
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FIGURE 5 - SCHEMATIC VIEW OF A VIBRATION DAMPER MOUNTING VIBRATION DAMPER - A vibration damper is a unit, which counteracts the twisting or torsional vibration caused by force variations (usually from about 3 to 10 tons (2,724 to 9,080 kg)) on the piston and subsequently the crank. Torsional vibration is a rhythmic force which occurs within every power stroke The application of force, and its absence a split second later, cause the crankshaft to be alternately twisted out of alignment and then snapped back into place. If preventive measures were not taken against this, the engine would run rough and the crankshaft could break. Vibration dampers of the viscous or rubber element design are fastened to the front of the crankshaft, Figure 5. Since torsion vibration differs with engine design, vibration dampers are constructed to suit specific engines. GASKETS AND SEALS - Gaskets and seals are used to seal between engine components that are fastened to each other and to the cylinder block. DIESEL ENGINE SUPPORT SYSTEMS - Diesel engines require five supporting systems in order to operate: cooling, lubrication, fuel injection, air intake, and exhaust. The various components of each system may be directly attached to the engine or may be located remote from the engine in the adjacent area. The function of each system is equally important to the engine as a whole.
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COOLING-SYSTEM COMPONENTS - The water (coolant) pump, in conjunction with the thermostat, internal cooling passages in the cylinder block and cylinder head, the heat exchanger, and the fan (if fitted), is responsible for maintaining an even cooling temperature during operation, of about 190oF (88oC). LUBRICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS - The oil pump, through the internal passages, supplies lubricating oil to the bearings, gears, and other components, which need to be lubricated and cooled. Most diesel engines have an oil cooler to cool the oil and a filter to clean the oil. FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS - The fuel settling and service tanks are used not only to store the fuel but also to help clean it by permitting sediment and water to settle to the bottom. The fuel filters are required to remove contaminants and water from the fuel. The fuel injection pump and the injectors are responsible for supplying and injecting the required amount of fuel into the cylinders, at the right time. Larger systems may also incorporate centrifugal separators to help in cleaning the fuel. AIR-INTAKE SYSTEM COMPONENTS - The air cleaner, intake manifold, and, on some engines, also the turbocharger and aftercooler are responsible for: supplying clean cool air to the cylinders; for supplying air for scavenging; and for reducing the airflow noise. Two-cycle engines require a positive means to supply air for scavenging. EXHAUST SYSTEM COMPONENTS - The exhaust manifold, pipes, and connections, as well as the muffler, are responsible for directing the exhaust gases into the atmosphere and for the noise level. When a turbocharger is used, it is connected to the exhaust manifold in such a way that escaping exhaust gases spin the turbine. The turbine is connected to the compressor wheel. Therefore, as the turbine and the compressor spin, additional fresh air is forced into the intake manifold.
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3.. CYCLE OPERAITON 3 CYCLE OPERAITON

TYPES TWO CYCLE, FOUR CYCLE (2 OR 4 STROKE)
TWO- AND FOUR-STROKE-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE OPERATION - The word cycle refers to a series of events that repeat themselves. Cycle in relation to diesel engines refers to the series of events that must occur in an engine for it to operate. The somewhat separate but closely related events, which must occur, are intake, compression, power, and exhaust. For each cylinder in a two-stroke-cycle engine, all four events occur in one revolution of the crankshaft (Figure 6). For each cylinder in a four-stroke-cycle engine, all four events occur in two revolutions of the crankshaft (Figure 7).
FIGURE 6 TWO-STROKE CYCLE
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FIGURE 7 - FOUR-STROKE CYCLE TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINES OPERATIONAL CYCLE - The exhaust valves are closed as the piston moves upward on the compression stroke. Fuel injection begins approximately 23 crankshaft degrees before top dead center (23 o BTDC) and ends 6o BTDC (Figure 8). The power stroke begins at TDC as the fuel and air in the cylinder ignite and begin to expand. This expansion forces the piston downward, which in turn causes the crankshaft to rotate. When the piston has moved approximately halfway down the cylinder (82 o ATDC) the exhaust valves open and in doing so release what pressure remains in the cylinder. As the piston continues downward it uncovers the intake ports (132 o ATDC / 48 o BBDC) and fresh air is forced into the cylinder by a positive-displacement roots-type blower. The air is forced into the cylinder through the sleeve intake ports and out the exhaust valves. This process is called scavenging. About 44 percent of the total working cycle is needed to remove the exhaust gases and bring in fresh air. A two-stroke-cycle diesel engine requires a blower for scavenging and will not operate without one. The blower must be capable of pumping a large quantity of air at a pressure of 2 to 7 psi (14 to 48 kpa) into the cylinder to replace the exhaust with fresh air. An added benefit of scavenging is that it cools the engine. Positive-displacement blowers operate with little mechanical friction and are lubricated by the engine's lubrication system. As the piston begins its upward travel, it moves past the intake ports, closing them approximately at 48o after bottom dead center (ABDC). The exhaust valves are completely closed at approximately 117o BTDC. This is the beginning of compression. The piston continues to move upward compressing, and thereby heating, the air in the cylinder. Once again fuel injection begins at approximately 23o BTDC, and the process repeats itself. With each downward piston movement there is a power stroke, and with each upward piston movement a compression stroke. The intake and exhaust stroke may be considered a part of the power and compression stroke and begins after completion of the power stroke as the exhaust
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valves open. The intake and exhaust stroke ends after the piston closes off the inlet ports of the cylinder liner on the compression stroke. ADVANTAGES Can burn lower quality fuel. Less cylinders for same output (on large engines) Separation of the combustion spaces from the crankcase-oil cleaner for longer.
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FIGURE 8 - ONE WORKING CYCLE OF A TWO-CYCLE ENGINE
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FIGURE 9 VALVE TIMING OF A TWO-CYCLE ENGINE FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINES OPERATIONAL CYCLE - Because a four-stroke engine has intake valves rather than intake ports in the cylinder sleeve, we will find a considerable difference in the way four-stroke engines operate as compared with two-stroke engines (Figure 10). As the piston moves downward from TDC, the exhaust valves close while the intake valves remain open. For this reason, fresh air rushes into the cylinder to fill the void left by the piston (Figure 11). Because of difference in pressure The piston moves upward, compressing and heating the air in the cylinder as it does so. At approximately 28o BTDC, fuel injection begins and, because the air in the cylinder is very hot, the fuel ignites as the piston moves up and past TDC, beginning its downward travel. This downward travel after the fuel ignites is the power stroke, and it continues until the piston has moved downward to approximately 53o before bottom dead center (BBDC), at which time the exhaust valves open. At this point there is enough pressure in the cylinder to force exhaust gases from the cylinder into the exhaust manifold. As the piston reaches BDC and starts moving upward, the exhaust valve remains open and the upward movement of the piston continues to force exhaust gases from the cylinder and into the exhaust manifold. There is a period as the piston nears TDC when the intake valves open, and for just approximately 53 crankshaft degrees, both valves remain open so that the cylinder is completely charged with fresh air. This is called Valve overlap, and it ensures that the cylinder is purged of all exhaust gases before the intake stroke starts. The piston reaches BDC and starts moving upward again. At approximately 43o ABDC, the intake valve is closed and compression begins.
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ADVANTAGES Better volumetric efficiency. Higher Mean Effective Pressure. Less height required for maintenance. Better fuel consumption rates. SOME FACTS ABOUT 4-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES: Cylinder temperature during power stroke can reach 3,000 degrees F Exhaust temperatures 500o F 850o F, these are the best indicators that something is wrong in the respective cylinder, which the oilier checks every watch. If the temperature goes down the cylinder is not getting fuel, if the temperature goes up, after burning. Object of timing exhaust and intake valves: Induce the greatest amount of charge into cylinder Exhaust all combustion gases at near atmospheric pressure
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FIGURE 10 - ONE WORKING CYCLE OF A FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE
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FIGURE 11 VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF A FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE, SHOWING THE PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN ONE WORKING CYCLE ENGINE HEAT BALANCE - The thermal distribution of a two-stroke diesel engine is about one-third power, one-third cooling, and one-third exhaust. When turbocharged and aftercooled it is about 38 percent power, 30 percent cooling, and 32 percent exhaust. However, a turbocharged and aftercooled four-stroke engine is more efficient, because more heat energy is produced during combustion and converted into power. An engine of this type may have a thermal distribution of 42 percent power, 30 percent exhaust, and 28 percent cooling. During the periods of combustion, expansion, and exhaust, 28 to 33 percent of the heat, plus heat generated by friction and the rings, is given up by conduction, convection, and radiation. (See Figure 12). Let us define these three terms: 1. 2. Conduction is the transmission of heat through matter without conducting body motion. Convection is the transfer of heat from one body to another through a liquid or gas by motion of its parts.
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3.
Radiation is a transmission of heat in the absence of a gas, liquid, or physical conductor, and by the energy of molecules and atoms undergoing internal changes.
FIGURE 12 - TYPICAL HEAT BALANCE OF TWO AND FOUR/STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES
FIGURE 13 - PRINCIPLES OF CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION Note that the heat balance diagram, Figure 13, does not include the heat carried away by the lubricating oil of that given up by radiation or convection through the external wall of the engine components.
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The heat balance fFigures given relate to engines at full load. On a four-cycle engine at reduced load the flow of heat through the cooling medium is less than that of a two-cycle engine. RELATION BETWEEN FORCE AND CRANKSHAFT POSITION - When the piston is at TDC and a force is applied on the piston, there is no rotation, but there will be a great force placed on the piston, connecting rod, bearings, crankshaft, and engine crankcase. As the crankshaft rotates to 20o after top dead center (ATDC) the relation between connecting rod and crankshaft creates a 30 percent torque advantage. At about 63o ATDC the centerline of the connecting rod and crank form a 90o angle, thereby achieving the greatest torque advantage. As the crank angle increases, the torque advantage decreases in proportion to that which it gained. SUPERCHARGING - Some of the objectives of diesel engine manufacturers are to increase engine power output (hp), increase thermal efficiency, improve reliability, and hold down maintenance costs while keeping within imposed emission standards. These objectives have been met by modifying air motion, fuel spray characteristics, combustion chamber conFigureuration, compression ratio, injection timing (variable timing), and fuel-injection rate and by supercharging the engine. An engine is referred to as supercharged when the intake manifold pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure. Because the piston controls the start of compression by covering the intake ports, older two-stroke engines were limited in regard to supercharging. Four-stroke engines do not have this limitation and may be heavily supercharged. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE CYCLE INTAKE Air or combustible mixture drawn or pumped into cylinder COMPRESSION Piston is pushed up by connection rod and compresses the gas in the cylinder POWER The hot gases of combustion push the piston down and expand doing work EXHAUST Exhaust gases are removed for the cylinder These events take place in one revolution of the crankshaft in a two-stroke cycle engine and in two revolutions of the crankshaft in four-stroke cycle engine. (Figure 14a and 14b) 1. SCAVENGING Exhaust Valve (Ports) and Intake Ports Open 2. COMPRESSION Exhaust Valve (Ports) and Intake Ports Closed 3. INJECTION / IGNITION Fuel injected as piston approaches TDC 4. COMBUSTION Finely atomized fuel and high temperature air allow combustion 5. EXPANSION / POWER Air / Fuel mixture continues to burn and gasses expand 6. EXHAUST Exhaust Valve (Ports) Open, Intake Ports NOT Open
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FIGURE 14a - VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF A FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE, SHOWING THE PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN ONE WORKING CYCLE: (1) INTAKE STROKE, (2) COMPRESSION STROKE, (3) INJECTION, (4) POWER STROKE AND (5) EXHAUST STROKE.
FIGURE 14b -FOUR STROKE CYCLE - INTAKE, COMPRESSION AND FUEL INJECTION
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4.. 4
COOLING WATER SYSTEM COOLING WATER SYSTEM
PURPOSE OF COOLING SYSTEM - The purpose of the cooling system is to circulate the coolant in order to absorb, dissipate, and control the heat from fuel combustion and friction. The flow volume that the coolant pump must move through the coolant system, as well as the overall coolant volume, is specifically related to engine horsepower. Combustion heat is dissipated in three ways (Figure 15): 1. Convection, by means of air currents; 2. Radiation, by waves sent out from the vibrating molecules; 3. Conduction, by traveling through the metal into the cooling passages (where the coolant picks up the heat and carries it into the radiator).
FIGURE 15 DISSIPATED COMBUSTION HEAT Heat absorbed by the engine oil is partly removed by conduction. The remainder is removed in the oil cooler and the oil pan by a combination of the methods just described. The dissipation of heat, in itself, would be relatively simple if it were not essential that the cooling system maintain an even temperature at any torque range, at any engine-speed range, and at varying ambient temperatures.' At maximum engine torque and high ambient temperature, the system is forced to dissipate heat at its maximum capacity in order to maintain the top tank temperature around 180oF (82oC). When the engine torque and the ambient temperature are low, the system must nevertheless maintain the engine at approximately the same temperature.
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COOLING-SYSTEM COMPONENTS - Beginning at the front of the engine, the components which make up an average cooling system are the radiator, fan, coolant pump, engine oil cooler, aftercooler, and the connecting pipes and hoses (Figure 16). The cylinder block and cylinder head are, of course, also part of the system. Some engines have additional components, such as a torque converter oil cooler, a radiator shutter system, a coolant filter, a surge tank, and a second coolant pump. It is the engine and equipment manufacturers who select the cooling-system components to be used on a given engine. They choose the radiator size, the shroud and fan size, the fan design, its rotating speed, and the coolant capacity and flow. Together, these components ensure that 1. The cooling temperature in the top tank of the radiator does not exceed maximum prescribed temperature, that is, about 200oF (93.3oC) 2. The horsepower required to drive the fans does not exceed 6 percent of the engine horsepower 3. The speed of the tip of the fan is not greater than 18,000 ft/min (6,000 m/min) and therefore the fan noise remains at an acceptable level; 4. The airflow does not exceed 1,600 ft3 /min (755.12 L/s) 5. There is no dead area (unswept core area) on the surface of the radiator.
FIGURE 16 COOLING SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND COOLING FLOW
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MAINTAINING COOLING SYSTEMS - Quite often, operations and mechanics restrict

their checks of the cooling system to the coolant level, coolant leaks and perhaps, drive belts. Sometimes the cooling liquid is not inspected or changed, and the coolant filter; thermostat; shutter system; and internal radiator, cylinder block, and cylinder-head passages also are neglected. Inefficiency in any of these components can cause the coolant temperature to increase above 200F (93.3) or recede to about 150F (66C), allowing the oil to become sludge. Coolant deposits then form within the engine where the coolant meets hot metal. These deposits reduce the cooling flow to the cylinder sleeve, piston, and valves and thereby accelerate wear. COOLANT DEPOSITS FALL INTO FOUR CATEGORIES Scale from waterborne minerals Products of corrosion Products of chemical incompatibility Petroleum contaminates
COOLANT SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS - The coolant temperature in the top tank of the
radiator should never exceed 200F (93.3) regardless of ambient temperature or engine torque. Temperatures above this can result in head gasket failure and/or cylinder liner seal failure. Both of these failures will result in coolant leaking into the engines crankcase. THE COOLANT SYSTEM MUST BE CAPABLE 1. Raising the coolant temperature quickly to keep the engine wear to a minimum 2. Providing for coolant expansion and an outlet for the coolant to escape. 3. Maintaining a greater than atmospheric pressure at the inlet side of the coolant pump 4. Providing a means for venting itself during the filling operation 5. Providing for deareation. AIR-COOLED ENGINES - The cooling system of an air-cooled engine includes an enginedriven blower to cool the cylinder fins and metal shields. The cooling fins on the cylinder and cylinder head are precisely calculated and designed according to the required heat dissipation of the area. They are enlarged to increase dissipation of heat and reduced to dissipate less heat. Metal shields direct the air around the fins in a predetermined flow and at a predetermined velocity to help achieve an even temperature. When servicing air-cooled engines, it is vital that all shields and shrouds be in place, properly installed and sealed with gaskets or sealant where indicated. Air-cooled engines are light and simple in construction compared to liquid-cooled engines of the same horsepower. The cooling system of air-cooled engines is easily maintained by checking the condition and position of the shields and the fins for breakage, dust and/or oil accumulation, and by checking the blower drive belt and bearings for wear and general condition. CLEANING COOLING SYSTEM - Two types of cooling-system cleaners are used: the alkaline cleaner and the inhibitor acid cleaner. The alkaline cleaner is most effective for
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removing sludge and silicon scale. The inhibitor acid cleaner is most effective for removing rust and carbonate scale. Your cleaning procedure should include three steps: cleaning with an alkaline cleaner, recleaning with an acid cleaner, and flushing the system with a neutralizing fluid. Follow the cleaner manufacturers' instructions regarding the use of their products. Do not hesitate to seek advice on cleaning problems from your local supplier. Simply stated, the cooling-system cleaning procedure is as follows: 1. Drain and, if necessary, flush the system with water to remove as much contamination as possible. 2. Remove the thermostat. 3. When the system has a bypass line (Figure 17), this line must be plugged in order to allow concurrent cleaning of the radiator and to prevent overheating of the cylinder block. 4. Fill the cooling system with your ready-mixed alkaline solution and run the engine for the recommended length of time. (You may have to use the shutters or cover the radiator to raise the coolant temperature to that recommended by the supplier.) CAUTION Do not fill or flush the system with cold water when the engine is hot because rapid cooling distorts the engine castings.
FIGURE 17 DEAERATING-TOP-TANK PIPING (THE ARROW SHOWS THE FLOW OF THE COOLANT)
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5. After the recommended running time, cool the engine down by reducing the speed and removing the cover from the radiator. 6. Drain the system, flush it with clean water, and refill it with the acid solution. 7. When the acid solution is drained from the cooling system, neutralize the system by flushing it with water and refilling it with a neutralizing solution. 8. Fill the coolant system with an antifreeze concentration of not less than 30 percent. COOLING FANS - There are two types of fans-the pusher fan and the suction fan. They have varying airflow capacities and are of contrasting design. A suction fan draws the air through the radiator and then over the engine, whereas a pusher fan draws the air from around the engine and pushes it through the radiator. Reversible fans, which can be used as either pusher or suction fans, are sometimes used (Figure 18).
FIGURE 18 REVERSIBLE FAN Whether a pusher or suction fan will be used depends on the engine application. Loaders and wheel or track machines commonly use a pusher fan since it is less likely to draw as much dirt, sand, and small stones into the radiator as the suction fan. Fast moving vehicles, however, use suction fans since the airflow through the radiator at their normal motor vehicle speed acts against the pusher fan. The manufacturers also consider the weight of the fan as it affects the horsepower requirement, the life of the drive belts, and the bearings. Weight, however, is only one of the factors that have influenced many companies to use fiberglass fans instead of steel fans. The flex of certain fiberglass fan blades provides maximum cooling at any speed. Their fan-blade pitch changes automatically, reducing or increasing with the change in engine speed. Furthermore, fiberglass
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fans require less power than is needed to drive a fixed steel-bladed fan running at the same speed. Bearing and drive-belt life are increased and noise reduced. Fans should be inspected periodically for loose rivets, cracks, or bent blades. Remove any oil or dirt from the fan blades since contamination causes an unbalanced condition, which can lead to blade breakage and bearing wear. TESTING FOR COMBUSTION LEAKAGE INTO COOLING SYSTEM - To determine if air or combustion gases are leaking into the cooling system, run the engine until it reaches normal temperature 180F (82C). Then drain out sufficient coolant to allow removal of the upper radiator hose and thermostat. Remove the thermostat, upper radiator hose, and drive belt(s). Supply the system with coolant until it reaches the level of the thermostat-housing neck. Start the engine and accelerate five or six times while watching the outlet opening for bubbles or a rise of liquid. Appearance of bubbles or a rise of liquid indicates that combustion gases are entering the cooling system. NOTE Perform the test as quickly as possible; otherwise the coolant will boil and steam, and bubbles will rise from the thermostat neck resulting in misleading test results. TESTING FOR AIR LEAKS IN COOLING SYSTEM - Two methods are used to determine if air is circulating within the cooling system. One method is to pressure test the cooling system as previously outlined, the other is as follows: 1. Drain as much coolant from the system as is necessary to place a short transparent plastic tube between the thermostat housing and radiator top tank. 2. Refill the engine and run it until it reaches normal temperature. 3. Observe the coolant flow. Air in the coolant will be visible as white round spots passing out of the cylinder head into the radiator through the plastic hose. COOLANT PUMP DESIGN AND OPERATION -A coolant pump is the heart of the cooling system and is of the centrifugal design. Coolant pumps are driven directly or indirectly by V belts, by a poly V belt from the crankshaft pulley, or by a gear from the timing gears. A typical coolant pump is shown in Figure 19. When the engine operates, the impeller is rotated and creates a low pressure at the center. Coolant enters at or near the center of the impeller, the impeller vanes start the fluid revolving, and centrifugal force accelerates the fluid onto the inner wall of the housing. Because of the snail-shaped housing, the velocity head is converted into a pressure head. The size and design of the impeller, and the rotating speed at which the impeller is driven, depend on the amount of coolant flow required to cool the engine components. .
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FIGURE 19 SECTIONAL VIEW OF A COOLANT PUMP
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COOLANT PUMP FAILURES - A coolant pump is said to have failed when it has lost its pumping capacity, or when coolant leaks to the exterior of the pump. Loss of the pumping capacity can be the result of bearing failure since bearing failure increases clearance between the impeller and the housing and causes increased slippage within the pump. The cause of bearing failure can sometimes be traced to a damaged seal assembly, which has allowed coolant to pass into the bearings. It also may be the result of any one or more of the following: over tightened drive belts, misalignment, vibration of the pump shaft, or overheating of the coolant (hot shutdown). A damaged seal assembly can be the result of bearing failure, overheating, contaminated coolant corrosion, scale buildup, excessive wear of carbon face or ceramic face, excessive wear of seat, or damaged bellows. Loose bearings in the housing or on the shaft can also cause early pump failure because they allow the impeller to come in contact with the housing. Also, when there is scale buildup on the internal housing and on the impeller or when they have become corroded, the resultant rough surfaces will reduce coolant flow. SERVICING COOLANT PUMP - Clean the coolant pump externally and remove the impeller-retainer nut. With a suitable puller, pull the impeller off the shaft and remove the keys. You may have to tap the impeller holes to install the puller bolts. NOTE Use a shaft protector to protect the pump shaft when pulling the hub and impeller off the shaft. If a ceramic sea) is bonded to the impeller, take care not to damage it. Use a hammer puller to remove the front lip-type seal, and then remove the bearing retainer (snap ring). Place the coolant pump on a press, supported by the bearing bore, and press out the shaft and bearings from the impeller side. Remove the other front bearing retainer. Remove the rear lip-type seal and press the coolant seal out. If the pump shaft is reusable, press the bearings from the shaft. Clean all components thoroughly and dry them with compressed air. Check the impeller's ceramic seal face. If it is scored or damaged, you must replace the impeller. If the impeller is damaged externally, or if the vanes are worn, damaged, or cracked, the impeller must be replaced. Check the pump shaft for wear where it contacts the lip-type seal, the bearings, and the coolant seal. Replace the shaft when necessary. Check the pump housing for cracks or other damage caused by worn bearings. Replace all seals and bearings to reduce the possibility of early bearing failure or coolant leakage.
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REASSEMBLING COOLANT PUMP - Reassemble the coolant-pump components in precisely the reverse order in which they were disassembled. When pressing the bearings and seals into place, use the correct adapters and sleeves. If specified in your service manual, pack the bearings and the space between the bearings with applicable grease before you press the assembly into the pump housing. Apply a thin coat of water-sealing compound to the outside diameter of the bearings before installation. NOTE New impellers sometimes have a wax like coating over the surface. Remove this coating before you install the impeller, but take care not to damage the impeller seal surface. When pressing the impeller onto the shaft, make certain that the coolant seal and the impeller surface are clean. Do not apply any kind of liquid to their surfaces. Support the pump shaft, then press on the impeller until the specified clearance between the pump housing and impeller is achieved (Figure 20). COOLANT LIQUID - Any water, whether of drinking purity or not, will produce a corrosive environment in the cooling system. Only water with an acceptable mineral content should be used in the cooling system of an engine. Water that is within the limits specified in Table 1 is satisfactory; nevertheless, proper inhibitors must be added to protect the cooling system against corrosion and sludge. TABLE 1 SUITABLE WATER Parts per million Total hardness (max.) 170 Chlorides (max.) 40 Sulfates (max.) 100 Total dissolved solids (max.) 340 FILTERS AND CONDITIONERS - The coolant filters and conditioners are spin-on, canister, or clamp-on-type elements. Each is connected in parallel (bypass) to the coolant flow. The filter removes any particles such as sand, rust, etc., thus prolonging the coolant and pump service life and ensuring proper operation of the thermostat. The corrosion inhibitors are placed into the elements and are dissolved in the cooling system during operation. Most diesel engines use an ethylene-glycol antifreeze solution consisting of 50 percent ethylene glycol and 50 percent water, since it requires no additional inhibitors. However, this solution must not decrease below 30 percent ethylene glycol in volume, otherwise the inhibitors are no longer strong enough to protect the system against corrosion and sludge. MARINE ENGINE COOLING SYSTEMS - Two types of cooling systems are used on marine engines-the heat exchanger cooling system and the keel cooling system. Both use a water-cooled exhaust manifold (Figure 21), and many use a water-cooled turbocharger turbine housing (Figure 22).
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FIGURE 20 PRESSING THE IMPELLER INTO THE PUMP SHAFT (SECTIONAL VIEW)
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FIGURE 21 MARINE ENGINE WATER-COOLED EXHAUST MANIFOLD The heat-exchanger cooling system combines two separate cooling systems, that is, a conventional engine cooling system and the raw-water cooling system. The components that compose the engine cooling system are a water-cooled exhaust manifold, an engine coolant pump, one side of the heat exchanger, and the expansion tank. The raw-water cooling system consists of a raw-water coolant pump and the other side of the heat exchanger, along with pipe and hose accessories. The raw-water pump, which uses a synthetic vane-type rubber impeller (Figure 23). It is direct-driven by the engine.
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FIGURE 22 WATER-COOLED TURBOCHARGER TURBINE HOUSING
FIGURE 23 SECTIONAL VIEW OF A RAW-WATER PUMP
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HEAT EXCHANGER COOLING SYSTEM OPERATION - When the engine is operating and is at the operating temperature, coolant from the expansion tank flows downward through the freshwater core of the heat exchanger, around the oil cooler, around the reverse-gear oil cooler, through the engine, and then to the inlet side of the engine coolant pump (Figure 24). It is then pumped through the engine cooling passages, through the exhaust cooling passages, onto the thermostat housing, and a portion then flows to the expansion tank. When the thermostat is closed, the coolant flow to the heat exchanger is blocked by the thermostat, and is redirected to the inlet side of the engine coolant pump. NOTE There is a continuous flow of coolant through the exhaust manifold.
FIGURE 24 HEAT EXCHANGER COOLING SYSTEM Whenever the engine is operating, the raw-water pump impeller is rotating, and as the impeller vanes pass the raw-water pump inlet, a low pressure is created. Water from the inlet, below the vessel's water line, is forced into the pump and carried around the pockets formed by the vanes
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and housing. As the vanes pass by the outlet port, the water is forced out of the pump and directed through the heat-exchanger raw-water core (in a horizontal direction) back into the sea. This continuous raw-water circulation maintains cool engine coolant. However, the thermostat controls the engine coolant flow and, therefore, also the temperature. NOTE Zinc electrodes within the system are used to reduce electrolytic action. KEEL COOLING SYSTEM OPERATION - The keel cooling system is a closed system. It consists of the water-cooled exhaust manifold, a high-capacity engine cooling pump, an expansion tank, and the keel cooling coil which is fastened to the hull of the vessel (Figure 25).
FIGURE 25 KEEL COOLING SYSTEM

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When the engine is operating, coolant flows from the expansion tank into the cooling pump, then through the engine oil cooler, marine-gear oil cooler, cylinder block and cylinder head, and through the exhaust manifold passages. Part of the coolant flows directly back to the expansion tank and the remainder flows back to the inlet side of the coolant pump. As the thermostat starts to open, the coolant is directed to (and through) the keel-cooling coil, then back to the inlet side of the coolant pump. NOTE There is a continuous coolant flow through the exhaust manifold.
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5.. 5
AIR INTAKE AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS AIR INTAKE AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS
PURPOSE OF AIR-INTAKE SYSTEM - The purpose of the air-intake system is: (1) to supply clean and cool air to each cylinder as required for complete combustion, (2) to supply air for scavenging, (3) to reduce the airflow noise, and in some cases, (4) to cool the air going to the cylinders. AIR-INTAKE SYSTEM COMPONENTS - The air intake system of a naturally aspirated fourcycle engine consists of an air cleaner, connecting elbows, tubes, hoses, and the intake manifold (Figure 26). When a turbocharger is used, the compressor side of the turbocharger becomes part of the intake system (Figure 27).
FIGURE 26 FLOW OF GASES THROUGH AN ENGINE
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If, in addition, an aftercooler (intercooler) is used to cool the air and thereby improve engine efficiency, it then becomes part of the intake system (Figure 27). The air-intake system of a two-cycle engine consists of an air cleaner, connecting elbows, tubes, hoses, and the blowers. The air box, which is part of the engine block, is the manifold. When a turbocharger is used, the compressor side of the turbocharger becomes part of the intake system. If, in addition, an aftercooler is used, it also becomes part of the intake system (Figure 28).
FIGURE 27
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FIGURE 28 - AIR-INTAKE COMPONENTS OF AN AFTERCOOLED ENGINE INTAKE MANIFOLD - Intake manifolds are made of either cast iron or aluminum. While many engines have one-piece intake manifolds, others do use several sections, which are fastened together to form one manifold. The inlet port of the manifold is connected to the air cleaner, the aftercooler, or the compressor side of the turbocharger. Some engine manufacturers place electric heater elements in the intake manifold. These heaters provide heating of the intake air for improved cold weather starting. AIR CLEANER AND SILENCER - The efficiency and service life of an engine depend to a large extent on adequate maintenance and servicing of the air cleaner along with the other components of the air-intake system. There is a wide range of air cleaners available to meet any air demand of a given engine and to provide ample clean cool air to the combustion chamber. Insufficient air, because of air-cleaner restriction, will limit the amount of fuel the engine can burn. This will result in a loss in power output as well as excessive exhaust smoke and high fuel consumption. A damaged or leaking air cleaner, flanges, or hoses can lead to excessive engine component wear, shorter engine life, and higher oil consumption.
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FIGURE 29 - SCHEMATIC VIEW OF A TWO-STROKE AIR-INTAKE SYSTEM HAVING A TURBOCHARGER, BLOWER AND AFTERCOOLER AFTERCOOLER - Most turbocharged engines employ an aftercooler to further improve the brake mean effective pressure (bmep). Aftercoolers (also called intercoolers or heat exchangers) are small radiators positioned between the compressor housing of the turbocharger and the inlet manifold of the engine. We find two basic types of aftercoolers: those that cool air going into the cylinder with water and those that cool the intake air with air from another source. WATER-COOLED AFTERCOOLERS - Coolant enters the aftercooler and passes through the core tubes and back into the cylinder block or cylinder head. Air from the turbocharger (compressor) flows around the tubes and is cooled before it enters the inlet manifold. This increases the power output by about 10 to 20 percent because the incoming air is cooled to within 40oF (22oC) of the engine coolant temperature and, therefore, more air enters the cylinders. The result is lower cylinder pressure, more effective cooling of the cylinder components, and a lower exhaust gas temperature which brings about a higher bmep. Without the aftercooler the air temperature entering the intake manifold increases sharply because of the compression of the air and heat from the turbocharger. This results in a loss in air density and power, and a higher temperature within the cylinder and exhaust gases.
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Note that with a 1oF (0.56oC) increase in air-intake temperature the exhaust temperature increases by 3oF (1.67oC). For example, when the engine is operating at torque speed with a manifold pressure of 35 in. Hg (88.9 cm Hg) and the ambient temperature is 70oF (21oC), compressed air entering the intake manifold would be around 248oF (120oC), which would result in an exhaust temperature of about 1,150oF (621.1oC). If the same engine were aftercooled (by coolant) and were operated under the same conditions, the compressed air entering the intake manifold would be 190oF (87.7oC) and the exhaust temperature around 1,000oF (537.7oC). AIR-TO-AIR AFTERCOOLER - One type of air-to-air aftercooler consists of the components shown in Figure 30 and is called an aftercooler by some manufacturers. The intercooler manifold is bolted to the front cylinder head. The rear inlet manifold is bolted to the rear cylinder head and is connected with a hose to the intercooler manifold. A separate intercooler air cleaner protects the tip turbine from contaminants. The intercooler cores have wide fins even though the compressed air airflow cores have narrow fins.
FIGURE 30 - AIR-TO-AIR AFTERCOOLER COMPONENTS
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When the engine is operating at maximum torque speed, compressed air from the turbocharger (compressor) enters the intercooler header, where it is forced downward through the intercooler core into the intercooler manifold and the rear manifold (Figure 31). At the same time bleed air (60 ft3 /min (283.2 L/s)) from the turbocharger (turbine) enters the tip turbine and forces the tip turbine and fan to rotate at 2,200 rpm. The fan draws air from its air cleaner and forces it in a horizontal direction through the intercooler core out into the atmosphere.
FIGURE 31 - A SIMPLIFIED VIEW OF AIR-TO-AIR AFTERCOOLER OPERATION NOTE: The compressed air from a turbocharger compressor is cooled by the cooler ambient air to about 120oF (48.8oC) above ambient air temperature. Another design of the air-to-air cooler will further reduce the intake temperature (Figure 32). A coolant-to-air core is placed onto the top of the air-to-air core. The left-hand side of the coolantto-air core is connected to the coolant pump. The right-hand side of the core is connected, via the air cooler, to the cooling system. This two-stage coolant-to-air and air-to-air intercooler
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arrangement reduces the air temperature from the compressor by about 180oF (82.2oC), which is about 10 percent greater than the air-to-air intercooler.
FIGURE 32 - AN AFTERCOOLER THAT USES BOTH AIR AND WATER TO COOL INTAKE AIR The last and most efficient type of air-to-air intercooler is shown in Figure 33. You will notice a large radiator-type cooler in front of the radiator. The compressor is connected to the intercooler through pipes and hoses, and from the left-hand side through pipes and hoses to the crossover, and from there to the inlet manifolds. Cooling air is drawn through the intercooler and radiator by the fan and the forward motion of the motor-truck.
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FIGURE 33 - A CHASSIS-MOUNTED AIR-TO-AIR AFTERCOOLER ROOTS-TYPE BLOWER - Two-cycle diesel engines require an air pump (blower) capable of pumping air into the engine cylinders at a pressure of about 2 to 7 psi (13.8 to 48.3 kPa) to replace exhaust gases with fresh air (scavenging). The air volume needed to perform scavenging is about 40 times greater than the cylinder volume. A positive-displacement, Roots-type blower is commonly used as the air pump. It is bolted to the air-box opening flange (Figure 34) and is driven by the engine. The Roots-type blower has two hollow, three-lobe rotors, which revolve with very close clearances within the housing. To achieve efficient sealing and a uniform airflow (volume), one rotor lobe is twisted to the right and one is twisted to the left. The two rotors are timed by two drive gears, which space the rotor lobes to a close clearance. Since the lobes do not come in actual contact with each other or with the housing, the rotor needs no lubricant. Should the drive gears exceed the backlash clearance the rotors will then come in contact with each other. The resultant wear will cause a reduction in volume and pressure. The rotor shafts rotate on double roller bearings in the drive (rear) end plate and on roller bearings in the (front) end plate. Liptype seals seal the rotor shaft. The upper rotor is driven by the camshaft through the rotor drive gear. The ratio between rotor and engine rpm varies between engine series and models and also depends on whether a turbocharger and/or aftercooler is used. In in-line engines the governor is splined to the top rotor, and on V-engines the fuel pump is splined to its left-hand rotor. The fuel pump is coupled to the lower rotor (rear) and the coolant pump is coupled to the front. On V engines the govenor
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weight assembly is splined to the right-hand rear blower rotor. A flexible coupling is used on both blowers to reduce the transfer of torque fluctuation to the blower. On V-type engines, timing, gears, governor, and fuel-pump drive are pressure-lubricated from the main oil gallery. The main oil gallery leads to an oil passage m each blower end plate and oil returns to the crankcase via an oil passage in the cylinder block. On in-line engines, oil from the valve mechanism drains into camshaft or balance-shaft pockets (depending on engine model) and from there through passages into the end plates. A slinger attached to the lower rotor (waterpump side) throws oil onto the bearings and governor assembly. At a certain oil level it drains through passages back into the oil pan.
FIGURE 34 - ROOTS TYPE BLOWER
DESIGN AND FUNCTION OF THE EXHAUST SYSTEM - The purpose of the exhaust system is to direct the engines exhaust gases into the atmosphere and to silence excessive noise by dampening the exhaust pressure waves. In some cases the exhaust system is required to act as a spark arrester as well.
The exhaust system usually consists of an exhaust manifold, turbocharger; exhaust piping (which is low-carbon steel tubing), at least one muffler, (Figure 35) and the clamps and fasteners necessary to hold the system together.
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FIGURE 35 TWO TYPES OF MUFFLER DESIGNS Turbochargers help reduce engine noise and in some instances are approved as spark arresters. In marine and some industrial engine applicators, we find both water-cooled exhaust manifolds and water-cooled turbocharger turbine housings. INSPECTING, SERVICING AND INSTALLING EXHAUST MANIFOLD - In most cases the manifold can be steam cleaned; however, when carbon deposits or scale are present, the manifold must be cleaned with a sand or glass-bead cleaner. This is especially important with a turbocharged engine to prevent loose scale from entering and therefore damaging the turbine. Check the manifold for cracks. Using a straightedge, check the mounting surface for warp. If warp is sufficient to prevent effective sealing, the mounting surfaces must be machined or the manifold replaced. Check the threaded bores for damaged threads or broken studs. If you have not previously checked the stud bolts in the cylinder head for thread damage, do so now. When installing new stud bolts, use an anti-seize lubricant to prevent thread corrosion and seizure. To prevent damage to the engine, before you install the exhaust manifold, make sure that all loose deposits and cleaner dust (residue) are removed from the manifold, particularly when a turbocharger is used. After you have checked the cylinder-head surface, place new manifold gaskets over the stud bolts or install temporary stud bolts.
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When a multi-sectional manifold is used, install the center section first but do not tighten the bolts. Then slide each end section into place or assemble the manifold on the workbench and install it as a unit. Apply an anti-seize lubricant to the threads of the studs or manifold bolts and tighten the manifold bolts to the specified torque, and in the recommended sequence. Check the service manual in the event special washers are required on the manifold bolts. Install the exhaust elbow or the connecting link to the turbine. If the turbocharger is not to be installed immediately, cover the exhaust opening
TURBOCHARGERS - Supercharging, which may be defined as the pre-compression of part or all of the charge (air) outside the working cycle, can be done with a supercharger.
Supercharging, using a turbocharger, employs the normally wasted exhaust energy to drive the impeller (air pump) and therefore most effectively increases power (mean effective pressure) without increasing the engine speed, the number or displacement of the cylinders, the stroke, or the mean piston velocity (Figure 36). The mean effective pressure of today's diesel engines using a turbocharger is between 160 and 230 psi (1,103.2 and 1,585.8 kPa), which is a power gain of 75 to 100 percent for the same engine when not turbocharged. Turbocharging requires, among other things, a very strong engine to carry the increased gas force.
FIGURE 36 INTAKE AND EXHAUST SYSTEM COMPONENTS The birth of the turbocharger has come about after many engineering refinements, improved metallurgy, more efficient fuel-injection systems, and better-quality engine oils.
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The modern diesel is highly economical of fuel, and the exhaust emission is relatively clean. However, to achieve the optimum power output, the volumetric efficiency and the scavenging flow must be increased. To accomplish this, the valve overlap is increased and the compression ratio is slightly reduced.
TURBOCHARGER DESIGN - Basically there are two types of turbochargers, the constant
pressure and the pulse turbocharger. On a constant-pressure turbocharger the exhaust gas of all cylinders is piped into a common exhaust manifold so that the pressure pulses are smoothed out, resulting in an almost constant pressure in the intake manifold. On a pulse turbocharger, pressure and air velocity fluctuate in the intake manifold because individual exhaust manifolds are used in which flow the exhaust gas of a number of cylinders. The exhaust energy of each manifold is placed on the turbine wheels in the form of pressure energy so that there is a backpressure of varying magnitude in the exhaust manifolds, which affects the exhaust work done by the pistons. The objective when using a pulse turbocharger is to have a pressure higher than the boost pressure in the exhaust manifolds at the time the exhaust valves open which then drops below boost pressure toward the end of the exhaust stroke during the scavenging. NOTE: The pressure rise in the cylinders during scavenging is caused by the inflow of charged boost air. To achieve this pressure fluctuation, a four cylinder or six-cylinder engine requires two exhaust manifolds, whereas eight-cylinder engines require four exhaust manifolds. This also necessitates a turbine housing division into two or four entry volutes. A pulse turbocharger in comparison with a constant-pressure turbocharger has the following advantages: It has No backflow of exhaust gases to the cylinders) which are on the intake stroke at part or fall load A higher scavenging gradient even at full load A greater acceleration potential because of its pulse Superior scavenging, which results in a lower exhaust temperature and reduced emission during acceleration. All turbochargers are similar in design. They consist of three basic systems, that is, the turbine and turbine housing, the bearing housing assembly, and the compressor housing and impeller. The differences lie in the manner in which they arrive at the various desired boost pressures and airflow. The turbine housing, turbine wheel design, and volute or nozzle opening size determine the velocity of exhaust gas flow and the shaft power. The compressor housing (including inlet diameter), scroll, diffuser, and impeller design (blade angle and diameter) must match the shaft power to achieve the desired airflow and pressure. The diffuser's purpose is to convert the air velocity (kinetic energy) into pressure. The heat shield, with its insulating material, minimizes heat transfer to the bearing assembly. The bearing housing assembly supports the turbine and compressor housing and the bearing (bushing) assembly. The bearing supports the common turbine and impeller heel shaft. It may be a one-piece unit or consist of two pieces, one pressed
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into the left and the other into the right-hand side of the bearing housing. If a one-piece bearing is used, its flange serves as a thrust bearing. When two bearings are used, a separate thrust bearing and thrust collar are employed to absorb the thrust placed on the compressor wheel during operation. The bearing assembly receives oil from the engine lubrication system. Pressurized oil enters the bearing housing and is distributed through oil passages to the bearing(s) and shaft, and drains, through gravity, into the lower bearing housing, and then through a drain hose into an oil pan. The average exhaust temperature at lower engine load is about 500F (260C), and the boost pressure is about 5 in. Hg (12.7 cm hg). At maximum engine load (maximum torque), the exhaust temperature may reach 1,000 to 1,200F (537.7 to 648.8C) with a boost pressure of about 35 in. Hg (88.9 cm hg). NOTE: The exhaust temperature varies because of the displacement variation, the boost pressure variations, and whether or not the engine is aftercooled. ACTION IN TURBOCHARGER - The turbocharger, through its turbine housing, is bolted to the outlet of the exhaust manifold. Either the compressor housing or the compressor extension is connected to the inlet manifold or aftercooler. When the engine is started, the exhaust gases leave the exhaust manifold and enter the turbine housing. The exhaust gases flow under pressure, and with relatively high velocity, into the volute-shaped turbine housing (Figure 37). The snail-shaped housing gradually decreases in area, causing a further increase in velocity. The high velocity air is directed through the nozzle onto the turbine wheel and from there discharges through the exhaust pipes to the atmosphere. The exhaust gases force the turbine wheel and the compressor wheel to rotate, which in turn creates a low pressure at the compressor housing inlet. Atmospheric pressure forces air at high velocity into the inlet opening of the compressor housing or compressor extension. The continued increasing rotational speed of the impeller increases the air velocity. As the air is forced through the diffuser and then into the compressor housing, it gradually slows down, converting the kinetic energy into pressure. The diffuser may be in the form of an open passage with a cross-sectional area that gradually increases toward the outer circumference, or it may be in the form of blades. The diffuser, compressor housing, and inlet manifold convert the air velocity to pressure. When the engine operates at its maximum torque rpm, the turbocharger operates at its maximum designed efficiency, that is, it operates at its maximum designed rpm and within its designed boost pressure. Any variation in engine torque reduces the rpm and boost pressure; however, rpm and boost pressure will not reduce proportionately. To balance the quantity of fuel being injected with the boost pressure, various control devices are used. These control devices are designed to prevent excessive turbocharger rpm and boost pressure, and/or to reduce emissions during acceleration and deceleration. One such control device is shown in Figure 38.
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FIGURE 37 GAS FLOW IN THE TURBOCHARGER
FIGURE 38 WASTE GATE FOR BOOST PRESSURE CONTROL
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TWO-STAGE TURBO-CHARGING - To increase the torque range and to increase the mean effective pressure (mep) to an even higher value, some V and in-line engines use two or four turbochargers and aftercoolers (one for each exhaust manifold), or they use two turbochargers in series and an aftercooler (Figure 39). In this type of system air flows from the air cleaner into the first-stage compressor housing (lowpressure turbocharger), from the housing outlet into the second-stage compressor, and from the second-stage outlet into and through the aftercooler into the intake manifold. At this point the airflow temperature is reduced to 223F (106C) and has a pressure of 60.4 in. Hg (204.5 kPa). The exhaust gas from combustion enters the pulse type exhaust manifold and then enters into the second-stage pulse turbine housing. The exhaust gas leaving the turbine housing is routed to the first-stage turbine housing, where it drives the turbine wheel with its remaining energy. It then exhausts into the exhaust pipe system and then into the atmosphere. Through this design the engine gains approximately 75 hp (55.93 kW).
FIGURE 39 SCHEMATIC VIEW OF A TWO-STAGE TURBOCHARGER COMPOUND TURBOCHARGING - Another turbocharging approach soon to be seen on engines is shown in Figure 40. An experimental engine of this design has a proven efficiency of 46.5 percent. The system includes a power turbine wheel and its shaft, connected to a fluid coupling. The turbine of the fluid coupling is connected to a reduction gear train, and its output shaft is connected to the crankshaft. It uses the standard turbocharger.
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FIGURE 40 SCHEMATIC VIEW OF COMPOUND ENGINE WITH POWER TURBINE In this type of system, exhaust gas drives the power turbine wheel, which in turn drives the fluid coupling. The turbine drives the reduction-gear input shaft, and the output shaft helps to rotate the crankshaft. The exhaust gas leaving the power turbine housing is routed to the turbocharger turbine housing, driving the turbine and impeller wheel. The remaining airflow and exhaust gas flow are the same as that of a standard turbocharged engine. TURBOCHARGER FAILURE - The most prevalent causes of turbocharger failure are extreme temperature caused by hot shutdown, a restricted air cleaner, air leaks in the intake system, leaks in the exhaust system, over fueling, higher altitude without compensatory fuelpump adjustment, or a dirty compressor wheel due to a leak in the air-intake system. Secondary causes of turbocharger failure are the failure to pre-lubricate the turbocharger after completion of servicing, after an oil filter change, or after a long shutdown period. A malfunction in the lubrication system or the oil supply will also cause the turbocharger to fail.
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Improper maintenance is another contributor to turbocharger failure. Dirty air cleaners, oil leakage into the airintake system, leaking oil lines, air leaks, exhaust leaks, and loose or over torqued mounting bolts or clamps can also reduce the efficiency of the turbocharger. INSPECTING AND MAINTAINING TURBOCHARGER - Turbochargers (depending on the engine design and torque) are exposed to temperatures of 800 to 1,300F (427 to 704C) or more, and they may be driven at speeds of 6,000 to 20,000 rpm. Therefore, weekly inspection of a turbocharger is advisable if it is to be kept in good running condition. Begin your inspection with the air-intake systems air cleaner because a faulty or dirty air cleaner restricts the airflow. A loss in power is then unavoidable since boost pressure is lowered. The restriction also can cause an otherwise serviceable seal to leak because of the vacuum the restriction creates. Remove the connecting link to the intake manifold and check the compressor housing and connecting link for the presence of oil. NOTE: The compressor housing (and sometimes the connecting link) of all operating turbochargers contains a small but harmless amount of engine oil. This is usually due to the lower pressure behind the compressor under running conditions. However, it can also come from an overfilled oil-bath air cleaner, although if this were the case, the vanes would also show evidence of oil. If you find heavy deposits or wet oil in the compressor housing and connecting link, they are an indication of seal leakage. The turbocharger should then be serviced immediately, otherwise extensive damage will result Check to be sure that all intake piping and components are aligned, that they fit without stress, that they are properly torqued, and that no evidence of leakage is present (Figure 41)
FIGURE 41 TURBOCHARGER OIL-LINE LEAKS

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FIGURE 42 RESTRICTED OIL RETURN LINE

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Check the crankcase breather and the turbocharger oil-return line for restriction. If either is restricted, the oil pressure will build up and cause the turbine end seal to leak (Figure 42). Check, and when necessary, correct the position of the oil-return line. It must allow the oil from the bearing housing to return through gravity flow to the oil pan. If there is oil on the external surface of the turbocharger, check for leaking oil cooler. Check the oil inlet and return line connection and/or the condition of the oil hoses. If either is defective, it is possible that the oil has been blown onto the turbocharger through air circulation. Check the turbine housing for hairline cracks that occur on its outer surface and near the mounting flange (Figure 43). Check the exhaust manifold for gas leakage and the exhaust piping for restriction.
FIGURE 43 1. UNACCEPTABLE AREA FOR CRACKS 2. HOUSING MAY BE USED IF CRACK DOES NOT EXTEND INTO THIS AREA.
CLEANING COMPRESSOR HOUSING AND COMPRESSOR WHEEL - If there is

an oil deposit or dirt on the compressor wheel, housing, or connecting link, the components should be cleaned, otherwise maximum performance (boost pressure) cannot be maintained. Some manufacturers suggest cleaning these components after 50,000 miles (80,450 km) or 1,000 hours of operation.
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When servicing the components you should, at the same time, check the compressor wheel for nicks and burrs. If the compressor components are only lightly covered with dirt or oil, remove only the compressor housing. Take care not to damage the compressor wheel or the diffuser when removing the housing. Use only a recommended metal-cleaner solvent and a bristle or nylon brush to wash the components. Never use a caustic solution, wire brush, sharp object, or glass-bead cleaner because all of these will damage the components. This is particularly true of the compressor wheel, which may lose its balance.
TOLERANCE CHECKS - In order to determine the condition of the bearing(s) and/or

turbine shaft, several checks have to be made. To check the endplay of the turbine shaft, install a dial gauge so that the dial pointer rests on the compressor end of the shaft (Figure 44). When moving the shaft back and forth against the dial indicator pointer, the total indicated dial movement is the total endplay. It should be within 0.004 to 0.006 in. (0.101 to 0.152 mm). If the endplay is less than 0.004 in., it is an indication of carbon or oil residue buildup. If the endplay is more than 0.006 in., the bearings or the thrust bearing are worn. In either case the turbocharger should be serviced immediately.
FIGURE 44 - CHECKING TURBINE-SHAFT ENDPLAY WITH A DIAL INDICATOR To check bearing and shaft wear (radial clearance), remove the oil-return line and in its place install a dial gauge with an extension through the opening created by the removal of the oilreturn line (Figure 45). The extension must pass through the bearing hole and rest on the turboshaft. Exerting equal force on both ends of the shaft, move it against and away from the dial indicator pointer. When moving the shaft back and forth against the dial indicator pointer, the total indicated dial movement is the total bearing clearance. If the total indicated clearance exceeds 0.003 in. (0.076 mm), the turbocharger should be serviced. Servicing a turbocharger
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requires special tools and is usually done in a specialized repair facility. Because of the many types of turbochargers used, you should refer to the manufacturer's service manual when servicing a turbocharger.
FIGURE 45 - CHECKING RADIAL CLEARANCE INSTALLING TURBOCHARGER - Before you install a turbocharger, check the intake and exhaust manifolds for loose foreign materials such as bolts, lock washers, etc. Make sure before placing the turbocharger onto its mountings that all the manifold bolts are torqued to specification, that the mounting flanges are clean, and that the gaskets are in the correct positions. Install all hex bolts finger-tight using an anti-seizing lubricant on the turbocharger mounting bolts. Loosen the V clamps that fasten the turbine housing and compressor housing to the center housing in order to align the compressor and turbine housing outlets; then tighten the mounting bolts and V clamps to the recommended torque. Connect the turbocharger to the inlet manifold (or aftercooler), the oil inlet, and the oil-return line. When you install the oil return line, avoid sharp bends and avoid an angle of more than 30 from the vertical. Keep the airintake cover on to prevent foreign material from entering the turbocharger.
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6.. 6
FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS
Fuel-injection equipment before the 1920s was designed and manufactured by the engine manufacturers. Bosch of Germany saw the need for precision mechanical fuel-injection components and developed a "jerk" pump with "port-and-helix" metering. Using these principles and modern manufacturing methods, Bosch was able to produce reliable, positive displacement fuel-injection equipment for engine manufacturers who did not produce their own. The jerk pump is a positive-displacement pump with a close-fitting piston (plunger) in a cylinder (barrel) that displaces whatever fuel is in the barrel when the plunger is forced into the barrel. The intermittent rapid movement of the plunger gives rise to the term jerk pump. Today, the jerk pumping principle is used by the majority of fuel-injection equipment manufacturers. Variations between different types and brands of fuel injection equipment are due mainly to differences in hardware and the fuel delivery requirements of specific engines. BASIC PLUNGER AND BARREL - Let us consider what a plunger and barrel in a fuel pump must do. The plunger must be able to displace fuel at high pressure in varying quantities and throughout a wide range of engine speed. To accomplish this with precise control, a very close fit must be built into the plunger and barrel. The final step of the manufacturing process is the selective fitting of individual plungers to individual barrels. The technician should remember not to touch the finely lapped surfaces of these parts during service and to keep them as a matched set. BASIC TYPES OF FUEL-INJECTION SYSTEMS - The fuel injection system of any diesel engine has six basic functions: 1. To store, clean, and transfer fuel 2. To meter the quantity of fuel required at all loads and speeds and to equalize the fuel quantity delivered to each engine cylinder to ensure equal power between cylinders of multiple-cylinder engines 3. To start injection at the right time within the cycle of the engine in relation to load and speed 4. To ensure quick beginning and ending of injection so that the injected fuel is evenly atomized 5. To inject the fuel at the rate necessary to control both combustion and pressure in the cylinder 6. To direct, distribute, and atomize the fuel uniformly, as required by the combustionchamber design Two basic types of fuel-injection systems are produced today, with many variations of each type. Listed below each group you will find some of the manufacturers of each type of system. GROUP 1 - A gear or cam-driven high-pressure pump, which supplies highly pressurized fuel by way of high-pressure fuel lines to injector nozzles for atomization and injection (Figure 41).
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
American Bosch CAV Caterpillar Robert Bosch Stanadyne 6. Diesel Kik
FIGURE 41 SCHEMATIC VIEW OF A TYPICAL FUEL-INJECTION SYSTEM USING PORT-AND-HELIX METERING PRINCIPLE GROUP 2 - A gear or cam-driven low-pressure pump that supplies fuel to each cylinder's unit injector. The unit injector then highly pressurizes, atomizes, and injects the fuel (Figure 28-2). 1. Caterpillar 2. Cummins 3. Detroit Diesel
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FIGURE 42 FUEL FLOW THROUGH AN 8.2-L DETRIOT DIESEL Recently, the control of fuel injection has begun to shift from mechanical control to computerized electronic control. In later chapters you will become more familiar with some new engine fuel control systems that have electric wiring instead of mechanical linkage between the operator's speed control and the engine!
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REQUIREMENTS OF FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS 1. Accurate metering - amount delivered to each cylinder be the same and according to load. 2. Proper Timing - Injection begins at proper time. Beginning and ending quickly. 3. Suitable rate of fuel injection fuel injection crank angle. 4. Proper atomization facilitates starting and smooth burning conforms to combustion chamber 5. Good distribution and penetration get next to oxygen. 6. Must be able to adjust and hold various fuel settings under operating conditions. 7. Not consume too much power. 8. Be light and economically constructed. 9. Have quiet operation. TWO TYPES OF FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS: 1. Air Injection 2. Mechanical Injection COMPONENTS 1. HP pump 2. HP line 3. Fuel injector nozzle valve MECHANICAL INJECTION (AIRLESS INJECTION) Types: 1. Constant pressure common rail 2. (Jerk) pump controlled injection system a. Meters individual pump for each cylinder. b. One HP pump with distributor 3. Low pressure metering pump and distributor with mechanically HP pump and nozzle at each cylinder. 4. Pre-combustion chamber COMMON RAIL CONSTANT PRESSURE FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM Components: 1. High pressure, constant stroke and constant delivery pump off camshaft. 2. High pressure fuel header (common rail) 3. High pressure tubing leading from common rail to fuel injectors 4. Spring loaded by-pass valve, which maintains a constant pressure on the header and returns the excess air pumped to the supply tank. 5. Fuel spray injector valves 6. Fuel control wedge 7. Injector Actuation Gear
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COMMON RAIL - CONSTANT PRESSURE INJECTION 1. Fuel oil delivered to the day tank by centrifuge. Oil drops down by gravity to stroke and horsepower fuel oil pumps. 2. Suction strainer- usually of the metal edge type, are installed as indicated .003 clearance 3. HP fuel pump delivers F.O. at 1000 to 5000 psi, depending on load conditions, to the header (common rail). This pump is driven off camshaft and is a constant stroke, constant delivery pump. 4. Isolating valves are installed for each cylinder so the fuel could be shut off the injectors when cranking over for repairs or blowing out cylinders. 5. Receiver is installed in the system to increase the volume of the common rail so that pressure fluctuations caused by pumping and injection valve opening may be reduced. AUTOMATIC SPEED GOVERNING FEATURE Should the engine overspeed the time allowed for injection is automatically reduced. COMMON RAIL - MECHANICAL INJECTION FUEL NOZZLE 1. Metering a. Depends on number and size of orifices. b. Time valve is open, wedge in valve opens sooner and closes later Push rod and wedges will cause uneven meeting. NOTE: SPRING SHOULD BE SET THE SAME FOR ALL VALVES 2. Automatic speed governing feature a. The pressure on the common rail if pressure is doubled volume of fuel will i.e. at 1000# 1 quart delivered i.e. at 2000# 1.414 quarts delivered 3. Timing Injection at precise moment depends upon: a. Cams and cam base circle is correct position b. Wedges in injection starts earlier and ends later c. Push rod length short retards injection, long rod advances injection 4. Rate of injection a. Controlled by size and number of orifices in injector tip b. Fuel pressure at the injector valve 5. Atomization a. Size of holes b. Pressure 6. Penetration and Distribution a. Size and location of holes b. Pressure Good penetration large holes and high pressure up to a point, then the high pressure causes fine atomization and reduced penetration.
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THINGS TO KNOW Tips Marked 5-8-30 5 holes 8 - .008 diameter orifices 30-30-spray angle If holes are worn .001 or more they should be replaced. JERK PUMP SYSTEM 1. Components. The two essential parts: a. HP injection pump b. Fuel injector nozzle other parts c. Primary filter d. Secondary filter e. Day tank f. Booster pump - Booster pump supplies oil to the injection pump g. Overflow regular valve h. Pump actuating mechanism i. Heater and viscosity control 2. Jerk pump unit injector a. Meter and deliver under high pressure and at the exact time an exceedingly small amount of fuel. b. Timing injection period takes about 20 of crank angle = 10 .0017 sec. Injection must start within 1 or 1/12,000 sec. c. Injection pressure from 2000 psi 30,000 psi, 5000-6000 for heavy oil, about 3500 psi for diesel oil #2. BOSCH INDIVIDUAL INJECTION PUMP 1. Driven off the main unit by a camshaft. crankshaft speed for four stroke and crankshaft speed for 2 stroke. 2. Connected with an adjustable coupling 3. Smaller engines may have all pumps in one bloc (housing). Larger engines have individual; pump. FUNCTIONS OF INJECTOR NOZZLES Atomize fuel Distribute fuel to areas of combustion chamber Prevent impingement of fuel on liner and piston head Mix fuel with the air Prompt beginning and ending with proper rate of injection OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBER The space between the crown and the cylinder head is used for combustion.
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PRE-COMBUSTION CHAMBERS A separate chamber either in the cylinder wall of head and connected to the space above the piston by a small passageway or orifice. The fuel is injected into this chamber where it burns and is expelled to act on the top of the piston. TURBULENCE CHAMBER 50 80% of clearance volume contained in the chamber, air mixing to combustion apace above piston is due to high velocity rotation due to the design of the chamber. AIR CELLS Consist of a main combustion chamber located on the cylinder head with an antechamber on the opposite side of the combustion chamber from the injector nozzle. ENGINE ROOM FUEL SYSTEMS Fuel pumping, heating and treatment systems in, motorship engine rooms vary in detail but the broad principles are common for both slow and medium speed engines burning residual fuel. A diagrammatic arrangement of the residual fuel system for a large crosshead engine is shown in Figure 43. The capacity of the pumps, heaters and storage tanks varies with the engine horsepower, but the settling and daily service (or readyuse) tanks usually hold a 24-36 h supply. In the case of, say, a 10 000 bhp engine the daily fuel consumption will be about 30-33 tons. In a good layout the daily service tanks are in duplicate, with one in use while the other is being filled with cleaned fuel and allowed to settle before being used. The transfer pump (in duplicate) draws oil from the double-bottom or deep tank, through a suction strainer and discharges it into an overhead settling tank. Transfer pump capacities vary, but it is desirable to be able to pump a day's supply of fuel in 1-2 h, which gives it adequate time to settle in the heated primary tank. The drain to the slop tank is opened at intervals to drain off any water or solids, which have settled out. In the arrangement shown in Figure 43 two centrifugal separators are installed in series. A small pump, driven by the separator, draws residual fuel from the settling tank, which is maintained at a temperature of about 55C to assist in gravity separation, and pumps it through a heater to the first stage centrifuge. A second small pump then pumps the cleaned fuel to the second machine where cleaning is completed before being pumped to the clean fuel daily service tank. The preheat temperature varies according to the fuel viscosity and specific gravity, and may be as high as 98C for some current poor quality heavy fuels. From the daily service tank the clean residual fuel flows by gravity through a three-way control valve to a mixing or blending tank. A flow meter in the circuit, flushes through the system and eliminates the risk of waxy deposits. STARTING UP ENGINES Prior to starting up main engines burning residual fuel it is important to thoroughly warm up the engine and to circulate hot fuel through the system. Sulzer, for example, recommends that, prior to starting the engine, heat must be supplied to the main preheater, the line filter, to the traced fuel pipes to the fuel pump and from the fuel pumps to the injectors. The fuel valve cooling water system should be started up but hot water circulated until the engine is started; then changed over to cool water in the normal way. The period of heating
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should be long enough to ensure that all components reach their normal working temperature from 2 to 4 h, depending upon ambient temperature and how long the engine has been stopped. The booster pump is used to circulate fuel through the preheater, fuel lines, filter and fuel pumps, thence back through the fuel return pipe and constant pressure valve to the mixing tank. The cycle is repeated until normal operating temperatures are reached. Some systems are fitted with a pre-warming by-pass located just before the fine filter and linked into the mixing tank return circuit. The by-pass is used initially to speed up circulation of hot fuel through the pipe system. When the predetermined preheat temperature is reached at the fuel pump inlet the high-pressure fuel lines and all fuel injectors are thoroughly flushed through to remove cold fuel and any solids present by opening the priming plugs on the injectors. When flushing through, the pressure in the system is increased by temporarily closing down the constant pressure valve. As soon as hot fuel flows continuously from the priming plug drains the constant pressure valve is returned to its original setting and all primary plugs closed .
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FIGURE 43 DIAGRAMMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF A SHIPS RESIDUAL FUEL SYSTEM.
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NORMAL OPERATION- After the engine has been started up and maneuvering completed, the viscosity controller, which is preset to give the makers recommended viscosity at the injectors, controls the engine operating under the required load the fuel heating system automatically. The injector cooling system is also set, preferably on automatic thermostat control, to give a suitable nozzle-tip temperature. When running at reduced power it is important to ensure that the nozzle temperatures are not too low in order to prevent cold corrosion. It is also most important to ensure that the insulation on the fuel lines from the heater to the fuel pumps, and from the pumps to the injectors, is maintained in good condition. In well-designed systems all these pipes are traced, either with steam or low-wattage electric lines, and these must be used, especially under low engine-load conditions. Without such tracers the temperature drop after the heater can be appreciable, leading to high viscosity at the injectors and resulting in poor combustion and very high pressures in the injector feed lines. MANEUVERING AND STOPPING Maneuvering on residual fuel is now quite common in both crosshead-type and medium-speed engines provided that the normal preheat temperatures can be maintained throughout the system until the engines are shut down. The booster pump must circulate hot fuel through the system and heat maintained on the fuel-line traces. Equally important, the fuel valve or injector nozzle temperature must be maintained at the specified level throughout. After Finished-with-Engines the line preheater can be shut down, but the booster pump should circulate fuel until the system gradually cools down. Similarly, cooling water should be circulated through the injectors until the main engine cools down. MANEUVERING ON DISTILLATE FUEL Particularly with smaller medium-speed, trunkpiston engines it is often preferable to start up and maneuver on Marine Diesel fuel. This can, of course, be carried out without preheating the fuel, but, bearing in mind the sulfur content can be as high as 2.0%, it is desirable to operate the injector cooling/heating system and maintain the nozzle temperature above 120C in order to avoid acid corrosion. FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS The fuel injection system is probably the most single important system of any diesel engine. Without an efficient high-pressure fuel pump and injector the engine cannot perform its functions efficiently. This is even more important with the poorer-quality residual fuels now becoming common for marine bunkers. The development of efficient fuel injection systems has always been one of the major problems in engine design and development, the design problems increasing with the now almost universal use of residual fuels (usually with poorer combustion properties than previously used distillate fuels), in all types of slow-speed, two-stroke as well as medium and medium/high-speed, trunkpiston engines. Some of the main requirements of an efficient fuel injection system may be summarized as follows:
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1. Accurately meter the quantity of fuel required by the individual engine cylinders for all conditions of load. 2. Inject fuel at the correct predetermined point in the engine cycle at all engine speeds and loads. 3. Cease fuel injection at exactly the correct point in the cycle. 4. Commence and complete fuel injection sharply, with no dribbling after injector closes and without causing pressure waves in fuel piping, resulting in intermittent secondary injection. 5. Inject fuel at a suitable rate so as to allow a smooth, controlled pressure rise and efficient combustion in the cylinder. 6. Provide a suitable spray pattern with the right droplet size for all conditions of loading. 7. Distribute the fuel evenly throughout the compressed air charge in the cylinder, giving efficient air/fuel admixture, thereby promoting good combustion. 8. Ensure that residual fuel is preheated to a suitable temperature so as to provide a suitable injection viscosity. 9. Provide a suitable heating/cooling system for injectors in engines burning residual fuel so as to avoid both cold corrosion and injector-tip carbon formation. 10. Design the system so that the engine can burn either distillate or heavy residual fuel efficiently at all engine loads. In the early types of large diesel engines fuel was forced into the engine cylinders near the end of the compression stroke by high-pressure air, the system being known as blast-injection. Although this gave good combustion with the engines and fuels then in use the equipment was complicated and expensive. This has now been replaced entirely by mechanical injection or solid injection, in which carefully metered fuel is discharged at high pressure through fuel injectors or valves into the engine cylinders. Several types of mechanical-hydraulic fuel injection systems have been developed, but the two currently used are: 1. The jerk-pump system, in which individual high-pressure pumps supply fuel to each cylinder through one or more fuel injectors or valves; and 2. The common-rail system, in which a number of engine-driven pumps discharge into a common high-pressure manifold. Fuel from the manifold is supplied to the individual injectors, inlet and cutoff being controlled by a timing valve for each cylinder. JERK-PUMP SYSTEM The jerk-pump system is by far the most widely used for marine propulsion and auxiliary diesel engines of all types as well as similar engines used for industrial applications. Two types of fuel pumps are used, the valve controlled discharge type, as preferred for large crosshead engines by MAN-B & W and Sulzer, and the helix-type, or helical controledge pump, such as the Lucas Bryce or Bosch pump. Helix-type pumps are used for virtually all high, medium/high and medium-speed trunk-piston engines and several slow speed crosshead engines (MAN, GMT, etc.). Valve-type pumps are expensive to make, but it is claimed that they have a long service life and can be more readily balanced to give the correct delivery charge over a wide engine load range.
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Helix-type pumps are cheaper and of simpler design. Fuel output is readily controlled and accurately metered by rotation of the pump plunger in relation to the fixed pump barrel. A pinion on the control determines the position of the plunger sleeve and a rack on a control rod, permitting variable pump discharge from almost zero to maximum output. This system is particularly suitable for variable speed, small automotive engines as well as for diesel generators, which can be governor controlled. A typical helical-edge control, high-pressure fuel pump and associated fuel injector, as fitted to a Pielstick Type PA6-280, 280 mm bore x 290 min stroke, highly pressure-charged four-stroke engine, developing 346 hp (258 kw) at 1050 rev/min, is shown in Figure 44. Despite the fact that the engine is of relatively small bore and runs at a speed which, it was previously believed by many authorities, was above that at which residual fuels could be burnt satisfactorily, SEMTPielstick have carried out extensive tests with this highly pressure-charged engine, with many grades of residual fuels, including 3600s Redwood 1 at 100F (ISO 360) Venezuelan residues, with a Conradson carbon content of 17.6% and asphaltene content 7.9%. The tested and field results have satisfied Pielstick that this highly rated engine will operate satisfactorily on such fuels, as they have demonstrated extensively with their larger Type PC4, PC3 and PC2-6 engines. It has been found that in order to obtain good combustion in highly pressure-charged engines, it is desirable to raise the fuel injection pressure above 1000 kg/cm as well as to maintain a suitable viscosity at the injectors. More recently, SEMT-Pielstick, after further extensive engine tests with poor quality, heavy residual fuels, as well as additional operating experience in both land and marine engine installations, have announced that, subject to certain limitations, the PA5 highly pressurecharged, four-stroke, medium/high-speed engine, and the slightly larger bore and stroke PA6 and PA6 CL engines, may now operate on fuels up to 500cSt (BS-MA100, Class M8) viscosity. However, the Diesel Index must not be below 35, with initial boiling point 180C min., total aluminum plus silicon 30 ppm max and vanadium content 300 ppm max. This somewhat limits the acceptable quality of fuel, as these criteria are not included in BS MA 100, nor in the provisional CIMAC Specification. The larger-bore, medium-speed engines, PC2.5, PC2.6, PC-3, PC4-2 and the most recent, new, in-line, PC-20, PC30 and PC40 engines are also now cleared to operate on all CIMAC Classes except Classes 9 and 11, which are essentially boiler fuels, up to 700 cSt at 50C (up to BSMA100 Class M9). Here again, however, a Diesel Index of 30 max is stipulated as well as an initial boiling point of 180C, neither of which properties are included in these two specifications. The camshaft drives individual fuel pumps for each cylinder on the entablature. For direct reversing engines, following normal practice, separate side-by-side ahead and astern pump operating cams are fitted. The pumps are of the rotary balanced helical plunger type, the plungers being actuated by a large diameter hardened roller bearing on the operating cam.
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When burning residual fuel, hot fuel from the booster pumps enters the barrel through the side ports on the suction or down stroke. It is discharged via a spring-loaded, non-return valve to the multi-hole injector located at the cylinder head. In the design illustrated in Figure 44 positive cooling is not employed, but water-cooled injectors are usually preferred for residual fuel burning engines, Hot fuel can be circulated through the fuel pumps prior to change-over to residual fuel, but the engines are usually started and stopped on distillate fuel, although some operators prefer to maneuver, start and stop engines on residual fuel. The operating roller, return spring guide and plunger are positively lubricated from the main oil system. An oil pressure seal is fitted to prevent fuel leakage into the oil system. . Any fuel leakage past the injector spindle in its guide is collected at the top and led to a drainpipe outside the enclosed rocker gear. This also prevents fuel contamination of the system oil.
FIGURE 44 - FUEL PUMP AND INJECTOR, PIELSTICK PA6-280 ENGINE.
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A recently introduced fuel pump designed to handle residual fuels at very high pressures (exceeding 1000 kg/CM2) is shown in Figure 45. The pump has a maximum fuel delivery of approximately 2500mm/injection, adequate for medium-speed engines with ratings of up to 350400 bhp/cylinder. The peak injection pressure is 120MN/m (17500lb/in2 or 1195 kg/cM2) when handling residual fuels up to 15W s Redwood 1, preheated to 100T.
FIGURE 45 - HIGH-PRESSURE FUEL PUMP DESIGNED FOR RESIDUAL FUEL OPERATION.
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The pump is of the control helix or helical control edge type, employing a single helix on the hardened steel plunger. The plunger is cam and roller operated from the camshaft, with individual fuel pumps for each cylinder. The base of the plunger has two locating feet, which engage in a slotted control sleeve. The sleeve has a toothed pinion mounted at its upper end that engages with a toothed control rack. The amount of fuel delivered per stroke is determined by the position of the plunger helix relative to the fuel port, and this in turn is determined by the position of the control rack operated by the throttle control and/or the engine governor. Surface finish of both plunger and barrel is extremely fine and the plunger clearance in the element assembly is carefully specified. The reciprocating plunger is lubricated by high-pressure lubricating oil led through a drilled passage in the barrel to two oil grooves. These not only supply adequate lubricant but also act as a seal to prevent any hot, high-pressure fuel passing down through the clearance to the lower end, thence into the engine sump. Additionally, if the fuel is used as a lubricant it tends to form varnish on the plunger, restricting free movement. COMMON-RAIL SYSTEM For many years Doxford used the common-rail (or constantpressure) system of fuel injection. In the jerk-pump system the fuel has to be raised to the very high injection pressures now employed and injected into the cylinder over a very short period, usually 25-30 degrees of crank angle. After the end of injection the pressure in the piping falls rapidly from the peak of up to 1000 bar to as low as 30 bar on the suction stroke of the pump. The wide fluctuation in pressure tends to set up pressure waves in the system. This has the adverse effect of creating injector needle 'bounce', with subsequent poor combustion, and in extreme cases, especially with long lengths of piping of inadequate thickness and where poorly supported, it can cause pipe rupture. In some cases this has resulted in serious fires when the hot fuel has sprayed onto even hotter exhaust pipes. The result of the fluctuating pressure also imposes heavy loads on the pump-operating gear, which can be quite noisy in operation." To avoid severe cam and roller wear wide cams of largediameter and heavy maneuvering gear are required for changing over the cams for astern running (and vice versa). In the Doxford engine, these problems have been overcome by a combination of the constant-pressure system with a timing valve fuel injection system. Figure 12 The current fuel injection system as adopted for the Doxford Type 58JS3C engine is illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 46. Fuel from the daily service tank flows by gravity to the mixing or buffer tank, from which it is pumped by a booster pump at about 5 bar through the main fuel heater and steam jacketed, self-cleaning, 15-m cut-off filter to the suction side of horizontally opposed-piston fuel pumps. The pumps are located at the after end of the engine and are driven by the main timing gears. The multi-plunger pump discharges hot fuel at a pressure of about 700 bar to a high-pressure main connected to the timing valves. The timing valves, one for each cylinder, are cam operated by a chain-driven camshaft mounted on the entablature at the front of the engine. A single ahead and astern cam is used and each timing- valve delivers fuel to two conventional water-cooled fuel injectors, located diametrically opposite each other at the midpoint of the cylinder.
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The timing valves control the start and the period of injection, thereby the load and speed of the engine. Fuel injection timing of each cylinder can be adjusted independently by altering the position of the cam toe.
FIGURE 46 - ARRANGEMENT OF DOXFORD COMMON-RAIL SYSTEM ADVANTAGES OF COMMON-RAIL FUEL SYSTEM As distinct from the jerk-pump system, this common rail system maintains a constant pressure, thus avoiding the wide pressure fluctuation common to the former system. A large volume of high-pressure fuel, stored in the accumulator bottle, ensures an ample supply of fuel to the timing valves and dampens out any pressure fluctuations in the pump discharge system. One of the main advantages claimed for this system is that, for any given setting of the timing valve, the pressure can be controlled by the quantity of fuel delivered by the fuel pump to the high-pressure main. The fuel pump output can be varied to suit engine load and speed by rotation of the helical scroll plunger. A toothed rackand pinion connected to the engine control lever controls this. A pneumatic or hydraulic actuator controls movement of the main shaft, which controls the timing valves by an electronic governor. The engine can be maneuvered and load regulated by a remote-control station and there is an emergency control station located in front of the engine.
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A pneumatically operated priming pump is fitted for circulating hot oil through the system prior to starting and when maneuvering. This automatically maintains pressure in the system at 180 bar and, as soon as the engine is started and the fuel pressure reaches 300 bar, the priming pump cuts out. Even at light engine loads, the pressure in the common pressure main exceeds 300bar, which is 105 bar higher than the nozzle opening pressure. As a result, rapid injector opening is achieved and the reduced fuel charge delivered before the injector closes rapidly. This ensures good combustion and thermal efficiency even under light load conditions. MAN ELECTRONIC INJECTION For many years, MAN used the jerk-pump system with plungers having helical-edge control in their large crosshead engines. In recent engines each fuel pump had two plungers of different diameters. The smaller plunger is designed to discharge at no or light load, when only a small volume of fuel is required which can be accurately metered. As engine load increases, the larger pump discharges the increased amount of fuel required. Taking into account the rapid escalation in fuel prices, the deteriorating quality of residual fuels and the need to ensure maximum thermal efficiency over the entire engine load range, including long periods of operation at reduced engine load, in 1980 MAN developed an electronic injection SySteM.1 3.14 The basic concept is that conventional plunger pumps with helical-edge control discharge to an accumulator, in which the fuel pressure was controlled as a function of engine load by means of a pressure transmitter and a hydraulic actuator of the pump cylinders by means of electronic/hydraulic controlled injection valves. Each valve received its control pulses for beginning and ending fuel injection from the electronic controller. Although the new electronic fuel injection system, developed initially for the MAN KEZ-B and KEZ-C crosshead engine series, gave good results in test bed trials on a range of heavy residual fuels, the electronic control system did not prove entirely satisfactory. It was decided that the system, as designed, was too complicated for arduous marine engine duties. Furthermore, towards the end of 1979, MAN at Augsberg and Burmeister & Wain, Copenhagen, merged and a new company, MAN-B&W Diesel A/S, was formed. After close examination of the various engine designs built by the two original companies it was decided that the longestablished range of MAN low-speed, loop-scavenged two-stroke crosshead engines would be discontinued. In future, only improved B&W pressure-charged, uniflow-scavenged cross-head engines would be built and sold as MAN-B&W engines. Research, design and development work on slow-speed engines would be concentrated in Copenhagen. Because of their wide experience in designing robust and reliable four-stroke, pressure-charged trunk piston engines, in future the medium- and medium/ high-speed engines would be designed and built at Augsberg, also under the new MAN-B & W name. Licensees of MAN and Burmeister & Wain were granted new licenses for building MAN-B & W engines, both crosshead and trunk-piston. CAMLESS ENGINE Operational Safety and Flexibility: Monitoring of the engine (based on CoCoS-EDS) identifies running conditions which could lead to performance problems
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The Overload Protection System ensures compliance with the load diagram and ensures that the engine is not overloaded. Since as new running conditions for the engine are maintained, maintenance costs will be lower (and maintenance easier). The engine diagnosis system indicates faults at an earlier tome. Optimum crash stop and reverse running performance Engine braking may be obtained, reducing the stopping distance of the vessel Faster acceleration of the engine by opening the exhaust valves earlier during acceleration Significantly improved dead slow running with low minimum rpm and stable operation together with improved combustion due to the electronic control of fuel injection Low specific fuel oil consumption: 114 g/bhph of ME engines Layout flexibility, and revolutions down to 12r/min. (6L60ME Bow Cecil) Optimal combination of cylinder wear and cylinder oil comsumption Competitive first cost. High value for the investment Reliable maintenance cost with well-proven key components
MAN-B & W VARIABLE INJECTION TIMING SYSTEM One of the results of the merger was that the electronic fuel injection system was not developed further. Instead, a new, simpler, fuel injection system, incorporating a new fuel injection pump with injection timing control, was designed and is now fitted to the new, ultra-longstroke, L-MC/MCE series of crosshead engines. These engines have a stroke/bore ratio of 3.24:1 as compared with 2.4:1 in the L-GB series. The new variable injection timing (VIT) system was first tested in early 1982 and entered service in mid- 1982. It can be used in the large L-MC/MCE engine range, but the smaller L-42 MQ/MCE and 1-35 MC/MCE engines use a modified system. A diagrammatic arrangement of the L-MC/MCE fuel injection system showing the new fuel pump and VIT control mechanism is shown in Figure 46. The well-proven valve controlled discharge type high-pressure pump is retained but with some modifications. The essential improvement is that the fuel injection timing is now adjusted automatically to provide the most suitable mean effective pressure; also the maximum combustion or firing pressure is now controlled. Two sets of control linkage are used, the lower one controlling the pump output and the upper one the injection timing, by means of a small servomotor actuator and linkage. The timing regulation is by means of a rack on an Acme actuating nut, which meshes with a similar thread on the pump barrel. When the nut is moved in one direction the pump barrel is lifted and when moved in the opposite direction the barrel is lowered. When lowered, the injection timing is advanced, causing the maximum combustion pressure to be increased. When raised, injection timing is slightly retarded, correspondingly reducing maximum pressure." This simple system permits a single adjustment of each pump or a collective adjustment for all fuel pumps, dependent upon the ignition quality of the fuel and the engine load, thus enabling the engine specific fuel consumption to be kept as low as possible. Research work and engine tests carried out by MAN-B & W have shown that the ratio Pmax/mep has a major influence on fuel consumption. The larger the ratio, the better the fuel
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consumption. In the L90 MCE engine, for example, the maximum pressure is about 131 bars and the mep 13 bar at MCR. Therefore: Pmax = 131 Pe 13 The ratio being 10.07/1. The resultant fuel consumption, even with heavy residual fuel, is now down to as low as 118 g/bhph, equivalent to a thermal efficiency of about 52%.
FIGURE 46 - L-MC, MAN B&W VARIABLE INJECTION TIMING SYSTEM SULZER VARIABLE INJECTION TIMING SYSTEM In common with most major engine builders, Sulzer has for some time fully appreciated two of the current most important requirements for large diesel engines burning residual fuel, namely (1) the need to reduce fuel consumption over a wide power output range and (2) to burn increasingly poor combustion quality fuels as efficiently as possible. The recently introduced Sulzer variable injection timing (VIT) system involves some modifications to the fuel pump-operating mechanism. This reduces the specific fuel consumption appreciably as related to the engine load by automatically maintaining the
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maximum permissible combustion pressure in the cylinder over the upper load range. Extremely low specific fuel consumption is obtained over the 75-90 % MCR load range, within which many engines normally operate. Sulzer experimented with several different systems to control maximum cylinder pressures and permit ready adjustment of fuel injection timing, such as electronically controlled systems and electro/ hydraulic systems but rejected these as being too complex and not giving the desired fuel economy over a wide power range. The VIT system was developed to provide maximum reliability and simplicity, while achieving the main targets of better fuel consumption and flexibility to handle various quality fuels. The VIT system, which incorporates the Fuel Quality Setting (FQS) system, is now fitted to all the Sulzer RLB crosshead engines as standard. RLA engines are not fitted with the VIT system as standard but it can be fitted to some engines in the range if requested. Other engines in the series can befitted with the simpler FQS system involving modification of the fuel pump linkage. The modified system can also be applied to existing engines as a retrofit. RND-M engines, as currently designed, cannot be fitted with the VIT system because modifications to the governor and the regulating linkage, as well as lack of space, would involve expensive modifications. However, the manually adjustable FQS system will be fitted to new engines in this range. Retrofitting to existing engines involves relatively minor modifications, thus improving combustion efficiency when burning poor ignition quality fuels. Similarly, the VIT system is not applicable to RND engines. The FQS system can be retrofitted to all the range except the RND 105 engine. Because of a risk of overloading the crosshead bearing under certain conditions, the modification is not usually recommended if a vessel is likely to operate with a heavily fouled hull. RTA UNIFLOW-SCAVENGED RANGE In 1982 Sulzer announced a complete new series of very long-stroke, very slow-speed crosshead engines, the RTA range, the first of which entered service in 1984. They are uniflow-scavenged, valve-in-head engines, as distinct from the cross-scavenged design, which Sulzer has built for the past 70 years. The new range augments, not replaces, RLA and RND-M designs, which will be retained for ships where large diameter propellers cannot be used because of draught limitations. The RTA range, with a power output of from 3720 to 56 400 bhp (2774 to 42 058 kW), utilizes the VIT, valve double controlled fuel injection pump system. The new long stroke design, which permits propeller speeds as low as 56-rev/min, gives the remarkably low specific fuel consumption of 125 g/bhph at 100 % full load (MCR) and even lower consumption of 122g/bhph at the normal service load of 85%. A thermal efficiency exceeding 50 % is claimed by Sulzer for the RTA range, the first time in the history of prime movers.
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FIGURE 46 FUEL REGULATION IN EXISTING SULZER ENGINES CURRENT FUEL PUMP OPERATION For many years, Sulzer crosshead engines have been fitted with positive displacement fuel pumps with double control suction and spill valves, as shown in Figure 46. As related to TDC, the commencement of fuel injection, in terms of degrees of crank angle, is constant over the entire engine load range and is directly related to the closing point of the suction valve. However, the end of injection, which determines the amount of fuel injected into the cylinder, is variable (see Figure 47). The governor, via the regulating linkage and the spill valve, controls this as a function of engine load. As the spill valve is opened the fuel pressure falls sharply and the injector is shut off. At 25% power, for example, full injection is completed before TDC, which could lead to rough running. It is only at MCR that the fuel injection period reaches its maximum and the maximum cylinder pressure obtained. At the usual normal operating load of 85 % MCR the cylinder pressure is about 94 % of the maximum. When burning poor combustion quality fuels the drop in maximum cylinder pressure may be of the order of 2-3% with a corresponding rise in fuel consumption. PRINCIPLES OF VARIABLE INJECTION TIMING The VIT fuel regulation system can be seen diagrammatically in Figureure.47. The governor is connected to the spill valve by means of linkage as shown, thus controlling the end of injection by releasing fuel pressure, according to the engine load. Additional linkage, with a cam and roller and a pneumatic cylinder to maintain the cam against the roller, controls the closing of the pump suction valve, thus determining the beginning of injection.
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FIGURE 47 CONSTANT BEGINNING OF INJECTION
FIGURE 48 FUEL REGULATION WITH VIT COMBINED WITH MANUAL FUELQUALITY SETTING (FQS)
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FUEL-QUALAITY SETTING (FQS) The FQS linkage system enables fuel to be injected into the cylinder by closing the suction valve, thus allowing the fuel pressure to build up and open the injector against its spring pressure. Injection can be advanced or retarded over the entire engine load range. When burning a poor-quality fuel with a long ignition delay period the FQS lever is adjusted by hand to advance injection, giving better combustion and raising the cylinder to its normal value. With VIT, the injection point is usually restricted to +2/-1 degrees of crank angle, which should be adequate for most residual fuels. The variable beginning of fuel injection (also the ending) and its effect is shown in Figure 49. At 85 % full power, injection commences several degrees earlier than at lower powers, so that the cylinder pressure is automatically maintained at the maximum allowable. Thus the specific fuel consumption in the upper load range can be reduced significantly. For engines where fitting of the entire automatic VIT system is not feasible the manual FQS system permits the commencement of injection to be advanced by means of the simple hand control to suit the fuel ignition quality and, with the engine running, raise the maximum cylinder to its original recommended value. The modification to the fuel regulating system is seen in Figure 50. In service the actual ignition properties of a residual fuel when bunkered are seldom known. If it is suspected that ignition quality is poor, as indicated by rough running of the engine, smoke formation and either very high or low combustion pressures, the fuel quality lever is advanced gradually to give smooth running, a clean exhaust, normal exhaust temperatures and normal peak pressures corresponding to the engine load. It is emphasized that the fuel-quality setting should only be used when the cylinder pressure is lower than normal due to poor ignition qualities of the fuel. With good quality residual fuel having good ignition characteristics, advancing the ignition could result in excessive cylinder pressures.
FIGURE 49 EFFECT OF VARIABLE BEGINNING OF INJECTION WITH VIT

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FIGURE 50 FUEL REGULATION WITH SEPARATE MANUAL FUEL QUALITY SETTING (FQS) MICROBIOLOGICAL INFESTATION OF PETROLEUM FUELS AND LUBRICANTS The existence of minute microorganisms has been known since the seventeenth century, but their influence and importance in many fields has not been fully appreciated until relatively recently. Microbiology, the name applied to this subject, is now becoming increasingly recognized, and much research is now being devoted to it in a number of different fields. Many microorganisms are indispensable to man; for example, in the making of foodstuffs, especially bread, and the fermentation of vinegar, wines and spirits. They convert vegetable matter into useful compost and dispose of human sewage, dead animals and birds. Without them the earth would be completely swamped with dead organic matter. Conversely, such organisms can have serious adverse affects upon lubricating oils, fuels and water/ oil emulsions, leading to the formation of objectionable acids and sludge, resulting in line and filter blocking, metal staining, deposits and serious corrosion. Various classes of microorganisms have been identified, such as protozoa, fungi and molds, yeasts and algae, bacteria, mycoplasma and viruses. The largest of these living minute cells are protozoa, their size being approximately 100 um, and the smallest are various viruses (many not yet identified), which range from 4 to 6 nm (40 to 60 Angstrom units). Fungi, moulds and algae may be found in infested oils and emulsions, but bacteria, of several types, present the biggest problem. In a recent comprehensive review, Jackson outlined how bacteria reproduce themselves, the different types found in infested oil systems, and how infestation could be cured. Bacteria are
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more difficult to kill than other microbes and appear to be most active in petroleum products. Therefore they may present a major problem. Bacteria feed on the chemicals present in petroleum and process them in order to grow and multiply and excrete the waste products as slime or sludge. They absorb carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, plus small amounts of elements such as sulfur, phosphorous and manganese. IMPORTANCE OF WATER CONTAMINATION Hydrocarbon fuels produced in an oil refinery, both distillate and residual, are essentially sterile, as the high temperatures used in the various processes would kill any microorganisms which might have been present in the crude oil; they would also drive off any water present as steam. However, once they leave the refinery they may become rapidly contaminated with microorganisms, mainly bacteria and fungi. These may originate from the atmosphere or be picked up during transportation, particularly when this is by sea, either direct to a large consumer or to a storage depot or bulk terminal. It appears that such microorganisms can exist fairly harmlessly in moisture-free fuel, passing through a fuel system and engine without causing any problems. In the presence of water any microorganisms present begin to metabolize, i.e. they grow and reproduce very rapidly. The rate of metabolism is determined by the environmental factors involved, such as the temperature, the amount of water present, its acidity or alkalinity (pH value), the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide, an adequate food supply and control of usable end products. There are a number of microorganisms that can use hydrocarbons as food any time a fuel becomes contaminated with water. Particularly when stored for long periods, some of these microorganisms begin to metabolize rapidly, the rate of reproduction depending upon how well the local environment suits the particular microorganism's needs. Since microorganisms live in the water layer and feed upon the fuel, they can only metabolize at the fuel/ water interface. Conditions are particularly favorable in stagnant areas. This is more likely in large land fuel storage tanks than aboard ship; in the latter, when at sea, there is usually movement of the fuel in the bunker tank due to the ship's motion. There is a greater likelihood of water being present in a ship's bunker tanks, although this is often salt water. Condensation can cause a small amount of moisture to collect in a storage tank, whether on land or aboard ship, but the most likely source is water condensation from a leaking steam-heating coil. Under suitable conditions the oil/water interface at the bottom of fuel storage tanks provides prolific breeding grounds for bacteria. Infestation can grow and reproduce at a phenomenal rate. Starting with a microbiological population of a few hundred, this can increase to 1000 million per milliliter in less than a week! BACTERIAL INFESTATION There are two basic bacteria groups, namely aerobic, which need oxygen to live and multiply, and anaerobic, which conversely need an environment devoid of oxygen. As oxygen is almost invariably present in hydrocarbon fluids stored in bulk, aerobic bacteria present the main problem. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE Bacteria differs in the temperature conditions in which they can live and breed. There is a minimum and maximum temperature range at which growth stops,
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as well as an optimum temperature within the range, which provides the maximum growth. The thermal death point is that temperature which, in a given time, destroys all bacteria present. The thermal death time is the period of time required to kill off microorganisms present in a substance at a given temperature. In other words, if a petroleum product infested with bacteria is maintained above a certain temperature for a certain time, all bacteria will be killed. In general, bacteria may be classified according to their growth within different temperature ranges into three main groups: 1. Psychrophilic - These live in temperatures below 10 C in water, with a minimum temperature of 0C. The maximum temperature in which they can live is 30C and optimum temperature 15-20C. 2. Mesophilic - Minimum temperature 5C, maximum temperature about 45C, optimum breeding temperature 25-30C. 3. Thermophilic - Minimum temperature 25-45C, maximum temperature 60-85C, optimum temperature 50-55C. INFESTATION OF FUELS If fuels can be maintained completely water-free the risk of bacterial infestation is remote. Unfortunately, this is seldom possible, although the risk of water contamination with distillate fuels is less than with higher density residual fuels. With residual fuels, which may be maintained at temperatures of from 40 to 60C for long periods, the type of infestation will be thermophilic, as psychophilic and mesophilic bacteria would be killed. It appears that there is much more likely to be bacterial infestation in land storage tanks. If possible, ship's double-bottom fuel tanks should not be used for water ballast. If this cannot be avoided, the tanks must be thoroughly drained before rebunkering. Care must be taken to avoid bacterial infestation of water/sludge drain tanks holding sludge from the centrifuge. The higher the temperature in the day tanks, centrifuge heat and fuel system line heater, the less the risk of infestation. A contaminated system can usually be detected by the presence of slime and by the objectionable odor, resembling that of rotten eggs. This is actually hydrogen sulfide (HS). Test kits are available which engine operators can readily use. These will confirm the presence of bacteria, the basic type present and the degree of infection. If the bacterial contamination is above a certain level, measures should be taken to kill it. If serious, the advice of a qualified microbiologist should be sought as soon as possible. Various effective biocides are available which, when used under the prescribed conditions, will effectively kill all bacteria present. It is, however, essential to establish the nature and source of the infection. In extreme cases the correct use of a suitable biocide or biostat will overcome the problem but it is then important to flush through the system thoroughly, then clean out and burn all sludge from tanks, heaters, filters, etc. Nevertheless, this emphasizes the importance of avoiding the use of ship's double-bottom fuel tanks as ballast tanks as they are emptied of fuel. If, because of ship stability problems, this is unavoidable, the double-bottom tanks must be thoroughly drained before re-filling with fuel.
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DOUBLE-BOTTOM TANK STEEL CORROSION A number of cases of severe corrosion of hull plating in double-bottom tanks have been reported. These took the form of isolated, ringlike, deeply pitted areas, in some case about half an inch deep (more than halfway through the hull plating). If undetected, in a relatively short time the pitting would have penetrated the hull, with serious results. It appeared that water had separated from the fuel and lain at the bottom of the tank for some time, as it is unlikely that seawater itself contains harmful bacteria. These may have been present in contaminated fresh water in the fuel when bunkered, and subsequently multiplied rapidly. With residual fuel, using tank-heating coils, it is probable that the main trouble was due to thermophilic bacteria. Similar rapid corrosion of land storage tanks has been reported, but such cases are somewhat rare. This is partly because water and sludge can be drained off more readily. A point of some importance is that cracked residual fuels, having high aromatic contents, have low interfacial tension with water and tend to emulsify much more readily than straight-run, paraffinic residuals. The water/sludge forms an excellent breeding ground for bacteria, particularly at the interface. One advantage of heavy residual fuels of high specific gravity is that they have to be preheated up to about 98C for efficient centrifuging. If the time available is adequate, this will kill the bacteria and these should be ejected, with their excreta, along with solids and other sludge from the centrifuge. Any live bacteria should be removed with the water phase. The writer is unaware of serious bacterial infestation of engine-room daily service tanks in plants burning residual fuel, probably because of the short duration time of fuel in the tanks and the high storage temperature, plus the fact that they are drained regularly. There have, however, been a limited number of cases of sludge/slime deposits and corrosion in fuel pumps, filters and pipelines in engines burning distillate fuel, which have been attributed to bacterial infestation. PREVENTION AND CURE Obviously, prevention is better than cure, so every effort should be made to avoid purchasing fuel with a high water content. When heating coils are used it is important to prevent leakage into the fuel. If possible, ships double-bottom fuel tanks should not be used for water ballast. If this cannot be avoided, the tanks must be thoroughly drained before rebunkering. Care must be taken to avoid bacterial infestation of water/sludge drain tanks holding sludge from the centrifuge. The higher the temperature in the day tanks, centrifuge heat and fuel system line heater, the less the risk of infestation. A contaminated system can usually be detected by the presence of slime and by the objectionable odor, resembling that of rotten eggs. This is actually hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Test kits are available that can be readily used by engine operators. These will confirm the presence of bacteria, the basic type present and the degree of infection. If the bacterial contamination is above a certain level, measures should be taken to kill it, if serious, the advice of a qualified microbiologist should be sought as soon as possible.
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Various effective biocides are available that when used under the prescribed conditions, will effectively kill all bacteria present. It is, however, essential to establish the nature and source of the infection. In extreme cases the correct use of a suitable biocide or biostat will overcome the problem but it is then important to flush through the system thoroughly, then clean out and burn all sludge from tanks, heaters, filters, etc.
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7.. 7
LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM
Correct lubrication of any diesel engine is necessary for satisfactory operation, in that the supply of lubricating oil serves the following purposes. 1. Lubrication of bearings, cylinders, piston rings and other moving parts of the engine. 2. Neutralization of the acids that are formed in the combustion of sulfur-containing fuel oils, thereby reducing the corrosion of cylinders, pistons and piston rings. 3. Cooling of bearings and pistons 4. Keeping the insides of the engine clean. 5. Transport of impurities such as dust, rust, water, combustion products away from the engine to filters and separators. Consequently, lubricating oil is a finely balanced mixture of suitable base oil that has a lubricating and cooling effect, and a series of lubrication oil additives that, among other things, must be capable of neutralizing any acid and carrying away impurities. The TBN (total base number) of the lubricating oil normally reduces gradually during operation. How quickly this takes place depends on the sulfur content of the fuel oil, on the tightness of the piston rings, and on the amount of replacement oil that is added to the engine. After a certain time, a balance is established. If during this condition of balance, the TBN is disturbed, it may be necessary to make a correction by adding lubricating oil with a different TBN, and it may be necessary to change completely to lubricating oil with a new TBN. During operation, the lubricating oil in a trunk type engine is slowly polluted by small particles from the combustion in the cylinders. The use of fuel oil normally increases this pollution. Pollution by water (fresh or sea) can also occur. A certain amount of these impurities can exist in the lubricating oil without affecting its lubricating characteristics but in order to maintain a supply of adequately clean lubricating oil, it is necessary for it to be cleaned continuously. The solid impurities are mainly particles that are too small to be removed by the lubricating oil filters. Experience has shown that the most efficient way of cleaning lubricating oil is by centrifuging. Optimal cleaning in a centrifuge is achieved by preheating the oil to 85-95C and leaving it for as long as possible in the centrifugal bowl. The lubricating oil system for a diesel engine is shown schematically in greatly simplified form in Figure 51. A pump (5) sucks oil from a lubricating oil drain tank (3), which in large engines is most often a bottom tank below the main engine. To reduce the possibility of contamination of the lubricating oil in the bottom tank as a result of leaks, all the remaining bottom tanks containing, for example, fresh water, seawater or fuel oil, can be separated from the lubricating oil bottom tank by coffer-dams (2). To safeguard the pump, a coarse-meshed suction filter (4), is inserted between the pump and the bottom tank. The pump forces the oil through a lubricating oil
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cooler (6) and filters (7) to the main engine (1) where the oil is distributed to bearings and pistons.
FIGURE 51 The pressure oil pipe on the engine can be divided to form two branches; a lubricating oil branch and a cooling oil branch. Setting a valve to provide suitable distribution of the oil to the two systems carries out regulation of the oil flowing to these two pipes; the pressure of the lubricating oil at the main engine is usually approximately 3.5 bar. It is of great importance that the clearance of bearings and shells is not allowed to become too large; otherwise the lubricating oil may seep out and not reach to the topmost lubrication points. The shells must therefore always be realigned in time. The lubricating oil runs from the bearings into the crankcase, from there to the engine oil pan, and finally through a sieve in the oil pan to the lubricating oil bottom tank from where it is sucked up again by the lubricating oil pump. The oil that has been used for cooling the pistons flows back through small sight glasses, one for each cylinder, provided on the maneuvering side of the engine. This arrangement allows engine room personnel to keep a continuous check on the amount of piston cooling oil. The sight glasses have built-in thermometers for checking the temperature of the oil. The oil is collected in a common pipe and is fed back to the lubricating oil bottom tank.
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To enable the temperature of the lubricating oil at the inlet of the engine to be regulated, a bypass valve (12) controls the amount of system oil that bypasses the lubricating oil cooler. In most installations the valve (12) is thermostatically controlled. In the event of damage to the lubricating oil bottom tank, for instance as the result of grounding, operation can continue at reduced power by closing valves (10) and (11) and opening valve (13), using the engine oil pan as the lubricating oil drain tank. A lubricating oil tank is provided for supplementing the amount of lubricating oil.
FIGURE 52 The marine inspection authorities demand that single-screw installations have at least two lubricating oil pumps; one in use and one as standby. Double-screw installations normally have three equally large pumps, two of which supply their respective main engines and the third as standby. In such cases, there are two separate lubricating oil bottom tanks, and thus damage to one bottom tank does not prevent the use of the main engines, the lubricating oil system being
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arranged in such a way that both engines can operate on one drain tank. However, in some double-propeller installations, a common lubricating oil bottom tank and only two lubricating oil pumps are provided, one in use and one as standby. As a rule, single-screw ships have only one lubricating oil cooler. Double-screw ships can have one or two. The lubricating oil filters are often of the double type, enabling one to be cleaned or kept as standby while the other is in service. The pressure of the lubricating oil and thus the amount of lubricating oil is regulated by a spring-loaded bypass valve (14). This valve can make a connection between the pressure and suction sides of the lubricating oil pump. The valve (14) is shown in Figure 53.
FIGURE 53
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The force of the spring can be removed from the valve plug, which can be lifted from the valve seat during start-up of the pump with cold oil in the system. The valve functions in the following manner. When the valve plug rests against the valve seat and the dog A is tightened against the nuts B, the spring is compressed by means of nuts C until the opening pressure of the valve is approximately 4 bar. When the hand wheel is turned to the left, the force of the spring is relieved until the dog A rests on nuts D. Further turning of the hand wheel lifts the valve plug until the clearance Y has been taken up and the valve is fully open. When the hand wheel is turned to the right, the valve first closes in the normal way, after which the force of the spring comes into action so that the valve works as a safety and a bypass valve. When used as a bypass valve, the dog A must always be tightened against nuts B. If, when starting the pump, the lubricating oil is so cold that the electric pump driving motor is overloaded, the bypass valve is opened. During subsequent closing of the valve, the load on the electric motor is observed by inserting an ammeter, and the spring is tightened as much as the maximum load of the motor allows. This is continued until the spring is again tightened to the full opening pressure, at which the dog A rests against the nuts B. Regulation other than that described here must not be employed. The lubricating oil system has at least one separator. This is arranged in exactly the same way as the fuel oil separator, and its purpose is to enable removal of heavier impurities from the lubricating oil, including water, that arises as a result of condensation and from leaks at the lubricating oil coolers and drain tank, etc. Of the other heavier impurities are metal particles, which appear as the result of wear on moving parts. These particles are often so small that the normally used lubricating oil filters cannot remove them. These metal particles, particularly if they contain copper, can act as catalysts in the decomposition of the oil. The lubricating oil that is fed to the separator is taken from the piston cooling oil outlet. This is the point in the system at which the oil is at its highest temperature. If the oil temperature is not sufficiently high, the oil flows through a preheater before being fed to the separator. A thermostat often controls the preheater, which usually uses steam as its source of heat. This prevents oil being exposed to superheating, which could otherwise result in fire or explosion. Fresh lubricating oil is added to the lubricating oil system through a filling pipe that leads up to a deck connection. In addition to the normal 50-m filters, the lubricating oil system is often provided with a bypass having finer filters (1 m). Such a filter, of CJC manufacture, is shown in Figure 53. In this Figure are shown: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. O-ring 2 Filter cartridge (cellulose) Rubber ring Manometer Rubber ring Rubber ring Union Wing nut 9. Safety valve 10. Packing ring 11. Box nut 12. Changeover cock 13. Muff 14. Spring guide 15. Spring 16. Filter disc
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At the oil inlet, the filter is provided with a limiting nozzle that ensures that the flow of oil does not become greater than that at which an effective filtration can be maintained. The nozzle is provided with a cleaning needle, which, by a slight pressure from outside, can clear the nozzle of possible blockages that arise when the filter cap is colder than normal. When the filter is provided with clean filter cartridges, the only resistance to flow is in the nozzle. Therefore a pressure drop of 4-5 bar occurs in the nozzle, i.e. the manometer on the filter cap shows I bar, providing that the filter outflow takes place without a pressure drop. Gradually, as impurities are deposited in the filter cartridges, the resistance to the flow results in a reduction in the oil flow. The pressure in front of the filter cartridges thus increases, and this can be observed on the manometer. When the pressure at the manometer has increased to approximately 3 bar, the filter cartridges should be changed. The changeover cock (12) has three-positions: On, Off, and Drain. During operation, the oil in the filter can be heated electrically or by means of cooling water from the engine. Furthermore there is often a cleaning plant for leakage oil from the piston rod stuffing boxes. Figure 54 shows schematically a B&W main lubrication system
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FIGURE 54
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BACTERIAL ATTACK - Attack by bacteria on lubricating oil in the main engines lubricating oil systems has been found to cause rapid corrosion of the crankshaft journals. The problem has been known for many years in connection with cutting oils, but it is only over recent years that it has been identified in lubricating oil systems for marine diesel engines. The effect can be very alarming; the reason being that attack by bacteria can quickly give rise to corrosion of the crankshaft. The process whereby the bacteria promote the corrosion of steel is still not fully known, and there are many different forms of attack. The bacteria are introduced into the lubricating oil from an external source, and the most likely way in which this can happen is via pollution with infected water. In order for the bacteria to propagate, the three following environmental factors must be fulfilled. 1. The temperature of the oil must be within a certain range, for example most bacteria cannot survive if the temperature is more than 50C. 2. There must be an adequate supply of water. 3. There must be an adequate supply of nutrients containing nitrogen. The existence of bacteria in an engines lubricating oil system can manifest itself in the following ways. 1. The lubricating oil becoming emulsified. 2. The lubricating oil having a slimy appearance. 3. The bearing journals having a dark gray or black coating. 4. There is an unpleasant, dank smell in the crankcase. 5. Very severe corrosion occurring suddenly on machined surfaces, and particularly on surfaces that have been recently machined. Portable measuring equipment is available with which it can be ascertained whether there are bacteria present in the lubricating oil. However the only reliable manner in which to, determine their existence and the amount and type of bacteria present, is to tap off a sample in a sterile flask and send it to a laboratory. If the lubricating oil is found to contain harmful bacteria, the following action must be taken. 1. The lubricating oil must be drained and, if possible, burned. 2. The lubricating oil system must be flushed with oil that has been treated with an agent that is soluble in oil and has bacteria-killing properties. The choice of a suitable bacteria killing agent should be made under the guidance of an expert. It is also normally necessary to treat the engines cooling water system with a bacteria-killing agent that is soluble in water. Attack by bacteria on lubricating oil is rare, but in the future it will probably occur more often because, among other things, there is a tendency towards adding nitrogen- containing inhibitors to engine cooling water systems instead of toxic chromates. LUBRICATING OIL PUMPS - As a rule, the lubricating oil pumps are of the gear or screw type, which have the advantage of being self-priming. Newer installations are often provided with centrifugal pumps, which, unlike the first-mentioned types, operate almost silently. However, they are not self-priming, which means that a small gear or reciprocating pump must
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be coupled to fill the housing of the centrifugal pump before starting, or the centrifugal pump must be submerged in the lubricating oil tank. In most cases the lubricating pumps for the main engine are electrically driven. The amount of circulating lubricating oil in turbocharged cross-head engines with pistons cooled by lubricating oil is approximately 0.03 m/h per/HD. The pressure of the oil is approximately 3-5 bar.
FIGURE 55
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Figure 56 shows a gear pump used as a lubricating oil pump for a reversible diesel engine. It is engine-driven through the shaft A. Since the pump must be capable of supplying oil to the engine during both ahead and astern running, it is provided with four spring-loaded check valves, of which E1, and E2 are suction valves at ahead and astern respectively, and F2 and F1 are the corresponding pressure valves. The oil enters the pump at C and discharges at D. The maximum pressure of the lubricating oil is controlled by means of a bypass valve G, which in the open position connects the pressure side of the pump to the suction side. Adjustment of the operating pressure of the lubricating oil is carried out through spindle I and spring H. Hole K serves to ventilate the gear wheel housing. All the bearings in the pump are lubricated from the pressure chamber of the pump, the oil then flowing from the bearings back to the suction chamber. LUBRICATING OIL COOLERS - Figure 56 shows vertical oil cooler with cooling water inlet at D and outlet at E. The lubricating oil enters at M and is forced to cross the cooler pipes several times by the guide plates J. The pipes Hare secured firmly in the pipe plates F and G, which are kept at the correct distance from each other by means of four spacing bolts K provided with spacer tubes. The upper tube plate F is fastened to the outer jacket A of the cooler and to the water chamber C. The tube plate G at the bottom is free to slide up and down, as it is not fastened to the lower water chamber B or the outside jacket A. Tightness at the bottom between the water and oil sides is achieved by means of a special seal L, this being constructed in such a manner that possible leaks from either the water or the oil side can be observed. The lubricating oil pressure is always kept higher than the pressure of the salt water, thus ensuring that the salt water cannot seep into the lubricating oil system in the event of a leak in the oil cooler. The lubricating oil cooler can also be of the plate type.
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FIGURE 56
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LUBRICATING OIL FILTERS - In engine installations, the lubricating oil filters are normally located after the lubricating oil cooler and as close as possible to the engine, thereby reducing the possibility of the lubricating oil being contaminated. The lubricating oil systems are often provided with a further filter of the magnetic type (see Figure 47). This filter, which is manufactured by Philips, consists of a filter housing a containing six filter inserts B with permanent magnets made of Ticonal magnetic steel, which has a very strong coercive force and remanence. Each of the inserts B, consisting of two yokes C, a magnetic core and an iron grid D made in halves, are assembled by means of bolts. The yokes and the grids are made of soft iron. This design causes that the flow cross-section is not reduced by any appreciable amount, even in cases of very strong contamination by iron and steel particles, the reason being that these are collected in the many air slots in the soft iron grid surrounding the core. The filter is easy to clean, the soft iron parts losing their magnetism when they are removed from the Ticonal magnets. The oil is supplied to the filter at E and leaves it at F. Magnetic filters are capable of removing iron and steel particles of less than 1 m (0.001 mm). In addition to contamination of the lubricating oil resulting in increased friction and possible seizing of the bearings etc, the small iron particles can act as catalysts in the decomposition of the oil it is therefore extremely important that they are removed, which is not possible with normal mechanical filtration. The breaking down of the oil normally occurs by oxidation which produces acid and this reduces the lubricating abilities of the oil and can cause corrosion. Large amounts of iron particles in the filter indicate that something in the system is not functioning satisfactorily. The fault must be found and rectified as soon as possible. Figure 8 is a schematic illustration of a gap filter made by Auto-Klean. In the filter housing A, the filter element B is mounted on a spindle E that rotates provided with an external handle with which the filter element can be turned from time to time during operation. The filter element consists of filter plates F and spacing pieces G mounted alternately on the spindle E. A fixed spindle is provided with small plates H of about the same thickness as the distance pieces G, and fitting into the spaces between the filter plates F. The oil enters the filter at C and flows out at D. During its passage through the filter, any dirt in the oil is deposited in the small slots S formed by the distance pieces G between the filter plates F. If the filter becomes so dirty that it is partly blocked, the filter can be cleaned by turning the spindle 1 revolution, the result being that the dirt is scraped out of the slots by the fixed plates H. The dirt collects in the bottom of the filter housing A, from where it can be blown out when the bottom plug J is removed. The complete filter insert must be removed from the filter housing periodically for cleaning. Gap filters are available with spacing pieces G of various thickness (down to 0.005 mm).
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FIGURE 57
FIGURE 58
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Figure 59 shows a B&W lubricating oil filter that can be cleaned during operation by means of compressed air. This takes place as follows (see Figure 60). The cock (1) is opened, thereby opening the air pressure valve while at the same time forming a free flow through a sludge box (2) to the bottom tank. The handle (4) (see Figure 9) is then turned 5 times, which results in the filter insert being turned 1 complete revolution, so that the whole of its surface is blown through with compressed air. The air is fed to the filter at C and passed through the filter material via a series of small holes, thus blowing the dirt through channel D, the cock (1) (see Figure 60) connected at E, and the pipe (10), to a sludge box. The cock (1) is closed again after a final blowing through. A check valve (11) is provided in the compressed air piping to the filter. This prevents lubricating oil flowing into the compressed air system. The lubricating oil and sludge blown out of the filter is collected in the sludge box, the bottom of which is connected by a pipe to a lubricating oil separator. The sludge box is provided with an overflow connection, which through a T-piece (7) and a pipe (9), is connected to the engine piston cooling oil pipe. The filter is vented continuously through pipes (8), channel F and pipe (9). A modern filter material is porous sintered metal, which can be produced from the following alloys: 90% Cu + 9% Sri 18% Cr, 10% Ni + 72% Fe 65% Cu, 12% Ni + 23% Zn The filter inserts are made of a basic material consisting of small balls of one of the abovementioned alloys. During the sintering process the balls bind together at their contact points, thus providing a coherent element, which can be made into any conceivable shape. The porosity of the filter insert depends on the size of the balls in the basic material. It is possible to produce filters capable of filtering out all particles greater than 0.003 mm. The filter insert can be cleaned by means of compressed air, which is blown through the filter in the opposite direction to that used in the filtration process. Filter inserts of sintered material can be used for cleaning both fuel oil and lubricating oil, and it is even possible to use sintered materials for the filtration of gases. However, the material cannot be used at temperatures in excess of 80-100C, because at higher temperatures a structural change takes place which results in the porosity becoming irregular. In newer installations, semi- and fully automatic back-flushing filters are used. These filters can be cleaned automatically without any interruption in operation and are practically maintenance free. Moreover, the automatic back flushing ensures that the sludge from the filtering process is removed completely from the filter and the oil circuit.
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FIGURE 59
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FIGURE 60 The principle of the filter can be seen in Figure 61, 1 and 2, that schematically illustrate the filter in the operating (filtering) and back-flushing positions respectively. In these Figureures are shown: 1. 2. 3. 4. Oil inlet Filter chamber Float Electric Motor 5. 6. 7. 8. Compressed air reservoir Changeover valve (sludge valve) Oil Outlet Sludge Discharge
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FIGURE 61 The electrical control system for the back-flushing process is arranged in a separate box. A differential pressure meter with electrical contacts is provided to check and control the operation. The filter is shown in more detail on Figure 62. In this Figure are shown: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Sludge reservoir Outlet for filtered oil Filter cartridge (paper) Filter chamber Riser pipe Filter chamber Filter elements Float valve for automatic ventilation Manually operated and automatic flushing valve 10. Electric motor 11. Air reservoir 12. Spool valve 13. Selector Valve 14. Valve cone (sludge valve) 15. Drain valve 16. Check valve 17. Differential pressure 18. Shut-off valve 19. Shut-off valve 20. Lower part of filter housing 21. Differential pressure meter 22. Changeover housing 23. Indicator for pressure equalization 24. Check valve 25. Safety valve 26. Inlet for compressed air 27. Compressed air filter 28. Lubrication equipment 29. Pressure reducer
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FIGURE 62 The oil to be filtered flows from below into the selector valve (13) to the filter chambers (6), which are in service, and flows through the filter elements from the outside inwards. The impurities in the oil are retained on the outside of the filter elements, and the filtered oil flows to the filters outlet stub. The compressed air for control purposes flows via a shut-off valve (26), an air filter (27) and a lubricator (28), to an automatic flushing valve (9), and from there to the upper side of the spool valve (12).
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Compressed air is also used for back flushing. After passing through the air filter (27), this air flows through a pressure reducer (29) at a maximum pressure of 4 bar, then through a check valve (24) to a compressed air reservoir (11), and thus also to the underside of the spool valve (12). If the air pressure in the reservoir (11) rises to above 4 bar, the safety valve (25) opens. Since the air pressure acts on a greater area on the upper side am on the lower side of the spool valve (12), the spool valve remains in its lower position, even though the air pressure is the same on both sides. This means that the valve cone (14) remains in its closed position. The impurities that are retained by the filter elements (7) have the effect of increasing the pressure drop across the filter. When this pressure drop exceeds a predetermined value, which is indicated by a differential pressure meter (21), an electric contact charges to provide current to the back-flushing system. When the procedure for back flushing has been initiated, the electric motor (10) turns the selector valve (13) from the filter chamber that is kept as standby to the chamber that has to be cleaned. This changeover to the standby filter chamber results in an immediate drop in the pressure difference across the oil filter. As soon as the selector valve (13) has been turned enough to engage the standby filter, a cam on the spindle of the spool valve (12) activates a limiting switch, and the electric motor is stopped. At the same time, the flushing valve (9) is activated electrically so that the space above the spool valve (12) is vented. The air pressure from the compressed-air reservoir (11) acts on the underside of the spool valve thus pressing it upwards so that the sludge valve (14) opens. At the same time the slide opens for compressed air and this forces the filtered oil though the filter elements (7) from inside out and, whereby the impurities that are deposited in the outside of the filter elements are flushed away, and sludge and back-flushing oil is forced through valve (9) is changed over electrically, and the spool valve is forced downwards by the compressed air introduced from above, and thus the sludge valve (14) is closed. The empty filter chamber is refilled with filtered oil through a channel in the selector valve (13). The air in the filter chamber (6) is forced out through the float valve (8) to the sludge reservoir (1), which is do large that it can accommodate the flushing oil for the flushing of the a filter chamber. Compressed air forces the flushing oil up through the riser pipe (5) to the filter chamber (4), and through the filter elements (3) to the outlet (2) for cleaned oil. As mentioned earlier, the auxiliary engines have separate lubricating oil systems built on the engines. LUBRICATING OILS - When two solid bodies are in contact and move in relation to each other, there arises a resistance to this movement known as friction, i.e. a force is created which attempts to prevent such movement. This force is caused by irregularities such as high and low spots in the adjoining surfaces engaging each other, thereby resisting the movement. This is illustrated on Figure 63, which shows normal bearing surfaces machined in different ways enlarged 2700 times. A and B are ground surfaces, whereas C and D have been smoothturned on a lathe.
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FIGURE 63 Obviously the greater the pressure applied to the two adjoining surfaces, the greater is the resistance or friction. Furthermore, the amount of friction depends on the materials from which the two elements are manufactured and on the nature of their surfaces. Experience has proven, on the other hand, that the friction is independent of the surface areas. Coulombs well-known law can express this:
F=f N
Which, in other words, means that the friction F is equal to the normal force N times the coefficient of friction f. However, we know that the frictional resistance can be reduced considerably when a fluid layer is introduced between the two surfaces moving against each other, thereby converting the external friction between the two solid bodies to an internal friction between the components of which the fluid layer is comprised. The force arising as a result of the internal friction of the liquid can be expressed as follows: F= A u
a
Which is an equation originally concluded by Newton, though with the help of differential calculus of the following form: F= A du
da
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When considering these formulae, it would appear obvious that a liquid or lubricating agent with as low a viscosity as possible should be chosen to reduce the friction. However, this is not strictly true, in that the low viscosity results in a reduction of the thickness of the layer, which means that u/a or du/da increases and contributes to an increase in the friction. In order to be able to evaluate the relationships further, it is necessary to investigate more closely the special types of bearings used. For this purpose, the following is a brief description of the conditions prevailing inside a cylindrical journal bearing. In the stationary condition, the shaft journal in such a bearing rests on the bearing bush along a generating line directly below the center of the journal Figure 64a. If a torque is then applied to the shaft, the journal rolls up the bearing bush because of friction until it reaches the position shown in Figure 64b. At continued rotation, the journal slips in relation to the bearing bush, and any lubricating oil inside the bearing is drawn between the shaft and the bush because of its adherence to the journal and its internal friction. The result of this is that at a relatively low speed of rotation the shaft takes up the position shown in Figure 64c. At higher speeds of rotation, the shaft takes up the position shown in Figure 64d, in that the oil drawn along with it squeezes its way between the shaft and the bearing bush, and that the friction becomes solely that of the liquid. The load distribution is shown in Figure 64e.
FIGURE 64 As a rule, the higher the viscosity of the lubricating oil, the greater is the load to which the bearing can be exposed, and the higher the speed of rotation, the lower the viscosity needs to be for, any given load. To ensure minimum- energy loss, the viscosity of a lubricating oil should not be higher than that with which it can just produce a pressure corresponding to the bearing load. The use of oil with too high a viscosity gives rise to greater friction loss, which in turn results in higher temperatures
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of both the bearing and the lubricating oil. The viscosity of the oil at the higher temperature is lower, which reduces the friction loss, with the result that the temperature falls and again gives rise to a higher viscosity. Hence with the correct choice of lubricating agent, there is the possibility of reaching a condition of balance. This condition, however, arises at a temperature that increases with increasing lubricating oil viscosity. Therefore, when choosing lubricating oil, it must be ensured that it has the correct viscosity at normal operating temperatures. The relationship between the friction F in a bearing and the number of revolutions per min n, is shown in Figure 15. As can be seen, the friction is at its highest when the shaft begins to rotate from its position of rest, the reason being that there is metallic contact between the shaft and the bearing material because no oil wedge has yet formed. Gradually, as the speed increases, more and more oil is drawn between the shaft and the bearing bush, thereby forming momentary or partial oil films, which reduce the friction. Full oil filming occurs at a certain speed, i.e. at a point at which the friction is at its lowest, while a further increase in speed beyond this point gives rise to an increase in friction.
FIGURE 65
FIGURE 66
Figure 66 shows the relationship between friction and viscosity, curve 1 showing. the conditions prevailing with a thin oil, and curve 2 those with thick oil. The broken line of curve I shows the conditions with an oil having the same viscosity but with greater adhesion properties. The foregoing describes only the conditions, which arise with a normal cylindrical journal bearing. However, the same considerations can be taken as being valid for bearings of all types, whether the relative bearing movement is rotative or translative. A classic example of the application of the above is Michells single-collar thrust bearing. The Australian, A G M Michell, invented the single-collar thrust bearing in 1904. The starting point he used for his designs was calculations dealing with the carrying capacities of oil layers, these having been expounded by the Englishman Professor Osborne Reynolds, in 1886.
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Michell investigated the bearing capacity of an oil layer under a square block that slid quickly over-a flat, well-lubricated surface. These investigations showed that although the block could adjust itself freely as it moved, its bottom surface was not parallel to the flat surface upon which it was sliding. Instead, it formed a small angle with the surface, so that the oil, film between the two surfaces was thickest at the leading end of the block, where the oil penetrated between the two surfaces. In other words, the block tilted very slightly backwards in a way that corresponded to the phenomenon known as water skis, Figure 67. The experiments proved that in this tilted attitude, the block had a much greater bearing capacity and less friction than if it was forced to move with its bottom surface parallel to the surface on which it was moving. Michell also discovered that two slightly tilting blocks positioned one behind the other had a greater bearing capacity than a single block of double the length.
FIGURE 67
FIGURE 68
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This principle can be applied to a thrust bearing as shown schematically in Figure 68 and Figure 67 shows curves drawn of the pressure of the oil film and for the directions of oil flow. A further development of the Michell thrust bearing is the bearing constructed by Deutsche Werft in Hamburg, in which each block or thrust pad is supported by a small piston activated by oil pressure. The oil pressure necessary is developed by the lubricating oil in a closed system connected to all oil pressure cylinders of the thrust bearing, the result being that all thrust pads are loaded equally. This enables the working pressure on the oil pressure pistons to be measured by means of a manometer, the scale of which can be graduated in bar or allow a direct reading of the total axial thrust. If this thrust bearing is used as the main thrust bearing in a ship, it can be used to evaluate the resistance to propulsion of the ship. As can be seen from the above, there are certain demands that are made of lubricating oil in order for it to function as an ideal lubricating agent. Naturally, these demands differ widely, both for the different types of engines and the various elements used in their construction. Some of the many factors, which must be taken into consideration, are: a. b. c. d. e. Operating temperature Surface pressure Relative speed between the elements being lubricated The materials used in construction Expected contamination and admixtures from the surroundings.
LUBRICATING OIL ANALYSES - In order to be able to check lubricating oils in use, it is necessary to obtain the most important information as quickly as possible, to keep the number of tests down to a minimum. Normally, these should include the oils viscosity, flash point, solid impurities present, water content and total base number (TPN) or neutralization number. However, there are a number of additional tests, which may be applied to lubricating oils and these may be summarized as follows. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. Density Flash point Viscosity Viscosity index Neutralization number Water-soluble acids content TBN Water content i. Emulsification number/demulssification number j. Sediment content k. Pour point and cloud point l. Coking residue m. Sulfate ash
a. Density - The density of most lubricating oils is in the range 0.90-0.98 g/CM3. b. Flash point - The flash point is normally found by using the Pensky-Marten or Cleveland apparatus. These have closed and open cups respectively. When analyzing a used lubricating oil, many of the oil companies consider it necessary to state both flash points, because a lubricating oil containing fuel oil has a low flash point when a closed cup is used and a relatively high flash
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point when an open cup is used, whereas both flash points of a cracked lubricating oil are unusually low. c. Viscosity - The viscosity is determined in a similar manner to that used for fuel oils. The organization for internationals standardization (ISO) has developed a new system for the classification of the viscosity of lubricating oils. The system consists of 18 viscosity intervals from 1.98 cSt to 1650 cSt at 40C. Each interval has been given an ISO VG number (viscosity grade) that corresponds to the average value of the interval (see Table 6 below).
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Table 6 - ISO VISCOSITY GRADES TABLE ISO viscosity Average viscosity at Kinematic viscosity degrees at grades 40C (cSt) 400C (cSt) Min Max ISO VG 2 2.2 1.98 2.42 ISO VG 3 3.2 2.88 3.52 ISO VG 5 4.6 4.14 5.06 ISO VG 7 6.8 6.12 7.48 ISO VG 10 10.0 9.00 11.00 ISO VG 15 15.0 13.50 16.50 ISO VG 22 22.0 19.80 24.20 ISO VG 32 32.0 28.80 35.20 ISO VG 46 46.0 41.40 50.60 ISO VG 68 68.0 61.20 74.80 ISO VG 100 100.0 90.00 110.00 ISO VG 150 150.0 135.00 1.65.00 ISO VG 220 220.0 198.00 242.00 ISO VG 320 320.0 288.00 352.00 ISO VG 460 460.0 414.00 506.00 ISO VC 680 680.0 612.00 748.00 ISO VG 1000 1000.0 900.00 1100.00 ISO VG 1500 1500.0 1350.00 1650.00 If the viscosity of lubricating oil increases during use, this indicates that aging or oxidation of the oil has taken place. The products of oxidation give rise to an increase in the viscosity of the oil, but at the same time a reduction occurs in the lubricating properties of the oil. However, an increase in viscosity can also be due to a high carbon content in the form of soot particles. Fuel dilutions can also affect the viscosity, particularly distillates and light fuels. In this connection it is worth noting that the viscosity of all mineral oils increases with increasing pressure. Figure 69 shows a typical example of this relationship for oil intended for use in oil pressure systems.
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FIGURE 69 d. Viscosity index - All lubricating oils of a mineral nature change in viscosity with changes in temperature. They all get thicker when cooled and thinner when heated. However, there is a great difference in the way the various oils behave in this respect, and the viscosity index is an expression of the characteristics of the oil in this connection. The higher the viscosity index of an oil, the less the viscosity changes with a given change in temperature. The viscosity index for oil depends on the following: (a) The crude oil from which it is manufactured (b) The method used for refining (c) The existence of possible additives. In general it can be said that the viscosity index of oil with a paraffinic base is higher than that of lubricating oil with a naphthenic base. This means that the viscosity of paraffinic-based oils normally changes less as the temperature varies than corresponding naphthenic-based lubricating oils. The viscosity index can be improved considerably by mixing the oil with special additives. The viscosity index (VI) for oil is calculated from the following formulae. For oils of 0 to 100 VI: U = L - [(VI/I 00) (L - H)] For oils of 100 VI and greater: U = antilog (log H - N log Y)
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Where: Y L H U N = = = = = kinematic viscosity of oil in cSt at 100C. kinematic viscosity in cSt at 40C of an oil of 0 viscosity index, and having the same kinematic viscosity at 100C as the oil whose viscosity index is to be calculated. kinematic viscosity in cSt at 40C of an oil of 100 viscosity index, and having the same kinematic viscosity at 100C as the oil whose viscosity index is to be calculated. kinematic viscosity in cSt at 40C of the oil whose viscosity index is being determined. log [0.00715 (VI - 100) + 1].
The viscosity index of oil can be determined by means of the ASTM D 567 curves shown in Figure 70. The condition for being able to use the diagram is that the viscosity of the oil is known both at 100T and 210T, either in Saybolt Universal Seconds or in cSt. By marking the two known values on the diagram and drawing a straight line between these two points, the line intersects one of the viscosity index curves enabling a direct reading of the index to be taken. The viscosity index of a lubricating oil is a very important and useful value, not only from the point of view of the temperature-viscosity relationships, but also as a means of identifying the crude oil from which the lubricating oil has been manufactured. For a pure mineral oil, i.e. oil without any additives to improve the Viscosity index, a high viscosity index of, for instance, 80100 usually indicates oil with a paraffinic base. A low viscosity index, for example 0 to 40, normally indicates oil having a naphthenic base. Oils with viscosities between 40 and 80 often consist of oil mixtures. There were times when a high viscosity index was looked upon as the first prerequisite for high quality, the reason being that it was assumed that the ability of the oil to resist oxidation was closely connected with a high viscosity index. This is true for many oils not containing additives, but for most applications there are other properties to be taken into consideration. For stability against oxidation, special tests have been prescribed which determine this property considerably better than the viscosity index. With modem lubricating oils whose characteristics are determined by a combination of improved refining and a complicated mixture of additives, it is unrealistic to use the viscosity index for an evaluation of oil properties other than just the relationship between viscosity and temperature. In this respect, the special tests provide much more reliable results.
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FIGURE 70 e. Neutralization number - The neutralization number indicates the amount (in mg) of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize the acid in 1 g of oil. This is determined as follows. 10g of the lubricating oil to be tested is weighed into a conical flask. If the acid content of the oil is very low, a larger sample can be used. A solution of 50 ml of alcohol and 1 ml of phenolphthalein is mixed in a second flask, heated to approximately 45C and then neutralized with 0.1M alcoholic potassium hydroxide. The neutralized alcohol is mixed with the weighed oil sample and heated to boiling point in a water bath or on a hot plate. Boiling is maintained for 5 min with continuous stirring, after which 1 ml
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of the phenolphthalein solution is added and the mixture and cooled down to approximately 45C. It is then titrated as quickly as possible with 0.1M potassium hydroxide, and stirred continuously until a color shift occurs. If the amount of potassium hydroxide used is an ml and the amount of oil sample used is b g, the neutralization number is found from the following formula. Neutralization number a 5.611 b Atomic weights for K, 0 and H to be used are, respectively, 39.10, 16.00 and 1.008. The total acid number (TAN) of the oil can be determined by means of potentiometric titration. By this method, titrations to two different pH values are carried out, a curve covering the pH value being drawn gradually as the titration is performed. By this means the strong acid number (SAN) is first determined, which is the amount of acid contributing to a pH value of below 4, and TAN corresponds to the total acid content of the oil. The difference between TAN and SAN is due to the content of weak acids WAN (weak acid number) in the oil, i.e. TAN = WAN + SAN The presence of acid in lubricating oil can be caused by aging or oxidation, by which weak organic acids are generated, but can also be due to contamination from the combustion products, which results in the formation of strong, inorganic acids. When analyzing used oil, the interesting parameter to determine is how great a part of the acid formation is due to the existence of weak and strong acids, thereby enabling a conclusion to be reached concerning the reason for the breakdown of the oil. f. Water-soluble acids (strong acids) content - This acid content is found by determining the amount (in mg) of KOH needed to neutralize the water-soluble acids existing in 1 g of oil. The investigation is carried out by heating 100 g of oil with constant stirring together with 100 ml of distilled water. To this mixture is added 1-2 drops of methyl-orange, which has the property of being yellow at pH values of greater than 4.4, but which changes color to orange-yellow and becomes red at pH values of less than or equal to 3. 1. If the water precipitated is yellow, the oil does not contain any water-soluble acids. If the water turns red, it is filtered through a moistened filter and a quantitative determination is carried out by titrating 50 ml with 0.1M KOH until the red color just disappears. If a ml of KOH is used, the content of water-soluble acids is: 2 - a .5.611 100 g. Total base number (TBN) - The alkali content is defined as the amount of KOH (in mg), which is equivalent to the amount of acid used to neutralize the bases in I g of oil. This is known as the total base number (TBN). The water-soluble alkali content can be determined as follows.
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100 g of oil is heated with 100 ml of distilled water with constant stirring and a few drops of phenolphthalein are added. If the water does not color, the oil does not contain any alkali. If the water turns red, it is filtered through a water-moistened filter, and a quantitative determination is carried out by titrating 50-mi with OAM hydrochloric acid until the red color just disappears. If the amount of hydrochloric acid used is a: the alkali content 2. a .5.611 100
Lubricating oil for diesel engines must be able to neutralize the increased amount of acid that is formed by the increasing use of fuel oil with high sulfur content. This has led to oils being provided with additives of a high base number, forming a reserve for the neutralization of strong acids. The amount of these additives is indicated by the TBN, which can be determined by, for instance, titration with HC104. (This titration should only be undertaken in a laboratory under controlled conditions.) The TBN is the amount of HC104 which, converted to the equivalent amount in mg of potassium hydroxide, is necessary to neutralize all the basic component parts in I g of oil. In addition to the TBN, the initial pH is often stated, which is the pH value of the oil when it is dissolved in an organic solvent. If the initial pH is greater than 4, alkaline additives still remain, and these can be determined by the TBN. If the initial pH is below 4, strong acids are present and these can be determined as the SAN. The TBN of marine oils from most companies has increased considerably during recent years, the result being operation with a TBN of 70 for cylinder oils and up to 30 for system oils, depending on the sulfur content of the fuel oil. The use of oils with a high TBN involves the risk that the large amount of additives, which are necessary, will cause a sediment in the form of hard deposits on the pistons, particularly if the additives are not selected with care. h. Water content - The water content is determined by means of the distillation apparatus shown in Figure 71 and Figure 72. Xylene is added so that a mixture of xylene and water is distilled, from which the water separates.
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FIGURE 71
FIGURE 72
i. Demulsification/emulsification number - Emulsions consisting of oil and water separate relatively quickly if left standing. The tendency of the oil to form emulsions can be expressed by the following. Steam demulsification number - In this test, steam is passed into the oil under carefully controlled conditions until the total volume of emulsion formed is equal to twice the original volume of the oil (20 ml). The emulsion is then placed in a separating bath and the time (in seconds) for the oil and water to separate is taken as the steam demulsification number. Emulsification number - In this test a quantity of oil (40 ml) is mixed with water (40 ml) using a special stirring paddle at a fixed speed of rotation. The emulsion is placed in a separating bath at a given temperature and allowed to stand for I h. At the end of this period the result is expressed as oil/water/emulsion (in ml), i.e. 40/40/0. The apparatus used is shown in Figure 73.
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FIGURE 73 j. Sediment content - Using the so-called precipitation figure, indicating the volume of foreign matter present, indicates the amount of sediment in lubricating oil. The precipitation Figure does not identify the nature of the impurities, but provides a quantitative estimation without any information concerning their origin. The measuring glasses used in this investigation are shown in Figure 74 1 and 2. As a rule, two 10 ml samples of the oil are tested simultaneously, which enables the results to be compared. To each sample is added 90 ml of precipitation naphthene as solvent. Each measuring glass is stoppered and turned upside down several times, after which the contents are heated in a water bath to approximately 35C. The glasses are then mounted in a centrifuge and the amount of sediment recorded after centrifuging at 1500 rev/min for approximately 10 min. They are then centrifuged again for a further 10 min and the sediment measured a second time. This process is continued until the measurement remains constant. The amount of sediment (in ml) is taken as the precipitation figure.
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FIGURE 74 k. Pour point and cloud point - These points are determined in the same way as that described for fuel oils. l. Coking residue - The coking value of lubricating oil is found from the amount of residue remaining after the oil has been heated without exposure to air. It is stated in % by weight and is determined by means of the equipment shown in Figure 75. This is Conradsons testing apparatus and consists of the following parts.
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FIGURE 75 A = Porcelain crucible D = Triangle of chrome-nickel wire B = Skidmore iron crucible E = Cylindrical metal hood C = Pressed steel crucible with the bottom F = Asbestos block covered by dry sand G = Merker gas burner The procedure for finding the coking value is as follows. Two glass beads of approximately2.5-mm. diameters are placed in the porcelain crucible, and the crucible with the beads is weighed. 10 g 5 mg of oil free from impurities is weighed into the crucible. This is then placed in the apparatus, which is assembled as shown in the Figure 75. The burner is lit and the oil heated for a period of 10 1 min until ignition takes Place. Combustion of the oil vapors must take place within 13 1 min. After the oil vapors have been turned off, the bottom part of the steel crucible is heated until it takes on a cherry-red color. This heating should take exactly 7 min, after which the burner is turned off. The period of time from when the burner is lit until it is turned off must be 30 2 min. After a period of approximately 15 min, the covers are taken off the crucibles and the porcelain crucible is weighed. The coking residue is determined as the average of several measurements, which, however, must not deviate from the average weight by more than 10%.
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m. Sulfate ash - This is a test, which is used as an alternative to the coking tests. It consists of producing coke from the oil in a crucible and then treating the residue with sulfuric acid, the result being that the metals such as barium, calcium, zinc, sodium, potassium and tin are converted to sulfates or oxides. The weights of this acid-treated ash can provide a great deal of useful information concerning the oils additive content. The individual components of the ash can be analyzed by chemical analysis and provide an indication of the basic elements contained in the oil. BASE OILS AND ADDITIVES - Virtually all lubricants are a mixture of base oils and oil additives to a formulation selected so that the blend performs a specific function. Its ability to satisfactorily perform this function, although largely controlled by the nature of the additives, depends to a great extent on the quality of the base oil, on its inherent proper-ties, and especially on its response to additives, particularly anti-oxidants. The lubricants used are formulated with petroleum derived mineral-based oils and these are produced from crude oil residue. Although the base oil will have been subjected to various forms of treatment in the refinery, its inherent properties are largely dependent on the nature of the original crude oil and on the molecular structure of the base oil itself. It is said that base oil is either paraffinic or naphthenic and this simply means that there is a predominance of one particular form of molecular structure. Paraffinic molecules have the hydrocarbon atoms arranged in a long chain whereas naphthenics have their atoms arranged in a ring structure. Paraffins are less volatile, less chemically reactive and tend to have better oxidation resistance than naphthenics but the latter have better thermal stability, better additive solubility and lower pour-points. There is a third form of molecular structure, aromatic, which is always present in base oils. Aromatics also have a ring structure with unsaturated, hence unstable, atoms. They are volatile and unstable with poor oxidation resistance; therefore they are not a desirable component of base oils. Nevertheless all three groups are always present. An example of the proportions of constituents in paraffinic base oil might be 60% paraffinic, 28% naphthenic and 12% aromatic. The most important single property of base oil is its viscosity, but its inherent properties affect the demulsibility and foaming tendency of the finished oil. At one time oxidation resistance was also extremely important but today, additive response is more significant since anti-oxidants can extend oils life beyond the bounds of even the best quality base oil. A base oil with excellent inbuilt oxidation resistance may have a poor response to anti-oxidants and will therefore have a shorter life than one which, by itself, has poor oxidation stability but an excellent response to additives. The first use of additives in base oils took place in the 1920s, and since then their use has increased enormously, the result being that almost all present types of lubricating oil contain at least one additive, and many of them can be found to contain as many as five or even more additives of different types. The proportions of the different additives can vary from some few hundredths of a % up to approximately 30%.
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The introduction of additives into lubricating oils has permitted a great many new mechanical designs, not least in the field of diesel engines and gear transmissions. The following is a brief summary of the additives normally to be found in marine lubricating oils, such oils often being known as HD (heavy duty) oils. a. Additives that reduce pour point - These are polymeric materials of high molecular weight, also called pour point depressants, which are thought to function by absorbing into or cocrystallizing with wax crystals, thus modifying the wax crystal structure. Smaller wax particles are formed which do not interlock or congeal so effectively, thus permitting the flow to continue at lower temperatures than untreated oil. b. Additives that change the viscosity index - These compounds, also called viscosity index improvers, are generally polymers of high molecular weight, ranging from 5000 to 20,000. The function of viscosity index improvers is to enhance the rheological properties of oils. According to current theory, they do this by purely physical means. It is thought that, at low temperatures, the polymeric molecules have only limited solubility in the base oil, and that they exist in the form of small, tightly wound coils, having little effect on viscosity. However, as the temperature increases and the molecules become more soluble, they become swollen and unravel, hence contributing their bulk to the viscosity of the solution. Additives, which improve the viscosity index, enable the oil to satisfy the requirements called for by two or more SAE viscosity ranges. Lubricating oils of this type, which are most often relatively thin at low temperatures (no starting difficulties) and relatively thick at operating temperatures, are often known as multi-grade lubricating oils. c. Additives that reduce scum formation (antifoams) - These additives, often in the form of silicone oils, are extremely effective and are consequently normally only added in minute amounts (ppm). The introduction of larger amounts can result in an increase in the degree of scum formation, by reducing the ability to release whipped-in air. Therefore, these additives must be used with the greatest caution, not least in turbine oils. The probable mode of action of anti-foam agents is a lowering of the surface tension at oil-air interfaces, permitting more rapid collapse of air bubbles. d. Additives that reduce oxidation (anti-oxidants) -Most of the time, lubricating oils are in contact with air, frequently at elevated temperatures. Under such conditions the lubricant undergoes a complex series of oxidation reactions with generally harmful results. The main consequences of oxidation are an increase in viscosity and the formation of insoluble resins, varnishes, sludge and acidic materials, all of which may result in the corrosion of bearings and other metal surfaces and can cause interference with oil circulation and heat transfer. The rate of oxidation depends upon oxygen concentration, temperature, and the effect of catalysts such as copper and iron. These additives can act in different ways, for instance by
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having a direct influence on the lubricating oil, or resulting in the neutralization of the metallic catalysts which are always present in the lubricating oil system. e. Additives that improve resistance to corrosion - These are usually known as corrosion inhibitors, the purpose of which is to protect the structural elements of the engine against corrosion. They are often the same as the oxidation inhibitors described above. f. Additives that reduce rust formation - Rust inhibitors are normally chemical compounds that adhere firmly to metal surfaces, thus forming a coherent film that prevents water or moisture coming into contact with the metal surfaces of the engine. These additives often consist of organic phosphorus compounds containing esters and amino soaps and/or amines. Rust inhibitors can be used in all types of lubricating oils and are usually very effective at protecting steel against rust attack. Since rust inhibitors are absorbed by the steel parts of the lubricating system, the amount found in the oil can decrease, which makes it necessary to add more of the additive from time to time. As some rust inhibitors are known to attack certain metal elements, and since there are also other inhibitors, which result in the oil, together with water forming emulsions that are difficult to decompose, the choice of inhibitors should be made only after careful consideration. g. Additives with a cleaning effect - Lubricating oils containing these additives are often called detergent oils or self-cleaning oils. However, it would probably be more appropriate if they were known as cleaning and dispersing agents. All lubricating oils decompose during use, thereby becoming contaminated, but contamination can also appear as metal particles from journals and soot from the combustion process. To prevent these different impurities from sticking together to form large accumulations capable of blocking lubricating oil pipes and sticking to piston rings, the oil is provided with cleaning and dispersing additives, which form a thin film around the various particles. This makes it impossible for them to stick together to form large masses. The small particles thus surrounded by this film are kept suspended in the lubrication oil, i.e. they remain floating in the oil and, since they are very small compared with the thickness of the oil film in a normal journal bearing, they are not harmful. The cleaning and dispersing additives are often organic barium and calcium compounds. h. Additives that reduce bearing wear - The object of these additives, often known as EP (extreme pressure) additives, is to reduce wear on the bearings when an engine is being started, which is the time when there is the greatest possibility of metallic contact between the bearing surfaces and the journals. The additives, usually consisting of fat oils of organic origin, must never be used as lubricating oils for diesel engines. Additives also belonging to this category are those used to increase the ability of the lubricating oil to resist high surface pressure. They are used, for instance, in gear oils, and often contain sulfur, phosphorus and chlorine compounds.
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TYPES OF LUBRICATING OIL - The lubricating oils that are used for diesel engines can be divided into the following main types. a. b. c. Lubricating oil with or without a small amount of self-cleaning additive. This type is used in the main lubricating oil systems of crosshead engines. Lubricating oil with a high content of alkaline additives. These oils are used for the lubrication of crosshead engine cylinder liners and piston rings. Heavy duty, self-cleaning lubricating oils for the lubrication of medium-speed trunk engines.
The following are other types of oils that find application in the marine field. a. b. c. d. Lubricating oil for steam turbines Oil for pressure oil systems (hydraulic oils) Gear oil Lubricating oil for refrigeration plants
a. Crankcase oil for crosshead engines - The most important requirements for crankcase oil for a crosshead engine are that it must be able to lubricate the moving parts in the crankcase, protect the, metal surfaces against corrosion, and resist the effects of oxidation. For many years, these requirements have been satisfactorily met with a simple SAE 30 mineral-based oil with inhibitors against rust and oxidation. This lubricating oil, which became known as R and 0, has a low content of additives, which makes it relatively easy to remove water and un-dissolved particles of dirt by means of centrifugal separation. However, it is used in heavily loaded crosshead engines as the cooling agent in pistons, and thus it is exposed to a greater risk of oxidation and thermal degradation. This has necessitated the use of detergent oils with a low additive content (TBN 5-9) in the crankcase. b. Cylinder lubricating oil for crosshead engines - Where the lubrication of diesel engines is concerned, the most difficult task is probably the lubrication of pistons, piston rings and cylinder liners. Cylinder lubrication oils must not only resist the effects of high temperatures and pressures, in preventing metal-to-metal contact, but also be able to neutralize the highly corrosive acids which are formed during the combustion of sulfur-containing fuel oils. Consequently, cylinder lubrication oils must be highly alkaline and have a high viscosity at room temperature. Usually, a type SAE 50 oil with a TBN of greater than 70 is used. During particularly difficult operating conditions, it may be necessary to use cylinder lubrication oil with viscosity of 24 cSt at 100 C. In order to avoid high degrees of wear due to corrosion of cylinder liners and piston rings, it may be necessary to use cylinder lubrication oil with a TBN of 100. c. Lubricating oil for medium-speed trunk engines - In the case of trunk engines, the oil must lubricate both the crankshaft mechanism and cylinder liners. Even in trunk engines equipped with separate cylinder lubrication systems, the same type of lubricating oil is used for both the cylinder liners and the crankshaft mechanism. Since many of these trunk engines use the same type of heavy fuel oils as crosshead engines, the conditions for the lubrication of cylinders are
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just as difficult as those with 2-stroke crosshead engines, though with the advantage that 4-stroke engines have only one combustion stroke for every other revolution of the crankshaft. This means that lubricating oils with a TBN of 30-40 may be used. Use is normally made of SAE 30 or SAE 40 lubricating oils produced from mineral-based oil with admixtures of alkaline, self-cleaning, dispersive, anti-oxidizing, rust inhibiting and antifoaming additives. d. Lubricating oil for steam turbines - With steam turbines it is necessary to use lubricating oils that can resist the effect of high temperatures and that do not form emulsions with water. Moreover, they must contain additives, which counteract oxidation and rust formation. Care must be taken that turbine oil is not polluted with alkaline oils, which contain dispersive additives. This is because those rust inhibitors that are normally used in turbine oils react with alkaline lubricating oils, the result being the formation of strong emulsions. It has proved that a calcium pollution of greater than 12 ppm. is sufficient to ruin turbine oil. e. Oil for pressure oil systems - Oils for pressure oil systems hydraulic systems are very similar to turbine oils, in that they must have both a high resistance to oxidation and the ability to prevent wear and the formation of emulsions. Moreover, it is normally necessary to use oils that contain additives that improve the oils viscosity index, thus enabling the oil to be used over a wide temperature range. An additional effect of these additives is that the pour point of the oil is reduced, so it becomes relatively thick at higher temperatures. This can be of great significance for ships, which sail in different climatic regions. With regard to pollution, the same conditions apply as those mentioned under turbine oils. f. Gear oil - Lubricating oils used for gears are similar to those used in pressure oil systems, the only difference being that they normally contain additives, which improve their ability to resist the effects of high pressure. g. Lubricating oil for refrigeration plants - Apart from a low pour point, lubricating oils for refrigeration plants are characterized by their solubility in the refrigerant used. In this connection, the oils critical dissolution temperature is stated, which is the lowest temperature at which the oil is soluble in the refrigerant. In almost all refrigeration plants in which Freon (R-12) is used, a part of the oil is dissolved and circulates in the refrigeration system. If the temperature in the condenser coils is lower than the oils critical dissolution temperature, separation of the oil can take place in the cooling agent, the flow of which can be blocked by the separated lubricating oil. Moreover, the oil may give rise to liquid knocking in the compressor, with subsequent damage. Refrigeration oil must therefore be produced from a carefully selected mineral naphthene-based oil, without additives. Over recent years it has become normal to use synthetic oils for refrigeration plants, the reason being that these have a very low pour point and low critical dissolution temperature. They are usually fully miscible with the corresponding mineral-based oils.
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SELECTING SAMPLES OF OIL FOR TESTING - The procedure for taking oil samples has to be standardized; otherwise the results of analyses have no value. This is particularly true if the investigation involves any question concerning guarantee or compensatory claims. Normally, lubricating oil samples are taken while the oil is circulating in the lubrication system, usually after a long period of operation, but before any maneuvers are carried out with the engine. Before the sample is taken, the drain cock, the vessel for the sample, and the piping, must be rinsed thoroughly. As the oil sample must be shaken before analysis, 0.75 liter should be drawn off in a 1-liter vessel. The taking of samples of fuel oil can be carried out with various types of sample collectors. An example known as an immersion sample collector is shown in Figure 76. The collector has a volume of approximately 1 liter and is shown in the closed and open condition. It consists of a cylindrical tube, which is closed at the bottom by a foot valve and at the top by two flaps. When the collector is lowered into a liquid, the foot valve and flaps open and the liquid flows through the tube. The collector is then stopped in its descent at the height from which the sample is required to be taken. When the collector is pulled upwards, the foot valve and the two top flaps close, preventing oil from other levels entering the collector. When taking samples of oil to be analysed, distinction is made between part samples, these being upper samples, middle samples or lower samples. If the level of the oil in the tank from which the sample is selected is h, upper samples are taken at a distance of 0.9 h from the bottom, middle samples from a distance of approximately0.5 h from the bottom and lower samples from approximately 0.1 h from the bottom. Mixtures of these part samples are known as raw samples, whereas bottom samples are understood to be those taken from the deepest place in the tank.
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FIGURE 76 The way in which raw samples are made up is given in Table below SAMPLE SELECTION FOR TESTING TABLE Make-up of sample (parts) Location of raw sample Upper Middle Lower From full, horizontal cylindrical tanks 1 8 1 From vertical tanks with uniform cross-section 1 3 1 After careful mixing of the raw sample, of which there must be at least 4 liters, a laboratory sample is selected. If there is a compensatory claim or a question of guarantee connected with the results of the analyses, the raw sample is normally divided into four parts, each of 1 liter, these being supplied to the parties involved.
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SPECIFIC HEAT, THERMAL CONDUCTION RATING AND COMPRESSIBILITY Other mineral oil properties that may be of interest during operation are: 1. Specific heat 2. Thermal conduction rating 3. Compressibility a. Specific heat - The specific heat c of a mineral oil depends on the temperature t and with fair approximation can be expressed by: c = 2.00 + 0.0003 (t - 100) kJ/C kg b. Thermal conduction rating - The thermal conduction rating lies within the temperature range 20-100C and is on average for mineral oils at approximately 0.13 W/m C. c. Compressibility - The compressibility of a mineral oil is small and is defined by the equation: v2 = 1 - P (p2 p1) v1 where: p2 p1 v1 v2 = = = = = compressibility (in bar) oil pressure (in bar) atmospheric pressure (in bar) volume of the oil measured at atmospheric pressure volume of the same amount of oil, measured at the oil pressure p2.
Figure 77 shows how the density of a mineral oil changes with pressure. The ratio p2/ p1 between the density of the oil at the pressurep2and at atmospheric pressure is the ordinate, and the pressure p2 in bar is the abscissa.
FIGURE 77
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LUBRICATING GREASE - Lubricating grease is usually produced -from mineral oil made gelatinous by the addition of soap. At 20C the consistency of the various types if grease ranges from the fluid state, to products with increasing stiffness, to hard, wax-like materials in blocks or stick form. Lubricating grease is often jelly-like and can be used as a lubricating agent during operating conditions at which oil would flow away and leave the bearings dry. One of the most important properties of grease is its consistency, also called its hardness. This is found by using a system introduced by the American Institute NLGI (National Lubricating Grease Institute). This system of classification is shown in the table below. The hardness is expressed as the depth in tenths of an mm that a standard cone will sink into grease in 5 s at a temperature of 25C. The unit of measurement is designated penetration. For example, if the penetration of grease is 285, the cone has been found to sink 28.5 mm into the grease after 5 s. CLASSIFICATION OF GREASE HARDNESS TABLE NLGI No. Penetration (mm) 0 355-385 - Soft greases 1 310-340 Soft greases 2 265-295 - Medium greases 3 220-250 - Medium greases 4 175-205 - Hard greases 5 130-160 - Hard greases 6 85-115 - Hard greases The soft greases with the NLGI numbers 0 and 1 are used particularly for lubrication with central lubricating equipment and the lubrication of gear transmissions. The medium greases with NLGI numbers 2 and 3 are normally used for lubrication with grease guns or by means of grease cups. The hardest greases, known as block greases, are used for lubrication of large, slowly rotating shafts, the blocks being pressed against the shafts to provide the necessary amount of lubrication merely by the friction between the two. In addition to the penetration classification of grease, regard must be paid to the viscosity of the oil it contains. As a rule, the viscosity of the oil in the grease must be the same as the viscosity of the oil that would be used if the bearing had been oil lubricated. Another important property is the drip point of the grease, which is the temperature at which the grease becomes fluid. This temperature is normally the highest temperature at which the grease can be used, but as a rule the range of applications for grease is limited to a temperature 10-20C below its drip point. However, there are exceptions to this rule. Some grease is not particularly stable when exposed to strong mechanical forces or vibrations in bearings. In these cases the oil separates from the thickening agent in the grease and flows away from the bearings. This can result in the bearing seizing up for want of adequate lubrication. These greases can therefore only be used for slowly turning shafts.
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An expression for the mechanical stability of the grease can be obtained by measuring the penetration before and after it has been exposed to a strong mechanical force. A small change in penetration indicates that the grease is mechanically stable. Grease packed in the housing of a ball bearing can supply the necessary lubrication for months or even years, whereas lubricating oil would leak out and necessitate constant filling up. Since lubricating grease- is consumed slowly, it is less inclined to splash or leak out of bearings, and so can be used to tighten bearings and prevent any penetration of water or dirt. In the cases where heat has to be led away from the bearing, lubricating grease is not suitable and circulating lubricating oil has to be used. There are many types of lubricating grease for high-speed shafts and lubrication at low bearing loads, greases produced from mineral oil with a low viscosity are preferred, thereby keeping the friction at a minimum. The thicker mineral oils are used as a base for the types of grease intended for use at higher operating temperatures and greater bearing loads. In many cases, a grease will stand up to considerably greater bearing loads than the oil from which it is produced. The soaps used in their manufacture can also contribute towards better lubrication qualities and, furthermore, can have considerably better rust-preventing properties than the corresponding oils. The characteristics of lubricating grease are determined by the soaps used in the manufacturing process. The lubricating greases most commonly used are: Calcium grease Sodium grease Barium and lithium grease Aluminum grease Lead grease
Calcium soaps form the basis of so-called lubricating grease, which has a thick, homogeneous structure having the consistency of soft butter. The consistency varies, however, with the soap concentration. Calcium grease is produced by boiling a mixture of fatty acids, mineral oil and calcium hydroxide together. When the saponification of the calcium with the acid is completed, the water content is regulated and oil is added. Lumps and impurities in the mixture are removed by means of a fine-mesh metal sieve. Calcium grease has a proportion of water that, if removed, results in the soap and oil curdling with consequent collapsing of the lubricating -grease. For this reason, calcium grease cannot be used at temperatures much above 80C, at which the water would quickly evaporate. However, in the latest types of calcium grease the water has been replaced by agents with higher boiling points, making them suitable for use at much higher temperatures. Calcium soaps are not soluble in water and are, in fact, very resistant to water, which makes them usable under circumstances where moisture would otherwise penetrate. The method used for the production of sodium grease is similar to that described for calcium grease, but sodium grease does not need to have any great water content for stabilizing. This makes it usable at higher temperatures. As sodium soaps are soluble in water, sodium grease can be washed off by water. This makes it unsuitable for use as a lubricating agent in places open to penetration by moisture.
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The consistency of sodium grease is almost fibrous, which is why it is often called fiber grease. It has a greater stability and internal coherency than calcium grease and is widely used for the lubrication of high-speed ball and roller bearings. If the roller or ball bearings are operating under moist conditions, the lubrication problem must be solved by a compromise. The calcium grease is preferred at low rotation speeds under moist conditions because of its resistance to water, but if the speed of rotation is so high that this lubricating agent decomposes, sodium grease must be used instead and extra precautions taken to keep water away from the bearings. Mixtures of calcium and sodium grease result in lubricating agents with characteristics between those already described. Grease produced from barium or lithium soaps are water resistant and can be used at higher temperatures and therefore in ball and roller bearings. This type of grease is more expensive than calcium grease and is normally used only under special conditions. Aluminum grease comes in two types, one being of a butter-like consistency and the other being fibrous. The former resembles the calcium-based greases and can be used for similar purposes. The latter type, which can be pulled out in threads of more than 1 m, can be used for large, slowturning shafts in cases where other types of grease would be squeezed out of the bearings. Lubricating agents of this sort can be supplemented with graphite or mica. Long-threaded aluminum greases can be supplied with a very fluid consistency which enables them to be used in oilcans and drip-feed lubricators. Similar fluid greases can be produced on the basis of calcium soaps, but these do not have a fibrous structure and are sometimes known as non-flowing oils because they do not flow out of the bearing at low pressures. Very soft calcium greases such as these are used only in cases where very little friction is generated. Ordinarily, lead soaps are only used to a small degree in lubricating greases with a gelatinous structure. They are used to achieve good supporting qualities at high bearing loads, the reason being that they are considered to improve the adhesion properties of the lubricating oils with which they are mixed. These greases are used for the lubrication of gears, particularly those operating under difficult conditions. They are very resistant to water and can be used for bearings, which are exposed to wind and weather. Mineral oils can be made gelatinous by the addition of materials other than soaps, but lubricating greases produced in this manner find very few fields of application. In the same manner that lubricating oils are provided with additives to improve their characteristics, additives are also used to a great extent in the production of the different types of lubricating grease. FUNCTIONS OF LUBE OIL IN DIESEL ENGINES 1. Form a film between mating surfaces to reduce wear and friction (about 900 Btu/lb. out of 18,500 used to cover 2. Act as a cooling agent - sometimes for piston 3. Clean and carry away dirt and metal particles (alkalized to neutralize combustible acids) 4. Assist in sealing the piston - cylinder wall clearance
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5.
Protect metal surfaces from corrosion - especially cylinder liner
Composition - Carbon 82-85% and Hydrogen 15-18% (Hydrocarbons) Places Lubricated Different Systems - Engine can have 1-5 systems Main Lube Oil Crosshead Lube Oil Camshaft Lube Oil Rocker Arm Lube Oil Cylinder Lube Oil Viscosity - Friction HP engine wear and oil consumption depend on viscosity. Varies with temperature measured 1. At 100 range from 200 to 1000 SSU at 210 range from 42 to 70 SSU 2. Temperature viscosity chart 3. Rate of change of viscosity varies with different oils. Viscosity Index (VI) rates oils relative to their viscosity chart It is advantageous to have a high VI because these oils will have low starting resistance yet maintain goo. Lube oil - Additives- vary from very small to 10% Inhibitors - Inhibitors increase alkalinity for acid neutralization - to counteract combustion products C02 + S02 from mixing corrosion inhibitors. Detergents - Prevent deposits on engine parts by keeping oxidation products in solution. Dispergents - Aid detergents by keeping OXI products in solution. Film strength Helps maintain oil film under high load pressure Prevent galling and scoring when metal to metal contact is made Metal deactivators - Reduce rate of change of viscosity with temperature rises. Foam inhibitor reduce foaming as oil is churned and pumped Selection of oil - Depends on: 1. Size and type of engine (2,4 stroke, crosshead or trunk) 2. Type of fuel 3. Environment (cold, salty etc.) 4. Type of filtering and centrifuging and type of lube oil system 5. Application of engine - continuous or intermittent Oil Requirements - Oil should provide the following protective services:
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Good film Prevent sticking of rings and valves Seal cylinder from crankcase Leave no carbon deposits on crown or ports No corrosion Low combustion Good cold starting Use any kind of filter
9. Alkalinity 10. Detergency 11. Thermal stability 12. Oxygen stability 13. Load carrying ability 14. Anti-rust 15. Water separation ability 16. Anti-foam characteristics
Methods of Cleaning Oil 1. Strainers a. Metal edge b. Basket 2. Filters a. Filter beds b. Pressure filters 3. Clarifiers- paper edged filters 4. Chemical treatment 5. Centrifugal a. Purifying - removing solids and water b. Separating - separating water from oil c. Clarifying - separating solids from oil Oil Consumption - Depends on: 1. Percent of rated load carried 2. Type of service 3. Engine age and condition 4. Engine design and type Lube Oil System - Deliver clean oil in proper quantity, pressure and temperature (viscosity) to all areas requiring lubrication. Friction Surfaces - (could be 4 systems on one engine) 1. Pistons and cylinder liners 2. Crankshaft main bearings 3. Crank pins and their bearings 4. Crossheads and guides 5. Wrist pins and their bearings 6. Valve gear - camshaft bearings, cams, followers, push rods, etc. 7. Drive gear for pumps etc. Types 1. Method of oil storage: a. Crankcase sump (wet sump) b. Separate sump (dry sump)
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2.
Method of filtration or purification a. Full flow b. Bypass c. Sump system d. Batch 3. Forced and pressure a. Forced -oil pushed directly into lubricated area -cylinder lubricators b. Pressure - system provided head pressure from pump gene rally to a header (gallery)
Components 1. Storage tanks sump separates about 1200 gallon capacity for main engine. New oil tank, Clean oil tank 2. Pumps positive display rotary 3. Strainers 4. Filters (purifier) 5. Header or gallery - (35-65 psig) (120-1300 0 6. Cooler 7. Thermostatic temperature control Cylinder lubrication - Three methods: A. Splash B. Pressure feed C. Via piston pin 1. Uses separate oil a. Higher viscosity 250-350 SSU at 1000 F b. Higher alkalinity to combat combustion gases c. Higher flash point 2. Check valve provided 3. Glycerin and water in flow path at sight glass a. Give positive indication of oil delivery b. Permit visual adjustment of amount delivered 4. Generally supplied with manual method of pumping to assist in starting Check new type mechanical lubricators. 5. Not lacquer piston or cylinder surfaces 6. Prevent wear of bearings 7. Cleanse the interior of the engine 8. Not form sludge, clog oil lines, strainers and filters, or leave deposits in the oil cooler 9. Be usable with any kind of filter 10. Have a low consumption rate 11. Permit long intervals between renewals 12. Have good cold starting properties a. Pumps a certain amount of oil into cylinder from its own supply reservoir measured in drops and pints
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b. Location - on single acting 4 stroke engines the hole discharging the oil is located between the 1st and 2nd ring combustion chamber. c. On double acting the oil holes are located halfway between the cylinder ends and are open to the combustion chamber at certain times so a check valve must be put in the system. d. Timing - 4 stroke (once in 10 revolutions) oil pumped during the beginning of the compression stroke and rings of compression. Oil delivered to 4-8 equally spaced points from one lubricator on larger engines. Sources of Lube Oil Contamination: 1. Carbon deposits on cylinder from burned lube oil or fuel oil is scraped off and gets into oil in crankcase. 2. Dust particles from intake air collect on cylinder wall and eventually get into crank case 3. Water vapor from exhaust gases, which might blow by into crankcase. 4. Metal particles from wear in cylinder, bearings, bushings, broken piston rings etc. 5. Fuel oil dilution - unburned fuel oil running down sides of cylinder or leaking at Injection pump joints that pass through the cylinder wall. Maximum fuel oil dilution is 5%, can be detected by a pressure drop or by Lube oil analysis. 6. Salt water from lube oil cooler
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FIGURE 78 - VIEW OF A TYPICAL PRESSURE LIBRICATION SYSTEM
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FIGURE 79 - MAIN ENGINE LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM
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FIGURE 80 - LUBRICATING SYSTEM FOR SULZER RND. M ENGINES CYLINDER LUBRICATION (SULZER DRAWING)
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FIGURE 81 - LUBRICATING OIL PURIFICATION SYSTEM (ALFA LAVAL)
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FIGURE 82
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FIGURE 83
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FIGURE 84 SULZER LUBE OIL SYSTEM
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GOVERNORS
The UG8 dial type governor is of the hydraulic type and is normally isochronous (will maintain same engine speed regardless of engine load). Speed adjustment (synchronizer), speed droop and load limit controls are standard features. The stalling work capacity of the governor is eight foot pounds. THE SYNCHRONIZE -The synchronizer , or speed adjusting control, is used to change the engine speed when running alone or to change the engine load when the engine has been paralleled with other units. The synchronizer indicator located directly below the synchronizer merely indicates the number of revolutions of the synchronizer knob.
THE SYNCHRONIZING MOTOR - A synchronizing motor may be mounted on a special cover for the UG8 governor to provide remote speed control. Its use enables the switchboard operator to match the frequency of an engine driven alternator with that of other units, or a system, before synchronizing and to change load distribution after synchronizing. The motor used is of the split field, series wound, reversible type. It can be used on either direct current or alternating current at its specified voltage. A friction type coupling is provided between the motor shaft and the synchronizer adjusting gear to allow the engine operator to adjust speed by turning the synchronizer control knob on the governor. THE SPEED DROOP - The speed droop control can be set to automatically divide and balance load between engines driving the same shaft, or paralleled in an electrical system. Droop is incorporated in the governor through a linkage which varies the compression of the speeder (speed adjusting) spring as the terminal shaft rotates. Increased fuel reduces spring compression, reduces the governor speed setting accordingly, and the unit will gradually reduce its speed as load is applied. This relationship between load and speed acts as a resistance to load changes when the unit is interconnected with other units either mechanically or electrically. As droop is reduced toward zero the unit becomes able to change load without changing speed. As a general rule, units running alone should be set on zero droop, interconnected units should be run at the lowest droop setting that will give satisfactory load division. A.C. generating units tied in with other units should have droop set sufficiently high (30 to 50 on the dial) to prevent interchange of load between units. If one unit in the plant, or system, has enough capacity, its governor may be set on zero droop and it will regulate the frequency of the entire system. This unit will take all the load changes within the limits of its capacity and will control frequency if its capacity is not exceeded.
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The system frequency is adjusted by operating the synchronizer of the governor having zero droop. The distribution of load between units is accomplished by operating the synchronizers of the governors having speed droop. THE LOAD LIMIT - The load limit control hydraulically limits the load that can be put on the engine by restricting the angular terminal shaft rotation of the governor, and consequently, the quantity of fuel supplied to the engine. The control may also be used for shutting down the engine by turning it to zero. CAUTION: Do not manually force engine linkage to increase fuel without first turning load limit knob to 10. INSTALLATION - When the governor is installed on the engine, particular care should be exercised to see that it is mounted squarely and that the drive connection to the engine is aligned properly. A gasket should be placed between the base of the governor and the mounting pad on the engine. If the governor is equipped with a serrated drive shaft, it should slip into the internal serrations of the drive freely enough to drop into place of its own weight. CAUTION: Do not drop or rest the governor on its drive shaft. If a keyed type governor drive shaft is used, the gear placed on this shaft should be checked to insure that it is meshing properly. There should be neither excessive backlash nor binding. Irregularities caused by uneven gear teeth, shaft runout, etc. will be picked up by the governor, transmitted to the fuel control system, and will result in erratic governing. Since the load limit device operates hydraulically rather than mechanically, the load indicating pointer position cannot be changed by turning the load limit control unless the governor is running (or has oil pressure in its accumulators). When installing the governor, turn the load limit knob to 10 before rotating the terminal shaft with a lever to obtain no fuel (zero load) position. The linkage from the governor terminal shaft to the fuel control system should be free from lost motion or excessive friction. It is often desirable to install a light spring acting to decrease fuel for the purpose of taking up lost motion due to wear. Avoid exceeding the working capacity of the governor by using too strong a spring. OIL SPECIFICATIONS - Proper selection of the oil used in the governor is necessary to realize best governor performance and longest service life. The oil should have a minimum tendency to foam, retain air, form sludge, or deposit varnish. It should protect governor parts from corrosion, and not be detrimental to seals or paint. Synthetic oils are not usually recommended. The oil selected should have a high viscosity index; the viscosity should be within the range of 100 to 200 Saybolt Universal Seconds at normal operating temperatures. Usually, if the average operating temperature of the governor oil is below 1200F., S.A.E. 10 oil is satisfactory; if between 1200F. and 1400F., S.A.E. 20 oil- from 1400F. to 1600F., S.A.E. 30 oil; between 1600F. and 1800F., S.A.E. 40; and above 1800F., S.A.E. 50 oil. The oil in the engine may be used in the governor if it meets these requirements.
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Oil contamination is the major cause of governor troubles. Use only new oil or filtered oil. Containers used for governor oil must be clean, and should be rinsed with a light grade of the same oil before being used. Anytime the governor oil appears to be dirty or breaking down from contaminants or excessive temperatures, drain the governor while it is hot, flush with the lightest grade of the same oil, and refill with fresh oil Should a solvent be used to clean the governor, it must be a type which does not damage oil seals or gaskets. Solvents contaminate governor oil and must be completely flushed out before the governor is filled with fresh oil STARTING ENGINE - When starting the engine, set the load limit (fuel limit) at 5 on the dial. This prevents the engine from getting excessive fuel and accelerating too rapidly. After the engine has warmed up, turn the load limit to 10. By means of the synchronizer adjust engine to its normal speed. Experience will determine if it is necessary to further limit the fuel on future starts. COMPENSATING ADJUSTMENTS - Although the governor may appear to be operating satisfactorily because the engine runs at constant speed (without load) the governor still may not be adjusted correctly. High overspeeds and underspeeds after load changes and slow return to normal speed are results of incorrect compensation adjustments. After the temperature of the engine and the oil in the governor have reached their normal operating values, make the following compensating adjustments without load on the engine to be certain that the governor gives optimum control: 1. Loosen the nut holding the compensation adjusting pointer and set the pointer at its extreme upward position (maximum compensation). See Fig. 1. 2. Remove the plug and open (unscrew) the compensating needle valve three or more turns with a screwdriver. Be sure that the screwdriver fits into the shallow slot of the compensating needle valve and not into the deep slot located at right angles to the shallow screwdriver slot. Allow the engine to hunt or surge for about one-half minute to bleed trapped air from the governor oil passages. 3. Loosen the nut holding the compensating adjusting pointer and set the pointer at the extreme downward position (minimum compensation). Gradually close needle valve until hunting just stops. Do not go beyond this position. Now check the amount of needle valve opening by dosing the valve completely, noting the amount of a full rum required to close. Open the valve to the previously determined opening at which hunting stopped. Test compensating adjustments by manually disturbing engine speed. If the engine speed settles out properly and the needle valve is more than 1/8 rum open in a governor having but one compensating spring or more than 3/8 turn open in governors with two compensating springs, the adjustments are satisfactory and steps (4), (5), and (6) may be ignored.
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FIGURE 1 4. If hunting did not stop with the needle valve at the minimum openings given in step (3), raise the compensating pointer two divisions of the scale. Open the needle valve again and allow the engine to hunt. 5. Repeat instruction (3) 6. If necessary, repeat (3), (4), and (5) until adjustment is satisfactory. Desirable opening of the needle is from 1/8 to 1/4 turn on governors with one compensating spring and from to turn on governors with two compensating springs.
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7. It is desirable to have as little compensation as possible. Closing the needle valve farther than necessary will make the governor slow to return to normal speed after a load change. Excessive dashpot plunger travel caused by adjustment of the compensation adjusting pointer too far toward maximum position will cause excessive speed change upon load change. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM - The schematic diagram shows a UGS dial control governor without auxiliary equipment. A differential type of servomotor is used in this governor. There is always full accumulator oil pressure on the top area of the power piston (regardless of pilot valve position) which will turn the terminal shaft in the direction to shut off fuel if there is no pressure (or low enough pressure) on the bottom area of the piston. The pilot valve will supply this same oil pressure to the bottom area of the power piston if the valve is moved down. Due to the difference of areas on the top and bottom of the piston a greater force on the bottom will then overcome the force on the top side and will move the piston turning the terminal shaft in the direction to increase fuel. If the pilot valve is moved up the area under the piston is opened to sump, reducing the force exerted on the bottom of the piston. The force exerted by the oil pressure on the top will then be greater and will move the piston, turning the terminal shaft in the direction to decrease fuel. The spring under the pilot valve supports the weight of the pilot valve, floating lever,,etc., and has no effect in the operation of the governor. The spring above the compensating actuating piston acts to eliminate lost motion in the compensating linkage and has no effect in the normal operation of the governor.
FIGURE 2 - WIRING DIAGRAM FOR SYNCHROZING MOTOR
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FIGURE 3
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DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION - The photographs showing operation of the governor, Fig. 4 to 10 inclusive, have been simplified by removing the top cover, panel, load limit mechanism, and load indicating mechanism. In addition, the synchronizer or speed adjusting mechanism has been simplified. Speed changes as a result of load changes have been considered, but the same sequence of governor movements would occur if a difference between actual governor speed and governor speed setting is produced by turning the synchronizer adjusting knob (Speed Adjustment). Movements of the operating parts of the governor are actually proportional to the amount of speed change, but have been greatly exaggerated in the photographs to make them more visible.
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FIGURE 4 1. Engie is running at normal speed under steady load 2. FLYBALLS, SPEEDER ROD, PILOT VALVE PLUNGER, and RECEIVER COMPENSATION PISTON are in normal positions; REGULATING PORT in PILOTING VALVE BUSHING is covered by land on PILOT VALVE PLUNGER. 3. POWER PISTON nd TERMINAL SHAFT are stationary.
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FIGURE 5 LOAD REDUCTION 1. Load is decreased and speed increased. 2. As speed increases, FLYBALLS move out raising SPEEDER ROD and inner end of FLOATING LEVER, thus raising PILOT VALVE PLUNGER and uncovering REGULATING PORT in PILOT VALVE BUSHING. 3. Uncovering of REGULATING PORT opens bottom of POWER CYLINDER to sump and will allow oil pressure in top of POWER CYLINDER to move POWER PISTON down.
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FIGURE 6 1. Oil pressure moves POWER PISTON down rotating TERMINAL SHAFT in the direction to decrease fuel. 2. As POWER PISTON moves down, ACTUATING COMPENSATING PISTON moves up and drawes RECEIVING COMPENSATING PISTON down compressing COMPENSATING SRRING and lowering outer end of FLOATING LEVER and PILOT VALVE PLUNGER. 3. Movement of POWER PISTON, ACTUATING COMPENSATING PISTON, RECEIVING COMPENSATING PISTON and PILOT VALVE PLUNGER continues until REGULATING PORT in BUSHING is covered by land on PLUNGER. 4. As soon as REGULATING PORT is covered, POWER PISTON and TERMINAL SHAFT are stopped at a position corresponding to decreased fuel needed to run engine at normal speed under decreased load.
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FIGURE 7 1. As speed decreases to normal, FLYBALLS return to normal position lowering SPEEDER ROD to normal position. 2. RECEIVING AND COMPENSATING PISTON is returned to normal position by COMPENSATING SPRING at the same rate as SPPEDER ROD thus keeping REGULATING PORT in PILOT VALVE BUSHING covered by land on PILOT VALVE PLUNGER; flow of oil through COMPENSTING NEEDLE VALVE determines rate at which RECEIVING COMPENSATING PISTON is returned to noraml. 3. At completion of cycle, FLYBALLS, SPEEDER ROD, PILOT VALVE PLUNGER, and RECEIVING COMPENSATING PISTON are in normal positions; POWER PISTON
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and TERMINAL SHAFT are stationary at a position corresponding to decreased fuel necessary to run engine at normal speed under decreased load.
FIGURE 8 LOAD INCREASE 1. Load in increased and decreases. 2. As speed decreases, FLYBALLS move in lowering SPEEDER ROD and inner end of FLOATING LEVER, thus lowering PILOT VALVE PLUNGER and uncovering regulating port of PILOT VALVE BUSHING.
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3. Uncovering of REGULATING PORT admits pressure oil to bottom of POWER CYLINDER; since bottom area of POWER PISTON is greater than top area, oil pressure will move PISTON up.
FIGURE 9 1. Oil pressure moves POWER PISTON up and rotates TERMINAL SHAFT in direction to increase fuel. 2. As POWER PISTON moves up, ACTUATING COMPENSATING PISTON moves down and forces end of FLOATING LEVER and PILOT VALVE PLUNGER. 3. Movement of POWER PISTON, ACTUATING COMPENSATING PISTON, RECEIVING COMPENSATING PISTON, and PILOT VALVE PLUNGER continues until REGULATING PORT in PILOT VALVE BUSHING is covered by land on PLUNGER.
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4. As soon as REGULATING PORT is covered, POWEER PISTON and TERMINAL SHAFT are stopped as a position corresponding to increased fuel needed to run engine at normal speed increased load.
FIGURE 10 1. As speed increases to normal, FLYBALLS return to normal position raising SPEEDER ROD to normal position. 2. RECEIVING COMPENSATING PISTON is returned to normal position by COMPENSATING SPRING at the same rate as SPEEDER ROD thus keeping REGULATING PORT in PILOT VALVE BUSHING covered by land on PILOT VALVE PLUNGER; flow of oil through COMPENSATING NEEDLE VALVE determines rate at which RECEIVING COMPENSATING PISTON is returned to normal.
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3. At compleation of cycle, FLYBALLS, SPEEDER ROD PILOT VALVE PLUNGER, and RECEIVING COMPENSATING PISTON are in normal position; POWER PISTON and TERMINAL SHAFT are stationary at a position corresponding to increased fuel necessary to run engine at normal speed under increased load.
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OUTLINE DRAWING OF TYPICAL UG 8 DIAL CONTROL GOVERNOR
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VARIABLE SPEED OIL PRESSURE GOVERNOR WITH SELF CONTAINED OIL PUMP AND ACCUMULATORS. SPEED RANGE APPROXIMATELY 2.2:1 RATION UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIALLY ORDERED. CAPACITY: 8FT LBS (WORK) IN EITHER DIRECTION THROUGH TERMINAL SHAFT ROTATION JOF 42 THROUGH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SERVOMOTOR. OCCASIONALLY DESIGN REQUIREMENTS NECESSITATE REDUCING THE CAPACITY TO 4FT. LBS. HEIGHT: 50 LBS APPROXIMATE WITHOUT AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT. POWER: APPROXIMATELY 1/10 H.P REQUIRED AT DRIVE SHAFT.
STANDARD FEATURES 1. SPEED DROOP ADJUSTABLE BY KNOB FOR ISOCHRONOUS OPERATION OR ANY SPEED DROOP UP TO 75 RPM FOR FULL GOVERNOR STROKE (PROPORTIONATELY LESS FOR SHORTER STROKE). 2. SPEED ADJUSTMENT SPEED MAY BE ADJUSTED BY KNOB WITH GOVERNOR RUNNING. FIXED STOPS LIMIMT SPEED RNAGE. 3. LOAD LIMIT MANIALLY CONTROLLED BY KNOB FROM FRONT OF GOVERNOR, MAY BE USED AS MANUAL SHUTDOWN. 4. LOAD INDICATOR PROVIDED ON PANEL 5. COMPENSTING ADJUSTMENT AND COMPENSATING NEEDLE VALVE EXTERNALLY CONTROLLED. 6. SIGHT OIL GAUGE AN OIL CUP FULLER PERMITS ADDOING OIL IN FIELD AS REQUIRED. 7. DRIVE SHAFT SPEED RANGE 375-1500 RPM. DRIVE IS VERICAL (FROM BELOW) AND MAY ROTATE EITHER WAY. A BUILT-IN SPRING DRIVE IS PROVIDED. AUXILIARY AND OPTIONAL FEATURES; SYNCHRONIZING MOTOR OTHER EQUIPMEMT FURNISHED TO ORDER. INFORMATION AND PARTS REPLACEMENT - When requesting information concerning governor operation and maintenance or ordering replacements parts, it is very essential that the following information accompany the request: 1. Governor serial number (shown on governor nameplate); this is needed since the bulletin part numbers shown do not identify the exact part number required for any one governor. 2. Bulletin number. This is bulletin No. 03004. 3. Part number, name of part, or description of part. OIL CHANGES - See Oil Specifications at beginning of the chapter. The governor oil should be clean and free of foreign particles. Under favorable conditions, the oil may be used for
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approximately six months without changing. If the governor does not operate properly, dirty oil may be the cause of the trouble. To change the oil, take off the top cover, remove the governor from the engine, drain by turning upside down, and flush thoroughly with clean light grade fuel oil to remove any foreign matter. The friction cover may fall out, if loose, but no other parts of the governor will come out unless intentionally disassembled. Drain thoroughly and refill with clean governor oil. Follow the above procedure whenever the governor is removed from the engine. If it is not possible to shut down long enough to remove the governor from the engine, drain the oil from the governors fill with clean light grade fuel oil, run for approximately thirty seconds with the Needle Valve open, drain, and refill with clean governor oil. If the Governor is stored, it should be filled with oil. WORK REQUIREMENTS - It is suggested that the best mechanic available (preferably one experienced with small parts assembly) be permanently assigned to all governor repair work. Cleanliness of tools and workspace is essential. A workbench, vise, arbor press, speed lathe, airline, and containers for cleaning solvents should be provided if possible. The usual small hand tools are required, and a few special Woodward governor tools are desirable if subassemblies are to be disassembled. GENERAL INSTRUCTION - The governor consists of seven main subassemblies; A, top cover; B, panel; C, case; D, ballhead; E, controlet; F, base; and G, drive shaft. If the governor is to be completely disassembled it should be taken apart in order: A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. If only a part of the governor is to be repaired or adjusted, refer to the particular instruction for that work only, and considerable time and work may be eliminated. No force is required to separate or reassemble the governor into its subassemblies. Connecting pins are slip fit and should not be marred with plier jams.
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QMED DISASSEMBLY OF MAIN SUBASSEMBLIES: A. TOP COVER (SEE FIG. 1) 1. Remove cover screws and washers, and lift off.
GOVERNORS
FIGURE 1
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FIGURE 12 B. PANEL (SEE FIG 1 AND 12) 1. Drain governor oil by inverting governor, flush with fuel oil and drain again. 2. Turn speed droop knob to zero. 3. Turn synchronizer knob clockwise until it stops. (High Speed Position). 4. Set load limit knob at 10. 5. Rotate terminal shaft with special wrench or linkage lever to set load indicator. Pointer to 8.5 approximately. When rotating terminal shaft lever downward, push down on load limit strap to release trapped oil. See Fig. 14 for location of strap. 6. Remove screens and take dial plate off.
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7. Scratch mark position of load indicator pointer disk on side of panel boss. This is the 8.5 position. (See Fig. 12) 8. Unhook speed droop spring, either end. 9. Remove speed droop pin. 10. Push speed droop adjusting lever back slightly and lift up speed droop lever releasing speeder spring tension. (Fig. 13) Do not turn speed droop lever and screw now or later in the work; it will change the maximum or minimum speed adjustment limit of the governor.
FIGURE 13 11. Remove eight panel screws and washers.
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12. Tap panel with plastic hammer or wood block to break loose from case, if necessary. 13. Lift load Limit Strap and pull out bottom of panel approximately . Rotate terminal shaft as shown by arrow to get power lever down out of the way. (Fig. 14)
FIGURE 14
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Hold up speed droop lever and push bottom of panel in, and top of panel out. (Fig. 15.)
14. Insert medium size screw driver in upper coils of speeder spring, press down on spring, and turn top of spring into space. Remove spring. 15. Lift up load limit strap again and remove panel turning sideways if necessary to clear other parts.
FIGURE 15
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C. CASE 1. Remove cotter and pull out power link pin Figure 16. 2. Remove center and push out compensating link pin with bent wire or hook scriber. 3. Invert governor on bench (no parts will fall out). Remove the four outside nuts. 4. Hold case and base together and set governor upright. It may be necessary to tap case lightly to break gasket joint loose.
FIGURE 16
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FIGURE 17
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2. Lift up inner end of floating lever, push down on rod end with screwdriver, slip lever backwards releasing lever from rod end pin. (Fig. 18.) 3. Remove lever. Lift out ballhead assembly.
FIGURE 18
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FIGURE 19 F. BASE 1. Clamp base inverted in vise, cut lock wire and remove three screws and retainer plate. (Fig. 20.) 2. Pull out drive shaft assembly, oil seal retainer, and remove seal gasket in bearing bore. 3. If ground surface of base is not perfectly flat, has deep scratches, or is grooved from the pump gears, it must be resurfaced. Drive out dowel pins and surface grind not more than .010 or, if not possible to surface grind, lap smooth on a flat plate.
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FIGURE 20 G. Drive Shaft 1. Pull off oil seal retainer if on shaft. 2. Remove snap ring if used. See Fig. 21. 3. Press drive shaft out of bearing.
FIGURE 21
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MAXIMUM OR MINIMUM SPEED LIMIT ADJUSTMENT 1. This adjustment may be made with the engine running. Remove dial plate, (Fig. 1.) Turn synchronizer to run engine at high maximum or low minimum speed desired. 2. Remove synchronizer indicator knob. The knob may be taper pinned to the shaft in addition to having a setscrew. (See Fig. 22.) 3. Pull gear out of mesh; turn clockwise until gear pin contacts idler gear for setting high speed stop. Turn counter-clockwise until gear pin contacts idler gear for setting low speed stop. 4. Pointer disc may be carefully pried off and reset if necessary. Insert screwdriver inside governor to back up shaft when reinstalling.
FIGURE 22 SYNCHRONIZING MOTOR - If governor fails to respond to the control switch on switchboard, it may be due to any of the following causes: 1. Low voltage. 2. Short in wiring. 3. Friction drive not properly adjusted. See adjustment procedure below.
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4. Motor shaft drive pin slipping out of slot in friction drive cover. Invert cover over a bushing, place a 3/8 steel ball over center hole and strike sharply with hammer to increase crown of cover. 5. Dial plate binding dials or discs. 6. Motor shaft not linking up with friction drive cover. Loosen motor mounting screws and reposition motor. ADJUSTMENT OF FRICTION COUPLING -This coupling must be tight enough to avoid a speed adjustment change due to vibration, and also tight enough to enable the synchronizing motor, if used, to turn the speed adjusting gear. Do not tighten so that the speed cannot be adjusted manually by turning the synchronizer knob. The friction of the coupling may be increased by removing the cover from the governor, prying the drive cover out of the coupling and turning the nut on the shaft clockwise while holding the speed adjusting knob. If the special nut turns too freely, replace it with a new one. (See Fig. 22.)
FIGURE 22
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FIGURE 23 ZERO SPEED DROOP ADJUSTMENT - Full 42o rotation of the governor terminal shaft should cause no vertical movement of the speed adjusting gear (that is, no change of governor speed setting) if the speed droop adjusting knob is set on zero. Since perfect adjustment is impractical .002 movement of the gear is allowable. A dial indicator as shown in Fig. 23 is used in the factory to measure the speed adjusting gear movement. Turn speed droop zero adjustment screw counterclockwise to reduce movement of gear. (See Fig. 24.) COMPENSATING SPRING ADJUSTMENT: 1. Make disassemblies A, B, C and D. 2. Remove compensating needle valve plug and open compensating needle valve four or five full turns. (Fig. 25.) 3. Plunge assembly into solvent. Move compensating link up and down several times to Rush out oil. Blow out controlet and base assemblies with air hose. 4. Remove dashpot cover. (See Fig. 17.)
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5. Unlock rod end and lock nut. Use floating lever for wrench on rod end. (Fig. 25.) Remove rod end. Unscrew lock nut to make clearance between nut and spring collar when nut is lifted. (Fig. 26.) Replace rod end.
FIGURE 25
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FIGURE 26
FIGURE 27
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6. Measure precompression (Fig. 27.) With the weight of the compensating receiving piston supported by the upper spring collar, the top surface of the collar should be from .000 to .005" above the machined face of the controlet. A special Woodward gaging tool is available for checking this "Precompression" dimension. Shims are used between the spring and the upper spring collar to make corrections in this dimension, if necessary. Do not change the amount of precompression unless instructions given in Compensation Adjustments, Installation, and Oil Specifications, Part One, and Oil Changes, Part Two, have been followed and operation is still not satisfactory. After once being set for the particular engine and load characteristics, the setting should not be changed. Operating troubles are usually caused by some other factor. 7. Tighten nut on piston stem until upper spring collar becomes exactly flush with machined surface. Sight over top as shown in Fig. 28 while making this adjustment. 8. Replace rod end and lock to nut using floating lever as a rod end wrench. Do not disturb flush adjustment 9. .Replace dashpot cover. 10. Test for lost motion by very delicately moving the rod end up and down with the fingertips (Fig. 29.) No end play or lost motion allowed. (Use no force. The compensating spring will be compressed and the test will be worthless.) 11. If lost motion is felt, it indicates the upper spring collar is not flush with the machined surface as shown in Fig. 28.
FIGURE 28
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FIGURE 29 PILOT VALVE ADJUSTMENT: 6. Make disassemblies A, B, and C. 7. Remove pipe plug in passage to control port, (Fig. 30.) Use flashlight to inspect port opening. 8. Pushdown on speeder rod, (Fig. 31.) This will move flyballs to inner position. Note amount of port opening. 9. Continue pushing down on speeder rod and move flyballs to outer position raising the pilot valve land, (Fig. 32.) Note amount of port opening. 10. The amount of opening for inner and outer positions of the flyballs should be the same and should be correct to within .005. 11. If the pilot valve land needs to be raised, turn speeder rod nut clockwise and vice versa. Recheck adjustment. 12. Replace pipe plug.
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Figure 31
FIGURE 32
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GENERAL REPAIR INSTRUCTIONS - Most of the repair work consists of cleaning and polishing of the governor parts. All pistons, plungers, valves, and rods should move freely without bind or catching. The small dashpot piston and its spring collars frequently give trouble from this cause. Use three-cornered scraper to break milled slot and bored hole edges. Do not lap in parts if possible to free up by other means. Be extremely careful when polishing the pilot valve plunger land; broken corners on the Ian will ruin this part. Leave corners sharp. DIAL PANEL LEAKAGE - If oil is visible at the dial panel, remove the dial plate and tighten the panel screws. If this does not eliminate the leak, inspect the load limit oil seal (See Instructions and Fig. 33) and the oil gauge. The panel oil seals seldom leak, do not replace them unless necessary. OIL SEALS - If necessary to add a small quantity of oil to the governor more ofter than once a week, all of the oil seals should be inspected for leakage. If there is no external indication of a leak, the drive shaft oil seal has been worn or damaged, allowing oil to leak from the governor into the engine housing. See instructions below. DRIVE SHAFT OIL SEAL AND DRIVE SHAFT BEARING: 6. Make disassembly A-1. Drain oil out of governor, flush and invert. 7. Make disassembly F-l and 2 and G-1. (Fig.20.) 8. Replace oil seal with lip towards chamfered end of oil seal retainer. 9. Inspect drive bearing for wear and freeness of rotation and the shaft for wear from oil seal. Polish or replace if necessary. Remove snap ring if used. Press bearing off shaft and replace if worn or rough turning. 10. Replace bearing and snap ring if used. Insert oil seal and retainer on shaft, using special care not to damage leather lip of oil seal. LOAD LIMIT OIL SEAL - This seal is of the refrigerator type and depends on perfect contact between lapped surfaces, in addition to the synthetic rubber ring seal on the shaft. (Fig. 33.) 6. Loosen set screw and drive out the 6/0 taper pin. 7. Remove knob and spring. 8. Inspect surfaces of bronze washer and end of load indicating shaft. Lap together, if necessary. 9. Inspect synthetic rubber seal washer for snug fit on shaft. Replace if necessary. 10. If reason for leakage is not obvious, stretch load limit seal spring to increase sealing pressures. 11. Reassemble. CAUTION: Be sure taper pin holes are not 180o off when driving taper pin.
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FIGURE 33 ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTION - A few precautions must be taken when reassembling the governor. I. Do not drop or rest governor on its drive shaft. II. Assembly of Drive Shaft Assembly to Base Assembly. 1. Be certain that the vellumoid gasket is in place in the bearing bore between the shoulder and the oil seal retainer. Use new gasket if it appears to be reduced in thickness (Fig. 20.) 2. Do not press the drive shaft assembly into the bore of the base with an arbor press. 3. Avoid tightening the retainer plate screws too much; it is not necessary, and may bend the plate. There should be 1/8 space between the plate and the boss. III. Assembly of Controlet Assembly and Base Assembly.
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1. Check all pistons and plungers for free movement in bores. Do not lap in if it is possible to free up by removing burrs. 2. Do not shellac the gasket between the base and controlet. If the old gasket is damaged or less then .0025 thick, replace it with a new one. (See Fig. 19.) Inspect controlet surface for scratches, nicks, dirt, particles, etc. Coat controlet surface with oil, place gasket on controlet (if used), space it evenly around bores for pump gears, place 3/16" or 1/4" diameter ball on gasket at pin holes and tap the ball to cut out for dowel pins.
FIGURE 34 NOTE:
FIGURE 35
A gasket is not used if controlet has an oil groove. (See Fig. 19.)
3. The pilot valve bushing, pilot valve, pilot valve spring, and spring tip must be in place before setting on the base. 4. Clamp controlet lightly in vise (inverted), place base assembly, (Fig. 19), and turn drive shaft to cause lug on shaft to drop into slot in pilot valve bushing, (Fig. 34.) 5. Place and tighten nuts. Use cylinder head method for drawing down. Do not exert too much force; the threads may strip 6. Turn drive shaft. If not free, it must be aligned by loosening nuts and striking at corners of base with plastic or light babbit hammer until shaft turns free, (Fig. 35.) IV. Assembly of Ballhead and Controlet. 1. Place ballhead assembly in controlet. Slide floating lever on speeder rod pin, press down on rod end, and slip lever on rod endpin, straddling pilot valve. (Fig. 18.) Insert pilot valve pin, (Fig. 17.) If it will-not enter easily, turn pilot valve 180o and try again. Do not cotter yet. 2. Test for free action of floating lever.
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a. Push down lightly on speeder rod. b. Move one flyball through full travel several times. (Fig. 36.) c. Press down V4' approximately on rod end, and move flyballs through full travel. (Fig. 37.) d. Lift rod end approximately and move flyball through full travel. (Fig. 38.) 3. If floating lever is not perfectly free under any of the conditions under 2, it will be necessary to try various arrangements of positions of the speeder rod pilot valve, rod end, and floating lever. e. Invert floating lever and test. f. If unsatisfactory, turn pilot valve 180o, and test. g. If still unsatisfactory, try turning rod end or speeder rod 180o, or invert floating lever again. h. Continue with combinations of positions of the parts until free action is obtained. 4. Insert cotter pin through pilot valve pin and secure. 5. Check piilot valve adjustment and remove temporary dashpot assembly pin if in large dashpot link hole.
FIGURE 36
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FIGURE 37 V. Assembly of Panel Assembly to Governor. 6. Reinstall speeder spring. 7. Check to see that load indicator pointer is on 8.5 mark of panel boss, (Fig. 12.) This may have been accidentally changed at some time during the assembly work. 8. Use special wrench or linkage lever to rotate terminal shaft and power lever prong down. Turn drive shaft to re-mesh ball head gears if necessary. 9. Insert panel. Push up on bottom of load limit strap to get bottom of panel in, (Fig. 39.) 10. Insert speeder spring into place while lifting up speed droop lever, (Fig. 15.) 11. Rest bottom of strap on panel opening shelf. Keep bottom of panel out and top in against pad. 12. Rotate terminal shaft to raise power link prong to highest position. 13. Match panel outline to outline of pad on sides only. 14. Push panel on gently and rotate special wrench down very slowly a small amount until power link prong goes into slot of rack and panel contacts pad surface, (Fig. 40.) Secure with two panel screws.
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FIGURE 38
FIGURE 39
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15. Rotate terminal shaft once or twice with special wrench. If an oil film remains in controlet, it will be necessary to release pressure in power cylinder when rotating terminal shaft lever downward by pushing down on load limit strap. The load-indicating pointer must travel from 0 to 10. If it does not travel both ways, remove panel and try again, starting with 2. If the panel cannot easily be removed, push down on the rack, with a screwdriver or pull up with a hook until load indicator is at 8.5 position. (See Fig. 42 and Fig. 12.)
FIGURE 40 16. Press down on top of load limit strap. Spring load should be felt, but the strap should move down 3/16. If not, remove panel and try again starting with 2. 17. Secure panel with lock washers and screws. 18. Push down with speed droop lever as shown in Fig. 41. 19. Push speed droop adjusting lever back and turn speed droop lever down. 20. Install speed droop link pin, (Fig. 12.) 21. Install speed droop spring, (Fig. 12. 22. )Install dial plate. Turn knobs and rotate terminal shaft to be sure dial plate does not bind. If binding occurs, loosen dial plate screws and center dial plate or ream out holes with three corner scrapers.
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FIGURE 42
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Figure 42
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FIGURE 43
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FIGURE 44
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FIGURE 45
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STEAM SYSTEMS
BOILERS BOILERS
The function of a boiler in the steam cycle is to convert water into steam. Reliability in operating boilers and associated equipment is important for the power plant to operate at maximum efficiency. The complex design of boilers requires a high degree of technical knowledge and skill on the part of the fireroom personnel responsible for boiler operations. All engineers should have some knowledge of the principles of combustion, how combustion occurs in a boiler, and the combustion requirements for operating a boiler more efficiently. This section describes boilers commonly used in propulsion plants of steam-driven surface ships. This information is general in nature and does not relate to any one class of ship. For detailed information on the boilers in any particular ship, consult the manufacturer's technical manuals furnished with the boilers. Upon completion of this section, you will have the knowledge to be able to identify and understand boiler terminology, the basic types of boilers and their operating principles, interpret gauges and indicators that aid in monitoring operating parameters of boilers, and understand boiler construction. You should be able to identify the major parts of a boiler and its functions. Also, you will learn about safety precautions that must be observed during boiler light off. BOILER TERMINOLOGY - Before studying the types of boilers used in propulsion plants you need to know the boiler terms and definitions used most frequently by shipboard personnel. In this section we have listed some of the terms used by fireroom personnel on the job. It is not an all-inclusive list, but it will help form a basis for your understanding of the information presented on boilers. Fireroom - The fireroom is a compartment containing boilers and the operating station for firing the boilers. Boiler room - The boiler room is a compartment containing boilers but not containing the station for firing or operating the boiler. Main Machinery Room - The main machinery room is a compartment containing boilers and the station for firing or operating the boilers and main propulsion engines. Boiler Operating Station - The boiler operating station is a station from which a boiler or boilers are operated, applying particularly to the compartment from which the boilers are operated. Steaming Hours Steaming hours, is the time during which the boilers have fires lighted until fires are secured. Boiler Full-Power Capacity - Boiler full-power capacity is specified in the contract specifications of a ship. It is expressed as the number of pounds of steam generated per hour at the pressure and temperature required for all purposes to develop contract shaft hp of the ship divided by the number of boilers installed. Boiler full-power capacity is listed in the design data
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section of the manufacturer's technical manual for the boilers in each ship. It may be listed either as the capacity at full power or as the designed rate of actual evaporation per boiler at full power. Boiler Overload Capacity - Boiler overload capacity is specified in the design of the boiler. It is usually 120 percent of boiler full-power capacity, for either steaming rate or firing rate, as specified for the individual installation Superheater Outlet Pressure - Superheater outlet pressure is the actual pressure at the superheater outlet at any given time. Steam Drum Pressure - Steam drum pressure is the actual pressure carried in the boiler steam drum at any given time. Operating Pressure - Operating pressure is the constant pressure at which the boiler is being operated. This pressure may be carried at either the steam drum or the superheater outlet, depending on the design feature of the boiler. Operating pressure is specified in the manufacturer's technical manual. Design Pressure - Design pressure is the maximum pressure specified by the boiler manufacturer as a criterion for boiler design. Design pressure is not the same as operating pressure. It is somewhat higher than operating pressure. Design pressure is given in the manufacturer's technical manual for the particular boiler. Design Temperature - Design temperature is the maximum operating temperature at the superheater outlet at some specified rate of operation. For combatant ships the specified rate of operation is normally full-power capacity. Operating Temperature - Operating temperature is the actual temperature at the superheater outlet. Operating temperature is the same as design temperature ONLY when the boiler is operating at rate specified in the definition of design temperature. Boiler Efficiency - The efficiency of a boiler is the Btu's per pound of fuel absorbed by the water and steam divided by the Btu's per pound of fuel fired. In other words, boiler efficiency is output divided by input, or heat used divided by heat available. Boiler efficiency is expressed as a percent. Superheater Surface - The superheater surface is that portion of the total heating surface where the steam is heated after leaving the boiler steam drum. Economizer Surface - The economizer surface is that portion of the total heating surface where the feed water is heated before it enters the boiler steam drum. Total Heating Surface - The total heating surface area is the area of the generating, economizer, and superheater tube banks exposed in the boiler furnace. These tubes are that part of the heat transfer that exposes one side to combustion gases and the other side to the water or steam being heated.
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BOILER CLASSIFICATION - Boilers vary considerably in detail and design. Most boilers may be classified and described in terms of a few basic features or characteristics. Some knowledge of the methods of classification provides a useful basis for understanding the design and construction of the various types of boilers. In the following paragraphs, we have considered the classification of boilers according to intended service, location of fire and water spaces, type of circulation, arrangement of steam and water spaces, number of furnaces, burner location, furnace pressure, type of superheaters, control of superheat, and operating pressure. INTENDED SERVICE - A good place to begin in classifying boilers is to consider their intended service. By this method of classification, boilers are divided into two classes, PROPULSION BOILERS and AUXILIARY BOILERS. Propulsion boilers are used to provide steam for ships' propulsion and for vital auxiliaries' services. Auxiliary boilers are installed in diesel-driven ships and in many steam-driven combatant ships. They supply the steam and hot water for galley, heating, and other hotel services and for other auxiliary requirements in port. LOCATION OF FIRE AND WATER SPACES - One of the basic classifications of boilers is according to the relative location of the fire and water spaces. By this method of classification, boilers are divided into two classes, FIRE-TUBE BOILERS and WATER-TUBE BOILERS. In the fire-tube boilers, the gases of combustion flow through the tubes and thereby heat the water that surrounds the tubes. In water-tube boilers, the water flows through the tubes and is heated by the gases of combustion that fill the furnace and heat the outside metal surfaces of the tubes. All propulsion boilers used in ships are of the water-tube type. Auxiliary boilers may be either fire-tube or water-tube boilers. TYPE OF CIRCULATION - Water-tube boilers are further classified according to the method of water circulation. Water-tube boilers may be classified as NATURAL CIRCULATION BOILERS or FORCED CIRCULATION BOILERS. In natural circulation boilers, the circulation of water depends on the difference between the density of an ascending mixture of hot water and steam and a descending body of relatively cool and steam-free water. The difference in density occurs because the water expands as it is heated, and thus, becomes less dense. Another way to describe natural circulation is to say that it is caused by convection currents, which result from the uneven heating of the water contained in the boiler. Natural circulation may be either free or accelerated. In a boiler with free natural circulation, the generating tubes are installed almost horizontally, with only a slight incline toward the vertical. When the generating tubes are installed at a much greater angle of inclination, the rate of water circulation is definitely increased. Therefore, boilers in which the tubes slope quite steeply from steam drum to water drum are said to have natural circulation of the accelerated type. Most boilers are designed for accelerated natural circulation. In such boilers, large tubes (3 inches or more in diameter) are installed between the steam drum and the water drum. These
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large tubes, or DOWNCOMERS, are located outside the furnace and away from the heat of combustion. They serve as pathways for the downward flow of relatively cool water. When enough downcomers are installed, all small tubes can be generating tubes, carrying steam and water upward, and all downward flow can be carried by downcomers. The size and number of downcomers installed varies from one type of boiler to another, but downcomers are installed in all boilers. Forced circulation boilers are, as their name implies, quite different in design from the boilers that use natural circulation. Forced circulation boilers depend upon pumps, rather than upon natural differences in density, for the circulation of water within the boiler. Because forced circulation boilers are not limited by the requirements that hot water and steam must be allowed to flow upward while the cooler water flows downward, a great variety of arrangements may be found in forced circulation boilers. ARRANGEMENT OF STEAM AND WATER SPACES - Natural circulation water-tube boilers are classified as DRUM-TYPE BOILERS or HEADER TYPE BOILERS, depending on the arrangement of the steam and water spaces. Drum-type boilers have one or more water drums (and usually one or more water headers as well). Header-type boilers have no water drum; instead, the tubes enter many headers, which serve the same purpose as water drums. What is a header, and what is the difference between a header and a drum? The term header is commonly used in engineering to describe any tube, chamber, drum, or similar piece to which tubes or pipes are connected in such a way as to permit the flow of fluid from one tube (or group of tubes) to another. Essentially, a header is a type of manifold or collection point. As far as boilers are concerned, the only distinction between a drum and a header is size. Drums may be entered by a person while headers cannot. Both serve basically the same purpose. Drum-type boilers are further classified according to the overall shape formed by the steam and water spaces that is, by the tubes. For example, double-furnace boilers are often called M-type boilers because the arrangement of the tubes is roughly M-shaped. Single-furnace boilers are often called D-type boilers because the tubes form a shape that looks like the letter D. NUMBER OF FURNACES - All boilers commonly used in the propulsion plants of ships may be classified as either SINGLE-FURNACE BOILERS or DOUBLE-FURNACE BOILERS. The D-type boiler is a single-furnace boiler; the M-type boiler is a double-furnace (divided-furnace) boiler. BURNER LOCATION - Boilers are also classified on the basis of where their burners are located. Most burners in propulsion plants are located at the front of the boiler. These are called FRONT-FIRED BOILERS. Other ships have their burners on the top of the boilers. These are called TOP-FIRED BOILERS. FURNACE PRESSURE - Another convenient boiler classification is based on the air pressure used in the furnace. Most boilers in use in propulsion plants operate with a slight air pressure (seldom over 5 psig) in the boiler furnace. This slight pressure is not enough to justify calling
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these boilers pressurized-furnace boilers. However, some boilers installed on ships are truly pressurized-furnace boilers. They are called PRESSURE-FIRED or SUPERCHARGED BOILERS. These furnaces are maintained under a positive air pressure of about 65 psia (about 50 psig) when operated at full power. Special air compressors called superchargers maintain the air pressure in these boiler furnaces. TYPE OF SUPERHEATERS - On almost all boilers used in the propulsion plants of ships, the superheater tubes are protected from radiant heat by water screen tubes. The water screen tubes absorb the intense radiant heat of the furnace, and the superheater tubes are heated by convection currents rather than by direct radiation. These superheaters are called CONVECTION-TYPE SUPERHEATERS. In a few older ships, the superheater tubes are not screened by water screen tubes but are exposed directly to the radiant heat of the furnace. Superheaters of this design are called RADIANT TYPE SUPERHEATERS. CONTROL OF SUPERHEAT - A boiler that provides some means of controlling the degree of superheat independently of the rate of steam generation is said to have CONTROLLED SUPERHEAT. A boiler in which such separate control is not possible is said to have UNCONTROLLED SUPERHEAT. Normally, the term superheat control boiler is used to identify a double-furnace boiler. The term uncontrolled superheat boiler is used to identify a single-furnace boiler. OPERATING PRESSURE - For some purposes, it is convenient to classify boilers according to operating pressure. Most classification of this type is approximate rather than exact. Headertype boilers and some older drum-type boilers are often called 400-PSI BOILERS even though their operating pressures range from about 435 psi to 700 psi. The term high-pressure boiler is at present used rather loosely to identify any boiler that operates at a substantially higher pressure than the so-called 600-PSI BOILERS. In general, we will consider any boiler that operates at 751 psi or above as a high-pressure boiler. Many boilers in ships operate at about 1200 psi. These boilers are referred to as 1200-PSI BOILERS. As you can see, classifying boilers by operating pressure is not very precise since actual operating pressure may vary widely within any one group. Also, any classification based on operating pressure may easily become obsolete. What is called a high-pressure boiler today may well be called a low-pressure boiler tomorrow. BOILER COMPONENTS - Boilers used onboard ships have essentially the same components: steam and water drums, generating and circulating tubes, superheaters, economizers, and accessories and fittings for controlling steam pressure and temperature and other aspects of boiler control and operation.
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Figure 1 shows a cutaway view of a D-type boiler. You should refer to this Figure as a guide to the arrangement of the boiler components. As we discuss the boiler and its components, imagine that you are assembling a similar boiler. As you add each part to your boiler, follow the line drawings introduced in the following paragraphs that describe the position of each component. STEAM (MUD) DRUM - The steam drum is a cylinder located at the top of the boiler. It runs lengthwise (Figure 1) from the front to the back of the boiler. The steam drum provides a space for the saturated steam generated in the tubes and for the separation of moisture from the steam. (Remember, saturated steam is steam that has not been heated above the temperature of the water from which it was generated). The steam drum also serves as a storage space for boiler water, which is distributed from the steam drum to the downcomer tubes. During normal operation, the steam drum is kept about half full of water. The steam drum either contains or is connected to many of the important controls and fittings required for the operation of the boiler.
FIGURE 1 CUTAWAY VIEW OF A D-TYPE BOILER
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At the bottom right side of the boiler you will find the water drum, and on the bottom left side is the sidewall header (Figure 2). Notice the header is smaller than the water drum. Most boilers have more than one header. They are identified by their location. For example, a header at the back of the boiler is called a rear wall header. A header on a screen wall is called a screen wall header. WATER DRUM - The water drum is larger than the header, but both are smaller than the steam drum. The water drum equalizes the distribution of water to the generating tubes. Both the water drum and the header collect the deposits of loose scale and other solid matter present in the boiler water. Both the drum and the header have bottom blowdown valves. When these valves are opened, some of the water is forced out of the drum or header and carries any loose particles with it. DO NOT OPEN THE BOTTOM BLOWDOWN VALVES ON A STEAMING BOILER. Opening these valves will interrupt the circulation of the steam cycle. DOWNCOMER TUBES - At each end of the steam drum are a number of large tubes (Figure 3) that lead to the water drum and sidewall header. These tubes are the downcomers through which water flows downward from the steam drum to the water drum and the header. The downcomers range in diameter from 3 to 8 inches.
FIGURE 2 STEAM DRUM, WATER DRUM AND HEADER
FIGURE 3 DOWNCOMMER TUBES
GENERATING TUBES - Many tubes link the steam drum to the water drum and to the header. The tubes that lead from the water drum to the steam drum are the generating tubes (Figure 4). They are arranged in the furnace so the gases and the heat of combustion can flow around them. The large arrows in Figure 4 show the direction of flow of the combustion gases.
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The generating tubes are made of steel that is strong enough to withstand the high pressures and temperatures within the boiler. In most boilers these tubes are usually 1 to 2 inches in diameter, but some may be 3 inches. These small tubes present a large surface area to absorb furnace heat. A 2-inch tube has twice the surface area of a 1-inch tube but four times the volume. A 3-inch tube has three times the surface area of a 1-inch tube but nine times the volume. The smaller the diameter of the tube, the higher is the ratio of absorption surface to the volume of water. Normally, only one row of tubes leads from the steam drum to the sidewall header. These are the sidewall (water wall) tubes. Their function is to cool and protect the sidewall of the furnace. So far, we have assembled the drums, header, downcomers, and generating tubes. Before going any further with the assembly, let us trace the path of the water through the boiler. As the water is heated, it becomes less dense, and steam is formed in the tubes. The water in the steam drum is much cooler than the steam and has greater density. As the hotter water and steam rise through the generating tubes, the cooler more dense water drops through the downcomers to the water drum and headers. The arrows in Figure 5 show the circulation path of the water as it leaves the steam drum and returns to the steam drum as steam. Notice - that the caption under Figure 5 states that it is an accelerated type. This is indicated by the inclination of the tubes. The tubes shown are almost vertical, the greater the incline, the greater the acceleration. So far, we have learned how the steam is formed in a boiler. Next, let's find out what happens to the steam once it returns to the steam drum from the generating tubes.
FIGURE 4 GENERATING TUBES AND FURNACE AREA
FIGURE 5 NATURAL CIRCULATION (ACCELERATED TYPE)
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INTERNAL FITTINGS - Components of the steam drum area are known as INTERNAL FITTINGS. The internal fittings we will discuss are the feedwater distribution, the chemical injection, and the steam and water separator. This equipment is used to direct the flow of steam and water within the steam drum and the desuperheaters, which are located either in the steam drum or the water drum. We will also discuss the economizer in this section. This component is not considered an internal fitting, but its role is important to the function of the steam drum. The design and arrangement of a steam drum's internal fittings will vary somewhat from one type of boiler to another and from one boiler manufacturer to another. Figure 6 shows the arrangement of the steam drum internal fittings in a single-furnace boiler. The feedwater pipe receives feedwater from the economizer and distributes it throughout the length of the steam drum. The chemical feed pipe is used to inject chemicals into the boiler to maintain the proper pH and phosphate balance in the boiler water. The surface blowpipe is used to remove suspended solid matter that floats on top of the water and to lower the steam drum water level, when necessary. The surface blowpipe is also used to blow water out to lower the chemical level in the boiler when it becomes too high. The dry pipe is used to direct the steam to the steam drum outlet nozzle after it leaves the scrubbers. The vortex eliminators are used to reduce the swirling motion of the water as it enters the downcomers. The baffle plates are used to direct the steam to the steam separators. The cyclone steam separators remove moisture from the steam. This is accomplished by the steam spinning or changing direction. The water drains back into the steam drum while the steam continues upward through a screen and scrubber that removes still more moisture.
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FIGURE 6 ARRANGEMENT OF INTERNAL FITTINGS IN A SINGLE-FURNACE BOILER
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After the steam leaves the scrubbers, it goes to the dry pipe (Figure 6). From there it leaves the steam drum through the steam drum outlet. Figure 7, view A, shows the steam going to the inlet header of the superheater and passing through the U-shaped tubes of the superheater to the next header (Figure 7, view B). This header is called the first pass or intermediate header. Steam may pass through the U-shaped tubes several times before passing to the outlet header. Each time the steam goes from one header to the next header it is called a pass. The number of passes the steam makes in a superheater varies with different boilers and the degree of superheat that is required for a particular ship. As the steam passes through the superheater tubes, it is heated by the hot gases from combustion, which flow around the tubes. In some boilers, the superheater headers are installed parallel with the water drum; and the tubes are installed vertically (Figure 8). These are called vertical superheaters. Another boiler internal fitting is the desuperheater. It maybe located either in the steam drum or in the water drum. All the steam generated in a single-furnace boiler is led through the superheater. However, since some auxiliary machinery is not designed for superheated steam, the steam must be cooled down. This is done with a desuperheater. The desuperheater gets steam from the superheater outlet, as shown in Figure 9. The desuperheater is submerged in water either in the steam drum or in the water drum. As the steam passes through the desuperheater, it is cooled for use in the auxiliary steam systems.
FIGURE 7 DIAGRAM OF A SUPERHEATER
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FIGURE 8 VERTICAL SUPERHEATER
FIGURE 9 RELATIVE POSITION OF DESUPERHEATER TUBES
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It is important that all internal fittings are properly installed and in good working condition. If excessive moisture is carried over into the superheater, serious damage will result in the superheater tubes, piping, and turbines. The economizer (Figure 10) is an arrangement of tubes installed in the uptake space from the furnace. The economizer tubes have metal projections from the outer tube surfaces. These projections are called by various names, including FINS, STUDS, RINGS, or GILL RINGS: They are made of aluminum, steel, or other metals, in a variety of shapes. These projections serve to extend the heat transfer surface of the tubes on which they are installed. Before entering the steam drum, all feedwater flows through the economizer tubes. The economizer tubes are heated by the rising gases of combustion. The feedwater is warmed or preheated by the combustion gases that would otherwise be wasted as they pass up the stack. In Figure 8 & 9 you can see that the economizer is positioned on top of the boiler. There it acts as a preheater.
FIGURE 10 SIDE VIEW OF AN ECONOMIZER FURNACE - The furnace, or firebox, is the large, room-like space where air and fuel are mixed for the combustion (fire) that heats the water in the drums, tubes, and headers.
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The furnace is more or less a rectangular steel casing that is lined on the floor and walls with refractory (heat-resisting) material. Refractory materials used in boilers include firebrick, insulating brick, insulating block, and air-setting mortar. Figure 11 shows a refractory-lined furnace.
FIGURE 11 REFRACTORY-LINED FURNACE The refractory lining protects the furnace steel casing and prevents the loss of heat from the furnace. The lining also retains heat for a relatively long time and helps to maintain the high furnace temperatures that are needed for complete fuel combustion. Combustion Air - a forced draft blower forces air into the furnace. The forced draft blower is a large volume fan that can be powered by an electric motor or a steam turbine. The forced draft blower blows air into the outer casing of the boiler (Figure 12). The air then travels between the inner casing and outer casing to the boiler front where it is forced into the furnace through the air registers. The air registers are part of the fuel-oil burner assembly that consists of four main parts: air doors, a diffuser, airfoils, and the atomizer assembly. Figure 13 shows a side view of a fuel-oil burner assembly.
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FIGURE 12 COMBUSTION AIR AND GAS FLOW AIR REGISTERS - The air entering the furnace through the air registers mixes with a fine fueloil spray through the atomizer. Figure 13 shows the arrangement of an air register in a fuel oil burner assembly. The air doors are used to open or close the register, as necessary. They are usually kept either fully opened or fully closed. When the air doors are open, air rushes in and is given a whirling motion by the diffuser plate. The diffuser plate causes the air to mix evenly with the atomized oil in such a way that the flame will not blow away from the atomizer (atomizers are discussed in the next paragraph). The airfoils guide the major quantity of air so it mixes with the larger particles of fuel oil spray beyond the diffuser. ATOMIZERS - Atomizers (devices for producing a fine spray) break up the fuel oil into very fine particles. In the following paragraphs we will briefly discuss the three types of atomizers. These three types are the return-flow atomizer, the steam-assist atomizer, and the vented-plunger atomizer. Return-Flow Atomizer- The return-flow atomizer provides a constant supply of fuel-oil pressure. Any fuel oil not needed to meet steam demand is returned to the fuel-oil service tank. The return control valve installed in the piping between the boiler front and the service tank
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accomplishes this. As the return control valve is closed, more fuel oil is forced through the sprayer plate into the furnace. The return-flow atomizer is shown in Figure 14.
FIGURE 13 FUEL OIL BURNER ASSEMBLY
FIGURE 14 RETURN FLOW ATOMIZER
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Steam-Assist Atomizer - The steam-assist atomizer employs 150 psi of steam mixed with the fuel oil to help atomize the fuel oil. The two most common steam-assist atomizers in use by the Navy are the TODD LVS (Figure 15) and the Y-Jet (Figure 16). All steam-assist atomizers must have low-pressure air hookup for use as a substitute when suitable auxiliary steam is not available.
FIGURE 15 TODD LVS ATOMIZER
FIGURE 16 Y-JET STEAM ATOMIZER Vented-Plunger Atomizer - The vented-plunger atomizer shown in Figure 17 is unique in that it is the only atomizer in use in the Navy that has moving parts. The fuel oil flows down the atomizer barrel and around the atomizer cartridge. The pressure in the barrel forces the fuel oil into the cartridge through the holes drilled in the cartridge. As the fuel is forced into the cartridge, it begins to spin. This motion forces the fuel out through the orifice in a fine mist. Increasing fuel-oil pressure in the atomizer barrel and cartridge will cause the piston to overcome the spring pressure. The piston is then forced back, uncovering more holes and allowing fuel to be atomized and forced into the furnace. As pressure decreases, the opposite occurs. The spring tension recalls the piston, covering the holes and allowing less fuel oil to be atomized.
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FIGURE 17 VENTED PLUNGER ATOMIZER Fire - In most boilers, a torch is used to light fires. However, some boilers may have electric igniters. We will describe the more common method lighting fires with a torch. Boiler light off is always a two-person operation. One person is needed to handle the torch, the air register, and the furnace, and the other to open the fuel-oil root valve. If fires do not light in 2 or 3 seconds, you must secure the fuel oil and investigate the reason for the failure to light. The boiler furnace must be inspected and repurged before the next attempt to light. The basic light-off procedure involves the following steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ensure that all fuel oil manifold and atomizer/safety shut-off valves are shut. Insert a clean atomizer with a lighting-off sprayer plate into the No. 1 burner. Adjust the combustion air and fuel oil pressures for lighting the fires. Ignite the lighting-off torch. Insert the lighted torch into the lighting-off port and close the port cover; visually check to ensure that the torch remains lighted. However, you should never insert a torch into a furnace until you are sure that no fuel is on the furnace deck and that the boiler has been purged of all combustible gases. 6. Open the No. 1 burner fuel-oil atomizer/ safety shut-off valve(s). 7. Open the No. 1 burner fuel-oil supply manifold valve one-half turn. 8. Observe the furnace through the No. 1 burner observation port to ensure that the ignition is successful. 9. Adjust the flame with the burner air register handle. 10. Open the No. 1 burner fuel-oil supply manifold to the fully open position. 11. Withdraw and extinguish the torch. For specific lighting-off instructions, always refer to your ship's Operating Manual, The following are a few simple suggestions to make your job easier and safer:
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Do not operate any valves or start equipment until you have permission from the Engineering Officer of the Watch, and always refer to the Operating Manual. Always clean up any spills or debris. Report to your supervisor any condition that you think may be abnormal. Do not be afraid to ask questions!
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BASIC STEAM CYCLE BASIC STEAM CYCLE

To understand steam generation, you must know what happens to the steam after it leaves the boiler. A good way to learn the steam plant on your ship is to trace the path of steam and water throughout its entire cycle of operation. In each cycle, the water and the steam flow through the entire system without ever being exposed to the atmosphere. The four areas of operation in a main steam system are generation, expansion, condensation, and feed. After studying this chapter, you will have the knowledge and ability to describe the main steam cycle and the functions of the auxiliary steam systems. MAIN STEAM SYSTEM - The movement of a ship through the water is the result of a number of energy transformations. Although these transformations were mentioned in the last chapter, we will now discuss these transformations as they occur. Figure 18 shows the four major areas of operation in the basic steam cycle and the ma or energy transformations that take place. These areas are A-generation, B-expansion, C-condensation, and D-feed. GENERATION-The first energy transformation occurs in the boiler furnace when fuel oil burns. The process of combustion transforms the chemical energy stored in the fuel oil, transformed into thermal energy. Thermal energy flows from the burning fuel to the water and generates steam. The thermal energy is now stored as internal energy in steam, as we can tell from the increased pressure and temperature of the steam. EXPANSION-When steam enters the turbines and expands, the thermal energy of the steam converts to mechanical energy, which turns the shaft and drives the ship. For the remainder of the cycle, energy is returned to the water (CONDENSATION and FEED) and back to the boiler where it is again heated and changed into steam. The energy used for this purpose is the thermal energy of the auxiliary steam. The following paragraphs will explain the four major areas of operation in the basic steam cycle shown in Figure 18. GENERATION - When a liquid boils, it generates a vapor. Some or all of the liquid changes its physical state from liquid to gas (or vapor). As long as the vapor is in contact with the liquid from which it is being generated, it remains at the same temperature as the boiling liquid. In this condition, the liquid and its vapors are in equilibrium contact with each other. Area A of Figure 1 shows the GENERATION area of the basic steam cycle. The temperature at which a boiling liquid and its vapors may exist in equilibrium contact depends on the pressure under which the process takes place. As the pressure increases, the boiling temperature increases. As the pressure decreases, the boiling temperature decreases. Determining the boiling point depends on the pressure.
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When a liquid is boiling and generating vapor, the liquid is a SATURATED LIQUID and the vapor is a SATURATED VAPOR. The temperature at which a liquid boils under a given pressure is the SATURATION TEMPERATURE, and the corresponding pressure is the SATURATION PRESSURE. Each pressure has a corresponding saturation temperature, and each temperature has a corresponding saturation pressure. A few saturation pressures and temperatures for water are as follows: Pounds Per Square Inch Absolute (psia) 11 14.7 110 340 630 1200 2000 3000 3206.2 Degrees Fahrenheit (F) 198 212 335 429 567 596 636 695 705.40
We know that atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia at sea level and lesser at higher altitudes. Boiling water on top of a mountain takes a lot longer than at sea level. Why is this? As noted before, temperature and pressure are indications of internal energy. Since we cannot raise the temperature of boiling water above the saturation temperature for that pressure, the internal energy available for boiling water is less at higher altitudes than at sea level. By the same lines of reasoning, you should be able to figure out why water boils faster in a pressure cooker than in an open kettle. A peculiar thing happens to water and steam at an absolute pressure of 3206.2 psia and the corresponding saturation temperature at 705.40F. At this point, the CRITICAL POINT, the vapor and liquid are indistinguishable. No change of state occurs when pressure increases above this point or when heat is added. At the critical point, we no longer refer to water or steam. At this point we cannot tell the water or, steam apart. Instead, we call the substance a fluid or a working substance. Boilers designed to operate at pressures and temperatures above the critical point are SUPERCRITICAL boilers. Supercritical boilers are not used, at present, in propulsion plants of ships; however, some boilers of this type are used in stationary steam power plants. If we generate steam by boiling water in an open pan at atmospheric pressure, the water and steam that is in immediate contact with the water will remain at 212F until all the water evaporates. If we fit an absolutely tight cover to the pan so no steam can escape while we continue to add heat, both the pressure and temperature inside the vessel will rise. The steam and water will both increase in temperature and pressure, and each fluid will be at the same temperature and pressure as the other. In operation, a boiler is neither an open vessel nor a closed vessel. It is a vessel designed with restricted openings allowing steam to escape at a uniform rate while feedwater is brought in at a uniform rate. Steam generation takes place in the boiler at constant pressure and constant
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temperature. Fluctuations in constant pressure and constant temperature are caused by changes in steam demands. We cannot raise the temperature of the steam in the steam drum above the temperature of the water from which it is being generated until the steam is removed from contact with the water inside the steam drum and then heated. Steam that has been heated above its saturation temperature at a given pressure is SUPERHEATED STEAM. The vessel in which the saturated steam is superheated is a SUPERHEATER. The amount by which the temperature of superheated steam exceeds the temperature of saturated steam at the same pressure is the DEGREE OF SUPERHEAT. For example, if saturated steam at 620 psia with a corresponding saturation temperature of 490F is superheated to 790F, the degree of superheat is 300F (790 - 490 = 300). Most propulsion boilers have superheaters. The primary advantage is that superheating steam provides a greater temperature differential between the boiler and the condenser. This allows more heat to be converted to work at the turbines. Another advantage is that superheated steam is dry and therefore causes relatively little corrosion or erosion of machinery and piping. Also, superheated steam does not conduct or lose heat as rapidly as saturated steam. The increased efficiency, which results from the use of superheated steam, reduces the fuel oil required to generate each pound of steam. It also reduces the space and weight requirements for the boilers. Most auxiliary machinery operates on saturated steam. Reciprocating machinery, in particular, requires saturated steam to lubricate internal moving parts of the steam end. Boilers, therefore, produce both saturated steam and superheated steam. EXPANSION - The EXPANSION area of the main steam system is that part of the basic steam cycle in which steam from the boilers to the main turbines is expanded. This removes the heat energy stored in the steam and transforms that energy into mechanical energy of rotation. The main turbines usually have a high-pressure (HP) turbine and a low-pressure (LP) turbine. The steam flows into the HP turbine and on into the LP turbine. Area B of Figure 18 shows the expansion area of the main steam system. This portion of the main steam system contains HP and LP turbines. CONDENSATION - Each ship must produce enough feedwater for the boilers and still maintain an efficient engineering plant. Therefore, feedwater is used over and over again. As the steam leaves or exhausts from the LP turbine, it enters the CONDENSATE system. The condensate system is that part of the steam cycle in which the steam is condensed back to water. Then it flows from the main condenser toward the boilers while it is being prepared for use as feedwater. The components of the condensate system are:
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(1) (2) (3) (4)
The main condenser, The main condensate pump, The main air ejector condenser, and The top half of the deaerating feed tank (DFT).
These components are shown in area C of Figure 18. The main condenser receives steam from the LP turbine. It condenses the steam into water. We will explain this process later. The main condensate pump takes suction from the main condenser hot well. It delivers the condensate into the condensate piping system and through the main air ejector condenser. As its name implies, the air ejector removes air and non-condensable gases from the main condenser that leak or are discharged into it during normal operation. The condensate is used as a cooling medium for condensing the steam in the inter- and aftercondensers of the main air ejector.
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FIGURE 18 BASIC STEAM CYCLE
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FEED - The DFT (DC Heater) (Figure 19) is the dividing line between condensate and feedwater. The condensate enters the DFT through the spray nozzles and turns into feedwater in the reservoir section of the DFT. The DFT has three basic functions: To remove dissolved oxygen and non-condensable gases from the condensate To preheat the water To act as a reservoir to store feedwater to take care of fluctuations in feedwater demand or condensate supply
FIGURE 19 DEAERATING FEED TANK The condensate enters the DFT through the condensate inlet. There it is sprayed into the dome of the tank by nozzles. It is discharged in a fine spray throughout the steam-filled top. The fine spray and heating of the condensate releases trapped air and oxygen. The gas-free condensate falls to the bottom of the tank through the water collecting cones, while the air and oxygen are exhausted from the tank vent.
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The collected condensate in the storage section of the DFT is now called feedwater and becomes a source of supply for the main feed booster pump. The main feed booster pump takes suction from the DFT and maintains a constant discharge pressure to the main feed pump. The main feed pump receives the water and discharges it into the main feed piping system. Area D of Figure 18 shows the path of the water from the DFT to the economizer. The discharge pressure of the main feed pump is maintained at 100 to 150 psig above boiler operating pressure on 600-psi plants. On 1200-psi plants, it is maintained at 200 to 300 psig above boiler operating pressure. The discharge pressure is maintained throughout the main feed piping system. However, the quantity of water discharged to the economizer is controlled by a feed stop and check valve or automatic feedwater regulator valve. The economizer is positioned on the boiler to perform one basic function. It acts as a preheater. The gases of combustion flow around the economizer tubes and metal projections that extend from the outer tube surfaces. The tubes and projections absorb some of the heat of combustion and heat the water that is flowing through the economizer tubes. As a result, the water is about 100F hotter as it flows out of the economizer to the boiler. LOW-PRESSURE FEEDWATER HEATERS - The classification (i.e., low pressure or high pressure) of feedwater heaters depends upon their location relative to the boiler feedwater pump; low-pressure heaters are located on the suction side of the main feed pump, whereas highpressure heaters are located on the discharge side. Feedwater heating is accomplished in a number of steps or stages, and the heaters are usually referred to as the first stage, second stage, third stage, fourth stage, etc. Multiple stages of feed heating are essential to the efficiency of a steam turbine power plant. The plant heat balance establishes the number of heating stages, feed flow through each heater, bleed points, auxiliary exhaust pressures, and the temperature of the feedwater entering each heater. Since the heat transfer coefficient of condensing steam is independent of velocity, and feed pressures are usually quite high, the feed is generally in the tubes with the steam in the shell. For a given steam pressure, the heat transfer is dependent upon the feed velocity through the tubes. Velocities of 6 to 7 fps result in a reasonable pressure drop and satisfactory heat transfer conditions. Heater shells should be baffled to avoid dead spaces, and drain cooling section should hold close baffle-to-shroud tolerances so as to avoid excessive bypassing of heat transfer surface, which would result in adequate drain cooling. Both the shell sides and watersides should be selfventing. The design pressure controls the construction details of feedwater heaters. Those heaters with design pressures up to 100 psig are considered low-pressure heaters. It is common practice to combine several low-pressure heaters into one shell to save space, cost of equipment, piping, and installation costs. Figure 19A depicts a typical combined low-pressure feed heater/drain cooler/gland-exhaust condenser. Similar heaters combining two stages of heating with the drain cooler are sometimes used. The combined heater is normally furnished as a package with the gland-exhaust fan and drain regulator mounted on the unit.
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Due to the temperature difference between sections of combined heat exchangers, the outlet ends of the tubes are usually secured in the tubesheet by means of alternate rings of metallic and fiber packing and are, therefore, free to expand independently.
FIGURE 19A- TYPICAL COMBINED LOW-PRESSURE FEED HEATER/DRAIN COOLER/GLAND EXHAUST CONDENSER DIRECT CONTACT DEAERATING FEEDWATER HEATERS - Since marine propulsion boilers are operated at high temperatures and pressures, there is a hazard of corrosive attack due to the presence of dissolved oxygen or carbon dioxide in the feedwater. it is virtually impossible to prevent the entry of air into the feed system, particularly during plant start-up; therefore, it is necessary to provide deaerating equipment for the removal of air and corrosive gases from the boiler feedwater. Although deaeration can be largely accomplished in the condenser, condenser deaeration is not sufficient during plant start-up; and without further deaeration, there would be no provision for the removal of air introduced later in the system, particularly at the condensate pump. Flash deaeration, whereby saturated water at 10 to 15 psig is introduced into a surge tank at atmospheric pressure, is simple and economical. However, the resulting flashing of steam will not ensure the low dissolved oxygen content (i.e., 0.005 cc per liter) required of the feedwater
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unless sufficient agitation is positively provided. There is also a loss of steam through flash deaeration. For example, a deaerator operating at 15 psig flashing down to atmospheric pressure loses about 4% as flashed steam. The flashed steam should not be condensed and returned to the feed cycle since it will normally have re-entrained a portion of the undesirable dissolved gases. Therefore, standard marine deaerators are more sophisticated in design than those of the flash type. The practical considerations involved in the removal of sprayed dissolved oxygen from boiler feedwater may be briefly summarized as: 1. Heating the water to the boiling temperature for the pressure under which the process is conducted (saturation conditions). From the chemical relationship termed Henrys Law, it is known that when a partial pressure of a liquid is equal to the total pressure above the liquid (boiling conditions), the solubility of any gases in the liquid is zero, 2. Providing a design that ensures thorough agitation and scrubbing of the feedwater by the steam. Complete agitation of the feedwater and contact with the scrubbing steam ensures that equilibrium will be reached and that the zero potential solubility condition (Henrys Law) will be attained. 3. Continuously venting from the system a mixture of gases and steam. Through the use of adequate venting, the partial pressure of the noncondensable gases in the system will be kept low and the saturation boiling point of the liquid will be maintained. The heater immediately preceding the suction side of the boiler feed pump is usually the direct contact oOr deaerating feed heater (generally known as a DFT for deaerating feed tank). A typical direct-contact feed heater is illustrated in Figure 19B. Condensate and makeup are sprayed into the steam-filled primary heating and deaeration chamber through a series of spray nozzles and a vent-condensing spray nozzle. The spray nozzles provide an even distribution of water over the entire heating area. The steam flow, which is essentially countercurrent, to the water flow, heats the water close to the saturation temperature such that the solubility of the gases is zero, and approximately 95% of the oxygen content is thereby released. Water and condensate collect in the conical water collector and flow to the atomizing valve, where high-velocity steam strikes the mixture, atomizes it into a fine mist, and raises the temperature the last few degrees to its saturation point. The mixture strikes a deflecting baffle, which separates the water and steam. The hot gas-free water drops to the storage compartment
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FIGURE 19B - DIRECT-CONTACT FEED HEATER The complete atomization and heating of the feedwater by the steam jet ensures that the dissolved gases will be released. After the atomization process, the steam and released gases flow through the primary heating/deaerating chamber where a large portion of the steam is condensed as it heats the incoming water. A small portion of the steam and all of the gases pass through the integral vent condenser, which condenses the majority of the remaining steam. The small amount of steam vapor that is mixed with the released gases is then discharged to the atmosphere or to the gland leak-off condenser. The deaerator conditions feedwater such that its dissolved oxygen content is less than 0.005 cc per liter. In addition, it substantially reduces the carbon dioxide content of the feedwater.
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Since the feedwater is at saturation temperature and above atmospheric pressure, the arrangement of the deaerator is of great importance as there is a strong possibility of the feedwater flashing into steam at the pump suction. There are two means of ensuring an adequate suction head at the main feed pump. One is to position the deaerator high in the machinery space, so that the static head developed is adequate for pump suction; an alternative is to provide a booster pump between the deaerator and feed pump, which will maintain an adequate suction head on the feed pump. Damage control considerations dictate that the booster pump arrangement be used in naval ships. The booster pump must be designed to handle condensate at saturation temperature, and it is important that the booster pump suction line be short, with little or no turns, and adequately vented so that pump cavitation and suction line flashing will not occur. The alternative of locating the deaerator high in the machinery space is the preferred arrangement with merchant ships, as damage control is not a design criterion and a pump is eliminated. The proper performance of a deaerator requires correct sizing of components and control of the rate of flow to the storage tank portion of the deaerator. The first major consideration is the boiler steam output. This determines the size of the deaerator and affects the storage tank, the makeup valve, the transfer pump, and the number of water spray nozzles in the unit. The other major factor is the temperature of the water delivered to the spray nozzle; this temperature determines the size of the steam regulating valve, which admits stem to the deaerator. This valve is sized as closely as possible to furnish the quantity of steam required to maintain the deaerator at the operating temperatures, plus about 10% additional capacity of steam over that required to heat the inlet water at the design conditions as a safety margin to handle surges of incoming feedwater. However, since the steam capacity is considerably affected by the pipe size of the regulator and the incoming steam pressure, it is difficult to provide a valve that exactly matches the desired capacity. Proper deaeration requires that the temperature of the incoming water be raised to the saturation point; therefore, the volume of the inlet water must be controlled in relation to its temperature to stay within the heating capacity of the steam supplied by the steamregulating valve. An excessive flow of cool water will, of course, quickly condense the steam in the deaerator, making it difficult to maintain the desired pressure. This emphasizes the necessity to provide an adequate safety margin in sizing the steam-regulating valve so that its capacity and response rate are capable of handling surges of cool water. The storage tank is usually designed to retain about five minutes of feedwater flow. If high-pressure (high-temperature) returns are available, they may be returned directly to the deaerator storage tank. Here they will flash and provide a certain amount of steam for preheating the water introduced into the deaerator. If these returns exceed 25 to 30% of the total capacity of the deaerator, however, more steam will be available than is needed; and some other means must be employed to use the returns. Deaerating feed heaters are normally equipped with two spring-loaded relief valves: one to prevent a high temperature from accidentally building up within the tank; and the second, known as a vacuum breaker, to prevent a high vacuum from developing in the tank by allowing atmospheric air to enter the tank in the event that the pressure in the tank drops below a prescribed value.
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The shell and majority of the internals are normally of welded-steel construction; however, the steam baffles, spray nozzles, atomizing valve, and vent condenser are generally manufactured from nonferrous alloys or stainless steel. AUXILIARY STEAM SYSTEM - Auxiliary steam systems supply steam at the pressures and temperatures required cooperate many systems and machinery, both inside and outside engineering spaces. As discussed previously, auxiliary steam is often called saturated steam or desuperheated steam. Many steam systems and machinery receive their steam supply from auxiliary steam systems on most steam-driven ships. Some typical examples are constant and intermittent service steam systems; steam smothering systems, ships' whistles, air ejectors, forced draft blowers, and a wide variety of pumps. Some newer ships use main steam instead of auxiliary steam for the forced draft blowers and for some pumps. Aboard some ships, turbine gland sealing systems receive their steam supply from an auxiliary steam system. Other ships may receive their supply from the auxiliary exhaust system. Gland sealing steam is supplied to the shaft glands of propulsion and generator turbines to seal the shaft glands against leakage. This leakage includes air leaking into the turbine casings and steam leaking out of the turbine casings. More use of electrically driven (rather than turbine-driven) auxiliaries has simplified auxiliary steam systems on newer ships. SUMMARY - You have learned about the main steam system, the auxiliary steam system, and the use of steam after it leaves the boiler. Remember, steam and feedwater are recycled over and over again to provide heat and power to operate machinery. It is important that you understand the terminology associated with steam and feedwater systems. You will use these terms in your day-to-day routine aboard ship. Some of the subjects will be discussed in greater detail later. All of these areas are important in their own right. As you learn this information, you will become a more proficient and reliable technician.
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STEAM TURBINES STEAM TURBINES

We discussed the basic steam cycle and various types of boilers. At this point, we will bring together all you have learned by discussing the components inside the turbine casing. In the following paragraphs we will discuss turbine theory, types and classifications of turbines, and turbine construction. Upon completion of this chapter you will understand how stored energy (heat) in steam is transformed to mechanical energy (work). TURBINE THEORY - The first documented use of steam power is credited to a Greek mathematician, Hero of Alexandria, almost 2000 years ago. Hero built the first steam-powered engine. His turbine design was the forerunner of the jet engine and demonstrated that steam power could be used to operate other machinery. Hero's turbine (aeolipile) (Figure 20) consists of a hollow sphere and four canted nozzles. The sphere rotates freely on two feed tubes that carry steam from the boiler. Steam generated in the boiler passes through the feed tubes, into the sphere, and out through the nozzles. As the steam leaves the nozzles, the sphere rotates rapidly.
FIGURE 20 HEROS TURBINE (AEOLIPILE)
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Down through the ages, the application of the turbine principle has been used in many different types of machines. The water wheel that was used to operate the flourmills in colonial times and the common windmill used to pump water are examples of the turbine principle. In these examples, the power comes from the effect of the wind or a stream of water acting on a set of blades. In a steam turbine, steam serves the same purpose as the wind or the flowing water. Two methods are used in turbine design and construction to get the desired results from a turbine. These are the impulse principle and the reaction principle. Both methods convert the thermal energy stored in the steam into useful work, but they differ somewhat in the way they do it. In the following paragraphs we will discuss the two basic turbine principles, the impulse and reaction. IMPULSE PRINCIPLE - The impulse turbine (Figure 21) consists basically of a rotor mounted on a shaft that is free to rotate in a set of bearings. The outer rim of the rotor carries a set of curved blades, and the whole assembly is enclosed in an airtight case. Nozzles direct steam against the blades and turn the rotor. The energy to rotate an impulse turbine is derived from the kinetic energy of the steam flowing through the nozzles. The term impulse means that the force that turns the turbine comes from the impact of the steam on the blades. The toy pinwheel (Figure 22) can be used to study some of the basic principles of turbines. When you blow on the rim of the wheel, it spins rapidly. The harder you blow, the faster it turns. The steam turbine operates on the same principle, except it uses the kinetic energy from the steam as it leaves a steam nozzle rather than air.
FIGURE 21 IMPULSE TURBINE
FIGURE 22 SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE PRINCIPLE
Steam nozzles (hereafter referred to as nozzles or stationary blades) are located at the turbine inlet. As the steam passes through a nozzle, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. This steam is directed toward the turbine blades and turns the rotor. The velocity of the steam is
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reduced in passing over the blades. Some of its kinetic energy has been transferred to the blades to turn the rotor. Impulse turbines may be used to drive forced draft blowers, pumps, and main propulsion turbines. Figure 21 shows an impulse turbine as steam passes through the nozzles. REACTION PRINCIPLE - The ancient turbine built by Hero operated on the reaction principle. Hero's turbine was invented long before Newton's time, but it was a working model of Newton's third law of motion, which states: "For every action there must bean equal and opposite reaction." If you set an electric fan on a roller skate, the roller skate will take off across the room (Figure 23). The fan pushes the air forward and sets up a breeze (velocity). The air is also pushing backward on the fan with an equal force, but in an opposite direction.
FIGURE 23 DEMONSTRATION OF THE VELOCITY OF THE REACTION PRINCIPLE If you try to push a car, you will push back with your feet as hard as you would push forward with your hands. Try it sometime when you are standing on an icy road. You will not be able to move the car unless you can dig in with your feet to exert the backward force. With some thought on your part, you could come up with examples to prove to yourself that Newton's third law of motion holds true under all circumstances. The reaction turbine uses the reaction of a steam jet to drive the rotor. You learned that an impulse turbine increases the velocity of steam and transforms that potential energy under pressure into kinetic energy in a steam jet through nozzles. A forward force is applied to the steam to increase its velocity as it passes through the nozzle. From Newton's third law of motion, you see that the steam jet exerts a force on the nozzle and an equal reactive force on the turbine blades in the opposite direction. THIS IS THE FORCE THAT DRIVES THE TURBINE. In the reaction turbine, stationary blades attached to the turbine-casing act as nozzles and direct the steam to the moving blades. The moving blades mounted on the rotor act as nozzles. Most reaction turbines have several alternating rows of stationary and moving nozzle blades.
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You can use a balloon to demonstrate the kickback or reaction force generated by the nozzle blades (Figure 24). Blow up the balloon and release it. The air will rush out through the opening and the balloon will shoot off in the opposite direction.
FIGURE 24 DEMONSTRATION OF THE KICKBACK OF THE REACTION PRINCIPLE When the balloon is filled with air, you have potential energy stored in the increased air pressure inside. When you let the air escape, it passes through the small opening. This represents a transformation from potential energy to kinetic energy. The force applied to the air to speed up the balloon is acted upon by a reaction in the opposite direction. This reactive force propels the balloon for-ward through the air. You may think that the force that makes the balloon move forward comes from the jet of air blowing against the air in the room, not so. It is the reaction of the force of the air as it passes through the opening that causes the balloon to move forward. The reaction turbine has all the advantages of the impulse-type turbine, plus a slower operating speed and greater efficiency. The alternating rows of fixed and moving blades transfers the heat energy of the steam to kinetic energy, then to mechanical energy. We have discussed the simple impulse and reaction turbines. Practical applications require various power outputs. Turbines are constructed with one or more simple turbines made as one. This is done in much the same way that the varying cylinder size of a car engine varies power. Figures 25 and 26 show typical turbines.
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FIGURE 25 IMPULSE MAIN PROPULSION TURBINE
FIGURE 26 TURBINE ASSEMBLY IN A MACHINE SHOP
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In the impulse turbine, the steam expands through the stationary nozzles only and so loses pressure but gains velocity. In moving blades, the steam loses velocity but the pressure remains constant. Actually, an impulse turbine utilizes both the impulse of the steam jet and to a lesser extent, the reaction force which results from the fact that the curving blades cause the steam to change it direction. In the reaction turbine, the steam enters through a row of fixed blades which expand and direct the flow of steam to the moving blades. As you can see in the figure below, the fixed blades and the moving blades are very similar in shape. Steam expansion takes place in both set of blades. A reaction turbine is moved by (1) the reactive force produced on the moving blades when the steam increases in velocity, and (2) the reactive force produced on the moving blades when the steam changes direction. However, some of the motion of the rotor is actually caused by the impact of the steam on the blades; and, to a certain extent, therefore, the reaction turbine operates on the impulse principle as well as on the reaction principle.
Basic Differences Between Impulse And Reaction Turbines Now compare the basic differences between impulse and reaction turbine blading. No matter what the number of fixed and moving blade rows in an impulse turbine, the pressure remains the same throughout the blading. However, the steam pressure decreases in each nozzle In the reaction turbine, the steam pressure decreases in every row of fixed and moving blades. There are no nozzles in the reaction turbine; the fixed blades serve the same purpose as the nozzles of an impulse turbine. TURBINE CLASSIFICATION - So far we have classified turbines into two general groups: IMPULSE TURBINES and REACTION TURBINES, depending on the method used to cause the steam to do useful work. Turbines may be further classified according to the following: Type and arrangement of staging
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Direction of steam flow Repetition of steam flow Division of steam flow
A turbine may also be classified by whether it is a condensing unit (exhaust to a condenser at a pressure below atmospheric pressure) or a non-condensing unit (exhausts to another system such as the auxiliary exhaust steam system at a pressure above atmospheric pressure). CONSTRUCTION OF TURBINES - Other than the operating and controlling equipment, similarity exists in both the impulse and reaction turbines. These include foundations, casings, nozzles, rotors, bearings, and shaft glands. Foundations - Turbine foundations are built up from a structural foundation in the hull to provide a rigid supporting base. All turbines are subjected to varying degrees of temperature from that existing during a secured condition to that existing during full-power operation. Therefore, means are provided to allow for expansion and contraction. At the forward end of the turbine, there are various ways to give freedom of movement. Elongated boltholes or grooved sliding seats are used so that the forward end of the turbine can move fore and aft as either expansion or contraction takes place. The forward end of the turbine may also be mounted with a flexible I-beam that will flex either fore or aft. Casings - The materials used to construct turbines will vary somewhat depending on the steam and power conditions for which the turbine is designed. Turbine casings are made of cast carbon steel for non-superheated steam applications. Superheated applications use casings made of carbon molybdenum steel. For turbine casings used on submarines, a percentage of chrome stainless steel is used, which is more resistant to steam erosion than carbon steel. Each casing has a steam chest to receive the incoming high-pressure steam. This steam chest delivers the steam to the first set of nozzles or blades. Nozzles - The primary function of the nozzles is to convert the thermal energy of steam into kinetic energy. The secondary function of the nozzles is to direct the steam against the blades. Rotors - Rotors (forged wheels and shaft) are manufactured from steel alloys. The primary purpose of a turbine rotor is to carry the moving blades that convert the steam's kinetic energy to rotating mechanical energy. Bearings - The rotor of every turbine must be positioned radially and axially by bearings. Radial bearings carry and support the weight of the rotor and maintain the correct radial clearance between the rotor and casing. Axial (thrust) bearings limit the fore-and-aft travel of the rotor. Thrust bearings take care of any axial thrust, which may develop on a turbine rotor and hold the turbine rotor within definite axial positions.
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All main turbines and most auxiliary units have a bearing at each end of the rotor. Bearings are generally classified as sliding surface (sleeve and thrust) or as rolling contact (antifriction ball or roller bearings). Figure 27 shows a typical sliding surface bearing.
FIGURE 27 TYPICAL SLIDING SURFACE BEARING Shaft Packing Glands - Shaft packing glands prevent the leaking of steam out of or air into the turbine casing where the turbine rotor shaft extends through the turbine casing. Labyrinth and carbon rings are two types of packing. They are used either separately or in combination. Labyrinth packing (Figure 28) consists of rows of metallic strips or fins. The strips fasten to the gland liner so there is a small space between the strips and the shaft. As the steam from the turbine casing leaks through the small space between the packing strips and the shaft, steam pressure gradually reduces.
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FIGURE 28 - LABYRINTH PACKING GLAND Carbon packing rings (Figure 29) restrict the passage of steam along the shaft in much the same manner as labyrinth packing strips. Carbon packing rings mount around the shaft and are held in place by springs. Three or four carbon rings are usually used in each gland. Each ring fits into a separate compartment of the gland housing and consists of two, three, or four segments that are buttjointed to each other. A garter spring is used to hold these segments together. The use of keepers (lugs or stop pins) prevents the rotation of the carbon rings when the shaft rotates. The outer carbon ring compartment connects to a drain line.
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FIGURE 29 CARBON PACKING GLAND
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AIR EJECTORS AIR EJECTORS

A certain amount of air and other non-condensable vapor unavoidably enters the condenser with the steam to be condensed. Since the condenser operates at a pressure below atmospheric pressure, this air is also at a pressure below atmospheric and in order to remove it, some apparatus must be furnished that will compress this air to slightly above atmospheric pressure. Two methods have been used for compressing this air: 1. By use of the Air Pump 2. By use of the Air Ejector The steam air jet ejector, because of its small space, weight and economy of its installation, operation and maintenance, has practically displaced the reciprocating air pump on both turbine and reciprocating engine ships. The amount of air being handled by any given condenser and air removal equipment can be readily determined, but the amount to be removed from a prospective condenser is quite problematical. Table 1 gives estimated air leakage with respect to condensing capacity of modern condensers. These are design features, and allow ample margin to care for unexpected conditions. The usual leakage in a well maintained condensing system should be less than these amounts. If more leakage is present, the system should be carefully checked for tightness. TABLE 1 ESTIMATED AIR LEAKAGE FOR MODERN CONDENSERS
Maximum Pounds Of Steam Condensed Per Hour 5,000 or less 5,001 10,000 10,001 15,000 15,001 20,000 20,001 25,000 25,001 30,000 30,001 35,000 35,001 40,000 40,001 45,000 45,001 50,000 50,001 75,000 75,001 100,000 100,001 150,000 150,001 250,000 250,001 350,000 350,001 450,000 450,001 600,000 600,001 and up C.F.M. 70F Free Dry Air Leakage Surface Condensers Surface Condensers Serving Turbines Serving Engines 2.20 4.40 2.50 5.00 2.65 5.30 2.80 5.60 3.00 6.00 3.20 6.40 3.35 6.70 3.50 7.00 3.65 7.30 3.80 7.60 4.50 9.00 5.00 10.00 6.50 13.00 8.50 17.00 10.00 20.00 11.50 23.00 13.50 27.00 16.00 32.00
AIR EJECTORS An ejector consists essentially of a steam nozzle discharging a high-velocity jet of steam (approximately 3500 sq. ft. per sec.) across a suction chamber and through a venturishaped compression tube. The air gases to be evacuated enter the ejector suction, are entrained by the jet of steam, and discharged through the throat, where the velocity or kinetic energy is
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converted into pressure, thereby compressing the mixture to a lower vacuum, i.e. a higher absolute pressure. Figure 30a indicates the principle of operation of the steam jet ejector. For successful operation, the ratio between discharge pressure and suction pressure, or the compression ratio, as it is usually called, apparently should not be more than 8 to 1. The lowest pressure that can be maintained with a ratio of 8 to 1 is:
P = 30 8 = 3.75 Hg. Abs. or 26.25 Hg. Vacuum

If a lower absolute pressure than 3.75 Hg. is desired, then it must be obtained in two stages of compression if the compression if the compression ratio is not to exceed 8 to 1 Ejector Condensers Both the single and multi-stage ejectors may be designed to operate either non-condensing or condensing. If a condenser is placed between the two stages of an ejector it is called an intercondenser (interstage condenser or intercooler); and when the second stage delivers into a condenser, this condenser is called the aftercondenser. Since the air ejector operates continuously and the loss of fresh water would be considerable, practically all marine ejectors are of the condensing type. The intercondenser on a two-stage unit has a greater advantage than merely saving the fresh water, since it also serves to condense the steam used in the first-stage jet and thus reduce the amount of vapor to be handled by the second stage jet. This in turn reduces the steam consumption of the second-stage jet. The condensed steam from the first stage of a two-stage ejector fitted with an intercondenser, in which the discharge pressure is considerably below atmospheric, is usually drained back to the main condenser, this being normally the only vessel with a lower pressure. To prevent the return of air to the main condenser through this drainpipe, a water-sealed loop having an effective height of 8 or more is installed in the drain line (see Figure 38). Water, which is condensed in the aftercondenser of either a single- or two-stage ejector, is drained to the fresh-water drain collecting system. The air that remains in the aftercondenser following the condensation of the vapor is by this time compressed to atmospheric pressure and is released to the atmosphere through a vent. Ejector Types Any single- or multi-stage ejector may be arranged with one or more elements operating in parallel if standby capacity is desired, or if necessary to meet varying operating conditions. Ejectors are normally built in the various types and arrangements shown in Figure 31. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Single-stage ejector, non-condensing (Figure 30A) Two-stage non-condensing ejector (Figure 30B) Twin-element, single-stage ejector with surface aftercondenser (Figure 31) Two-stage ejector with surface inter- & aftercondensers (Figure 32 and 34) Twin-element, two-stage ejector with surface inter- & aftercondensers (Figure 33 and 36)
The most common arrangement used in marine installations in the twin-element, two-stage ejector mounted on a combined inter and after surface-type condenser, as shown in Figure 33.
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Figure 37 is a photograph of such a unit. This type of unit gives a complete two-stage ejector as a standby and if installed with interstage gate valves as shown in Figure 34, different combinations of first- and second-stage jets may be used to meet varying operating conditions.
FIGURE 30 A) SECTIONAL VIEW OF TYPICAL SINGLE-STAGE STEAM JET EJECTOR B) TWO-STAGE, NON-CONDENSING EJECTOR 9. Suction body 10. Diffuser 11. Steam Nozzle 12. Steam Nozzle Washer 13. Steam Chamber 14. Steam Strainer 15. Steam Chamber Nut 16. Steam Chamber Nut Washer
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FIGURE 31 TWIN-ELEMENT, SINGLE-STAGE EJECTOR WITH SURFACE TYPE AFTERCONDENSER. EACH ELEMENT OF A TWIN-ELEMENT EJECTOR IS COMPLETE IN ITSELF AND MAY BE OPERATED ALONE OR IN PARALLEL WITH OTHERS
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FIGURE 32 TWO-STAGE, SINGLE-ELEMENT EJECTOR WITH COMBINED SURFACE INTER-AND AFTERCONDENSERS (See Parts List For Figure 33)
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CONDENSING WATER The condensing water used in the inter- and aftercondensers may be from any available water supply, but is usually condensate from the condenser hotwell and then used as feedwater, since in this way the heat in the steam supplied to the air ejector is almost all recovered. Some ships, however use salt-water cooling in the air ejector condensers. There are also a few installations that have a combination of fresh and saltwater cooling. Extreme care must be taken with these units to avoid contaminating the feedwater. When the condensate is used as cooling water, the supply is usually inadequate when running at reduced power, and a recirculating connection must be provided. For example, in a two-stage ejector designed to maintain 28 Hg. vacuum, the first stage might operate at about 6.7 Hg. abs. pressure (23.3 Hg. vacuum). The temperature corresponding to this pressure is 144.5F. This temperature is for the condensation of air-free steam. The discharge from the first-stage ejector, however, will contain a large amount of air, which will tend to lower the condensing temperature. The actual condensing temperature of this steam-air mixture will be about 140F. Consequently, the temperature of the cooling water leaving the intercondenser must be less than this. At full-power operation, the amount of condensate flowing will be sufficient to condense all of the steam used in this stage, with a temperature rise on the condensate of probably 3 of 4F. However, as the load in the turbine is increased, the total amount of condensate decreases almost proportionately, whereas the steam used by the air ejector remains practically constant. Consequently, since the same amount of heat must be removed and the total amount of cooling water is less, the temperature rise of the cooling water must be greater. At some reduced power, then, the outlet temperature of the cooling water will be higher than 140F, and the intercondenser will then fail to condense the steam from the first-stage jet. The second-stage jet will be unable to handle the increased load, and the ejector will completely lose suction. To prevent this condition from occurring, a recirculating line is fitted so that the condensate used in the ejector can be returned to the condenser and recirculated through the ejector condensate a rate sufficient to keep the temperature rise within reasonable limits. In most modern installations this recirculation is automatic, and is governed by a thermostatic valve. When the discharge water reaches a predetermined temperature (usually 110F for 28 Hg. vacuum), the valve opens and permits the condensate to return to the hotwell and be recirculated through the ejector condensers. The thermostat is usually placed at the condensate discharge from the intercondenser, since this is the critical point in the system. The valve itself may be placed at any convenient point in the feed system, such as the feed tank of deaerating heater (Figure 38). OPERATION OF STEAM-JET AIR EJECTORS A. Single-stage ejectors (with or without aftercondenser) Starting-up Procedure: 1. Open discharge valve (or valves*) 2. If any aftercondenser is provided, next turn on water supply valve 3. Open steam valve (or valves*) admitting steam from a supply line at the proper pressure 4. Open air suction valve (or valves*) *This applies to multiple element type of ejectors
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STEAM SYSTEMS
As soon as the full steam pressure is supplied in the steam chamber the ejector will start operating. The vacuum will be gradually increased as the air is removed from the system, and after a short interval of time the normal operating vacuum will be obtained. Shutting-down Procedure: 1. Close suction valve (or valves*) 2. Close steam valve (or valves*) 3. Close water supply valve 4. Close discharge valve (or valves*)
FIGURE 34 TWO-STAGE EJECTOR WITH SURFACE INTER- AND AFTERCONDENSERS. X INDICATES THE OUTLET FOR THE CONDENSATE FROM THE INTERCONDENSER TO MAIN CONDENSER
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STEAM SYSTEMS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Steam chest (1st stage) Pipe plug Nozzle Nozzle gasket Nozzle ring Nozzle gasket
7. Mixing chamber 8. Diffuser 9. Steam chest (2nd stage) 10. Pipe plug 11. Nozzle 12. Nozzle gasket
13. Nozzle ring 14. Nozzle gasket 15. Mixing chamber 16. Diffuser
FIGURE 35 AIR EJECTORS WITH INTERCOOLER B. Two stage ejectors (single element) Starting-up Procedure: 1. Open air exhaust valve at discharge of secondary element or aftercondenser 2. Open air suction valve at suction of primary element 3. Open valve in intercondenser drain loop 4. Open drain valve in aftercondenser drain line (if the intercondenser and the aftercondenser are of the surface type. 5. Start water circulating through the inter- and aftercoolers 6. See that both steam valves are closed 7. Open main steam supply valve, admitting steam at the proper pressure from steam lines
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STEAM SYSTEMS
8. Open steam valve to secondary element As soon as the full steam pressure is supplied to the steam nozzles, the ejector will start operating. An interval of time should then be allowed to build up the vacuum to approximately 16 20. Then the primary element should be put in service as follows: 9. Open the valve to the primary element. After another short interval of time, the normal operating vacuum will be obtained. The procedure just outlined is for starting up ejectors on a complete system bringing up the vacuum from atmospheric pressure. If a system should be provided with two steam-jet air ejectors, and it is desired to put a second ejector into service while the other ejector is in operation, all operations except Nos. 2 and 3 should be performed in their regular order. After full vacuum is established at the suction of the primary element on the ejector that is to be placed in service, then operations Nos. 3 and 2 should be carried out in this order.
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STEAM SYSTEMS
FIGURE 36 TWIN-ELEMENT, TWO-STAGE EJECTOR WITH SEPARATE SURFACE INTERCONDENSERS AND AFTERCONDENSERS
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Intercondenser shell Secondary steam strainers Aftercondenser shell Secondary steam chamber nuts Intercondenser water boxes Secondary steam chambers Aftercondenser water boxes Secondary diffusers Waterbox covers 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Intercondenser baffles . Gate valves Aftercondenser baffles Secondary suction bodies Elbows Primary nozzles Steam valves Primary steam strainers Pipe fittings 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.
STEAM SYSTEMS
Primary steam chamber nuts Steam piping Primary steam chambers Tubes Primary diffusers Tube plates Primary suction bodies Safety valves 27. Secondary nozzles
Shutting-down Procedure 1. Close primary air suction valve 2. Close steam valve to primary 3. Close steam valve to secondary 4. Close main steam supply valve 5. Close condensing-water supply valve to inter- and aftercondenser C. Two-stage ejectors (twin elements with isolating valves) Starting-up Procedure 1. Open valve in air discharge line from aftercondenser 2. Open secondary element discharge vlaves. 3. Open secondary element suction valves 4. Open primary element discharge valves 5. Open primary element suction valves 6. Open valve in intercondenser drain loop line 7. Open valve in aftercondenser drain line 8. Start circulation of water through surface type inter- and aftercondenser 9. See that the steam valves to all elements are tightly closed. 10. Open the main steam supply valve, admitting steam at the proper pressure to the ejector 11. Open steam valves to secondary elements. As soon as the full steam pressure is supplied in the steam chambers, the pump will start functioning. An interval of time should be allowed to build up vacuum to approximately 16" or 20". Then the primary elements should be put into service as follows: 12. Open the steam valves to the primary elements. After another interval of time the normal operating vacuum will be obtained It is customary to use all sets of elements for establishing full vacuum on the system in the shortest period of time. If the air leakage to the system is at a minimum then the desired vacuum can be maintained by operating with only one set of elements (one primary and one secondary). Where an ejector is equipped with raw-water auxiliary cooling section, the water valve should be opened when ejector is started up. The same instruction applies to recirculation valve if the condenser is equipped for recirculation of condensate. Unless the steam load is very light, the raw water or recirculation valve can be closed after full vacuum is reached. "Shutting -down" procedure: 1. Close the suction valve of element to be shut down. 2. Close steam valve to same element.
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STEAM SYSTEMS
3.
Close the discharge valve of that element.
When shutting down one set of elements only, it is recommended that the primary element be shut off first and then the corresponding secondary element. In order to maintain the normal vacuum, it is necessary to have one primary and one secondary element in service together. It is not possible to obtain high vacuum with two secondaries only, without any primaries, or with two primaries alone, and no secondaries. If it is desired to put any additional elements into service, the shutting down procedure outlined above should be reversed.
FIGURE 37 TYPICAL TWO-STAGE, TWIN-ELEMENT STEAM JET EJECTOR FOR MARINE SERVICE To shut down a complete ejector: 1. Close primary suction valves 2. Shut off main steam supply 3. Shut off water supply to inter- and aftercondenser. Faulty operation - There are 6 possible causes of faulty operation of an air ejector, as follows: 1. Insufficient cooling water 2. Steam nozzles plugged with scale
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STEAM SYSTEMS
3. 4. 5. 6.
Water flooding intercondenser due to faulty drainage Low steam pressure High back pressure at discharge of ejector Losses of water seal in intercondenser drain loop.
It will be necessary to check for any one or a combination of these conditions if trouble should be experienced. 1. An insufficient supply of cooling water can be determined by observing the temperatures of the water entering and leaving the air ejector. If the temperature rise in the ejector is not excessive, the cooling-water supply is adequate, and the trouble is elsewhere. 2. A scale deposit may form in the throats of the steam nozzles, due to chemicals used in the treatment of the boiler feedwater. When this occurs, it should be removed with drills of the same diameter as those with which the nozzles were originally drilled. 3. Flooding of the intercondenser with water can usually be ascertained by feeling the temperature of the intercondenser shell. 4. Low steam pressure may be due to clogging of the steam strainers or orifice plates with pipe scale or sediment, improper operation of the regulating valve, or low boiler pressure. 5. High backpressure at the discharge of the ejector sometimes occurs where the pump discharges into a common exhaust system with other equipment this happens, it will be necessary to provide an independent discharge from the ejector to atmosphere. 6. Loss of the water seal in the drain loop takes place occasionally in installations where the vacuum in the system is subject to sudden fluctuations. A gage glass is recommended on the intercondenser drain loop, to show whether the loop is properly scaled when the pump is in normal service. This gage glass should be as near the bottom of the drain loop as possible. If the water visible anywhere in the glass, the loop is properly scaled. However, if no water is visible, or if it surges violently, the indications are that the drain loop has become unsealed. When this happens, some of the air, which has been removed from the main condenser by the primary element, is recirculated, and flows back through the drain loop to the main condenser, thereby reducing the vacuum. To re-establish the seal in the drain loop, it is necessary only to close the valve provided for this purpose in the drain loop line usually located near the condenser. This valve must be closed for the short period of time required to form sufficient condensate to fill the loop. After the water again shows at the top of the gage glass, the valve should be opened very gradually. If the valve is opened too quickly, the difference in pressure will cause surging of the water and again unseal the loop. In certain cases, some drain loops have a tendency to be unstable, due to fluctuations in condenser vacuum. In such instances, it is customary to operate with the valve in the drain loop line partly throttled, opening it just enough to pass the condensate at all times.
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STEAM SYSTEMS
FIGURE 38 - ARRANGEMENT OF TWIN-ELEMENT, TWO-STAGE EJECTOR IN TYPICAL MARINE INSTALLATION, WHERE CONDENSATE IS RECIRCULATED FROM FEED TANK
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STEAM SYSTEMS
MAINTENANCE NOTES 1. The designed steam conditions must be adhered to exactly for satisfactory operation. Maintain dry steam and correct pressure at the ejectors at all time. If necessary to allow for unavoidable fluctuations in pressure, bear in mind that 10 or 15 lb. excess pressure is not particularly serious; but if the pressure drops below the design value, performance is bound to be unstable. 2. Keep ejector bodies and nozzles clean. Blow down steam line and strainer whenever starting up. Periodically check the size of the nozzle with a twist drill of correct diameter, as stamped on the nozzle. (Most manufacturers supply a reamer of the correct size with each ejector.) If the orifice becomes scaled up, worn oversize, or worn out of round, it will seriously impair performance. 3. See that steam and vapor valves in standby ejectors are closed tight 4. If ejectors are of the type shown in Figure 34. be extremely careful in reassembling ejectors that the gaskets are replaced with ones of like thickness. Except in special cases the steam chest gaskets are 1/32 thick. Likewise, it is essential that the nozzle rings (Pc. Nos. 5 & 13 in Figure 34) be of the proper thickness, and a 1/32 second-stage nozzle rings are not interchangeable. In cases where no ring is used, a single copper gasket 1/32 thick should be used. Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of having proper distance between the nozzle outlet and the inlet to the diffuser. The dimension is extremely vital to the operation of the air ejector
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STEAM SYSTEMS
FIREROOM OPERATIONS FIREROOM OPERATIONS

To operate boilers, you need to know all the mechanical details of the boilers and the associated auxiliaries. However, knowing the mechanical details is not enough, you must develop a keen eye for trouble, a finely tuned ear, and an overall sense of what is happening everywhere in the fireroom at all times. You may be touching one thing, looking at another and hearing something else. Somehow you must learn to put all your impressions together to acquire a total awareness of how the plant is operating. You will have to learn to tell the difference between normal and abnormal operating conditions. There are a number of sounds and vibrations that are normal in a properly operating plant; after you are accustomed to a normally operating plant, you should be able to tell when things are not quite right. A gage glass that is just beginning to leak may make a peculiar whistling sound; the noise may be very faint but it is an indication of trouble brewing. There is not much chance of overlooking a vibrating boiler, but smaller vibrations can also be a sign that a casualty is about to occur. For example, suppose you feel a vibration in the floorplates slight, but different from the normal vibration. Is low lube oil pressure to a forced draft blower causing high temperatures at the bearings and thus making the units vibrate? Is the fuel oil service pump racing and vibrating because it is losing suction? When you first feel any new kind of vibration, you should recognize immediately that somewhere there is something wrong. Train yourself to notice and analyze strange noises, unusual vibrations, abnormal temperatures and pressures, and other signs that trouble may be developing LIGHTING OFF BOILERS Lighting-off instructions for each boiler are specified by the engineer officer, and the manufacturer of the equipment. The following basic instructions are generally applicable to most modern ships boilers. Special procedures required for lighting off some types of boiler are given after the general instructions. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR LIGHTING OFF - A lighting-off sheet must be out for each boiler as it is being lighted off. The sheet indicates the step-by-step procedures required. The general procedures for lighting off a boiler are: 1. Remove the smoke pipe cover. 2. Inspect the bilges to be sure they are free of oil. If necessary, wash and pump the bilges. 3. Inspect the bottoms and inner fronts of air casings to be sure they are free of oil accumulations. Be sure that the register drip holes are not plugged. 4. Be sure that the torch pot is adequately secured to a structural part of the floorplates. Also, be sure that it is not so full of oil that the oil will spill when the lighting off torch is dipped into it. 5. Check the fuel oil strainers to be sure they are clean and in good condition. 6. Inspect all atomizer assemblies. Be sure that they are the correct size and that they are clean and properly made up. If the burner has been disassembled for cleaning or repair, check the setting of the distance piece to be sure that the face of the atomizer tip nut is the correct distance from the diffuser plate. This setting of the distance piece varies for
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STEAM SYSTEMS
different types of burners; consult the manufacturer's technical manual for the correct setting 7. Move all air register doors to be sure that they operate freely 8. Check individual atomizer valves and manifold valves. They should be CLOSED. 9. Wipe up all oil from the floor plates 10. With the air register doors open, run a forces draft blower to ventilate the furnace and clear it of accumulated gases. 11. Examine all casing doors to be sure that they are closed and that they are airtight. 12. Open the steam drum aircock and the superheater vents. 13. Check to see that the water gage cutout valves are open and that the drain valves are closed. 14. If the boiler has been laid up dry: a. Close the manhole and handhole plate b. Close the drain cocks; c. Check the surface blow valve, the bottom blow valves, and all valves in the boiler blow piping to be sure they are CLOSED; d. Open the feed stop and check valves, start the emergency feed pump, and bring the water level to about 1 inch above the bottom of the glass in the lowest water gage; this procedure fills the economizer with water, tests for possible obstructions in the feed lines and water gages, and tests the operation of the emergency feed pump. 15. If the boiler has been laid up full of water a. Run down or pump down the water in the boiler until it is just out of sight in the lowest water gage glass. To do this, it will be necessary to open the bottom blow valve on the water drum, the drain valves on the water headers, and the drain valves on the superheater. Then the water can either be run to the bilges or pumped directly overboard through the hose connection provided in the line to the bilges. b. Close the bottom blow valve and the drain valves to the bilges. c. Examine the surface blow piping and all valves in the boiler blow piping to be sure they are CLOSED. d. Using the emergency feed pump, bring the water level to about 1 inch above the bottom of the glass in the lowest water gage. 16. Using the main feed pump, raise the water level in the boiler about . This test the main feed pump and the feed lines. 17. Examine the hand gear for lifting safety valves, and operate this gear as far as can be done WITHOUT lifting safety valves 18. Ease up on the main steam stops, the auxiliary steam stops, and the turbo-generator steam stops, WITHOUT lifting the valve disks off the seats. This procedure will keep the valves from sticking when they are heated. 19. Open the valves between the steam drum and the superheater inlet (if fitted). 20. Open the superheater gravity (open funnel) drains. 21. Check to be sure that all cocks and valves in the line to the steam drum pressure gage are open.
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STEAM SYSTEMS
22. Line up the fuel oil system. Open all necessary valves from the service tank to the service pump. Bypass the meter, and open all valves between the service pump and the burner manifold. Open the recirculating valves and start the service pump. 23. If the oil is very cold and viscous, so that the service pump has difficulty in taking suction,, use the tank heating coils to warm the oil. 24. Cut in steam to the fuel oil heater. 25. Run a forces draft blower SLOWLY until the first burner is lighted. 26. Open superheater vents and drains. 27. Bring the water in the boiler up to the lighting off level. 28. When the oil has reached atomizing temperature, partly close the recirculating valves to allow the fuel oil pressure to build up to at least 200 psi. 29. Light off the burner designated as the lighting off burner. Use a small size sprayer plate. Use a hand torch (Figure 39) for lighting off. Use diesel oil for lighting off. NEVER use gasoline, kerosene, naphtha, or any oil with a low flash point. When lighting off, stand clear to avoid injury from a flareback. 30. As soon as the first burner has been lighted, close the fuel oil recirculating valves and regulate the oil pressure with the control valve. 31. Open the fuel oil meter inlet and outlet valves and close the meter bypass valve. 32. Check the level in the water gages as the boiler begins to heat up, and check it frequently after steam has begun to form. 33. Close the steam drum aircock and the superheater vents, after steam has formed and has blown sufficiently to exclude all air from the boiler. 34. Check the steam drum pressure gage to see if it registers pressure, after the aircocks and vents have been closed. 35. As the boiler heats up, check all fittings and connections, which may begin to leak as they heat up and expand. Some of the things to check for leakage are packing glands on boiler valves; water gages and remote water level indicators; gage lines; and all accessible manhole and handhole plates. Take whatever action is required to correct any leakage that you find. 36. Check the functioning of the water gage glasses by opening the drains and blowing through the gages. 37. See that the water in the boiler is kept at steaming level. 38. Before cutting the boiler in on the line, use the bypass valves or crack the boiler stop valves slightly to warm up the lines slowly and to allow gradual equalization of pressures between the boiler and the line. Be sure that the lines are properly drained during this warming-up period. 39. Cut in the boiler when the proper pressure has been reached. CAUTION: The boiler must first be cut in on the auxiliary steam line BEFORE being cut in on the main steam line. 40. Light off additional burners as required. When burners are lettered or numbered, they should always be lighted off in the indicated sequence. A HAND TORCH MUST BE USED TO LIGHT THE FIRST BURNER AND TO LIGHT ALL ADDITIONAL BURNERS UNTIL THE FURNACE BECOMES INTENSELY HOT.
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STEAM SYSTEMS
FIGURE 39 LIGHTING-OFF TORCH LIGHTING OFF SINGLE-FURNACE BOILERS - The following additional instructions for lighting off boilers must be followed in order to protect the superheater while steam is being raised in the boiler: 1. On or before lighting the first burner, establish a positive flow of steam through the superheater. The steam flow must be established by opening the superheater drains to the bilges and opening the superheater vent to the atmospheric escape pipe. 2. The superheater must be THOROUGHLY DRAINED at all times. Even on boilers that have superheater protective steam, the superheater gravity (open-funnel) drains must be opened when the boiler is being lighted off. The gravity drains should remain open until the boiler has built up enough pressure. 3. While steam is being raised, the allowable rate of combustion must not be exceeded. The superheater vent system is not designed to protect the superheater at high rates of combustion. LIGHTING OFF WITH AUTOMATIC COMBUSTION CONTROLS - A boiler, which is equipped with automatic combustion controls can usually be lighted off either with or without using the automatic control system. When compressed air is not available, the boiler must of course be lighted off on local manual control and operated on local manual until compressed air is available. When compressed air is available, the boiler may be lighted off either on local manual or on remote manual. It is normally transferred to automatic when operating steam pressure has been reached. The following general rules for transferring from one method to another apply to most automatic combustion control systems now in use: 1. Transferring from local manual to remote manual may be done at any time when compressed air is available for the controls. 2. Transferring from remote manual to automatic may be done at any time after operating steam pressure has been reached and a sufficient steam flow has been established to permit continuous firing. 3. Transferring from local manual to automatic should be done by first transferring to remote manual and then from remote manual to automatic. 4. Transferring from automatic to remote manual may be done at any time. 5. Transferring from remote manual to local manual may be done at any time. 6. Transferring from automatic to local manual should be done by first transferring to remote manual and then transferring from remote manual to local manual.
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STEAM SYSTEMS
UNDERWAY OPERATIONS - After boilers have been lighted off, the men on watch in the fireroom must pay constant attention to all details of boiler operation. In order to meet steam demands, the men on watch must keep close control over boiler water level, fuel oil pressures and temperatures, combustion air flow, and the operation of all auxiliary machinery serving the boilers. Most of the information given here on underway operations deals with manual, rather than automatic, operation of boilers. Most ships boilers are at present equipped with automatic control systems; and on ships, which do have automatic controls; the engineer must still be completely familiar with all manual-operating procedures. When an automatic control system is operating correctly under steady steaming conditions, the fireman watertender might almost seem to be unnecessary because the automatic controls take care of feed water, fuel oil, and combustion air demands. Automatic boiler controls installed in most ships operate with a high degree of accuracy and reliability; but they are designed to AID operating personnel, not to replace them. Trained personnel must always be available to check on the operation of the automatic controls, to deal with large changes in steam demand, and to operate the boilers manually in the event of casualty to the automatic controls. The following discussion of underway operations is divided into several sections: fireroom watches, control of boiler water level, control of fuel oil, control of combustion air, operation of fireroom auxiliaries, use of soot blowers, and use of blowdown. In studying this information, don't overlook the fact that a great many operations must be carried out at the same time. While you are studying about the control of fuel oil, for example, remember that the control of fuel oil is closely related to the control of combustion air; that both are closely related to the control of feed water; and that the flow of feed water, fuel oil, and combustion air depends upon the operation of the feed pumps, the fuel oil pumps, the forced draft blowers, and other auxiliary machinery. CONTROL OF WATER LEVEL - The control of boiler water level is of vital importance in boiler operation. Operating personnel must be constantly alert for any indication of malfunctioning in the feed water systems, the water gage glasses, and the valves or controls by which feed water is admitted to the boiler. Some important factors relating to the control of water level are discussed here. Water Gages and Indicators - Water gages and remote water level indicators are your source of information on the location of the water level in the boiler. On most boilers, the normal water level shows at the midpoint of the water gages or, in the case of staggered gages, at the midpoint between the bottom of the lower gage and the top of the higher gage. If the designed normal water level for a boiler is NOT shown at the midpoint of the gages, the location of the normal water level should be clearly marked on the gages. The water level should always be maintained as close as possible to the designed normal level. If the water level is higher or lower than normal BUT IF IT IS STILL VISIBLE IN ONE GAGE GLASS you can bring the water level back to normal by increasing or decreasing the amount of water fed to the boiler. If the water level cannot be seen at all, you have an emergency situation, which requires the IMMEDIATE securing of the boiler.
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STEAM SYSTEMS
If water gages and indicators are not functioning, you have no way of knowing where the water level is. Gage connections are easily clogged with dirt, scale, or other solid matter. Therefore the water gages must be blown through at frequent intervals in order to prevent false indications of water level. Water gages on most boilers must be blown down under the following conditions: 1. Before the boiler is connected to the steam line, the water gages must be blown down 2. At the end of each watch, the gages must be blown down 3. Water gages must be blown down whenever there is any reason at all to suspect that the gages are not registering the actual water level. If the water in the gages does not fluctuate with the roll and pitch of the ship, for example, you should suspect that the gages are not showing the true water level. NOTE: Water gage glasses used on some 600-psi boilers should not be blown down as often as the gages on older boilers. Follow any special instructions concerning the frequency of blowing down water gage glasses on 600-psi boilers.) The procedure for blowing down a water gage glass of the type used on most boilers is as follows: 1. Unhook the chains that connect the top and bottom valve handles. 2. Close the top cutout valve and open the drain at the bottom of the assembly. This allows water to flow through the bottom connection and clear away any obstructing material such as dirt or scale. 3. Open the top cutout valve and close the bottom cutout valve. This allows steam to flow through the top connection and clear it of any obstructing material. 4. Close the drain valve. 5. Open the bottom cutout valve. This allows water to enter the gage. Check the water level against the level shown on the other gage or on the remote water level indicator. 6. Hook the chains that connect the top and bottom valve handles. NOTE: The procedure for blowing down water gage glasses on some 600-psi boilers is somewhat different. After blowing down a water gage, be sure that both the valves are wide open and that the gage is indicating the correct water level. If there is any delay or sluggishness in the return of the water level to the gage, find out the cause of the trouble and correct it immediately. When checking the water level in a gage glass, be sure that the water level you see is actually the true water level. Sometimes a fine crack in the glass or a thin line of dirt can look almost exactly like the line of a water level. The slightest sign of oil in a water gage glass should be checked IMMEDIATELY. Even a small amount of oil in the boiler water is a serious casualty requiring immediate attention. Several types of remote water level indicators are now used aboard 'ship. Since procedures for putting the indicators into service and for blowing them down are not the same for all types, the
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manufacturer's technical manual should be consulted for this information. One precaution that applies to most remote water level indicators should be noted: Do NOT allow boiler water to reach the indicating part of the unit when you are blowing down a remote water level indicator. When two independent remote water level indicators and one water gage are installed on a boiler, the two remote indicators should be used as the controlling indicators of water level. Use the water gage glass as a check gage while the boiler is being lighted off. After the ship is under way, secure the gage glass provided, of course, that the two remote water level indicators show the same reading. Low Pressure Feed Alarms - Automatic low pressure feed alarms are installed on most ships to indicate low discharge pressure of the feed pump. The low pressure feed pump alarm should be checked frequently to see that it is energized. During the lighting off period, the alarm should be tested by the following procedure: 1. Start the feed PUMP and bring the discharge pressure up to normal. 2. Energize the low pressure feed alarm. 3. Reduce the feed pump discharge pressure to the pressure at which the alarm functions, so that you can tell whether or not the alarm is working. Manual Control of Water Level - When a boiler is being operated manually, the Fireman/Watertender controls the water level in the boiler by operation of the feed stop and check valves. The feed stop valve is kept wide open whenever the boiler is steaming, and the check valve is used to regulate the amount of feed water admitted to the boiler. If the water level goes down, the watertender opens the check valve a little wider. If the water level rises, the checkman closes down a little on the check valve. Adjustments of the water level should be made gradually, and only as necessary. Sudden fluctuations in the rate of feeding are not good for the boiler, not good for the feed pumps, and not good for boiler efficiency. During lighting off, securing, and maneuvering, the water level will of course fluctuate to some extent. But at all other times the water level should be kept at or very near the designed water level. As long as a boiler is furnishing steam, the feed supply must never be shut off entirely, even for a short time. The reason for this is that water must be kept flowing through the economizer at all times in order to prevent over-heating and possible casualties. One of the hardest parts of the watertenders job is learning to regulate the flow of feed water to meet changing steam demands. One reason why this is hard to learn is that boiler water swells and shrinks as the firing rate is changed. As the firing rate is increased, there is an increase in the volume of the boiler water. This increase, which is known as SWELL, occurs because there is an increase in the number and size of the steam bubbles in the water. As the firing rate is decreased, there is a decrease in the volume of the water. This decrease, which is known as SHRINK, occurs because there are fewer steam bubbles in the water and they are of smaller size. Thus, for a fixed WEIGHT of boiler water, the VOLUME varies with the rate of combustion.
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QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
So far, swell and shrink are easy enough to understand. But things get a little more complicated when you remember that the evaporation rate also increases as the firing rate increases, when the firing rate is increased, therefore, the watertender must remember to feed MORE water to the boiler, even though the water level has already risen momentarily because of swell. On the other hand, the watertender must remember to feed LESS water to the boiler when the firing rate is decreased, even though the water level has already dropped. The problems of priming, foaming, and carryover are closely related to the control of boiler water level. PRIMING is then usually used to describe the carryover of large gulps or slugs of water. Priming may occur as the result of a momentary high water level, which submerges the steam separators, or it may occur as the result of foaming of the boiler water. FOAMING occurs when the boiler water contains too much dissolved or suspended solid matter. When a considerable amount of foam piles upon the surface of the boiler water, some foam is likely to be carried over. Any type of carryover, whether large slugs of water or smaller amounts of foam and moisture, can cause extensive damage to superheaters, steam lines, turbines, and valves. Priming is particularly dangerous because large slugs of water can hit the turbine blades with such force that thrust bearings, blades, and shrouding will be wiped out. The proper control of boiler water level and the proper control of boiler water quality should almost completely eliminate priming, foaming, and carryover in modern boilers. While the boiler is operating, the surface blow line should be used as often as necessary to remove scum and foam from the surface of the water. An excessive amount of condensate running down from the top connection of the water gage glass may indicate that foaming and priming are occurring. This is particularly true if the excessive condensate is noted at the same time as rapid, momentary high water levels, which have no other apparent cause. Even the slightest indication of priming, foaming, or carryover should be immediately corrected. Automatic Control of Water Level - Boiler water level may be controlled automatically by multi-element feed water regulators or by single-element feedwater regulators Multi-element regulators are usually used in automatic feed water and combustion control systems. Single-element regulators are installed on many boilers, which are not equipped with complete automatic control systems. The problems of swell and shrink that give the watertender some trouble are also problems for automatic feed water regulators. Single element regulators are controlled only by the existing water level in the steam drum; therefore, they cannot compensate for swell and shrink as well as the watertender can. Multi element regulators, on the other hand, are controlled by the existing water level in the drum PLUS other factors such as feed water flow and steam flow or fuel oil flow. Multi-element regulators can therefore provide better control of water level than is possible with manual operation of the feed check valve.
USMMA GMATS
64
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
As a rule, automatic feed water regulators vary the supply of feed water by actuating a feed regulating valve in the main feed line between the feed stop and check valves and the economizer. When the automatic feed water regulator is in use, the feed stop and check valves must be fully open. When the automatic feed water regulator is not in use, the feed regulating valve must be fully open so that it cannot interfere with manual feeding of the boiler. SINGLE ELEMENT REGULATORS - Single element feed water regulators are installed primarily for the purpose of regulating boiler water level. The general arrangement of a single-element feed water regulator of a type commonly used on ships is shown in Figure 40. The instructions given here apply to this particular type of singleelement regulator. For information on other types of single-element regulators, consult the appropriate manufacturers' technical manuals. The single-element regulator should be blown down about once every 24 hours and, in addition, whenever the regulator is placed in service. To blow down the regulator, open the top and bottom shut-off valves (labeled E and F in Figure 40) and open the blowdown valve (P). The outer tube of the generator, the copper tube that connects the outer generator tube to the bellows, and the bellows are normally kept full of water. This water forms a closed system in the regulator, separate from the water and steam admitted by valves E and F. When this closed system is filled with water, cutting in the regulator is a simple process: 1. Blow down the regulator, as described before. 2. Close the blowdown valve (P) but leave valves E and F open. 3. Allow time for the generator to cool off. 4. When the generator has cooled off, release the handjack (K) so that the valve spring will be free to close the feed-regulating valve. As you release the handjack, the regulator will begin to take over and control the opening and closing of the feed-regulating valve. 5. Open the feed check valve FULLY so that the check valve will not interfere with the flow of feed water to the boiler. The procedure for putting the single-element regulator into service is more complicated if for any reason the closed system in the regulator is NOT full of water. In this case, the procedure is: 1. Release the handjack (K). 2. Disconnect the end of the tubing (R) from the metal bellows (D). 3. Remove the guard (H) from the bellows. 4. Place the bellows in a container filled with water. 5. With the open end of the bellows upward compress the bellows a number of times until all the air is removed and the bellows is completely filled with water. 6. Insert the end of the tubing marked R in the container of water, with the bellows. 7. Remove the generator plug (G) and siphon water from the container through the generator. Allow the water to run until all air has been carried out; then put the generator plug back in. 8. With the bellows under water, place the guard (H) over the bellows and connect the end of the tubing (R) to the bellows. Make sure that the bellows and the end of the tubing are completely submerged during this operation so that air cannot get into the system.
USMMA GMATS
65
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
9. Replace the guard and the bellows on the valve. 10. Release the handjack (K) so that the valve spring is free to close the feed regulating valve. 11. Remove the generator plug (G) and allow excess water to run out. 12. Replace the generator plug. Make sure that the plug and the connections at each end of the copper tubing are made up tight. 13. Blow down the generator (open valves E and F and the blowdown valve, P). 14. Allow the generator to cool off. 15. Release the handjack (K) so that the valve spring will be free to close the feed-regulating valve. 16. Open the feed check valve fully.
FIGURE 40 SINGLE-ELEMENT FEED WATER REGULATOR
USMMA GMATS
66
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
The single-element regulator is now in service, controlling the flow of feed water to the boiler. To cut out the single-element regulator, take the following action: 1. Close down on the feed check valve. Do NOT close the check valve completely; leave it open enough to permit feeding of the boiler under the existing steaming conditions. 2. As the feed check valve is being partially closed, use the handjack (K) to lock the feedregulating valve in the wide-open position. 3. Close the valves that connect the regulator to the steam and water spaces of the drum (valves E and F in Figure 41). The regulator is now out of service, and the water level must be controlled manually by operation of the feed check valve. MULTI-ELEMENT REGULATORS - When multi-element feed water regulators are installed, their use is required at all times. Primary, reliance for the control of water level must be placed in the multi-element regulators, NOT in manual operation of the feed check valve. When a multi-element regulator is in use, the man in charge of the watch must keep a close watch on the water level in the boiler. All boilers equipped with multi-element feed water regulators are also equipped with remote water level indicators, which may be read from the lower level of the fireroom. It is important to remember that the term "multi-element feed water regulator" actually refers to a feed water flow SYSTEM rather than to any one object or piece of equipment. A feed water flow control system includes a great many units that are installed in various locations around the boiler. The units in the system include devices for measuring the variables (steam flow, feed water flow, water level, etc.); devices for developing, combining, altering, and transmitting pneumatic signals; a feed water flow control valve and a control drive for positioning the valve; and an emergency device for controlling the feed water flow if the pneumatic system fails. All of these units together make up the feed water flow control system, which is usually referred to as a multi-element Some parts of a multi-element feed water regulator are shown in Figure 41. The feed water flow control valve consists of the valve itself and the diaphragm operator. The diaphragm operator receives air pressure above and below the diaphragm from the valve positioner. The amount of pressure from the valve positioner depends upon the pneumatic signals received by the positioner; thus the entire system acts to control the amount that the flow control valve is opened or closed. The emergency device is also shown in Figure 41. As may be seen, this device is very similar to a single-element feed water regulator. Under normal operating conditions, the pneumatic control system overpowers the emergency device so that the emergency device has no effect on the position of the feed water flow control valve. If the pneumatic system fails, however, the emergency device takes over and positions the flow control valve in accordance with the water level in the steam drum. Since the emergency device is controlled ONLY by the existing water level in the steam drum, it cannot control the water level as accurately as the multi-element regulator. It is therefore important to restore the multi-element regulator to service as soon as possible.
USMMA GMATS
67
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
Multi-element regulators are normally operated with the system set on automatic. However, they may be operated on remote manual by manipulating the feed water selector valves at the control consoles. If a multi-element regulator cannot maintain the correct water level in the boiler, switch from automatic to remote manual. If the water level cannot be, maintained by operation on remote manual, cut out the multi-element regulator, station a man at the feed check valve, and control the water level manually.
FIGURE 41 - MULTI-ELEMENT FEED WATER REGULATOR CONTROL OF FUEL OIL - The control of combustion involves heating the oil to atomizing temperature, forcing the oil into the furnace under pressure, supplying the proper amount of air for combustion, and supplying heat so that the oil will ignite and burn. Thus the control of fuel oil and the control of combustion air are the two basic requirements for efficient combustion in the boiler. Factors relating more or less directly to the control of fuel oil are discussed, here; the control of combustion air is discussed later in this chapter.
USMMA GMATS
68
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
Burner Sequence - The specified numerical or alphabetical sequence should be followed in lighting off and securing numbered or lettered burners and in changing, the number of burners in use. If burners are neither numbered nor lettered, a low burner in the middle of the firing front should be lighted off first. As additional burners are lighted off, they should be symmetrical about the first one. Changing the Firing Rate - The amount of steam that can be supplied by a boiler ranges from the amount obtainable with one burner fitted with the smallest size sprayer plate to the amount obtainable when all burners are in use and all are fitted with sprayer plates of the largest size allowed for that particular boiler. The two main ways of making large changes in firing rate are (1) by increasing or decreasing the number of burners in use, and (2) by changing the size of the sprayer plates in use. Smaller changes in firing rate may be taken care of by increasing or decreasing the fuel oil pressure. Size of Sprayer Plates - The capacity of a sprayer plate depends upon its size the larger the sprayer plate, the greater its capacity. In addition, sprayer plate capacity is affected by the oil pressure. Increasing the fuel oil pressure increases the capacity of a sprayer plate of any given size. The sprayer plates used in a boiler should normally all be of the same size. Using mixed sizes of sprayer plates in the same boiler results in an incorrect relationship between the combustion air pressure and some of the sprayer plates. If the air pressure is correct for some of the plates, it is bound to be wrong for others. Under some circumstance for example, when the ship is maneuvering at low firing rates it may be necessary to keep a smaller sprayer plate in one burner temporarily in order to prevent loss of fires. Under some other circumstances, it might be necessary to use one larger sprayer plate for a short time. In all cases, however, sprayer plates of uniform size should be used as soon as possible. Oversize sprayer plates-that is, plates larger than the largest size allowed for the ship-must NEVER be used. Fuel Oil Pressure - On most ships, a fuel oil pressure of 200 to 300 psi gives the best atomization of the fuel oil. Somewhat lower pressures may be used when the smaller sizes of sprayer plates are in use; however, the lower pressures are usually used only to take care of temporary maneuvering conditions. On ships having return-flow burners, the fuel oil supply pressure and the fuel oil return pressure are specified in the manufacturer's technical manual for the boilers. Fuel oil pressures used for return-flow burners are much higher than those used for burners that are designed for the straight through flow type of atomizer. Fuel Oil Temperature - Before fuel oil is burned in the boiler furnace, it must be heated to the temperature required for best atomization. The best atomization occurs when the oil is heated to a temperature that gives the oil a viscosity of 135 Seconds Saybolt Universal or 17.2 Seconds Saybolt Furol.
USMMA GMATS
69
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
USMMA GMATS
70
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
Since fuel oils differ in viscosity, the temperature required, to provide the prescribed viscosity also differs for the various fuel oils. After the best atomizing temperature has been determined for any particular shipment of fuel oil, the fuel oil heaters are used to maintain the oil at this temperature. During underway operations, you will need to keep a close check on the fuel oil temperature. Large changes in firing rate require changes in the amount of steam going to the fuel oil heaters. Operation of Fuel Oil Burners - Under normal steaming conditions, atomizer assemblies are kept in place, ready to be cut in when needed. Standby atomizer assemblies are usually made up ahead of time, with different sizes of sprayer plates, and are stowed in racks near the burner front. When steam demands change, the spare atomizer assemblies are ready to be inserted as necessary to meet the changing conditions. Suppose, for example, that the ship is steaming rapidly and steadily and that large size sprayer plates are in use in all burners. Suddenly a stop signal is given. The large size sprayer plates were just right for rapid steaming, but they have too great a capacity for the situation that now exists. In order to prevent a build up of pressure that would cause the safety valves to lift, the fireman must quickly remove the atomizer assemblies that are fitted with large size sprayer plates and replace them with atomizer assemblies fitted with smaller size sprayer plates. Before cutting in a burner, always check to be sure that an atomizer assembly has been inserted into the burner. If an atomizer assembly has not been inserted when you open the burner root valve, hot oil under pressure will spray out into the fire room. If the hot oil strikes you, it may cause serious burns. If it strikes a hot surface such as a pipe, it may flash into flame and cause a serious fire in the fireroom. After the atomizer assembly has been inserted into the burner head and locked in place, push the burner assembly into the furnace until the distance piece indicates that the burner is in the proper position. The distance piece must be pushed in far enough to keep the oil from hitting the brickwork, but not so far that it will allow air to enter the furnace without mixing with the oil. The correct position of the distance piece depends upon the number of burners in use and on the size of the sprayer plates in use. Slight adjustments in the position of the burner assembly may be made later, after the burner has been lighted off. After positioning the burner assembly, open the burner root valve, which permits fuel oil to flow from the burner manifold to the burner. Before opening this valve, be sure that the fuel oil pressure at the manifold is at least 250 psi (or, for return-flow burners, the pressure specified by the manufacturer). At lower fuel oil pressures, other burners already lighted-off may be extinguished as oil suddenly spurts from the manifold to the burner lighting off. This sets up the perfect situation for a very dangerous flareback. Oil continues to spray out from the extinguished burners; when this oil hits the hot brickwork in the furnace, a flareback is likely to result.
USMMA GMATS
71
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
After opening the burner root valve, open the air register to the correct position. Then crack open the atomizer valve that is located in the burner head. This atomizer valve allows fuel oil to flow through the burner head, through the atomizer valve, you may have to flip the air register shut for a moment to allow the flame from other burners to reach the burner you are cutting in. After you have cut in a burner, look through the peepholes at the boiler front and check the functioning of the boiler. Check for correct atomization of the oil. Be sure the flame is near the diffuser. Be sure the cone of atomized oil is as near the burner opening as it can be without actually hitting the refractories. As you operate the burners, watch the steam pressure gage and make whatever adjustments or changes are required to keep the steam pressure constant. Small changes in steam demand can be met by adjusting the micrometer valve on the burner manifold and thus controlling the oil pressure to the burners. To meet larger changes in steam demand you will have to cut in or secure burners or change the size of the sprayer plates. To cut out a burner, close the atomizer valve, close the air register, and retract the distance piece. NOTE: On some boilers, a very slight cracking of the air register is permitted when a burner is cut out. Follow the instructions given in the manufacturers technical manual for the boiler. When a burner has been cut out, close the burner root valve on the manifold and withdraw the atomizer assembly. If the burner is going to be used again almost immediately as, for example, when the ship is maneuvering and there are rapid changes in steam demand the burner root valve may be left open and the atomizer assembly may be left in place. But the normal procedure is to close the root valve and withdraw the atomizer. Atomizers should be changed at least once each watch, and more often if they appear to be dirty or clogged. As soon as you remove an atomizer assembly, drain all the oil out of it and then blow through it with steam. Most firerooms have steam brackets or steam lines rigged for this purpose. Before blowing through the atomizer, remove the tip, the sprayer plate, and the nozzle. Put these parts to soak in a pan of kerosene or diesel oil. After the carbon has softened up, clean and polish the tip, the sprayer plate, and the nozzle. At least once each watch, pole through the burner drain holes with a metal rod to make sure they are free of oil, carbon, and other material.
USMMA GMATS
72
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
USMMA GMATS
73
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
USMMA GMATS
74
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
USMMA GMATS
75
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
CONDENSER
USMMA GMATS
76
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
AIR EJECTOR
USMMA GMATS
77
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
AIR EJECTOR SYSTEM
USMMA GMATS
78
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
TWO STAGE AIR EJECTOR FLOW DIAGRAM SHOWING INTER & AFTER CONDENSERS AND GLAND EXHAUST CONDENSER
USMMA GMATS
79
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
DEAERATOR (D.C.) FEEDWATER HEATER
USMMA GMATS
80
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
DRUM INTERNALS CYCLONE SEPARATORS

QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
SOOTBLOWERS Devices used to clean the fireside of the heat transfer surface. Can be fixed in place or retractable. Use steam or air as blowing medium
STANDARD GOOSNECK SOOTBLOWER HEAD
USMMA GMATS
82
11/3/2006
QMED
STEAM SYSTEMS
SOOTBLOWERS
USMMA GMATS
83
11/3/2006
QMED
FUELS SYSTEMS
FUEL MAKE-UP FUEL MAKE-UP

CRUDE OIL OR CRUDE - Naturally occurring material found in the ground from the surface to more than 4 miles down. Discovered all over the world It is formed by the decomposition of marine animal and vegetable organic matter involving bacterial, heat, pressure and time. It is found between bedrock and caprock. No two crude oils are alike. There is a wide range of colors, smells and viscosities. There are three main groups Paraffins (also known as alkenes) both straight and branched chains Napthenes (also known as cycloparaffins) Aromatics/asphaltenes Arabian Light and North Sea Crude Contain a high proportion of low molecular weight hydrocarbons give high yields of petroleum gases, gasoline, kerosene, and JP and diesel fuel Libyan Crude High yields of middle distillates and, as it is highly paraffiinic, a high yield of paraffin wax. Venezuelan Crude Highly aromatic/asphaltene has very high residue and bitumen yield
USMMA-GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FUELS SYSTEMS
During the various stages and issues of drafts of the proposed British Standard Specification for marine fuels, finally issued at the end of 1982, ISO and CIMAC were kept fully informed of the progress before the final draft was agreed. It became apparent that the CIMAC Fuel Working Group, mainly representing diesel engine manufacturers worldwide, could not fully accept the draft BS Specification. Their views on this project were made known to the technical press in April 1982. The Group Chairman contended that the CIMAC minimum requirements for diesel engine fuels were not included in the draft British Standard. The minimum requirement was to ensure that when fuel quality deteriorated to the extent of causing engine operational difficulties there was at least one intermediate fuel suitable for older type engines (also presumably suitable for fuel-critical, medium and high-speed, trunk-piston engines). It was also stated that the Working Group. would incorporate CIMACs minimum requirements. These modified requirements would, in due course, form the basis of the projected International Standard. Engine builders continue to their own recommendations for residual fuels for the various engines; they design and build, as they consider that this is in the ship owners best interest. It is contended by CIMAC that the engine builders internal fuel specifications represent the legal basis for trouble-free engine operation and that in the near future these builders specifications would be based on the CIMAC recommendations (after April, 1982). In view of all of the variable factors involved it would seem to this writer to be virtually impossible for an engine builder, even with wide experience of burning various grades of residual fuel, under all operating conditions, to draft a meaningful specification for residual fuels which could be burned to satisfactorily in his engines, of various types, ages and mechanical conditions, while at the same time insuring that such fuels could be available worldwide. Whether all CIMAC requirements will be incorporated into the ISO Specifications, when finalized remains to be seen, as even the final draft standard has not yet been officially released. In the meantime the current CIMAC requirements or specification for the intermediate Fuel Oils dated January 1982 are reproduced in Table 1 for guidance. Similarly, draft ISO Standard grades are included, with the corresponding CIMAC and BS Grades where applicable. This appears to be somewhat premature, as no official information on ISO Standard Grades, even in draft form, has been published to date. Consequently, the author feels unable to comment upon draft ISO Grades as outlined. However, the CIMAC Specification confirms that in both CIMAC and ISO Specifications the kinematic viscosity will be determined at 100C, instead of 80as in BS-MA100. This will add to the confusion on fuel viscosities and supports the view that it would be helpful to determine the viscosity at two different temperatures. CIMAC lists the twelve Intermediate grades for use in diesel engines, but only three grades, CIMAC-3, CIMAC-6 and CIMAC-10, are considered to be sufficient for most circumstances and these should be given preference and used exclusively if possible. For ready reference, these three grades are printed in bold type in Table 1
USMMA-GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FUELS SYSTEMS
CIMAC-3 is identical to BS Grade M4 except that the Conradson carbon residue to 10% in place of 14% and the maximum vanadium content at 150PPM (mg/kg) in place of 300. CIMAC-6 is identical to BS Grade M6, except that the CCR is limited to 15% max in place of 20%, the ash content 0.10% against 0.15% and the vanadium content 200ppm instead of 500ppm. These are significant reductions and the two CIMAC Grades represent higher-quality fuels. CIMAC-10 is, however, identical to BS Grade M8. It is considered to be important that, when available, the engine builders fuel specification limits should not be exceeded. It would seem to be advisable for a shipowner to ensure that the engine builders fuel requirements are met when ordering bunkers by stipulating acceptable limits to the various properties of a fuel, in line with the builders limits. If the fuel supplier accepts these limits as a condition of purchase, then it becomes a legally binding contract. This could, of course, raise problems of availability in some areas. It might also increase the price of fuel locally of it has to be blended specially to meet a shipowners requirements. CIMAC advise that, until the ISO Specification is issued, most engine builders have agreed to publish their own company specifications based upon the CIMAC recommendations, but with slight alterations and additions to suit their engine designs. The individual company fuel specifications are said to represent the basis for trouble-free engine operations. This appears to put a lot of responsibility on the shoulders of the engine builders. Although specialists in their own field, they cannot be expected to be specialists in fuel technology. Only time and operating experience, particularly with poor-quality fuels, will prove whether this is the correct approach. With all the variables involved, it is virtually impossible to draw up a fuel specification covering all residual fuels, refined by various methods from the many different types of crude available, together with all the types of engine design, mechanical condition, efficiency of fuel heating and treatment under various operating conditions, while still ensuring a trouble-free operation at an acceptable price and equally important, availability of a fuel worldwide. It is apparent that drawing up a meaningful fuel specification is most difficult and that the best possible compromise should be reached
USMMA-GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FUEL OIL SYSTEMS
TABLE 1 - INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON COMBUSTION ENGINES (CIMAC) REQUIREMENTS FOR SPECIFICATIONS OF INTERMEDIATE FUELS, APRIL 1982 - (GRADES IN BOLD TYPE ARE RECOMMENDED BY CIMAC)
CIMAC classification ISO Draft Standard* Class BS-MA100 Old viscosity designation Density at 15C (g/ml) (max.) Kinematic Viscosity At 40 C (cSt) (max.) Kinematic Viscosity At 100 C (cSt) (max.) Kinematic Viscosity At 50 C(Approx.) (cSt) (max.) Redwood 1 Viscosity 100FApprox (s) (max) PM closed flash point (min.) Pour Point (upper) (C) 1 December 31 March (max) 1 April 30 November (max) Ramsbottom carbon residue (%mass)(max.) Conradson Carbon residue (%mass)(max.) Ash Content (%mass)(max.) Water Content (%mass)(max.) Sulfur Content (%mass)(max.) Vanadium Content (ppm (mg/kg)) (max.) Aluminum Content ppm (mg/kg)) (max.) 1 DM10C M3 0.920 14.0 2 RM10C M4 IF40 0.991 10 40 80 60 0 6 2.5 0.05 0.30 2.0 100 30 300 60 24 24 14 0.10 0.50 3.5 300 30 3 RM10B IF40 0.991 10 40 300 60 24 24 10 0.10 0.50 3.5 150 30 4 RM10A IF40 0.970 10 40 300 60 0 6 10 0.10 0.50 3.5 150 30 5 RM15D M5 IF80 0.991 15 80 600 60 30 30 14 0.10 0.80 4.0 350 30 6 RM25E IF180 0.991 25 180 1500 60 30 30 15 0.10 1.0 5.0 200 30 7 RM-25F M6 IF180 0.991 25 180 1500 60 30 30 20 0.15 1.0 5.0 500 30 8 RM35H M7 IF380 0.991 9 RM35K M10 IF380 10 RM45M M8 IF500 0.991 45 500 5000 60 30 30 22 0.20 1.0 5.0 600 30 11 RM45K M11 IF500 12 RM55H M9 0.991 45 700 5000 60 30 30 22 0.20 1.0 5.0 600 30 45 700 7000 60 30 30 22 0.20 1.0 5.0 600 30
35 300 3000 60 30 30 22 0.20 1.0 5.0 600 30
* ISO Specification in draft stage only. Figures may be altered when Specification finalized. Kinematic viscosity as 50C not included in CIMAC Specification but included for convenience. Suitable test for determining aluminum content us under preparation. (1) Total Existing sediment considered: suitable ISO test method is being developed. (2) Ignition quality considered important, but no suitable test method currently available.
USMMA-GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FUEL OIL SYSTEMS
TABLE 2 - PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL STRAIGHT-RUN, ALL-DISTILLATE MARINE DIESEL FUELS Property Middle East Venezuela North America SG (relative density) at 15C 0.850 0.862 0.860 Redwood 1 viscosity at 100 F (38C) (s) 38 46 44.5 Kinematic Viscosity at 40C (cSt) 4.72 7.3 6.82 PM closed flash point (F,C) 210/98.9 180/82.2 1180/82.2 Pour point (F, C) 15/-9.4 6/-15 46/7.8 Cloud point (F, C) 50/10 Cetane Number 54 38 43 Diesel Index 56 43 Conradson carbon residue (% mass) NEG. NIL 0.09 Distillation: initial boiling point (C) 228 201 240 50% recovered at (C) 300 314 290 final boiling point (C) 355 above 380 390 Ash content (% mass) neg. nil. 0.05 Sediment content neg nil. neg. Sulfur content (%mass) 1.3 0.92 0.20 Asphaltene content (%mass) nil nil nil Vanadium content (ppm) nil nil 2 Sodium content (ppm) nil nil 1 Gross calorific value (Btu/lb,MJ,kg) 19 380/45.6 19 380/45.1 19 500/45.3
USMMA-GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FUELS SYSTEMS
Fuels Specification of marine fuels

Warning The handling and used of fuels as specified in this International Standard may be hazardous, if suitable precautions are not observed. This International Standard dies not purport to address all of the safety problems associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. 1. Scope This International Standard specifies the requirements for petroleum fuels for use in marine equipment designers and for suppliers and purchase of marine fuels. Notes 1. For the purpose of this International Standard, the term petroleum is used to include oil form tar sands and from shale. 2. Requirements for gas turbine fuels used in marine applications are given in ISO 4261. This International Standard set out the required properties of the fuels at the time and place of custody transfer. This International Standard describes four categories of distillate fuel, one of which is for diesel engines for emergency purpose. It also describes fifteen categories of fuel containing residual components, two of which are specified without a density limit. This International Standard takes into account the international requirements for flash point as given by the International Maritime Organization (see reference 1 in Annex F). Information on limitations of flash point, when applied to residual fuel oil grades as specified in table 2, is given in Annex E. The categories of fuel have been classified in this International Standard in accordance with ISO 8216-1. This International Standard does not imply the availability of all the categories of fuel at all ports. 2. Normative References The following standards contain provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute provisions of this International Standard. At the time of publication the editions indicated were valid. All standards are subject to revision, and parties to agreements based on this International Standard are encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the most editions of the standards indicated below. Members of IEC and ISO maintain registers of current valid International Standard. ISO 91-1:1992, Petroleum measurement tables Part 1: Tables based on reference temperatures of 15C of 60F. ISO 2719:1988, Petroleum products and lubricants Determination of flash point Pensky-Martens closed cup method.
USMMA-GMATS
11/3/2006
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FUELS SYSTEMS
ISO 3015:1992, Petroleum products Determination of cloud point ISO 3016:1994, Petroleum products Determination of pour point ISO 3104:1994, Petroleum products Transparent and opaque liquids Determination of kinematic viscosity and calculations of dynamic viscosity ISO 3170:1988, Petroleum liquids Manual sampling ISO 3171:1988, Petroleum liquids Automatic pipeline sampling ISO 3675:1993, Crude petroleum and liquid petroleum products Laboratory determination of density or relative density Hydrometer method ISO 3733:1), Petroleum products and bituminous materials - Determination of water Distillation method ISO 3735:1975, Crude petroleum and fuel oils - Determination of sediment Extraction method ISO 4259:1992, Petroleum products Determination and application of precision data in relation to methods of test ISO 4261:1993, Petroleum products Fuels (class F) Specification of gas turbine fuels for industrial and marine applications ISO 4264:1995, Petroleum products Calculation of cetane index of middle-distillate fuels by the four variable equation ISO 5165:1992, Diesel fuels - Determination of ignition quality Cetane method ISO 6245:1993, Petroleum products Determination of ash ISO 8216-1:1996, Petroleum products Fuels (class F) Classification Part 1: Categories of marine fuels. ISO 8754:1992, Petroleum products Determination of sulfur content Energydispersive X-ray fluorescence method ISO 10307-1:1993, Petroleum products Total sediment in residual fuel oils Part 1: Determination by hot filtration ISO 10307-2:1993, Petroleum products Total sediment in residual fuel oils Part 2: Determination using standard procedures for ageing ISO 10370:1993, Petroleum products Determination of carbon residue Micro method ISO 10478:1994, Petroleum products Determination of aluminum and silicon in fuel oils Inductively coupled plasma emission and atomic absorption spectroscopy methods. ISO 12182 2), Crude petroleum and petroleum products Determination of denity Oscillating U-tube method ISO 14597 - 2), Petroleum products Determination of vanadium and nickel in liquid fuels Wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence method.
1) To be published. (Revision of ISO 3733:1976) 2) To be published
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3. Sampling The sampling of petroleum fuels for analysis, for the purposes of this International Standard, shall be carried out in accordance with the procedures given in ISO 3170, ISO 3171 or an equivalent national standard 4. General requirements 4.1. The fuels shall be blends of hydrocarbons derived from petroleum refining. This shall not preclude the incorporation of small amounts of additives intended to improve some aspects of performance. The fuels shall be free from inorganic acid. Note 3 The fuel should not include and added substance or chemical waste which - Jeopardizes the safety of ships or adversely affects the performance of the machinery or - Is harmful to personnel; or - Contributes overall to additional air pollution. 4.2. The properties of the fuels shall not exceed the maximum values nor be less than the minimum values specified in Tables 1 and 2, when tested by the methods referred therein. 4.3. The presence of abrasive catalyst fines is controlled by measurement of content of aluminum plus silicon; further information on catalyst fines is given in Annex D. 5. Determination of other properties 5.1. Equations for calculating the gross and net specific energies of fuels are given in Appendix A, if required 5.2. It has not been possible to reach agreement on a direct method of handling ignition quality in a way that would enable this parameter to be included in the mandatory part of this International Standard. It is nevertheless recognized that a measure of ignition quality control already exists via density and viscosity within the mandatory standard. For engines and/or applications where ignition quality is known to be particularly critical, Annex B provides a basis for suppliers and purchasers of marine bunker fuels to agree on acceptable ignition quality characteristics. 5.3. Approximate conversions of viscosity measurements to temperatures different to 100C are
given in Annex C.
6. Test methods 6.1. General - The requirements in tables 1 and 2 shall be determined by use of the latest edition of the test methods cited therein. 6.2. Appearance - Visually inspect the sample in good light, free from glare and shadow, at a temperature between 10C and 25C. It shall appear clear and bright. 6.3. Density - When density is determined in accordance with ISO 3675, The hydrometer readings obtained at ambient temperature on distillate fuels, and at elevated temperatures of between 50C and 60C on fuels containing residual components, shall be converted to results at 15C using table 53B of ISO 91-1, When density is determined in accordance with ISO 12185, an appropriate correction for glass expansion coefficient shall be applied to readings obtained by digital density analyzer at any temperature other than 15C, before conversion and application of table 538 of ISO91-1. 6.4. Flash point - The flash point for all categories is determined in accordance with ISO 2719.
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NOTE 4 - For category DMX, alternative closed-cup methods may be agreed between supplier and user. 6.5. Cloud point - The cloud point is applicable only to category DMX and shall be determined in accordance with ISO 3015. 6.6. Sulfur content - The reference test for compliance with this International Standard is given in ISO 8754. In some geographical areas, other methods may be specified by national authorities for environmental control, NOTE 5 - In the event of a dispute between supplier and receiver concerning sulfur content, both parties should agree, prior to testing, upon a common sulfur calibration standard, certified by a responsible standards organization, 6.7. Cetane number - The cetane numbers of categories DMX, DMA, and DMB shall be determined in accordance with IS05165. NOTE 6 - If an engine is not available to carry out this determination, ISO 4264 may be used for determination by calculation, with the same limiting values. 6.8. Aluminum and silicon - These elements shall be determined in accordance with ISO 10478, using either atomic absorption spectroscopy or inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy. The sum of the two elements shall be reported. 6.9. Total sediment potential - The method given in ISO 10307-2 for determination of potential sediment (Procedure A) shall be the reference method. NOTE 7 - The method for- determination of accelerated sediment (Procedure B) in the same International Standard may be used for quality control purposes. 7. Precision and interpretation of test results 7.1 General - The test methods specified in clause 6 all contain a statement of precision (repeatability and reproducibility). Attention is drawn to ISO 4259:1992, clauses 9 and 10, which cover the use of precision data in the interpretation of test results, and this method shall be used in cases of dispute. 7.2 Cloud point results - For cloud point, the testing margin described in ISO 4259:1992, 8.2 shall not apply. If a single test result is above -16C, the procedure specified in ISO 4259, 1992, clause 9 shall apply.
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Table 1 - REQUIREMENTS FOR MARINE DISTILLATE FUELS

Characteristic Appearance Density at 15C, kg/M3 Viscosity at 40 OC, mm2/s 2) Limit Category ISO-FDMX DMA DMB DMC Visual max. 1) 890,0 900,0 920,0 1,40 5.50 43 1,50 6,00 60 11,0 60 14,0 60 Test method reference See 6.2 ISO 3675 or ISO 12185 (see also 6.3) IS03104 IS03104 ISO 2719 (see also 6.4)
Flash point, C Pour point (upper), C 3) - winter quality max. -6 0 0 IS03016 - summer quality max. 0 6 6 IS03016 4) Cloud point, C max. -16 ISO 3015 (see also 6.5) Sulfur, % (m/m) max. 1'0 1.5 2,0 2,0 ISO 8754 (see also 6.6) Cetane number min. 45 40 35 ISO 5165 (see also 6.7) 0,30 max. 0,30 Carbon residue [micro method, IS010370 10 % (V/V) distillation bottoms], % (m/m) IS010370 2,50 0,30 Carbon residue (micro method),, max. % (m/m) Ash, % (m/m) max. 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,05 IS06245 Sediment. % (m/m) max, 0,07 ISO3735 Total existent sediment, % (m/m) max. 0,10 IS010307-1 Water, % (V/V) max. 0,3 0,3 IS03733 Vanadium, mg/kq max. 10 IS014597 Aluminum plus silicon, mg/kg max. 25 ISO 10478 (see also 6.8) 1) In some geographical areas there may be a maximum limit. 2) 1 mm2/s = 1 cSt 3) Purchasers should ensure that this pour point is suitable for the equipment on board, especially if the vessel operates in both the northern and southern hemispheres. 4) This fuel is suitable for use without heating at ambient temperatures down to -15C.
min. max. min.
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Table 2 - REQUIREMENTS FOR MARINE RESIDUAL FUELS

Characteristic
Density at 15C, kg/m3 Kinematic viscosity 100C mm2/s1 Flash point C Pour point (upper), C2) - winter quality - surnmer quality Carbon residue, % (m/m) Ash, % (m/m) Water. % (V/V) Sulfur, % (m/m Vanadium, mg/kg Aluminum plus silicon, mg/kg Total sediment, potential, % (m/m) at
Category ISO-FTest method Limit RMA RMB RMC RMD RME RMF RMG RMH RMK RMH RMK RML RMH RMK RML reference
10 10 10 15 25 25 35 35 35 46 45 45 55 59 55 max max min. max max max max. max. max max. rnax. max. 150 80 0,10 10 0,10 0,5 3,5 300 975,0 981,0 10,0 60 0 6 14 985,0 15,0 60 24 24 14 0,10 0,8 4,0 350 80 0,10 200 80 0,10 991,0 25,0 60 30 30 15 20 0,10 0,15 1,0 5,0 500 300 80 0,10 18 0,15 991,0 35,0 60 30 30 22 0,20 1,0 5,0 600 22 0,20 1,0 5,0 600 08 0,10 1010,0 991,0 1010,0 45,0 60 30 30 22 0,20 1,0 5,0 600 80 0,10 991,0 1010,0 55,0 60 30 30 ISO 3675 or ISO 12185 (see also 6.3) ISO 3104 ISO 2719 (see also 6-4) ISO 3016 ISO 3016 ISO 10370 ISO 6245 ISO 3733 ISO 8754 (see also (5,6) ISO 14597 ISO 10478 (see also 6.8) ISO10307-2 (see also 6.9)
1) Annex C gives a brief viscosity/temperature table, for information purposes only. 1mm2/s = 1 cSt. 2) Purchasers should ensure that this pour point is suitable for the equipment on board especially if the vessel operates in both the northern and southern hemispheres.
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ANNEX A (informative) Specific energy where A.1 Specific energy is not controlled in the manufacture of fuel except in a secondary manner by the specification of other properties. Specific energy, in megajoules per kilogram, can be calculated with a degree of accuracy acceptable for normal purposes from the equations given below. Specific energy (gross), QG = (52,190 - 8,802P2104) x x [1 - 0,01 (x +y + s)] + 9,420 (0,01s) Specific energy (net), QG = (46,704 - 8,802p210-6 + 3,167pl 0-3) x x [1 - 0,01 (x +y + s)] + 0,01 (9,420s - 2,449x) p x y s is the density at 15C. in kilograms per cubic meter; is the water content, expressed as a percentage by mass; is the ash content, expressed as a percentage by mass; is the sulfur content, expressed as a percentage by mass.
A.2 Alternatively, for the purposes of rapid estimation, the gross and net specific energies may be conveniently read off from figures A. 1 and A.2, which have been derived from the equations given in clause A. 1. However, the values obtained may be only approximate.
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FIGURE A.1 GROSS SPECIFIC ENERGY, IN MEGAJOULES PER KILOGRAM OF MARINE FUELS NOTES 1. To correct fir ash and water, subtract 0,01QG (% ash + %water) from gross specific energy (QG) read from this graph. 2. Values read from this figure may no agree exactly with the calculated values (see clause A.2) and should be considered as approximate
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FIGURE A.2 NET SPECIFIC ENERGY, IN MEGAJOULES PER KILOGRAM OF MARINE FUELS NOTES 1. To correct for ash and water, subtract 0,01QN (% ash + %water) from net specific energy (QN) read from this graph. 2. Values read from this figure may no agree exactly with the calculated values (see clause A.2) and should be considered as approximate
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ANNEX B (informative) Ignition quality B.1 Application - Ignition performance requirements of residual fuels in marine diesel engines are primarily determined by engine type and, more significantly, by engine operating conditions. Fuel factors influence ignition characteristics to a much lesser extent. For this reason no where general limits for ignition quality can be applied, since a value which may be problematical to one engine under adverse conditions may perform quite satisfactorily in many other instances. If required, further guidance on acceptable ignition quality values should be obtained from the engine manufacturer. B.2 Use of the nomogram - The extension of a straight line connecting the viscosity and the density of a fuel oil can be used to give either its calculated ignition index (CII, see reference [3] in annex F) or calculated carbon aromaticity index (CCAI, see reference [4] in annex F) value, which allow ranking of its ignition performance. These values can also be calculated using the following equations. CII = (270,795 + 0,103 8T) - 0,254 565p + + 23,708 lg [lg (v + 0,7) and CCAI = p 81 141 lg [lg (v + 0, 85)]-
T + 273 - 483 lg 323 T is the temperature, in degrees Celsius, at which the kinematic viscosity is determined; is the kinematic viscosity, in square millimeters per second; is the densfty at 15 "C, in kilograms per cubic meter.
v p
NOTES 8) In this International Standard, marine distillate categories DMX, DMA and DMB (see table 1) have a minimum specified cotene number (see ISO 5165). It an estimation of the actual ignition quality of distillate fuels specified in table 1 is required. it is suggested that ISO 4264 may provide a better approximation of ignition quality Than the CCA1 or C11 parameters, which were primarily developed to be used for residual fuels of the type specified in table 2. 9) Work is continuing in a number of countries to identify alternative techniques for determining the overall combustion behavior of residual fuels. 10) lg is the logarithm to base 10.
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FIGURE B.1 NOMOGRAM FOR DERIVING CCAI AND CII
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ANNEX - C (informative) Viscosity conversions
This international Standard specifies limiting values of kinematic viscosity at 100C for the fuel categories contained in table 2. In some cases kinematic viscosity may be measured or quoted at other temperatures, and table C. I below gives approximate relationships.
The data should be used with caution, firstly since the precision of measurements at temperatures other than 100 OC may differ, and secondly because the variability of composition of residual fuels may cause variations in viscosity temperature relationships.
Table C.1 VISCOSITY ESTIMATED FROM THOSE MEASURE AT 100C Kinematic viscosity, mm2/s 1) Measured at 100C Approximate estimation at 40C 50C 80C 130C 10.0 80 50 17 5.5 15.0 170 100 28 7.5 25.0 425 225 50 11.0 35.0 780 390 75 14.5 45.0 1240 585 105 17.5 55.0 1790 810 130 20.5 2 1) 1 mm /s = 1 cSt.
ANNEX - D (imformaive) Catalyst fines
The main source of potentially abrasive particulates in bunker fuels is catalyst fines. The selected control parameter, aluminum plus silicon, with limit values for all fuels in table 2 and category DMC in table 1, is intended to limit catalyst fines contamination to a level that will ensure minimum risk or abrasive wear, given that adequate fuel pretreatment is carried out. These are significant variations from refinery to refinery in the proportions of the aluminum and the silicon compounds that comprise catalyst fines. The combined aluminum and silicon limit value of 80 mg/kg is intended, therefore, to ensure that
catalyst contamination would be no higher on average than would have been implied by the limit of 30 mg/kg, previously proposed for aluminum only, thus reflecting such variations. The aluminum plus silicon requirement of 80 mg/kg maximum is therefore to be used in place of, not in combination with, a 30 mg/kg aluminum only limit. The lower limit for aluminum plus silicon applied to category DMC (25 mg/kg) is based in the proportion of residual fuel that may be expected to be part of this product
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ANNEX E (informative) Flash point - Residual fuel oils
Whilst flash point is a valid indicator of the fire hazard posed by residual fuel oil, information is available which shows that it is not a reliable indicator of the flammability conditions that can exist within the headspaces of tanks containing such fuel oils. This means that residual fuel oil can have the potential to produce a flammable atmosphere in the tank headspace, even when stored at a temperature below the measured flash point.
Consequently residual fuel oils should be considered to be potentially hazardous and" capable of producing light hydrocarbons which could result in tank headspace atmospheres being near to, or within, the flammable range. Appropriate precautions are necessary therefore to ensure the safety of people and property. Further information and advice on precautionary measures are given in references [5] and [6] in annex F.
ANNEX F (informative) Bibliography (1) International Maritime Organization (IMO), Convention for Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) 1974, Amendment 1, Chapter II-2, Regulation 15. (2) ISO 8216-0:1986, Petroleum products Fuels 151 (class F) - Classification Part 0: General. (3) BARNES G.K, Liddy J.P. and MARSHALL E.G., The Ignition Quality of Residual Fuels, CIMAC paper 25, Warsaw, June 1987. (4) NEWBERY P.J., DAVIES T.A.C. and CHOMSE K.M. Heavier Residual Fuels
for Marine Diesel Engines, 6th International Motorship Conference, London, March 1984. (5) The Flammability Hazards associated with the Handling, Storage and Carriage of Residual Fuel Oil. Published by the Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF), December 1989. (6) International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT), Published by the International Chamber of Shipping.
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Lower Heating value, (LHV) = 18500 BTU per Pound Bunker C Fuel Oil Characteristics Chemical Composition (Percent by Weight)
Higher Heating value, (HHV) = 19300 BTU per Pound Bunker C Fuel Oil Characteristics Chemical Composition (Percent by Weight)
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AMOUNT BY WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF AIR REQUIRED AND FLUE GAS PRODUCED WHEN 1LB OF FUEL IS BURNED.
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Heavy Fuel Oil

GUIDING FUEL OIL SPECIFICATIONS (MAXIMUM VALUES)
Density at 15 C
kg/m3 cSt cSt
991* 55 700
Kinematic viscosity
At 100 C At 50 C
Flash Point Pour Point Carbon residue Ash Total sediment after ageing Water Sulfur Vanadium Aluminum + Silicon
Equal to ISO 8217/CIMAC H55
C C %(m/m) %(m/m) %(m/m) %(v/v) %(m/m) mg/kg mg/kg
>60 30 22 0.15 0.10 1.0 5.0 600 80
1010 provided automatic modern clarifiers are installed
MAN B&W
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DIESEL ENGINE RESIDUAL FUEL OIL AND DIESEL OIL SERVICE SYSTEM
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FUEL TREATMENT AND SERVICE SYSTEM
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ELECTRO-MOTIVE DIVISION, G-M, UNIT INJECTOR DIESEL SHIP
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FUEL SYSTEM FOR SULZER RND.M ENGINES (SULZER DRAWING) DIESEL ENGINE
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. MAIN ENGINE FUEL INJECTION PUMP ON MAIN ENGINE FUEL OIL BOOSTER PUMP STEAM FUEL END-HEATER SUCTION FILTER, HEATABLE DUPLEX FILTER, HEATABLE MIXING TANK, HEATABLE AND INSULTAED HEAVY OIL SETTLING TANK, HEATABLE 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. HEAVY OIL DAILY TANKS, HEAT ABLE DIESEL OIL DAY TANK CONDENSATION WATER TRAP FUEL OIL FLOW METER THREE-WAY VALVE PNEUMATIC OR ELECTRIC OPERATED SPRING-LOADED ADJUSTABLE RELIEF VALVE ON MAIN ENGINE PRESSURE GAUGE
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STRAIGHT MECHANICAL FUEL OIL SYSTEM- STEAM SHIP
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STRAIGHT MECHANICAL ATOMIZER
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MECHANICAL ATOMIZER (BABCOCK & WILCOX) STEAM
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STEAM ATOMIZER
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STEAM ATOMIZED FUEL OIL SYSTEM
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RETURN FLOW FUEL OIL SYSTEM
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RETURN FLOW ATOMIZER STEAM
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AIR REGISTER (TODD)
AIR REGISTER, FURNACE VIEW (TODD)
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BURNER ASSEMBLY
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STEAM SPRAYER PLATE BABCOCK & WILCOX - RACER
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MECHANICAL SPRAYER PLATE
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STEAM ATOMIZER (COHEN)
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ATOMIZER TIP PROJECTION, BABCOCK & WILCOX BURNER
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CUTAWAY VIEW OF A DISK-TYPE FUEL OIL METER
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FUEL OIL VENT ASSEMBLY
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TANK VENT OUTLET
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FUEL OIL MANIFOLD VALVE MANIFOLD SHOWING CUTAWAY VIEW OF THE VALVES AND TYPICAL COMBINATION OF SUCTION DISCHARGE VALVES
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FUEL OIL HEATER
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FUEL OIL TRANSFER MANIFOLD
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DIESEL FUEL-OIL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

A. CENTRIFUGES - There is often confusion between the maximum throughput or rated capacity of a centrifuge and the recommended service capacity. The rated capacity gives the maximum volume of fuel that can be passed through the machine. This is usually based on the treatment of light distillate fuel at ambient temperature. The recommended service capacity is the amount that can be passed through the machine at maximum separating efficiency. This is based essentially upon the dynamic viscosity of the fuel at the separation temperature. The maximum separation temperature, irrespective of viscosity, has an upper limit of 98C. Above this temperature there is a risk of the water seal being lost due to the formation of steam bubbles.
Based upon centrifuge tests with fuels varying viscosity from marine diesel oil (taken as 85 sec Redwood 1 at 100F or 14 cS at 40C) to the most viscous fuel likely to be sold for marine bunkers, namely, 6000 sec Redwood 1 at 100F or approximately 600 cS at 50C, the maximum throughput capacities for the different viscosities are recommended by the various purifier manufacturers. For Bunker C fuels and those more viscous, a maximum separation temperature of 98C is recommended. To select a centrifuge that will provide maximum separating efficiency, the rated capacity of the centrifuge must be divided by a factor that is a function of the fuel viscosity. For fuel viscosities of 180, 380, and 600 cSt, the rated centrifuge capacity is divided by 3.3, 4.0, and 6.7, respectively, to determine the recommended service capacity for maximum separating efficiency. That is, the more viscous the fuel, the lower the recommended throughput rate and the larger the centrifuge required. The difference in specific gravity between the fuel being processed and water, either fresh or salt, also influences the separation efficiency. Straight-run residual fuels seldom have a specific gravity that exceeds about 0.96, whereas the specific gravity of cracked residual fuels can exceed unity. The specific gravity of most fuels is inversely proportional to the temperature; however, the specific gravity of water does not have a straight-line relationship with temperature. The maximum difference between the specific gravities of oil and water occurs at about 85C, and is slightly less at 98C. From a specific gravity point of view, there is no advantage in heating the fuel above about 85C. However, by increasing the temperature to 98C, there is a marked reduction in the viscosity of the fuel, which permits a more effective separation of sludge and solids. Centrifuge manufacturers' generally agree that to effectively separate water and solids from high specific gravity, high viscosity residual fuels, the throughput must be substantially less than that appropriate for less-dense, less-viscous fuels. For engines that are intended to be operated on residual fuel, it is recommended that the centrifuge capacity be designed to treat fuels characterized as 600 cSt viscosity at 50C with a maximum specific gravity of 0.991 and up to 5% water and possibly 2% sludge. A centrifuge having this capacity should be able to treat the poorest fuels likely to be offered as diesel engine fuels.
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Two properly sized, correctly operated, self-cleaning centrifuges are considered necessary to provide a reliable fuel-treatment system. Most engine warranties become invalid if centrifuges are not used. To establish and maintain effective separator procedures, several fundamental principles should be noted: The centrifuge is the first major stage of fuel treatment. To treat contaminated fuel oils, supplementary systems, in addition to the centrifuges, are required. These supplementary systems can consist of fine filtration, demulsifier chemicals, and homogenizer emulsifiers. Each centrifuge should be supplied with all parts necessary to operate as a purifier and as a clarifier as well as complete spares and a complete set of tools. The single centrifuge flow rate (for series operation) or the combined centrifuge flow rate (for parallel operation) must not exceed the engine demand by more than 10%. All residual fuel oil centrifuges should be on-line and operated continuously. This increases the effective fuel treatment time and further reduces contaminants. To properly adjust and operate a centrifuge, the following residual fuel oil properties must be known: - viscosity, - specific gravity (or density), - compatibility of fuel oil, - water content, - mash content (bottom sediment content is an alternative), and - catalyst fines content (aluminum content is an alternative). This information can be used to make decisions on fuel treatment options. When fuel is transferred to a settling tank from a different source, a specific gravity check of the settling tank should be made and the centrifuge gravity disk should be checked to ensure that it is correct. The centrifuge is the foundation of the total shipboard fuel treatment system. Its efficient operation is critical to the safety and reliability of the engines. Its operation must be thoroughly understood so that the shipboard engineers can immediately troubleshoot fuel-oil problems when they occur. Some conditions that can cause centrifuge mal-operation include the following: Incorrect fuel handling before the separator, such as: improper barge blending, incompatible fuels, and emulsified fuels. Improper flow, such as: varying flow rates, excessive flow rate, or flow with varying densities. Improper temperature, such as: varying temperatures or too low a temperature. Incorrect positioning of the water/oil interface, thereby inhibiting a uniform flow of oil through all disks; this is usually caused by using an improper gravity disk. A gravity disk establishes the separation zone between the clean fuel and the water according to fuel temperature and density. As fuel characteristics change, the gravity disk must be changed to control the water-fuel separation zone for maximum efficiency.
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Overloading the centrifuge with an accumulation of sludge which is usually caused by extended de-sludging intervals, or incompatible residual fuel oils.
The centrifuge valving is very important for proper start-up, to prevent contamination and for effective operation. Immediately before the centrifuges, valving should be provided that permits re-circulation back to the settling tanks to provide settling tank mixture for heating in the event that the heating coils in the settling tank are inoperative. Downstream of the centrifuges, the valving should permit re-circulation back to the settling tanks so that the fuel centrifuged can be returned to the settling tanks. This is desirable because a considerable period of time is required for the flow rate and temperature to become uniform and for equipment adjustments to be made (gravity disks, back-pressure settings, etc.) commensurate with .the stabilized conditions. A minimum of two centrifuges that are properly sized, arranged, and operated is required. Each centrifuge should be capable of purifying the total fuel requirements of the engine plus a 10% margin or surplus when operating at the recommended service capacity required for maximum separating efficiency. The series method of centrifuge operation is the preferred fuel flow arrangement. The first centrifuge is configured as a purifier to remove sediment, sludge, and water. The second centrifuge is configured as a clarifier to remove any remaining sediment and solids from the fuel oil. The second centrifuge, operating as a clarifier, provides a backup to the purifier in the event that the purifier malfunctions. If there is a high water content in the fuel oil, centrifuge operation in parallel is recommended. By configuring both of the centrifuges as purifiers in parallel and by reducing the flow rates by 50%, the fuel has twice the residence time in the purifier to remove water. When properly set up and carefully operated, parallel operation can produce the highest cleaning effectiveness and, thereby, the cleanest fuel oil to the engine. However, if one of the purifiers should malfunction, there would be no provisions to prevent the contaminated oil from going directly to the engine. The series and parallel modes of centrifuge operation entail both advantages and disadvantages; therefore, to determine the most appropriate operational mode, the fuel flow, viscosity, density, water content, sediment and ash content, contamination, and compatibility must be assessed. When the fuel oil has a high water or sediment content, a parallel purifier/purifier alignment would be preferred. But if the fuel contains impurities that can be severely damaging, the risk of a purifier malfunction would suggest a series purifier/clarifier mode of operation. Three centrifuges are commonly installed aboard ship. The third machine is nominally a spare, but it can be used to provide a parallel purifier-purifier alignment followed by a clarifier for cleaning highly contaminated fuel.
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WESTFALIA INTERMITTENT SELF-CLEANING CENTRIFUGE - OIL PURIFICATION SHOWN AT LEFT, SLUDGE REMOVAL AT RIGH
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COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS

AIR COMPRESSORS - The compressor is the heart of any compressed air system. It takes in atmospheric air, compresses it to the pressure desired, and moves it into supply lines or into storage tanks for later use. Air compressors come in different designs and configurations and have different methods of compression. Before we describe the various types of air compressors, lets talk about the composition of air and some of the things air may contain. This discussion should help you to understand why air compressors have special features that prevent water, dirt, and oil vapor from getting into compressed air piping systems. Air is mostly composed of nitrogen and oxygen. At atmospheric pressure (within the range of temperatures for the earths atmosphere), air is in a gaseous form. The earths atmosphere, of course, also contains varying amounts of water. Depending upon weather conditions, water will appear in a variety of forms, such as rain (liquid water), snow crystals, ice (solid water), and vapor. Vapor is composed of tiny drops of water that are light enough to stay airborne. Clouds are an example of the existence of water vapor. Since air is a gas, it will expand when it is heated. Consequently, the heating of air will cause a given amount of air to expand, take up more space (volume), and hold more water vapor. When a given amount of air at a given temperature and pressure is no longer able to soak up water vapor, the air is saturated, and the humidity is 100 percent. When air cools its density increases; however, its volume and ability to hold water decrease. When temperature and pressure conditions cause air to cool and to reach the dew point, any water vapor in the air will condense into a liquid state (water). In other words, one method of drying air out is to cool it until it reaches the dew point. In addition to nitrogen, oxygen, and water vapor, air contains particles of dust and dirt that are so tiny and lightweight that they remain suspended in the air. You may wonder how the composition of air directly affects the work of an air compressor. Although one cubic foot of air will not hold a tremendous amount of water or dirt, you should realize that air compressors could have capacities that are rated in hundreds of standard cubic feet per minute (scfm). This is a very high rate of flow. When a high flow rate of dirty, moisture-laden air is allowed to enter and pass through an air compressor, the result is rapid wear of the seals and load-bearing parts, internal corrosion (rust), and early failure of the unit. The reliability and useful life of any air compressor is extended by the installation of filters. Filters will remove most of the dirt and dust from the air before it enters the equipment. On the other hand, most of the water vapor in the air at the intake will pass directly through the filter material and will be compressed with the air. When air is compressed, it becomes very hot. As we mentioned earlier, hot air is capable of holding great amounts of water. The water is removed as the compressed air is routed through coolers. The coolers remove the heat from the air stream and cause some of the water vapor to condense into liquid (condensate). The condensate must be periodically drained from the compressor.
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Although the coolers will remove some of the water from the air, simple cooling between the stages of compression (inter-cooling) and cooling of the air stream after it leaves the compressor (after-cooling) will not make the air dry. When there is a requirement to provide clean dry-air that is suitable for pneumatic control and other shipboard systems, air from the compressor is routed through air-drying units. Many air-drying units are capable of removing enough water vapor from the air stream to cause the dew point to be as low as 60F. Several of the more common devices used to remove water and oil vapor from the air stream will be explained later in this chapter. CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGN - An air compressor may be classified according to pressure (high, medium, or low), type of compressing element, and whether the discharged air is oil free. Because of an increasing need for oil-free air in industry, the oil-free air compressor is gradually replacing most of the standard low pressure and high-pressure air compressors. For this reason, we will focus most of our discussion on the features of oil-free air compressors. Compressors are classified as low, medium, of high pressure. Low-pressure compressors have a discharge pressure of 150 psi or less. Medium-pressure compressors have a discharge pressure of 151 psi to 1,000 psi. Compressors that have a discharge pressure above 1,000 psi are classified as high-pressure compressors. SOURCES OF POWER - Compressors may be driven by electric motors, steam turbines, or gas turbines. For marine use most air compressors that supply service air are driven by electric motors. The driving unit may be coupled to the compressor by one of several methods. When the compressor and the driving unit are mounted on the same shaft, they are close-coupled. This method is usually restricted to small capacity air compressors driven by electric motors. When the speed of the compressor and the speed of the driving unit are the same, flexible couplings are used to mount the driving unit to the compressor. This is called a direct-coupled drive. V-belt drives are commonly used with small, low-pressure, motor-driven compressors and with some medium pressure and high pressure compressors. In a few installations, a rigid coupling is used between the compressor and the electric motor of a motor-driven compressor. In a steam turbine drive, the compressors are usually (but not always) driven though reduction gears. Centrifugal high-speed compressors are usually driven through speed increasing gears. COMPRESSING ELEMENTS - Air compressors may be centrifugal, rotary, axial flow screw, or reciprocating. The more common reciprocating type of air compressor is generally selected for capacities from 100 to 800 scfm with outlet pressure ratings of 125, 600, and 3,000 psi, up to 5,000 psi. The rotary lobe type of air compressor is selected for capacities up to 8,800 scfm and for pressures of no more than 20 psi. The centrifugal type of air compressor is selected for capacities of 800 scfm or greater (up to 2, 100 scfm in a single unit) and for pressures up to 125 psi. The axial flow screw type of air compressor is selected for capacities up to 100 scfm and for pressure of no more than 125 psi.
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Most general-service air compressors are the reciprocating type. In the reciprocating air compressor, the air pressure is increased by the use of one or more cylinders. This is very much like the compression that takes place in an internal-combustion engine. RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS - All reciprocating air compressors are similar in design and operation. The following discussion describes the basic components and principles of operation of low, medium, and high-pressure reciprocating air compressors. CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT - Most low-pressure reciprocating air compressors are of the two-stage type. They have a vertical V (Figure 1), a vertical W (Figure 2), or a vertical in line arrangement of cylinders. The V-type and in-line compressors have one cylinder for the first (lower pressure) stage of compression and one cylinder for the second (higher pressure) stage of compression. The W-type compressor has two cylinders for the first stage of compression and one cylinder for the second stage. The vertical W cylinder arrangement is shown in view A of Figure 1. Notice that the pistons in the lower-pressure stage (1) have larger diameters than the pistons in the higher-pressure stage (2).
FIGURE 1 A SIMPLE TWO-STAGE RECIPROCATING LOW-PRESSURE AIR COMPRESSOR (VERTICAL V CONFIGURATION)
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FIGURE 2 LOW-PRESSURE RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR (VERTICAL W CONFIGURATION) Medium pressure air compressors are generally the two-stage, vertical, duplex, single-acting type. Many medium pressure compressors have differential pistons. This type of piston is used in machines designed for more than one stage of compression during each stroke of the piston. (See view A of Figure 3.) Most high-pressure compressors are motor driven, liquid-cooled, four-stage, single-acting units with vertical cylinders. View B of Figure 3 shows the cylinder arrangements for the highpressure air compressors installed in Navy ships. Small-capacity, high-pressure air systems may have three-stage compressors. Large-capacity, high-pressure air systems may be equipped with four, five, or six-stage compressors.
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OPERATING CYCLE - As our example of the operating cycle, we will describe one stage of compression in a single-stage, single-acting compressor. The cycle of operation, or compression cycle, within an air compressor cylinder includes two strokes of the piston: an intake stroke and a compression stroke. (Refer to Figure 4) The intake stroke (view A) begins when the piston moves away from top dead center (TDC). The air remaining in the clearance space above the piston expands rapidly (view B) until the pressure in the cylinder falls below the pressure on the opposite side of the inlet valve, which is at atmospheric pressure. At this point (view C, difference in pressure causes the inlet valve to open, and air is admitted to the cylinder. Air continues to flow into the cylinder until the piston reaches bottom dead center (BDC).
FIGURE 3 AIR COMPRESSOR CYLINDER ARRANGEMENTS The compression stroke (view D) starts are the piston moves away from BDC and continues until the piston reaches TDC again. When the pressure in the cylinder equals the pressure on the opposite side of the air inlet valve, the inlet valve closes. The air trapped in the cylinder continues to be compressed as the piston moves toward TDC. When the pressure in the cylinder (view E) becomes great enough, it will force the discharge valve to open against the discharge line pressure and the force of the valve springs. (The discharge valve opens shortly before the piston reaches TDC). During the remainder of the compression stroke, the air that has been compressed in the cylinder is discharged at almost constant pressure through the open discharge valve.
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
The basic operating cycle just described is completed twice for each revolution of the crankshaft in double-acting compressors, once on the down stroke and once on the up stroke. COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS - Reciprocating air compressors consist of a system of connecting rods, a crankshaft, and a flywheel. These parts transmit power developed by the driving unit to the pistons as well as the lubrication systems, cooling systems, control systems, and unloading systems. COMPRESSING ELEMENT - The compressing element of a reciprocating air compressor consists of the cylinders, pistons, and air valves. CYLINDERS - The design of the cylinders depends mostly upon the number of stages of compression required to produce the maximum discharge pressure. Several common cylinder arrangements for low and medium pressure air compressors are shown in view A of Figure 1. Several arrangements for the cylinders and pistons of high-pressure air compressors are shown in view B of Figure 1. The stages are numbered 1 through 4.
FIGURE 4 THE COMPRESSION CYCLE PISTONS - The pistons may be either of two types: trunk or differential (See Figure 5). TRUNK PISTONS are driven directly by the connecting rods (view A). The upper end of a connecting rod is fitted directly to the piston by a wrist pin. This design produces a tendency for the piston to develop a side pressure against the cylinder walls. For the side pressure to be
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distributed over a wide area of the cylinder walls or liners, pistons with long skirts are used. The design of the trunk piston helps minimize cylinder wall wear. DIFFERENTIAL PISTONS, shown in view B of Figure 5, are modified trunk pistons with two or more different diameters. These pistons are fitted into special cylinders, arranged so that more than one stage of compression is achieved by a single upward stroke of the piston. The compression for one stage takes place over the piston crown; compression for the other stage(s) takes place in the annular space between the large and small diameters of the piston. VALVES - The valves are made of special steel and come in a number of different types. The opening and closing of the valves is caused by the difference between (1) the pressure of the air in the cylinder and (2) the pressure of the external air on the intake valve or the pressure of the discharged air on the discharge valve. Two types of valves commonly used in high-pressure air compressors are shown in Figure 6. The strip or feather, type valve is shown in view A. It is used for the suction and discharge valves of the lower-pressure stage (1 and 2). The valve shown in view A is a suction valve; the discharge valve assembly (not shown) is identical except that the positions of the valve seat and the guard are reversed. At rest, the thin strips lie flat against the seat. They cover the slots and form a seal when pressure is applied to the guard side of the valve. The following action works in either a suction or a discharge operation (depending on the valve service). As soon as pressure on the seat side of the valve exceeds the pressure on the guard side, the strips flex against the contoured recesses in the guard. As soon as the pressure equalizes or reverses, the strips flex against the contoured recesses in the guard. As soon as the pressure equalizes or reverses, the strips unflex and return to their original position, flat against the seat. The disk type valve in view B of Figure 6 is used for the suction and discharge valves of the higher-pressure stages (3 and 4). The fourth stage assembly is shown in view B. The valves shown are the spring-loaded, dished-disk type. At rest, the disk is held against the seat by the spring. It forms a seal when pressure is applied to the keeper side of the valve. The following action works in either a suction or a discharge operation (depending on the valve service). When the pressure on the seat side of the valve exceeds the pressure on the keeper side, the disk lifts against the stop in the keeper. This action compresses the spring and permits air to pass through the seat, around the disk, and through the openings in the sides of the keeper. As soon as the pressure equalizes or reverses, the spring forces the disk back onto the seat.
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FIGURE 5 AIR COMPRESSOR PISTONS
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FIGURE 6 HIGH-PRESSURE AIR COMPRESSOR VALVES
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FIGURE 7 HIGH-PRESSURE AIR COMPRESSOR SHOWING THE LUBRICAITON SYSTEM LUBRICATION SYSTEMS - There are generally three types of lubrication systems in reciprocating compressors. They are for high-pressure, low-pressure, and oil-free air compressors. High-pressure air compressor cylinders (except for non-lubricated compressors) are generally lubricated by an adjustable mechanical force-feed lubricator. This unit is driven from a reciprocating or rotary part of the compressor. Oil is fed from the cylinder lubricator by separate lines to each cylinder. A check valve at the end of each feed line keeps the compressed air from forcing the oil back into the lubricator. Each feed-line has a sight-glass oil flow indicator. Lubrication begins automatically as the compressor starts up. Figure 7 shows the lubrication
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connections for the cylinders. The type and grade of oil used in compressors is specified in the applicable technical manual. The correct type is vital to the operation and reliability of the compressor. The running gear is lubricated by an oil pump that is attached to the compressor and driven from the compressor shaft. This pump is usually a gear type. It moves oil from the reservoir (oil sump) in the compressor base and delivers it through a filter to an oil cooler (if installed). From the cooler, the oil is distributed to the top of each main bearing, to the spray nozzles for the reduction gears, and to the outboard bearings. The crankshaft is drilled so that oil fed to the main bearings is picked up at the main bearing journals and carried to the crank journals. The connecting rods contain passages that conduct lubricating oil from the crank bearings up to the piston pin bushings. As oil is force out from the various bearings, it drips back into the oil sump (in the base of the compressor) and is recirculated. Oil from the outboard bearings is carried back to the sump by drain lines. A low-pressure air compressor lubrication system is shown in Figure 8. This system is similar to that of the running gear lubrication system for the high-pressure air compressor. Non-lubricated reciprocating compressors have lubricated running gear (shaft and bearings) but no lubrication for the pistons and valves. This design produces oil-free air. COOLING SYSTEMS - The power input to the compressor is converted to heat in the compression process. This heat is removed by a cooling system for two primary reasons: (1) to prevent the compressed air and various compressor parts from reaching excessively high temperatures, and (2) to improve the efficiency of multistage compressors by increasing the density of air between stages of compressions. In reciprocating compressors, the compression cylinders are cooled by fresh water or seawater, which is circulated through cooling water passages in the cylinder block. When removable cylinder liners or cylinder sleeves are used, the cylinder block may incorporate wells or bores for the liners so that the cooling water does not come into direct contact with the cylinder liners (dry liners). In another design, the liner may be held in shoulders with O-ring seals within the cylinder block so that the cylinder liners are wetted by the cooling water (wet liners). Cylinder jackets are fitted with hand holes and covers so that the water spaces may be inspected and cleaned. On many compressors, water passes directly through the joint between the cylinder and the head. On such designs, extreme care must be taken so that the joint is properly gasketed to prevent leakage. If allowed to continue, water leakage would cause corrosion problems or more severe damage. In additional to cylinder cooling, each stage of a reciprocating compressor may have an air cooler in which the discharge air is cooled before it enters the next stage. The coolers are usually of the shell and tube design. Compressed air is directed through the tubes of the cooler, with the cooling water flowing through the shell and over the tubes. On some compressors, this design may be reversed on the low-pressure stages (first and second) so that the cooling water flows through the tubes and the air though the shell. The coolers between stages are called
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INTERCOOLERS. The last cooler is the AFTERCOOLER. (Intercoolers and aftercoolers will be discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.)
FIGURE 8 LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM OF A LOW-PRESSURE AIR COMPRESSOR You may encounter several different types of cooling systems. On older air compressors, cooling is provided by a seawater system that serves the compression cylinders as well as the intercoolers and aftercooler. (See Figure 9). In these systems, the seawater flows essentially in a series arrangement first through the intercoolers and aftercooler, and then through the compression cylinders. This process ensures that the air entering the cylinders is always cooler than the valve chambers and cylinders. Therefore, moisture from condensation is minimized. However, with seawater temperature substantially lower than 80F, condensation may occur within the cylinders and discharge valve chambers (or cylinder heads) on the compression stroke. Also, because of the compact design of some air compressors, low seawater temperatures can cause the compressor frame and oil sump to reach temperatures that are sufficiently low to cause condensation within the oil sump. This condition can cause rapid water buildup and subsequent bearing failure. For protection against the overcooling of compressors that are cooled entirely by seawater, it is recommended that cooling water be throttled. This action will reduce the cooling effect in the compression cylinders. However, excessive reduction in cooling water flow can result in hot spots in the cylinder areas where flow under normal conditions becomes marginal.
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In this regard, you must follow the recommendations in the technical manual for any specific compressor.
FIGURE 9 SEAWATER COOLING (OPEN) SYSTEM OF A MULTISTAGE AIR COMPRESSOR Some compressors employ seawater cooling systems for the intercoolers and aftercoolers and a secondary freshwater system for cylinder cooling. (See Figure 10). The closed freshwater cooling system consists of a pump, a surge tank, a thermostatic valve, and a heat exchanger. The pressurized coolant is moved from the surge tank by the water pump and is directed to each cylinder assembly. A high-water-temperature shutdown switch downstream from the cylinder assemblies monitors the coolant temperature. Coolant at the thermostatic valve flows either directly to the cylinders or through the heat exchanger if the cylinder water requires cooling. The design provides a constant rate of flow and thermostatic temperature control in the cylinder cooling system. This type of control ensures uniform operating conditions for the compression stages and helps the system avoid the harmful excessive cooling of cylinders. As we mentioned earlier, excessive cooling causes condensation on cylinder walls a condition that results in early catastrophic seal failure. The intercoolers and aftercoolers act to remove heat that is generated whenever air is compressed. They also cause any water vapor that may be present in the air stream to condense into a liquid. Figure 11 is a diagram of a basic cooler and separator unit. Intercooler and aftercooler are normally fitted with moisture separators. Moisture separators, which come in a variety of design, serve to remove the condensed moisture and oil vapor from the air stream. The liquid is removed by centrifugal force, impact, or sudden changes in velocity of the air
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stream. Notice that the condensate collects in the lower section of the outlet header. Drains on each separator serve to remove the water and oil. The condensate must be drained at regular intervals to prevent carryover into the next stage of compression. When the condensate accumulates at low points, it may cause water hammer or freezing and bursting of pipes in exposed locations. It may also cause faulty operation of pneumatic tools and diesel engine air start system, and possible damage to electrical apparatus when air is used for cleaning. The removal of heat is also necessary for efficient compression. During compression, the temperature of the air increases. As we explained earlier, heated air expands to a larger volume. The larger volume of air requires a corresponding increase of work to compress it. Multistaging, therefore, with interstage cooling of the air, reduces the power requirement for a given capacity.
FIGURE 10 COOLING WATER FLOW DIAGRAM SHOWING SEAWATER AND FRESHWATER SYSTEMS Interstage cooling reduces the maximum temperature in each cylinder. This temperature reduction, of course, reduces the amount of heat that must be removed by the amount of heat that must be removed by the water jacket at the cylinder. Figure 12 illustrates the pressures and temperatures through a four-stage compressor. The intercoolers and the aftercooler (on the output of the final stage) are of the same general construction. The exception is that the aftercooler is designed to withstand a higher working pressure than that of the intercoolers. Both intercoolers and aftercoolers are generally fitted with relief valves on both the air and the watersides. The relief valves must be set according to written instructions.
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In all compressors fitted with thermostatically controlled freshwater cooling systems, such as the one shown in Figure 10, the possibility of overcooling the cylinders occurs only when the thermostat is malfunctioning. The air cannot be cooled too much in the intercoolers and after coolers. There are no detrimental effects for low air discharge temperature from the coolers. The more the air is cooled in the intercoolers, the lower the brake horsepower will be. When more water is condensed within the cooler, fewer chances exist for the water to condense during the subsequent compression stroke. Oil coolers may be of the coil type, shell and tube type, or a variety of commercial designs. Although external oil coolers are generally used, some compressors are fitted with base-type oil coolers. In this design, cooling water circulates through a coil placed in the oil sump. On most compressors, the circulating water system is arranged so that the amount of cooling water passing through the oil cooler can be regulated without disturbing the quantity of water passing through the cylinder jackets, intercoolers, or after coolers. Thermometers are fitted to the circulating water inlet and outlet connections, the intake and discharge of each stage of compression, the final air discharge, and the oil sump.
FIGURE 11 - BASIC COOLER AND SEPARATOR CONTROL SYSTEMS - The control system of a reciprocating air compressor may include one or more control devices. These control mechanisms may include start stop control, constantspeed control, cooling water failure switches, and automatic high temperature shutdown devices. Control or regulating systems for air compressors are largely of the start/stop type. In the start/stop design, the compressor starts and stops automatically as the receiver pressure falls or rises within predetermined set points. On electrically driven compressors, the system is very simple. As air pressure in the receiver increases, it actuates a pressure switch that opens the
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electrical control circuit when the pressure acting upon the switch reaches a given value, commonly called a SET POINT. The switch closes the control circuit when the pressure drops a predetermined amount. Because of their high horsepower rating, centrifugal compressors do not have automatic start-stop controls. Instead, an automatic load and unload control system is used. Some electrically driven units, such as the medium-pressure system, are required to start at either of two pressures. In these units, there are two pressure switches. One of these switches has a tree-way valve that admits pressure from the air accumulator to the selected pressure switch. In other electrically driven units, the air is directed from the receiver through a three-way valve to either of two control valves adjusted fro the required range of pressure settings. A line connects each control valve to a single pressure switch. This switch may be set to any convenient pressure. The setting of the control valve selected will determine the operation of the switch. The CONSTANT-SPEED CONTROL regulates the pressure in the air receiver be controlling the output of the compressor. This control works without stopping or changing the speed of the unit. The constant-speed control prevents frequent starting and stopping of compressors when there is a fairly constant but low demand for air. Control is provided when air is directed to unloading devices through a control valve that is set to operate at a predetermined pressure. AUTOMATIC HIGH-TEMPERATURE SHUTDOWN DEVICES are fitted on almost all highpressure air compressors. If the cooling water temperature rises above a safe limit, the device that will shut down the compressor if the temperature of the air leaving any stage exceeds a present value.
FIGURE 12 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE RESULTING FROM MULTISTAGING AND INTERSTAGE COOLING
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UNLOADING SYSTEMS - Most of the compressors used on board ship use electric motors as prime movers. You need to understand that, at the instant of starting, an electric motor demands maximum power from the electrical distribution system. Therefore, when any motor is to be started, it is necessary to have the motor unloaded as much as possible. Any attempt to start any motor-driven pump, such as an air compressor, when it is loaded will cause the circuit breaker on the power distribution panel (and even the main breaker on a switchboard) to trip the unit off the line. Upon starting, the drive motor for a reciprocating air compressor is lightly loaded (only due to friction in bearings and piston rings against the cylinder walls) because of the unloader system of the air compressor. The unloader may use a combination of pneumatic, electropneumatic (solenoid), or hydraulic-actuated valves to control the unloading function. The unloader for an air compressor has the following two primary functions: 1. When the unit stops, the unloader releases any air trapped in the cylinders. (You should hear the unit go Psssshhhhh when it shuts down) 2. When the drive motor starts, the unloader prevents air from being compressed in any stage until the motor has reached operating speed. Units with start-stop control devices will have an unloading system that is separate from the control system. Compressors with constant speed control devices will have the unloading and control systems as integral parts of each other. We cannot give you a detailed explanation for every type of unloading device that unloads the cylinders of an air compressor. Still, you should know something about the common methods used to unload an air compressor. These methods include closing or throttling the compressor intake, forcing intake valves off their seats, relieving intercoolers to the atmosphere, relieving the final discharge to the atmosphere (or opening a bypass from the discharge to the intake), or opening cylinder clearance pockets. We will discuss one example of a typical compressor-unloading device the MAGNETIC-TYPE UNLOADER. Refer to Figure 13 and study the unloader valve arrangement. The magnetic unloader consists of a solenoid-operated valve actuated by the controller for the motor. When the compressor is at rest, the solenoid valve is de-energized, and the two ball valves are in the position shown. Air pressure is routed from the receiver to the unloading mechanism. When the compressor drive motor reaches operating speed, the solenoid valve is energized. The two ball valves will be forced downward. The upper ball will block the inlet from the receiver and the lower ball will block the exhaust port, which allows the compressor to load and build up air pressure. For details about the unloading devices used with the compressors aboard your ship, you should consult the specific technical manual for each unit. OIL-FREE, LOW-PRESSURE AIR COMPRESSORS - The most common method of providing oil-free air is to use low or high-pressure reciprocating oil-free air compressors. For the purpose of our discussion of the oil-free design, we will use the reciprocating low-pressure, oil-free air compressor as our example.
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FIGURE 13 MAGNETIC TYPE UNLOADER RECIPROCATING OIL-FREE LOW-PRESSURE AIR COMPRESSORS - For many years, the reciprocating types of air compressors had to use lubricating oil to reduce the friction and wear of piston rings sliding on the walls of the cylinders. Some of the oil, in the form of vapor, would be picked up by the air stream and carried to the outlet of the compressor. Like water vapor, oil vapor tends to collect in low places. When oil vapor mixes with water vapor, the resulting emulsion may deposit itself on machined surfaces, which generally become collecting points for dirt and particles of rust. This sludge formation can foul pneumatic valves, which must have very close clearances and operating tolerances. However, fouling of machine parts is minor compared to the potentially hazardous condition that results when oil vapor is entrained in the air stream of a high-pressure air compressor. From our earlier discussion, you should remember that air is mostly nitrogen (about 78 percent) and oxygen (about 21 percent). Nitrogen is an inert gas. When mixed with oil vapor, nitrogen is not hazardous. On the other hand, when oil vapor is mixed with oxygen in the air, two of the three elements needed for an explosion or fire have been combined. All that is needed to trigger this combination is heat; where could the heat possibly come from? Think about it. When air is compressed, a lot of heat is produced. Now, lets consider what could happen when a careless
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operator quickly opens a valve in a high-pressure air system. The air and oil vapor mixture will flow rapidly into the next part of the system until it reaches the next obstruction, which will cause the air to be compressed. At this point, all three elements needed for an explosion are present-oxygen, fuel, and heat. The danger associated with the use of lubricated air compressors has caused some installations to replace low-pressure and high-pressure reciprocating air compressors with the oil-free type. Oilfree air compressors are designed to prevent any oil vapor from getting into the air stream from the compressor. The design of oil-free air compressors was made possible by the development of new materials for piston rings. These materials do not require lubrication, only cooling by water. The design of the oil-free air compressor makes it possible for the compression stages to be separated from the running gear, which still uses oil for lubrication. COMPONENTS - Oil-free reciprocating air compressors use a crosshead arrangement consisting of a guide piston and cylinder and guide piston seal assembly. The design separates the compressor section from the running gear section and still transfers mechanical power from the lubricated crankshaft to the piston and connecting rod assemblies of the non-lubricated compressor stages. Refer to figures 14 and 15 as we continue. The compression piston is hollow and is connected to the guide piston by the guide piston seal assembly. (Refer to Figure 14). The piston rings are made from a Teflon-bronze material that will become damaged upon contact with lube oil.
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FIGURE 14 CUTAWAY VIEW OF AN OIL-FREE, LOW-PRESSURE AIR COMPRESSOR The guide piston seal assembly contains oil control rings and seal rings, retainer rings, a cup, and a cover. (See Figure 15). The seal assembly prevents oil from entering the compression chamber by scraping the oil from the piston connecting rod as it moves up and down in the seal assembly. The running gear chamber consists of a system of connecting rods, a crankshaft, and a flywheel. (NOTE: The connecting rods are connected to the guide piston in the oil-free air compressor).
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The valve assemblies are of the strip/feather type previously discussed in this chapter.
FIGURE 15 GUIDE PISTON SEAL ASSEMBLY
FIGURE 16 SUCTION UNLOADER AND VALVE ASSEMBLY
UNLOADER SYSTEM - The Worthington oil-free, low-pressure air compressor unloader system consists of three suction valve unloaders, one for each cylinder, connected to each suction valve assembly. (See Figure 16 and 17.) The major components of the unloader assembly are the piston, springs, and plunger. (See Figure 16). The unloader assemblies are actuated by a single solenoid-operated valve that routes the air from the receiver to the top of the piston in the piston in the suction unloader assembly. Air pressure forces the piston down, thereby forcing the finger down against the strip valves and unseating the suction valves. This action causes the air compressor to be in an unloaded condition when the drive motor starts. The compressor becomes loaded when the solenoid operated valve bleeds the air off the top of the piston in the piston in the unloader assemblies through the flow control valve. The pistons and fingers are forced upward by the piston return spring, causing the suction valves to seat. The flow control valve prevents instant full loading of the compressor by controlling the amount of airflow from the unloader assemblies through the solenoid-operated valve.
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FIGURE 17 UNLOADER SYSTEM OF AN OIL-FREE, LOW-PRESSURE AIR COMPRESSOR The oil-free air compressor has a moisture separator that receives air from an air cooler. (See Figure 18). The separator drains the collected moisture into a drain holding bottle where the moisture is then removed by either the automatic drain system or the manual drain valves. The separator has a level probe that shuts off the air compressor in the event that the drains are backed up because of a malfunction of the automatic drain system.
FIGURE 18 MOISTURE SEPARATOR The automatic drain system uses a solenoid operated valve and a three-way air-operated valve. (See Figure 19). The solenoid-operated valve is energized by a time relay device in the motor controller. The solenoid-operated valve admits air to the three-way air-operated valve, which allows for drainage of the moisture separator and the holding bottle.
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FIGURE 19 CONDENSATE DRAIN SYSTEM HELICAL SCREW COMPRESSOR - This low-pressure air compressor is a single-stage, positive-displacement, axial-flow, and helical-screw type of compressor. It is often referred to as a screw-type compressor. (Refer to Figures 20 and 21). Compression is caused by the meshing of two helical rotors (male and female) located casing. Air inlet and outlet ports are located on opposite sides of the casing. Atmospheric air is drawn into the compressor through the filtersilencer. The air passes through the air cylinder-operated unloader (butterfly) valve and into the inlet part of the compressor when the valve is in the open (load) position. Fresh water is injected into the air stream as it passes through the inlet port of the compressor casing. The injected fresh water serves two purposes: (1) it reduces the air discharge temperature caused by compression, and (2) it seals the running clearances to minimize air leakage. Most of the injected water is entrained into the air stream as it moves through the compressor. The compression cycle starts as the rotors un-mesh at the inlet port. As rotation continues, air is drawn into the cavity between the male rotor lobes and into the grooves of the female rotor. The air is trapped in these grooves, or pockets, and follows the rotative direction of each rotor. As soon as the inlet port is closed, the compression cycle begins as the air is directed to the opposite (discharge) end of the compressor. The rotors mesh, and the normal free volume are reduced. The reduction in volume (compression) continues with a resulting increase in pressure, until the closing pocket reaches the discharge port.
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FIGURE 20 LOW-PRESSURE, OIL-FREE ROTARY HELICAL SCREW COMPRESSOR
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FIGURE 21 HELICAL SCREW COMPRESSOR The entrained water is removed from the discharged air by a combined separator and water holding tank. The water in the tank passes through a seawater-cooled heat exchanger. The cooled water then recirculates to the compressor for reinjection. During rotation and throughout the meshing cycle, the timing gears maintain the correct clearances between the rotors. Since there is no contact between the rotor lobes and grooves, between the rotor lobes and casing, or between the rotor faces and end walls, no internal oil lubrication is required. This design allows the compressor to discharge oil-free air.
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For gear and bearing lubrication, lubricating oil from a force-feed system is supplied to each end of the compressor. Mechanical seals serve to keep the oil isolated from the compression chamber. COMPRESSED AIR RECEIVERS - An air receiver is installed in each space that houses air compressors (except centrifugal and rotary lobe types of air compressors). A compressed air receiver is an air storage tank. If demand is greater than the compressor capacity, the excess is stored in the receiver or accumulator until the pressure is raised to its maximum setting. At that time, the compressor unloads or stops. Thus, in a compressed air system, the receiver minimizes pressure variations in the system and supplies air during peak demand. This capability serves to minimize the start-stop cycling of air compressors. Air receivers may be mounted horizontally or vertically. Vertically mounted receivers have convex bottoms that permit proper draining of accumulated moisture, oil, and foreign matter. All receivers have fittings, such as inlet and outlet connections and drain connections and valves. They have connections for an operating line to compressor regulators, pressure gauges, and relief valves (set at 10 percent above the normal working pressure of the receiver). They also have manhole plates (depending on the size of the receiver). * All receivers must have a gauge, a drain and a relief valve. The discharge line between the compressor and the receiver is as short and straight as possible. This design eliminates vibrations caused by pulsations of air and reduces pressure losses caused by friction. In high-pressure air systems, air receivers are called air flasks. Air flasks are usually cylindrical in shape, with belled ends and female-threaded necks. One or more air flasks connected together constitute an air bank. COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY SYSTEMS - The remainder of the compressed air system is the piping and valves that distribute the compressed air to the points of use. MOISTURE REMOVAL -The removal of moisture from compressed air is an important feature of compressed air systems. Some moisture is removed by the intercoolers and aftercoolers, as explained earlier. Air flasks and receivers are provided with low point drains so that any collected moisture may drain periodically. However, many uses for compressed air require air with even smaller moisture content than is obtained through these methods. Water vapor in airlines can create other problems that are potentially hazardous, such as the freezing of valves and controls. These conditions can occur when air at very high pressure is throttled to a low-pressure area at a high flow rate. The venturi effect of the throttled air produces very low temperatures, which will cause any moisture in the air to freeze into ice. Under these conditions, a valve (especially an automatic valve) may become very difficult or impossible to operate. Also, liquid water in any air system can cause serious water hammer within the system. For these reasons, air dryers or dehydrators are used to remove most of the water vapor from compressed air. The following are two basic types of air dryers and a combination of the two. These air dryers are classified as follows:
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Type I-Refrigeration Type II-Heater, self-activating desiccant Type III-Refrigeration, self-reactivating desiccant Each of these types is designed to meet the requirements specified for the quality of the compressed air to be used in pneumatic control systems. Specific requirements usually involve operating pressure, flow rate, dew point, and purity (percentage of aerosols and size of particles). We will briefly discuss each of the types of air dryers (dehydrators). REFRIGERATION TYPE OF AIR DEHYDRATOR (TYPE 1) - Refrigeration is one method or removing moisture from compressed air. The dehydrator in Figure 22 is a Refrigerated Air Dryer or Refrigeration Dehydrator. This unit removes water vapor entrained in the stream of compressed air by causing the water to condense into a liquid that is heavier than air. Air flowing from the separator/holding tank first passes through the air-to-air heat exchanger, where some of the heat of compression is removed from the air stream. The air then moves through the evaporator section of the dehydrator, where the air is chilled by circulating refrigerant. In this unit, the air stream is cooled to a temperature that is below the de3w point. This will cause the water vapor in the air to condense so it can be removed by the condensate drain system. After leaving the evaporator section, the dehydrated air moves upward through the cold airside of the air to-air heat exchanger. In the air-to-air heat exchanger, the dehydrated air is raised in temperature by the warm air entering the dehydrator. The heating of the air serves to reduce thermal shock as the air enters the system. The exiting dry air flows into the receiver for availability to the ships air system.
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FIGURE 22 REFRIGERATION DEHYDRATOR DESICCANT TYPE OF AIR DEHYDRATOR (TYPE II) A desiccant is a drying agent. More practically, a desiccant is a substance with a high capacity to remove (adsorb) water or moisture. It also has a high capacity to give off that moisture so that the desiccant can be reused. Desiccant-Type Dehydrators are basically composed of cylindrical flasks filled with desiccant. Compressed air system dehydrators use a pair of desiccant towers. One tower is in service dehydrating the compressed air while the other is being reactivated. A desiccant tower is normally reactivated when dry, heated air is routed through the tower in the direction opposite to
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that of the normal dehydration airflow. The hot air evaporates the collected moisture and carries it out of the tower to the atmosphere. The air for the purge cycle is heated by electrical heaters. When the tower that is reactivating has completed the reactivation cycle, it is placed in service to dehydrate air, and the other tower is reactivated. Another type of desiccant dehydrator in use is the Heat-Less dryer. These units require no electrical heater or external sources of purge air. Figure 23 shows the compressed air entering at the bottom of the left tower (View A). The compressed air then passes upward through the desiccant, where it is dried to very low moisture content. The dry air passes through the check valve to the dry air outlet. Simultaneously, a small percentage of the dry air passes through the orifice between the towers and flows down through the right tower. This dry air reactivates the desiccant and passes out through the purge exhaust. At the end of the cycle, the towers are automatically reversed, as shown in View B.
FIGURE 23 HEAT-LESS DESICCANT DEHYDRATOR REFRIGERATION AND DESICCANT TYPE OF AIR DEHYDRATOR (TYPE III) You may come across installations that use a combination of refrigeration and absorption for moisture removal. Hot wet air from the compressor first enters a refrigeration-type dehydrator where low-temperature refrigerant removes heat from the air stream and condenses water vapor from the air. The cold, partially dried air then flows into a desiccant-type dehydrator, where the desiccant absorbs additional moisture from the air. COMPRESSED AIR PLANT OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE - You must be thoroughly aware of the operational and safety procedures you must use when you are operating
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or maintaining a compressed air system. You must operate any air compressor or air system in strict compliance with approved operating procedures. Compressed air is potentially very dangerous. Keep in mind that cleanliness is of greatest importance in all maintenance that requires the opening of compressed air systems. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - There are many hazards associated with pressurized air, particularly air under high pressure. Dangerous explosions have occurred in high-pressure air systems because of diesel effect. If a portion of an un-pressurized system or component is suddenly and rapidly pressurized with high-pressure air, a large amount of heat is produced. If the heat is excessive, the air may reach the ignition temperature of the impurities present in the air and piping (oil, dust, and so forth). When the ignition temperature is reached, a violent explosion will occur as these impurities ignite. Ignition temperatures may also result from other causes. Some are rapid pressurization of a low-pressure dead end portion of the piping system, malfunctioning of compressor aftercoolers, and leaky or dirty valves. Use every precaution to have only clean, dry air at the compressor inlet. Air compressor accidents have also been caused by improper maintenance procedures. These accidents can happen when you disconnect parts under pressure, replace parts with units designed for lower pressures, and install stop valves or check valves in improper locations. Improper operating procedures have resulted in air compressor accidents with serious injury to personnel and damage to equipment. You must take every possible step to minimize the hazards inherent in the process of compression and in the use of compressed air. Strictly follow all safety precautions outlined in the technical manuals. Some of these hazards and precautions are as follows: 1. Explosions can be caused by dust-laden air or by oil vapor in the compressor or receiver. These explosions are triggered by abnormally high temperatures, which may be caused by leaky or dirty valves, excessive pressurization rates, and faulty cooling systems. 2. NEVER use distillate fuel or gasoline as a degreaser to clean compressor intake filters, cylinders, or air passages. These oils vaporize easily and will form a highly explosive mixture with the air under compression. 3. Secure a compressor immediately if you observe that the temperature of the air being discharged from any stage exceeds the maximum temperature specified. 4. NEVER leave the compressor station after starting the compressor unless you are sure that the control; unloading, and governing devices are operating properly. 5. If the compressor is to remain idle for any length of time or is in an exposed position in freezing weather, thoroughly drain the compressor circulating water system. 6. Before working on a compressor, be sure the compressor is secured and cannot start automatically or accidentally: completely blow down the compressor, and then secure all valves (including the control or unloading valves) between the compressor and the receiver. Follow the appropriate lock out/tag-out procedure for the compressor control valves and the isolation valves. When the gauges are in place, leave the pressure gauge cutout valves open at all times.
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7. When cutting air into a piece of machinery, be sure the supply line to the equipment has been properly drained of moisture. When securing the supply of air to the affected equipment, be sure all drains are left open. 8. Before disconnecting any part of an air system, be sure the part is not under pressure. Always leave the pressure gauge cutout valves open to the sections to which they are attached. 9. Avoid rapid operation of manual valves. The heat of compression caused by a sudden flow of high pressure into an empty line or vessel can cause an explosion if oil or other impurities are present. Slowly crack open the valves until flow is noted, and keep the valves in this position until pressure on both sides has equalized. 10. If compressor is water cooled be sure solenoid values to allow cooling, are working properly.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS ABLE OF ONTENTS

1. Introduction 2. Types of Heat Exchangers 3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Heat Exchangers 4. Proper Operation of Heat Exchangers 5. Design Parameters 6. Maintenance and Operation
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INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
Heat Exchangers - As an engineer, you will be required to test, maintain, and repair a number of heat exchangers. These may include main and auxiliary condensers, fuel oil heaters, lube oil coolers, and a number of miscellaneous heat exchangers used for various purposes aboard ship. A heat exchanger is usually classified as any device or apparatus designed to allow the transfer of heat from one fluid (liquid or gas) to another fluid. Items such as boilers, distilling plants, and deaerating feed tank are, of course, primary examples of heat exchangers; in common usage, however, these large and relatively complex pieces of equipment are seldom referred to as heat exchangers. This course deals with the simpler kinds of heat exchangers-condensers, heaters, and coolers. Heat Transfer - In order for heat to be transferred from one substance to another, a temperature difference is required. Heat flow or heat transfer can occur only from a substance that is at a higher temperature to a substance that is at a lower temperature. When two objects at different temperatures are placed in contact with each other, or near to each other, heat will flow from the warmer object to the cooler one until both objects are at the same temperature. Heat transfer occurs at a faster rate when there is a large temperature difference than when there is only a slight temperature difference. As the temperature difference approaches zero, the rate of heat flow also approaches zero. Modes Of Heat Transfer - Conduction, radiation, and convection are usually considered to be the three methods by which heat transfer can occur. As we will see, conduction and radiation are the two basic modes of heat transfer, while convection is a process involving the movement of a mass of fluid from one place to another. Conduction - Conduction is the method by which heat flows from a hotter to a colder substance when there is physical contact between the two substances. For example, consider a metal bar that is held so that on end of it is in a fire. In a very short time the end of the bar, which is not in the fire, will have become too hot to hold. We say that heat has been conducted from molecule to molecule, throughout the entire bar. The process of conduction will continue as long as there is a temperature difference between the two ends of the bar-that is, as long as one end is in the fire and the other end is in a cooler place. Radiation - Radiation is a mode of heat transfer that does not require any physical contact between the warmer substance and the cooler substance. For example, a person sitting near a hot stove is warmed by radiant heat even though the air between the person and the stove may remain cold. Convection - At the molecular or submolecular level, heat transfer takes place through the processes of conduction and radiation. If we use the term heat transfer in a somewhat different sense, we may also include convection as a mode of heat transfer; but it is important to understand the basic difference between convection and the true (molecular) heat transfer processes.
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If we put a hot brick into a wheelbarrow and wheel it across the street, we have in a sense transferred heat. However, any heat transfer that takes place between the brick and its surroundings while we are moving it across the street will be by conduction or by radiation. Consequently, it would really be more accurate to say that we have transported the brick and its contained heat energy. Convection is the mechanical transportation of a mass of fluid from one place to another, accompanied by a mixing of the various parts of the fluid. As the fluid mixes, heat transfer takes place from one part of the fluid to another and between the fluid and its surroundings. However, this heat transfer takes place by conduction and by radiation. Convection serves the purpose of bringing the different parts of the fluid into close contact so that heat transfer by conduction and radiation can occur. Without convection, there would be relatively little heat transfer from or within a fluid, since most fluids are poor conductors when they are not in motion. What causes this mechanical transportation of a mass of fluid? In the case of natural convection, the movement is caused by differences in the density of different parts of the fluid. The differences in density are usually caused by unequal temperatures within the fluid. For example, as the air over a hot radiator becomes heated it becomes less dense and therefore begins to rise. Cooler, heavier air is drawn in to replace the heated air, and convection currents are thus set up. In the case of forced convection, some mechanical device such as a fan or a pump produces the movement of the fluid. The circulation of water in a natural circulation boiler is a case of natural convection. The flow of combustion gases through a boiler is partly by natural convection and partly by forced convection. When the main feed pump moves a stream of feed water from the deaerating tank to the boiler, the water is transported by forced convection. When the main feed pump moves a stream of feed water from the deaerating tank to the boiler, the water is transported by forced convection. In summary, then, we use the term convection to describe the transportation-or, loosely, the heat transfer of a mass of fluid and its contained heat; but the processes by which any substance gains or loses heat are best described in terms of conduction and radiation. It should be noted that convection is an extremely important process, and one that is involved in most heat transfer problems. TYPES OF HEAT EXHCHANGERS CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS - Heat exchangers may be classified according to (1) their basic function with respect to temperature changes or changes of state in one or both fluids; (2) the path of heat flow; (3) the relative direction of the flow of the fluids; (4) the number of times that either fluid passes the other fluid; and (5) general construction features such as the type of surface and the arrangement of component parts. The types of heat exchangers in common use on most ships are described in the following sections in terms of these basic methods of classification.
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FUNCTIONS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS - The primary purpose of any heat exchanger is, of course, the transfer of heat from one substance to another. However, there are several different reasons why it is necessary or desirable to transfer heat. In some heat exchangers we want to raise the temperature of one fluid. Fuel oil heaters, combustion air preheaters, lube oil heaters, and many other heat exchangers used on board ship serve this function. In some heat exchangers we want to lower the temperature of one fluid. Lube oil coolers, boiler water sample coolers, and desuperheaters are examples of this type of heat exchanger. In condensers, we want to remove latent heat from a fluid in order to make it change from a gas to a liquid. Very often, we want to remove the latent heat without removing any sensible heatthat is, we want to change the state of the fluid but do not want to lower its temperature. For example, the purpose of the main condenser is to remove the latent heat from the turbine exhaust steam so that the steam will condense. In this process, however, we do not want to lower the temperature of the condensate. Since any heat removed from the condensate must be replaced in the deaerating feed tank or in the boiler, lowering the temperature of the condensate is wasteful of heat and therefore wasteful of fuel. In some heat exchangers, we want to add latent heat to a fluid in order to make it change from a liquid to a gas. The generating part of a boiler is a good example of this type of heat exchanger. Since it is impossible to raise the temperature of the steam as long as it is in contact with the water from which it is being generated, the steam does not increase in temperature until it has been drawn off into another heat exchanger (the superheater). Path Of Heat Flow - When classified according to the path of heat flow, heat exchangers are of two basic types. In the indirect or surface type of heat exchanger, the heat flows from one fluid to the other through some kind of tube, plate, or other surface that separates the two fluids; consequently, there is no mixing of the fluids. In the direct-contact type of heat exchanger, the heat is transferred directly from one fluid to another as the two fluids mix. The deaerating feed tank is a direct-contact heat exchanger; practically all other heat exchangers used on board ship are of the indirect or surface type. Direction Of Fluid Flow - In surface heat exchangers, the fluids may flow parallel to each other, counter to each other, or at right angles to each other (cross flow). In parallel flow, shown in figure 1, both fluids flow in the same direction. If a parallel-flow heat exchanger has a long enough heat-transfer surface, the temperatures of the two fluids will be just about equal as the fluids leave the heat exchanger. In counter flow, shown in figure 2, the two fluids flow in opposite directions. Counter-flow heat exchangers are used in many applications where it is necessary to obtain a large temperature change in the cooled or heated fluid.
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In cross flow, shown in figure 3, one fluid flows at right angles to the other. Cross flow is particularly useful for removing latent heat and thus condensing a vapor to a liquid.
FIGURE 1 - PARALLEL FLOW IN HEAT EXCHANGER
FIGURE 2 - COUNTER FLOW IN HEAT EXCHANGER
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FIGURE 3 - CROSS FLOW IN HEAT EXCHANGER Counter-flow and cross-flow heat exchangers are more commonly used than the parallel-flow type on board ship. Fuel oil heaters, lube oil coolers, and many internal combustion engine coolers are examples of the counter-flow type. Cross flow is used for most condensers, including the main and auxiliary condensers. In many heat exchangers, the types of flow are combined in various ways so that it is not always easy to determine whether the flow is basically parallel, counter, or cross. Number Of Passes - Surface heat exchangers may be classified as single-pass units, if each fluid passes the other only once, or as multipass units, if one fluid passes the other more than once. Multipass flow may be obtained by the arrangement of the tubes and of the fluid inlets and outlets, or it may be obtained by using baffles to guide a fluid so that it passes the other fluid more than once before it leaves the heat exchanger. Type Of Surface - Surface heat exchangers are known as plain-surface units, if the surface is relatively smooth, or as extended-surface units, if the surface is fitted with rings, fins, studs, or some other kind of extension. The main advantage of the extended surface lies in the fact that the extensions increase the heat-transfer area without requiring any substantial increase in the over-all size and weight of the unit. You will find many examples of plain-surface heat exchangers aboard ship-condensers, lube oil coolers, and some fuel oil heaters, to name but a few. The G-fin type of fuel oil heater is an example of an extended-surface heat exchanger, as is the economizer of a boiler.
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TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION
Shell-And-Tube Heat Exchangers - Surface heat exchangers are often called by names that indicate general features of design and construction. Basically, most of surface heat exchangers are of shell-and-tube construction. However, the shell-and-tube arrangement is modified in various ways and in some cases it is not easy to recognize the basic design. Shell-and-tube arrangement is modified in various ways and in some cases it is not easy to recognize the basic design. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers include such types as (1) straight-tube, (2) U-tube, (3) helical- or spiral-tube, (4) double-tube, (5) strut-tube, and (6) plate-tube heat exchangers. In straight-tube heat exchangers, the tubes are usually arranged in a bundle and enclosed in a cylindrical shell. The ends of the tubes may be expanded into a tube sheet at each end of the bundle or they may be expanded into one tube sheet and packed and feruled into the other. The use of ferrules allows the tube to expand and contract slightly with temperature changes. A distributing chamber or header (often called the water box) at each end of the cylindrical shell provides a place for the distribution and the collection of the fluid that flows through the tubes. Because the tubes, shell, and other parts of a heat exchanger heat and cool at different rates, some provision must be made for expansion and contraction. When the use of packing does not provide an adequate allowance for expansion and contraction, a bellows-type or a ring-type expansion joint may be used in the cylindrical shell. Other methods of providing for expansion and contraction include the use of slightly curved tubes and the use of a floating head construction. One type of floating head is illustrated in figure 4.
FIGURE 4 - FLOATING HEAT CONSTRUCTION OF HEAT EXCHANGER Many straight-tube heat exchangers have baffles and tube support plates that serve to direct the flow of the fluid outside the tubes. These baffles and support plates cause some turbulence, and thereby improve heat transfer by disturbing the fluid film. Strips of metal twisted into a spiral shape may be fitted on the inside of the tubes to cause turbulence.
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U-bend heat exchangers, sometimes called return-bend heat exchangers, consist of a bundle of u-shaped; there is only one tube sheet. The shape of the tubes provides a sufficient allowance for expansion and contraction. Helical-tube or spiral-tube heat exchangers have one or more coils of tubing installed inside a shell. The tubes may communicate with headers at each end of the shell; or, in the case of relatively simple units such as boiler water sample coolers, the ends of the tubing may pass through the shell and serve as the inlet and the outlet for the fluid that flows through the coil of tubing. Doubled-tube heat exchangers have one tube inside another. One fluid flows through the inner tube and the other flows between the outer and the inner tube. The outer tube may thus be regarded as the shell for each inner tube. The shells or outer tubes are usually arranged in banks and are connected at one end by a common tube sheet and a partitioned cover that serves to direct the flow. Many double-tube heat exchangers are of u-bend construction to allow for expansion and contraction. The sectional g-fin fuel oil heater commonly used in the ships is an example of a double-tube heat exchanger. Strut-tube and plate-tube heat exchangers are noticeably different in design from the other shell-and-tube heat exchangers. The tubes in both strut-tube and plate-tube heat exchangers consist of pairs of flat, oblong strips, one fluid flows inside the tubes and the other-flows around the outside. Strut-tube and plate-tube heat exchangers are used primarily as water coolers and lubricating oil coolers in internal combustion engines; they are also used as lube oil coolers for some small auxiliary turbines. The most critical joint in the heat exchanger, and the one most likely to leak, is called the tubeto-tubesheet joint. This joint is made by expanding the tube into serrations or grooves that are located in the tubesheet, by welding the tube to the face of the tubesheet, or by a combination of both. When the tube is expanded into a tubesheet with serrations, the number of serrations can vary from one to as many as three, depending on the service required. The tubes may be expanded into the tubesheet by means of mechanical rollers, hydraulic expansion, or detonation. Though, regardless of the method used, the objective is to create a joint that has a strength greater than the tube and is leak-tight. Factors that affect the quality of the tube-to-tubesheet joint are: Tube hole finish Tube wall thickness reduction Length of expanded joint Tubesheet ligament width (i.e. minimum distance between holes) Relative yield strength between the tube and the tubesheet. Tube wall thickness
Mechanical roller expansion is the most commonly used method of creating a bond between the tube and the tube sheet. A typical expanded tube is illustrated in figure 5 below:
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FIGURE 5 - EXPANDED TUBE-TO-TUBESHEET JOINT WITH FLARED INLET The simplest tube expander is an assembly of three major parts: the mandrel, the cage and the rollers (Figure 6). The maximum roller length is approximately 2 inches, therefore longer joints are rolled in steps. Because of friction between the rollers and tube, and between the rollers and roller cage, the roller surfaces are lubricated.
FIGURE 6 - MECHANICAL TUBE EXPANDER
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Roller expanding extrudes the tube material in the axial direction. Care must be exercised in rolling to avoid inducing undesired stresses in the tubes. When rolling tubes manually, the mandrel is turned by a socket wrench or pneumatic driver. Care must also be taken to follow the manufacturers instructions concerning limits of tube wall thickness reduction. Although the normal practice is to expand the tube into the tubesheet by rolling, there are factors, such as pressure, temperature, fatigue, and corrosion, which, when combined with leakage, dictate that the joint be welded. Tube Arrangement Details - In shell and tube heat exchangers, baffles are generally used to guide flow and increase the velocity of the fluid on the shell side of the heat exchanger. The most commonly used baffles are shown below.
FIGURE 7 - FLOW BAFFLES
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Another consideration is selecting tube arrangement. The four most common tube patterns, as viewed from the tube sheet end, are shown below. The most compact forms are the triangular pitch and the rotated-triangular pitch, and the triangular pattern is most commonly used in marine service heat exchangers.
FIGURE 8 - TUBE PITCH PATTERNS Plate Type Heat Exchangers - The shell-and-tube heat exchanger is the most widely used type for marine applications; however, plate and compact heat exchangers offer alternatives for certain applications. Plate heat exchangers are most commonly used as lube oil coolers and engine jacket water coolers. As shown is figure 9 below, the heat exchanger consists of five
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basic elements: the cover, the carrier rail, the heat transfer plates, the support column, and the tie bolts.
FIGURE 9 - PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER The inlet and outlet for both fluids are usually located in the same cover. The two fluids are separated by the heat transfer plates. Each plate contains a gasket that fits into grooves pressed in the plate and in the nozzle ports. The gasket prevents the two fluids from mixing. The gasket is vented to the atmosphere, which permits a leak to be readily detected. The plates are sandwiched between a fixed cover and a movable cover by the tie bolts. The top and the bottom carrier rails align the plates to each other. The heart of the heat exchanger is the plate. Understanding the design of this plate is vital when specifying the type of heat exchanger. The plate is a sheet of metal approximately .024 inch thick and precision pressed into corrugated patterns, or chevrons. The corrugated pattern, depth, shape, and angle are the manufacturers proprietary information. Since the industry does not have a standard for heat transfer plates, the plates are unique to each manufacturer. To ensure uniform velocity through the plate, the inlet and outlet region of each plate has flow distribution grooves pressed into the plates. Figure 10 shows the design of a typical plate with a gasket.
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FIGURE 10 - PLATE WITH GASKET The heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop can be varied from plate to plate by changing the plate pattern, depth, shape and angle. When designing a plate heat exchanger to transfer a given amount of heat, the number of plates can be increased to establish the required area for a specified chevron angle. Or, the designer may change the angle within the plate pack therefore decreasing the angle needed for heat transfer. Figure 11 shows the typical flow patterns in plate heat exchangers. For different combinations of flow and pressure drop requirements, plate heat exchanger design flexibility is achieved by changing plate size, chevron angle, the flow of some plates to cocurrent flow, or the location of the outlet in the movable cover. Maintenance if the heat exchanger is relatively easy because there is access to both surfaces of the heat transfer plate. Because of its compactness, the inspection and maintenance of this unit does not require additional space.
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FIGURE 11 - TYPICAL FLOW PATTERNS Compact Heat Exchangers - Compact heat exchangers of plate-fin and tube-fin types, tube bundles with small diameters, and regenerative type are used generally for applications where gas flows. The heat transfer surface area is increased by fins to increase the surface area per unit
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volume and there are many variations. Compact heat exchangers are widely used in industry especially as gas-to-gas or liquid-to-gas heat exchangers; some examples are vehicular heat exchangers, condensers and evaporators. There are two types of compact heat exchangers: plate-fin and tube-fin. Plate-fin heat exchangers have each channel defined by two parallel plates separated by fins or spacers. Fins or spacers are sandwiched between parallel plates or formed tubes. Examples of compact plate-fin heat exchangers are shown below in figure 12. Fins are attached to the plates by brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding, welding, mechanical fit, or extrusion. Alternate fluid passages are connected in parallel by end heads to form two sides of a heat exchanger. Fins are employed on both sides in gas-to-gas heat exchangers.
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FIGURE 12 - PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGERS In gas-to-liquid heat exchanger applications, fins are usually employed only on the gas side where the heat transfer coefficient is lower; if fins are employed on the liquid side, they provide a structural strength. The fins used in a plate-fin heat exchanger may be plain and straight fins; plain but wavy fins; or interrupted fins. In a tube-fin heat exchanger, round, rectangular and elliptical tubes are used and fins are employed either on the outside or on the inside, or on both sides depending on the application. In a gas-to-liquid heat exchanger, the gas side heat transfer coefficient is low compared to that of the liquid side. Therefore, no fins are needed on the liquid side. In some application, fins are also used inside the tubes. The liquids flow inside the tube, which can accommodate high pressures. Tube-fin heat exchangers are less compact than plate-fin heat exchangers. Examples are shown below: Fins on the outside tubes may be categorized as: 1. Flat or continuous external fins on an array of tubes 2. Normal fins on individual tubes 3. Longitudinal fins on individual tubes
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FIGURE 13 - TUBE FIN HEAT EXCHANGERS
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS Shell-and-Tube Advantages and Disadvantages - Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are the most versatile and type of heat exchangers. They provide relatively large ratios of heat transfer area to volume and weight. They can also be cleaned very easily. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers offer great flexibility to meet almost any service requirement. The reliable design methods and shop facilities are available for their successful design and construction. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers can be used for high pressures relative to the environment and high-pressure difference between the fluid streams. Most shell-and-tube heat exchangers are able to withstand high temperature and high pressure for long periods of time, thus requiring little down-time. In addition, shell-and-tube exchangers can be used for almost all applications including gas-toliquid and gas-to-gas operations. One of the most common applications for the shell-and-tube type heat exchanger is as the main condenser in steam plants. The major disadvantage to using shell-and-tube heat exchangers is the difficulty in finding leaks. Any leaks may go undetected since the unit is fully enclosed. This will result in unexpected heat losses. . The large surface area, which is another disadvantage, can cause heat loss due to the unit being exposed to the atmosphere. Plate Type Advantages and Disadvantages - The main advantage for using a plate type heat exchanger is the design minimizes the risk of internal leak. Any failure in the gasket results in leakage to the atmosphere that is easily detectable on the exterior of the plate. The additional advantages offered by the plate type heat exchanger are: 1. Flexibility of design is through variety of plate size and pass arrangements. 2. The heat transfer area is easily accessible, which permits changes in configuration to suit any changes in process requirements. 3. Heat transfer is efficient. 4. They are very compact and have a low weight. 5. Only the plate edges are exposed to the atmosphere, therefore leaving heat loss at a minimum. 6. Plate units exhibit low-fouling characteristics due to high turbulence and low residence time. 7. More than two fluids may be processed in a single unit. The major disadvantage of plate type heat exchangers is the gasket imposes restrictions on operation temperatures, pressures, and on the nature of the fluid being handled. Complex channel geometries result in the plate heat exchanges having high-shear characteristics. Operating temperatures are also limited by the availability of its suitable gasket material. Plate type heat exchangers are also not suitable as air coolers, and fluids with high viscosity present some problems due to flow distribution effects, particularly when cooling is taking place. As such, velocities lower than ohm/s are not used in plate heat exchangers.
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PROPER OPERATION OF MAIN CONDENSERS - The versatility of heat exchangers allows them to operate in conditions where they add or remove heat. The following set of operating procedures is based on the condensing aspect of a steam cycle. The heating of media using a heat exchanger is very similar and less complex, so if we can understand the more difficult heat exchanger use, then all other applications should seem easy to us. Under conditions of warming up, standing by, cooling down, and securing, the condenser vacuum should be regulated in accordance with information given in the manufactures technical manual. Two basic rules that apply to the operation of single-pass main condensers should be kept in mind. The first is that the overboard temperature should be about 10 higher than the injection temperature. The second rule is that the condensate discharge temperature should be within a few degrees of the temperature corresponding to the vacuum in the condenser. The accompanying chart lists vacuums (based on a 30,00-inch barometer) and corresponding temperatures.
INCHES OF MERCURY 29.6 29.4 29.2 29.0 28.8 28.6 28.4 28.2 28.0 27.8 27.6 CORRESPONDING TEMPERATURE (F) 53 64 72 79 85 90 94 98 101 104 107
In shipboard applications, scoop injections systems are designed to provide a sufficient amount of cooling water at speeds of 5 knots and above, with the injection and overboard valves wide open. Ordinarily it is not necessary to control the circulating water flow by throttling the valves. If throttling becomes necessary because the ship is in cold waters or because of other unusual operating conditions, the proper valve to use is the overboard valve; the valve should never be more than three-fourths closed. Using the inlet valve to throttle the flow of circulating water would cause turbulence and consequent erosion of the tubes. In the same sense, pumps can be used to recreate the scoop injection system where movement does not exist. If the condenser vacuum is not as high as it should be in relation to the condenser load and the cooling water overboard temperature, some part of the condensing system is not functioning properly. You may find, for example, that the air ejectors are not properly removing air from the condenser, that the condensate pump is not keeping the right condensate level, or that there is an air leak in the condenser or in some other part of the system under vacuum. The condensate level should be kept as low as possible. It should not rise into the condenser shell. Allowing the level to rise slightly higher than the top of the hot well causes the condensate
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temperature to be lower than normal because the path for the flow of reheating steam is partially blocked by the condensate. (Reheating steam is the steam that enters the hot well by way of the central steam lane. The central steam lane extends completely through the tube bundle and provides for longitudinal distribution of steam from the exhaust inlet directly to the condenser hot well). If the condensate level is allowed to rise to the bottom row of tubes, the flow of reheating steam is further restricted, causing an even greater drop in condensate temperature. At this point, also, the high condensate level begins interfering with the flow of air toward the air removal areas, thus causing a gradual loss of vacuum. A rapid loss of vacuum, accompanied by a rapid increase in condenser shell temperature and exhaust trunk temperature, results if the condensate rises to the lower end of the air baffles. This results not only because air removal ceases but also because a large part of the tube bundle is submerged and not available for cooling and condensing the incoming steam. If the condensate level rises and cannot be brought down to normal immediately by speeding up the condensate pump or by cutting in an additional pump, the speed of the main engine must be reduced to avoid serious damage to the engine and condenser. An adequate flow of circulating water must be provided continuously to an operating condenser. This circulating water cools the steam and causes it to condense. Failure of the circulating water supply causes overheating of the condenser and loss of vacuum. Unless the situation is corrected immediately, steam pressure will build up to the point where it might cause the condenser shell to rupture. Causes of insufficient circulating water are: 1. Condenser tubes clogged with foreign matter such as fish, seaweed, or mud. 2. Obstruction of injection or discharge sea chests, strainers, piping, or valves. 3. Injection or overboard valves not properly adjusted. 4. Inefficient or inoperative circulating pump. 5. Obstructed air vents (condenser vapor bound). 6. Faulty non-return valves in scoop injection lines or in main circulating pump discharge lines. Steam or air connections are provided to clear foreign matter from sea chests. Sometimes, however, thick accumulations of marine growth on or around sea valve openings cannot be blown clear. When maximum pressure fails to clear a strainer, a diver must remove the obstruction. Air vents must be kept open under all operating conditions where air is vented overboard through the hull or where the inlet water chest is vented to the discharge water chest or piping, to minimize air erosion of the tubes and to avoid air-binding. Vents that are piped to the bilges should be kept slightly open at all times when the condenser is in use. As long as a trickle of water escapes, the unit will not become air bound and the circulating water flow will not be obstructed. Main condenser circulating pumps are provided with bilge suction connections. These condenser-circulating pumps generally constitute the largest potential capacity available for pumping engine room bilges; it is important that you know how to make necessary connections
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to these suctions in an emergency. It is usually necessary only to turn the bilge suction line stop or stop-check valve one-fourth to one-third open, to obtain maximum bilge suction capacity. MAIN CONDENSERS - The general arrangement of main condensers is shown schematically in figure 14. As may be seen, there are two separate circuits in this heat exchanger. In the vapor-condensate circuit, the steam exhausted from the low-pressure turbine enters at the top of the condenser as condensate. The other circuit is the seawater circuit, which provides a medium for the removal of latent heat from the steam.
FIGURE 14 - ARRANGEMENT OF MAIN CONDENSER During normal ahead operation, seawater flow through the condenser tubes is provided automatically by means of the injector scoop. The scoop, which is open to the sea, directs the water into the inlet water chest; from there it flows once through the tubes, into the discharge water chest, and then overboard through the main overboard sea chest. A main circulating pump provides positive circulating of seawater through the condenser at times when the scoop injection
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system is not sufficient-as, for example, when the ship is stopped, backing down, or moving ahead at very slow speeds. Construction Of Main Condenser - All main condensers that have scoop injection are of the straight-tube, single-pass type, of the general construction shown in figure 15. A main condenser may contain from 2000 to 10,000 copper-nickel alloy tubes, usually of 5/8inch diameter. The length of the tubes and the number of tubes depends upon the size of the condenser; and this, in turn, depends upon the capacity requirements. The tube ends are usually expanded into the tube sheet at the inlet end and are flared after expansion. The outlet tube ends are expanded or else packed or ferruled into the tube sheet. Condensers having tubes ferruled into each tube sheet are found in a few older ships. The tube sheets serve as partitions between the salt-water circuit and the vapor-condensate circuit. Access to the tube sheets is by way of manholes in each water chest. Zinc plates are attached to each manhole cover.
FIGURE 15 - CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE MAIN CONDENSER Various methods of construction are used to provide for relative expansion and contraction of the shell and tubes in main condensers. Packing the tubes at the outlet end is sometimes sufficient. Where the tubes are expanded into each tube sheet, the shell may have an expansion joint. In some condensers the tubes are arranged to bow upward about half an inch at the middle; this provides for expansion and contraction and also makes it easier to drain the condenser.
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Expansion joints are also provided in the scoop injection line and in the overboard discharge line as shown in figure 14. In recent installations, additional means such as a flexible support foot or lubricated sliding feet are provided to compensate for expansion and contraction differentials between the shell and the tubes. Strainer bars are installed in the sea chest or injection pipe area to strain out seaweed, fish, and other material that could clog the piping or the condenser tubes. (Before you laugh at the idea of fish in the condenser, consider the plight of one poor fish that entered a two-pass auxiliary condenser and managed to stay in the return-end water chest until it had grown too large to get out through the return tubes). As the steam is condensed on the tubes, the condensate drips down and collects on a heating tray. Because of the arrangements made for steam flow in a main condenser, some steam flows under the tube bundle and thereby reheats the condensate. From the heating tray, the condensate drains to the hot well, where the condensate pump takes suction. Main condensers have various internal baffle arrangements for the purpose of separating air and steam so that the air ejectors will not be overloaded by having to pump large quantities of steam with the air. One arrangement that provides separate air-cooling sections is shown in figure 15. The supporting flanges shown in figure 15 rest on foundation structure built into the ship. The air baffles are extended up the side of the condenser shell. In some installations the condenser is hung from the low-pressure turbine so that the turbine supports the condenser. This arrangement differs from that shown in figure 15, where the steam lane is centrally located. Where the condenser is hung from the turbine, sway braces are used to connect the lower part of the condenser shell with the ships structure. Spring supports are sometimes used to support part of the weight of the condenser so that the turbine will not support the entire weight. AUXILIARY CONDENSERS - Condensers into which turbo generators exhaust are generally referred to as auxiliary condensers. They operate on the same principle as main condensers. In an auxiliary condenser, however, the cooling water is pumped through the condenser at all times instead of being scoop injected. Also, most auxiliary condensers are of two-pass rather than single-pass construction. Figure 16 shows a two-pass auxiliary condenser; the seawater chest is divided into an inlet chamber and a discharge chamber. In other construction feature, including the metals used, auxiliary condensers are similar to main condensers. Auxiliary exhaust steam, beyond that required for units such as the deaerating feed tank and the distilling plants, may be directed either to the auxiliary condenser. When getting under way, the exhaust goes to the auxiliary condenser until vacuum in the main condenser is sufficiently high.
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FIGURE 16 - AUXILIARY CONDENSER MAINTENANCE OF STEAM CONDENSERS -Heat exchangers and associated equipment should be periodically inspected to ensure that they are operating efficiently. Preventive maintenance is much more economical than corrective maintenance. Air Leaks - The desired condenser vacuum cannot be maintained if the condenser leaks. Leaks at flanged joints and through porous castings can usually be stopped temporarily with application of shellac when the condenser is under vacuum. Leaks around valve stems can sometimes be eliminated by tightening the packing. Small leaks around porous castings, flange nuts, valve stems, etc., can sometimes (but not always) be located by the candle test. Hold a lighted candle
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close to areas where leaks are suspected and see if the flame flickers. A more reliable means of locating condenser air leaks is by use of soapsuds while the steam side of the condenser is under pressure. Remove one of the thermometer wells and install a pressure gage and line. Now subject the steam side of the condenser to a pressure of 5 psi. Apply soapsuds to the units and areas where a leak is suspected and watch for the formation of bubbles. All places where it is possible for an air leak to exist should be investigated. Some of the places to look for possible leaks include the following: 1. Makeup feed line. 2. All gage lines. 3. Drain collecting system drain line. 4. Air ejector inter-condenser drain line. 5. Condensate pump suction line, vent line, and gland sealing system. 6. Condensate and vent lines under vacuum. 7. Air-removal suction line. 8. Thermometer connections. 9. Main exhaust flange and turbine exhaust trunk manholes. 10. Fittings with porous casting. 11. Shell relief valve. 12. Evaporator drain line. 13. Boiling-out connection at bottom of shell. 14. Drain connections or plates at bottom of hot well. 15. Hot well gage glass and fittings. 16. Auxiliary exhaust dumping line. 17. Turbine drain lines. 18. Condensate recirculating line. MAIN CONDENSER TUBE WORK Testing Condensers For Leakage - Several methods are commonly used to test condensers for leakage. In all cases, of course, the turbine and the condenser must be secured and the salt-water side of the condenser must be drained. The preferred method of testing for leaks is to place the steam side under an air pressure of about 5 psig and to slowly fill the salt-water side with salt water. Leaky tubes are indicated by air bubbles coming out of the ends of the tubes. The procedure for making this test is as follows: 1. Close the main injection and overboard valves, and secure them against accidental opening. Drain the seawater side of the condenser. 2. Remove the inspection plates (manhole plates) from the water chests. 3. Secure the condensate pump suction, vent, and recirculating line. 4. Secure all turbine drains to the condenser. 5. Secure the low-pressure drain connection to the condenser. 6. Blank off all steam-side relief valve connections, whether on the turbine casing or on the condenser shell. 7. Close the auxiliary exhaust valve to the condenser. 8. Close the air ejector condenser drains.
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9. Close or blank off the makeup feed valve and the excess feed valve. 10. Secure the recirculating line from the deaerating feed tank to the condenser. 11. Put the steam side of the condenser under an air pressure of about 5 psig. This may be done by admitting air through the exhaust pressure gage fitting on the exhaust trunk from the low-pressure turbine, or through some other convenient connection. The largest fitting that is consistent with the size of the available air hose should be used, since a considerable volume of air is required to pressurize the steam side of the condenser. Let the air pressure build up slowly, to avoid overloading the air compressor and to avoid building up more than 5 psig in the condenser. 12. Line up and cut in the turbine gland sealing steam, if this is necessary in order to achieve a pressure of 5 psig in the condenser. 13. Slowly fill the salt-water side with seawater. Observe the tube ends carefully as the water rises and covers them. Air bubbles coming from the tube needs indicate a leaky tube. 14. Mark all leaky tubes immediately. It is possible to mark them with a grease pencil. However, a better way to mark a defective tube is by putting a wooden plug in each end. This system of marking has the advantage of stopping the bubbling of air, so that you will not be misled as to the condition of the tubes directly above. 15. As the water level approaches the openings, replace the inspection plates. In most condensers there are a number of tubes that are above the lower edge of the inspection openings; these tubes must be tested with soapsuds or with a candle flame, as their ends cannot be covered with water for inspection. The candle test may be used to find large leaks such as might be caused by a split tube. There are two ways of making the candle by a split tube: FIRST METHOD: - Operate the air ejectors, and provide for circulation of condensate through the air ejector condenser by using the condensate pump and a recirculation line. Pass a lighted candle along the rows of the tube ends. The candle flame will be drawn into the ends of the tubes in which there are large leaks. Mark the defective tubes immediately with chalk or a grease pencil. SECOND METHOD: - Put the steam side of the condenser under an air pressure of about 5 psig, by the method previously described. Pass a lighted candle along the rows of tube ends. The candle flame will be deflected away from the ends of the tubes in which there are large leaks. Mark the defective tubes as soon as you find them. The soapsuds test can be used to locate both small and large leaks. The procedure for making this test is: 1. Drain the salt-water side of the condenser. 2. Remove the inspection plates from the water chests. 3. Fill the steam side of the condenser with FRESH water to as high a level as possible. 4. Cover all tube ends with a heavy coating of soapsuds. 5. By the method previously described, apply an air pressure of about 5 psig on top of the water. (Dont forget to use the gland sealing steam to prevent the escape of air from the turbine glands.)
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6. Inspect for leaks. Leaky tubes will be indicated either by water trickling from the tube or by bubbling of the soapsuds. Occasionally, none of the methods described above are adequate for detecting condenser leaks. In such cases, test for leaks by filling the steam side of the condenser with fresh water to which has been added a small amount of Marker Dye. This dye is readily detectable on the tube sheet as it issues from a tube leak, when used in the proper concentrations. If a portable battery-operated ultraviolet lamp is available for use in inspecting the tube sheets, use only 1.5 ounces of the dye per 1000 gallons of fresh water. When used in either of these concentrations, the dye is not poisonous and will not do any harm to the feed system or to the boiler. PRECAUTIONS to be observed when testing condensers for leakage are: 1. Before opening the salt-water side of a condenser, close and secure all sea connections, including the main injection, the circulating pump suction, and the main overboard stop valves. 2. Before removing a manhole or handhole plate, drain the salt-water side by using the drain valve in the inlet water chest. Draining the salt-water side in this manner provides a check on the tightness of closure of all sea connections. 3. Never subject a condenser shell to test pressures in excess of 15 psig. 4. Never use an open flame or any sparking object in a newly opened condenser until the condenser has been thoroughly blown out with steam or air, and it has been definitely established that there is no explosive hazard from hydrogen gas or any other gas. Condenser explosions have occurred as the result of failure to observe this precaution. 5. Always drain the salt-water side before flooding the steam side, and keep the salt-water side free of water until after the steam side has been emptied. Plugging Condenser Tubes - Main condenser tubes that fail in service should be plugged at each end with the type of tube plugs originally furnished by the manufacturer of the condenser. The manufacturers instructions should be followed in plugging condenser tubes. Plugs should be driven firmly into the tube ends by light hammer blows. If a metal plug is used to plug tube sheet holes after a tube has been removed, a short section of tube should be installed at each end and expanded into the tube sheet to protect the tube sheet holes from damage. Tubes that leak at the tube joints but that are otherwise in good condition should NOT be plugged. Such tubes should be rerolled or repacked rather than plugged. When several tube leaks occur close together and in such a location that steam-side erosion may be suspected as the cause of trouble, steel rods should be inserted into the damaged tubes before the ends are plugged. These rods will serve as a sort of baffle or shield to protect adjacent tubes from similar damage from erosion. The steel rods should be slightly smaller in diameter than the tubes. In order to minimize lengthwise working of the rods that would tend to loosen the plugs, rods should be installed in the following way:
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1. Cut each rod so that it is as long as it can be without interfering with the tube plugs. 2. Cut two or three grooves in each end of the rod. The grooves should start about 2 inches from the end, and should be spaced about 1 inch apart. They should be deep enough and wide enough to take a standard condenser tube fiber-packing ring. 3. Cut a segment from one fiber-packing ring for each groove in the rod. Cut the packing ring in such a way that when the ends are brought together the resulting ring will fill a groove in the steel rod and make a snug fit in the tube. 4. Insert the rods, together with the packing rings, in the tubes that are to be plugged. Center the rods properly; spray the packing with fresh water so that it will swell; and then plug the tube ends. Main condenser tubes that have been plugged should be renewed at the first shipyard availability if the water chests are to be removed for other work. Tubes that have had steel rods inserted to protect other tubes against erosion should NOT be replaced unless the cause of the erosion has been found and corrected. Repairing Condenser Tube Sheets - Although leakage through main condenser tube sheets is extremely uncommon, it has been known to occur as the result of the tube sheets becoming porous or cracked. On newer ships, the metals used for main condenser tube sheets are highly resistant to porosity and cracking; and even on older installations there is very little history of main condenser tube sheet failures. The chances are, therefore, that you will never be called upon to repair main condenser tube sheets. However, there are two procedures that you should know about that might be used in an emergency to control leakage through the tube sheet. These procedures are temporary in nature. Porosity can be stopped temporarily be tinning or by peening. As a rule, tube sheets should not be painted with boiled linseed oil or other coatings. A tube sheet crack may be temporarily stitched by the following procedure: 1. Drill holes at each end of the crack (if the crack does not terminate in tube sheet holes) and at close intervals all along the crack. Do NOT drill any hole deeper than one-half the thickness of the tube sheet. 2. Insert threaded brass or copper plugs into the drilled holes. When fully screwed in, the plug should have at least five threads engaged and should project about inch. 3. If the crack terminates in tube sheet holes, as it most likely will, remove the tubes from these holes and close the holes with threaded metal plugs. 4. After all plugs have been screwed into position, lightly but thoroughly rivet down the projecting ends of the plugs to form a complete layer of metal over the crack. Renewing Condenser Tubes - Since you have probably had more experience in boiler tube work than in condenser tube work, you should note the differences between the two kinds of work. In some ways, condenser tube work is easier than boiler tube work because the materials used are so much softer. However, the very fact that they are softer means that they are also much more easily damaged. If you go at a condenser re-tubing job as though you were working on a boiler, you may end up with damaged tubes and completely ruined tube sheet holes.
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Some repair activities have special equipment for the rapid removal of old condenser tubes. If such equipment is not available, the old tubes maybe cut to short lengths inside the shell and a drift may be used to drive the tube ends out of the tube sheet. Figure 17 shows a drift that is suitable for use on condenser tubes of 5/8-inch outside diameter and 0.049-inch wall thickness.
FIGURE 17 - DRIFT FOR DRIVING TUBE ENDS FROM TUBE SHEETS (DIMENSION ARE FOR TUBES OF 5/8-INCH OD AND 0.049-INCH WALL THICKNESS If serious difficulty is encountered in removing expanded tubes, it may be necessary to ream the expanded ends until only a thin and easily removable shell of tube remains in the tube hole. A reamer of the type shown below in figure 18 may be used for this purpose.
FIGURE 18 - REAMER FOR REMOVING EXPANDED TUBE ENDS It should be fitted with a pilot that closely fits the inside bore of the tube. The reamer should only be used by skilled personnel who can use it without allowing it to touch the surfaces of the tube holes in the tubesheets. Before replacement tubes are installed, all interior parts of the condenser must be thoroughly inspected. If there is any doubt as to the condition of the joints between the tube and the condenser shell, the tube sheets should be removed, the flanges trued, and the joints re-gasketed. Joints should be remade and the glands should be repacked.
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Replacement tubes must be made of the material specified by the manufacturers. Replacement tubes are generally furbished in stock lengths and must be cut to size before installation. It is good practice to cut the tubes about 1/8 inch longer than the distance between the outside of the tubesheets and then finish to the exact length by using an air-driven end mill or surface grinder after the tubes are installed. After complete removal of the old tubes, insertion of the new tubes is most easily accomplished by having men inside the condenser to guide the tubes through the proper holes. If working space is limited, it may be wise to remove the tube sheet at the end and replace it after the tubes have been inserted. Cleaning Condensers - Foreign matter lodged on the steam side of the condenser tubes interferes with and reduces the rate of the flow of heat from the condensing steam to the circulating water. This, in turn, reduces the maximum vacuum obtainable and lowers the efficiency of the condenser. The lodgment of foreign matter on the seawater side of the tubes is detrimental to the tubes themselves in addition to slowing down the transfer of heat. Frequent visual inspections provide the only safe means of knowing the conditions of condenser fouling. Grease and dirt on the steam side of a condenser may be boiled out with a strong solution of boiler compound. Normally, though, this boiling-out process should not be necessary more than once every 2 or 3 years. The sea water side of the tubes should be cleaned as often as necessary; the intervals depending upon the rate at which slime, marine growth, scale, mud, oil, grease, etc., are deposited on the tube walls. The amount of such deposits depends upon existing conditions. Operation in shallow water, for example, may cause this fouling of the tubes. For ordinary cleaning, the tubes can be scrubbed out with a rotating bristle brush, or an air lance may be pushed through them. Another method is to shoot soft rubber plugs (Figure 19) through the tubes by means of compressed air or water under pressure.
FIGURE 19 - TYPES OR RUBBER PLUGS USED FOR CLEANING CONDENSER TUBES.
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Care Of Idle Condensers - The salt-water side of the idle condenser should be kept dry. If the condenser is to be put into active use again in a few days, it may be kept filled and the water should be circulated daily. One exception should be noted: when the ship is anchored in highly polluted waters, the sea water side should be drained and thoroughly washed out whenever the condenser is secured. The steam side of the condenser should always be dry when the condenser is secured. Condenser Safety Precautions - The following safety precautions should be observed in relation to all steam condensers in the engineering plant: 1. Make every effort to eliminate air leaks through all parts of the system that operate under vacuum. 2. Do not subject seawater chests to pressures in excess of 15 psi. 3. Lift by hand and examine water chest relief valves whenever condensers are secured. 4. To detect salt-water leaks, constantly check the salinity indicator. 5. Keep baffle plates in place under steam inlets to condensers, and keep them in good condition. 6. Keep the required number of zincs in place, and ensure that they always have good metallic contact. 7. Slow down or stop the engine if a loss of vacuum is accompanied by a hot or flooded condenser 8. Do not allow water to accumulate in the condenser and overflow into the turbine. 9. Keep condensers clean and tight. 10. Before the salt-water side of a condenser is opened, close all sea connections tightly and secure them against accidental opening. 11. Bring no open flame (or anything which will cause a spark) close to a newly opened condenser, until after the condenser has been thoroughly blown out with steam or air. Hydrogen or sewer gas may be present. 12. Renew deteriorated tube packing before it reaches such a condition that removal is difficult. 13. When setting-up on ferrule-type tube packing, do not exert so much pressure that the tube end is necked or crimped; however, screw down the ferrules enough to keep them from backing out. 14. Be careful not to damage tube sheets when repairing tube ends or renewing tubes. 15. Keep condenser tubes clear of foreign matter. 16. Keep salt-water sides of idle condenser dry, especially when the ship is in polluted waters. 17. Keep the steam side of secured condensers drained. 18. Keep the salt-water sides of condensers in use free from air. 19. When boiling out and draining condensers, see that necessary safeguards are provided to protect yourself and others against being scalded. 20. Keep salinity indicator systems in constant operation.
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MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION USE OF ZINCS - Most heat exchangers that utilize salt water as a cooling medium have zincs installed on the salt-water side to protect the metal of the unit against electrolytic (galvanic) corrosion. When dissimilar metals are immersed in an electrolyte such as seawater, a small electric cell is set up. Current flows from one metal to the other through the electrolyte. The metal from which the current is flowing suffers rapid corrosion; the metal toward which the current is flowing is protected from corrosion. Some metals react very rapidly to galvanic action, while other metals do not. Lead, copper, tin, and brass are least affected by electrolysis. The ferrous metals are affected in varying degrees. Zinc is extremely susceptible to galvanic action, and is therefore used for replaceable electrodes in seawater circuits. When clean zinc is installed in the seawater side of a heat exchanger, the current developed by the combination of seawater and the dissimilar metals flows from the zinc to the adjacent metal of the unit. Thus the metal of the heat exchanger is protected from electrolytic corrosion, while the zinc is eaten away. In other words, zincs do not prevent electrolysis but, instead, provide a replaceable surface for the corrosion. The stray currents generated by electrolysis must be grounded. This is generally accomplished by establishing a good metallic contact between the zinc and the housing of the heat exchanger. Zincs are always installed at the salt-water inlet to a heat exchanger and in many cases are also installed at the salt-water outlet. The shape of the zinc protectors depends upon the design of the heat exchanger. Zinc protectors in common use include rectangular plates, circular plates, and rods or pencils. The zincs formerly used in the ships lost their effectiveness if the corroded metal was not removed from the surface. In recent years, a new type of special high-grade zinc has come into common use. Zinc protectors made of this material have the ability to slough off corrosion products as rapidly as they are formed. This characteristic allows the zinc to give continuous protection against electrolytic corrosion, until the zinc is considerably deteriorated, since there is no crust of corrosion products to interfere with the galvanic action. Zinc protectors made of this material do not require monthly scaling; they should, however, be inspected from time to time and wiped free of loose debris if necessary. Care of Zinc Plates - Zinc protectors lose their full effectiveness if the decomposed metal is not removed from their surfaces or if they are deteriorated to the extent that there is an appreciable reduction in exposed surface area. In order to provide maximum protection against damage to condensers through electrolysis, protective zincs must be inspected and thoroughly scaled at intervals not exceeding 1 month. Zincs that are found to be more than one-half deteriorated must be replaced. Figure 20 shows how a badly scaled zinc plate appears before and after the scaling or cleaning process.
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FIGURE 20 - BADLY SCALED ZINC PLATE. A. BEFORE BEING CLEANED. B. AFTER BEING CLEANED. It is absolutely essential that good contact be made between the zincs and the metal of the condenser in order to protect the condenser from galvanic corrosion. Zincs are generally mounted on studs which are welded to manhole plates or water chests. Copper-nickel washers are mounted between the zincs to ensure metallic contact. Split pins are used to prevent the nut from coming loose and damaging the water chest or tubes. PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER MAINTENANCE - The following is the procedure for opening the heat exchanger: Allow unit to cool. Release all pressure from inside of exchanger. If fitted, remove the pipe work connected to mobile/follower frame plate, & the intermediate frame/divider plates. Lightly oil tie bolt threads. Undo the clamping bolts uniformly keep the frame plates as parallel as possible during this operation. Push/ pull back the mobile frame plate away from plates pack & secure if necessary. Separate heat transfer plates carefully, avoiding damage to gaskets. Use gloves to handle the plates the edges can be sharp. Cleaning Of The Plates - Always wear gloves & eye goggles when using cleaning detergents. Use nylon or other types of soft scrubbing brushes with detergent. NEVER use a metal brush, steel wool, or sand/glass paper. Use Acetone, or other types of solvent which do not contain chlorine, to remove old gasket glue. Alternatively, use an LP gas flame, heating the reverse side
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of the plate. Do not use any other type of gas which may produce a harder flame. Boiling water can be used with some success. Detergents - Consult a cleaning specialist for a suitable choice of detergent. Ensure that all detergents used are compatible with the plate and gasket material before use. OXIDE OR CHALK deposits use 2 to 5 % nitric acid solution. ORGANIC, PROTEIN CONTAINING deposits use 2% solution of sodium hydroxide at temperature of 50 deg. C. GREASE deposits use neat kerosene, or an emulsifying agent (Jizer or Gunk). LIME deposits 10% nitric acid soak at room temperature for 10 minutes, followed by a caustic soda wash. MILK deposit circulate 1.5% nitric acid at 65 deg. C. ORGANIC OR GREASE deposits circulate 1.5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at 85 deg. C. After using any type of cleaning agent, always rinse thoroughly with fresh water. If cleaning in place, then circulate fresh water for at least 10 mins. Where O-rings are fitted, the flat side of the gasket is fitted into the circular gasket groove. If the O-ring is not flat on one side, then the thinnest part/side of the ring should be located into the gasket groove. It may be necessary to apply a small amount of gasket glue, or Locktite to hold the O-ring in place whilst the plate is being assembled. If the gaskets are to be replaced, ensure that the same plate portholes remain open as with the old gasket. If a number of gaskets are to be replaced, and the plates have been cleaned so the outline of the old gasket has been removed, then before attaching the gaskets, stack the plates with all of the pressure/herringbone patterns facing the same direction and the plates are surrounded by the gasket O-rings. Some gaskets will require glue. If no instructions are provided by the adhesive manufacturer, then we suggest that a thin layer of glue is spread into the plate gasket groove, using either a narrow paintbrush or a syringe. Contact adhesives (such as Pliobond 25 or 30) also require a thin layer of adhesive to be applied to the flat-faced side of the gasket. Check that, once stuck, the gasket will be correctly positioned, then fix the gasket to the plates, ensuring that all parts are seated into the gasket grooves, with no parts of the gasket stretched or bunched. Stack the plates, and leave to set. Warm oven curing accelerates the drying process. Snap-in type gaskets require no adhesive they are located by pushing the gasket fully down into the gasket groove. The gaskets are held into place by the interference fit narrowed portions of the gasket groove are pressed to ensure a secure fit. On some model types, the rubber frame plate nozzle liners have an O-ring molded into the liner itself. This molded O-ring fits into the gasket groove in the first plate. Therefore, if new gaskets have been fitted, the O-ring portion of the gasket around the nozzle hole will have to be cut off prior to assembly back into the frame.
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Plate Pack Assembly - The plates must be clean, dry, and free from oil or grease. If there are any oil deposits on the gaskets, or on the gasket seating area, then there is a strong likelihood that the plates shall slip out of place when the unit is being tightened. If the gaskets are contaminated with dirt, or grit, then these could cause leakage. Assembly: Fit O-ring first (if applicable). Refer to the Plate Sequence Sheet to determine the order of the plates, & the type required. Fit the start plate, ensuring the plate pattern is pointing in the correct direction. Fit plates according to the Plate Sequence Sheet. Ensure all gaskets face towards the fixed/head frame plate. Alternate between left & right handed plates if the plate edges form a regular honeycomb pattern, then the left/right hand sequence is correct. Tightening Of The Plate Pack Procedure: Lightly oil tie bolt threads. Do not allow oil or grease onto the gaskets or the gasket faces on the back of the plates. Wet or oil contaminated plates can become misaligned during tightening. In the event, dismantle, clean, and dry all areas in contact with the gaskets. Evenly tighten all bolts. We recommend the use of ratchet spanners. Ensure clamping is as uniform as possible, thus keeping the frames plates parallel throughout the operation. Avoid skewing the frame plates by more than 10 mm. Tightening is complete when the distance between the inside faces of the two frame plates equals the A dimension as shown on the contract drawing. Finally check that all bolts are in tension, and clean any spilt oil off the frame plates. On completion, the unit can be pressure tested (Test pressure is stated on the name plate). WARNING: Do not tighten the plate pack less than the minimum tightening dimension as given on the contract drawing. Over compression will damage both plates & gaskets. Always check that the number of plates actually fitted is correct. Gasket failures are generally a result of: 1. Old age. 2. Excessive exposure to ozone 3. High operating temperature above the temp. limit of the material. 4. Exposure to pressure surges. 5. Chemical attack. 6. Physical damage resulting from poor assembly practice, or damage resulting from a misaligned plate (check the hanging system at the top of the plate for distortion) Decrease in the performance: 1. Plate surfaces require cleaning or de-scaling. 2. Pumps or associated controls have failed. 3. Plate channels blocked. 4. Liquid flows not as per the design specification. 5. Associated chiller/cooling tower/ boiler under sized.
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6. Cooling water flow temperature to the exchanger is higher than design. 7. Heating media temperature lower than design figures. 8. Steam flow not sufficient control valve malfunction. 9. Steam trap broken or jammed this can cause the unit to become filled with condensate. 10. Plate pack has been assembly incorrectly. 11. Unit running in co-current flow, instead of counter current check with contract drawing and alter pipe work if necessary, and check direction of pump flows. 12. Air lock has developed in the plate pack. DESIGN PARAMETERS - Marine heat exchangers are designed in accordance with the standards of the American Bureau of Shipping, Lloyds Register of Shipping and the US Coast Guard. Many additional requirements have been incorporated in specifications for marine heat exchangers due to stringent space limitations and reliability requirements. The following points are emphasized in their design: Heads are designed so that it will not be necessary to disassemble piping to gain access to the inside of the heads and tubes. The tube bundle is usually of the removable type for easy cleaning and maintenance. In the design of cooling-water spaces and connections, smooth flow path must be provided to minimize erosion-corrosion attack. Sharp corners and projecting edges are avoided. Internal fittings are arranged to result in a minimum of interference with the water flow and a minimum of turbulence. Cooling water velocities at the design point must not exceed those specified or recommended by the material supplier. Heat exchangers having tubes with a length exceeding 4ft are designed so that the ordering length of tubes will be in multiples of 6in. The ordering length of tubes is determined by adding 1/8 in. to the face-to-face distance between the outside of the tubesheets. The minimum tubesheet thickness is usually specified to be no less than in. When external fins are applied to the tubes, one end of the tube is usually enlarged to the outside diameter of the fins to enable the removal and insertion of individual tubes. Holes in the tubesheet at the inlet end of the tubes are flared to allow for belling the ends of the tubes. Holes in the tubesheets are provided with at least one groove. The edges of the holes are rounded, usually on a 1/16 in. radius, on the inner face of each tubesheet and on the outer faces of the tubesheets at the discharge ends of the tubes. The inlet ends of the tubes are expanded and belled, and the ends are finished flush with the face of the tubesheet. In no case should the ends of the tubes be inside the face of the tubesheets. Discharge ends of tubes protrude up to 1/16in beyond the face of the tubesheet. A number of baffles are increased in thickness (usually in) to act as support plates and are located so that the maximum tube length between support plates, or between a tubesheet and support plate, does not exceed 36in. In order to diffuse the entering stream and reduce erosion of the tube ends, for single pass coolers the waterbox depth measured normal to the tubesheet should not be less
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than one half the diameter of the tubesheet area exposed to the tubes. For cylindrical pass coolers, the depth should not be less than 35%. All heat exchangers are required to have adequate support. When required by the conditions of service, provision is made in the design of the supports to provide for expansion or contraction of the shell. Heat exchanger supports are usually independent of any attached piping. Supports must be given special consideration when design naval combatants for high-impact shock conditions. In the design of marine heat exchangers, consideration must be given to the varying degrees of inclination encountered in service. In naval practice, heaters and coolers are designed to perform satisfactorily under conditions of 5-deg trim, 10-deg pitch, 15-deg list, and 45-deg roll. Adequate air vents must be provided on heat exchanger waterboxes to avoid the collection of air in the upper region of the waterbox, as air pockets can resist the tubeside flow and render a portion of the heat transfer surface ineffective. Such air pockets can also result in overheating and expansion of the dry tubes and cause failures at the tube joints. In feedwater heaters and condensers, wet steam at high velocity must not be permitted to impinge on the tubes, otherwise the surface of the tubes will be rapidly eroded. Baffles or distribution pipes must be incorporated as necessary to prevent the direct impingement of wet steam on tubes. Impingement protection from entering shell-side fluids is often advisable. This may include adding an impingement baffle or impingement rods opposite the shell inlet nozzle.
In order to specifically direct attention to the items that govern the thermal and mechanical design of a heat exchanger the following should be included in the specifications: 1. Substances to be heated or cooled 2. Quantity of substance to be heated or cooled within a specific period of time 3. Initial and final temperatures desired 4. When heating or cooling media are other than water: Viscosity Specific Gravity Specific Heat Thermal Conductivity 5. Working pressures 6. Allowable pressure drop through the shell and tube sides of the heat exchanger 7. Desired construction materials 8. Design temperatures and pressures 9. Fouling factor or service margin 10. Weight limitations 11. Specific geometric arrangement and type of piping interface connections 12. Test conditions
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
OIL WATER SEPARATORS 1. Background 2. Principle of operation 3. Effects of heat and time 4. Operation-process flow 5. Trouble shooting 6. Testing Oil Content Monitors 7. Laws concerning discharge of waste and fines
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INTRODUCTION - In recent years the oil pollution of the seas has probably been discussed more often and at greater length than almost any other maritime topic. In addition to the many attempts over the years to analyze the sources of this pollution, there have been an equal number of efforts made to tighten up regulations controlling the discharge of oil-contaminated wastes. Table 1 gives the reader an indication of the varying quantities of oil that are being deposited in the world's oceans, and although the actual total figure may be subject to some disagreement among authorities, very few will question the validity of the relative percentages. TABLE 1 Sources of Oil Input to the Oceans Source Annual Input, 1973 Marine transportation (million tons) L.O.T. tankers 0.31 Non-L.O.T. tankers 0.77 Dry docking 0.25 Terminal operations 0.003 Bilges bunkering 0.50 Tanker accidents 0.2 Non-Tanker accidents 0.1 Subtotal (2.133) Offshore oil production 0.08 Coastal oil refineries 0.2 Industrial waste 0.3 Municipal waste 0.3 Urban runoff 0.3 River runoff (including input from recreational boating) 1.6 Natural seeps 0.6 Atmospheric 0.6 TOTAL 6.133 There has been a gradual strengthening of regulations controlling the discharge of oil-polluted water. An IMO convention sets out the "requirements for the control of pollution." The convention covered not only the problem of tanker discharges, but also discharges from general cargo vessels. To achieve the quality of overboard discharge required by the regulations, it has now become essential to install an efficient oily water separator as a standard part of ship's equipment. In the past the regulations only required the maintenance of a logbook detailing the position of the vessel when discharges took place. The new requirements calling for the oily water separator are in addition to the inclusion of a monitoring system to upgrade the quality of overboard discharge.
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PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION - In order to meet these new requirements, most oily water separators consist of three stages. The first, a gravimetric stage, involves a simple chamber where the velocity of the mixture is reduced to permit large oil globules to rise to the surface and heavier debris to settle.
FIGURE 1 - TYPICAL OILY WATER SEPARATOR/COALESCERS The second stage is usually an inclined plate coalescer in which a series of plates, either corrugated or flat, are set at an angle of approximately 40/50 slope in the oily water stream. The plates can be either in line with the flow or across the flow and collect the small oil droplets on the underside of one plate, allowing the droplets to coalesce with the larger globules and then escape at the top of the plate pack, while the solid debris particles fall and collect on the upper surface of the lower plates, gradually sliding to the bottom of the separator. Dependent upon
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flow rate, pump type, etc.; the plate type separator can produce very good effluents, certainly below 100 ppm. However, very few are capable of performing to the 15 ppm standard and to meet this higher quality an additional polisher coalescer is fitted. Figure 1 shows a typical separator/coalescer. The third stage of an oily water separator consists of a polisher coalescer usually made of a fibrous or knitted material. This material, formed in blocks, cartridges, or socks, has the properties to attract oil (oleophilic) or to attract water (hydrophilic). In the oleophilic coalescer the minute particles of oil remaining after the plate separator stage collect on the fibers of the coalescer material where they form larger droplets that rise relatively easily to the surface of the water and are removed. Unfortunately, the very nature of the material of the polisher coalescer makes it an extremely good filter for any other debris, which may come through a plate separator, and will in time cause the final coalescer to block, necessitating replacement of the coalescing material. In this respect the essential requirements of a streamlined flow with settling velocities in excess of the hydraulic velocity will be seen to have a tremendous influence on the life of the final coalescer. Coupled with the improved design of the separator, there has been a greater realization of the effect that the pump supplying the separator has on the performance of the separator. For instance, a centrifugal pump is a very good mixer, and to use a unit of this type with an oily water separator is unwise. Similarly, a reciprocating pump with plate- type valves produces a very homogeneous mixture, which is difficult to separate. Ideally, a diaphragm pump is the most suitable for use with an oily water separator. However, such a pump is not particularly suited to shipboard application and as a reasonably good alternative a screw pump can be used. Figure 2 shows curves depicting the effect of pump type on oil droplet size.
FIGURE 2 OILY WATER SEPARATOR PUMP DROPLET SIZE. It is also important that the separator's proportions be such that the settling velocity of both oil droplets and/or debris particles is not exceeded by the hydraulic velocities in critical areas of the
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separator. Stokes law is applicable in this instance as it applies at low Reynolds numbers. To ensure that streamline flow is achieved, a Reynolds number of 2,000 should not be exceeded. The combined effect of a poorly selected feed pump and excessive velocity will create small particles with low separating velocities that are therefore able to escape overboard. Figure 3 shows how the particle size influences the performance of a separator.
FIGURE 3 PARTICLE SIZE IN OILY WATER MIXTURE AND INFLUENCE ON PARTICLE CAPTURE GENERAL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION - The SAREX 1-GPM Oil-Water Separators are twostage gravity-coalescer type devices designed to separate and remove non-soluble oil, solids, and entrained air from oily water. The system, which can process oily water at a rate of one (1) gallon per minute, or two (2) gallons per minute, is designed for continuous and intermittent operation without the need for chemical or other additives. After the systems have been started, they are capable of automatic operation. The system design incorporates the dual features of gravity and filter/coalescer separation to provide the most efficient and effective means for separating oil from water and for reducing the maintenance frequency of filter element replacement. The first stage vessel, which functions as the Gravity Separator, is where the primary separation of oil from water occurs. Separation of most of the oil component from the oily water mixture and removal of sludge and solids in the first stage extends the life of the coalescer element contained in the second stage vessel. The first stage which operates under vacuum is equipped with a series of inclined adsorption plates which act as collection surfaces for separated oil droplets.
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The second stage is a coalescer stage which contain the replaceable filter element for removing any oil residue remaining after processing through the First Stage Gravity Separator. The filter provides a surface upon which very small droplets of non-soluble oil dispersed in the water attach and combine (coalesce) with other oil droplets. When the oil droplets grow to sufficient size, they are forced off the exterior surface of the filter by fluid flow and are separated from the water. The difference in specific gravity between water and oil permits gravitational separation of the oil from the water. FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION - The major components of the SAREX 1-GPM and 2GPM Oil-Water Separators are: (1) Two vertically mounted pressure vessels. (2) A water pump/motor assembly. (3) An oil pump/motor assembly. (4) Appropriate displays and controls. The two separate pressure vessels, or stages, are vertically mounted and arranged in series for processing the fluid flow. The operational configuration of the system is such that the First Stage Gravity Separator operates under a vacuum and the Second Stage Coalescer is maintained under pressure. The electric motor-driven Water Pump takes suction from near the bottom of the First Stage Gravity Separator and discharges into the Second Stage vessel. This arrangement, coupled with the size of the inlet line, minimizes emulsification of the oily water influent as it is drawn through the first stage. The Oil Pump only functions to remove accumulated oil from the top of the Gravity Separator. The Oil Pump suction is connected to the oil discharge tank. The first stage is designed to significantly reduce the fluid velocity of the incoming oily water mixture. The resulting decrease in velocity permits oil/water separation to occur naturally from the effect of gravity. Oil droplets in the influent, separated from the water due to the reduction in fluid velocity that occurs as the influent exits the inlet line and enters the vessel interior, rise and accumulate at the top of the vessel. Oil droplets which do not rise to the top of the vessel are removed through coalescence by the inclined adsorption plates in the lower part of the vessel. The plates separated will collect (coalesce) and separate from the flow. Holes punched in the plates permit the oil droplets to rise to the top of the vessel. Solid are also removed from the influent in this stage. Oil is automatically discharged from the first stage when the Oil-Level Float Switch, mounted in the first stage, senses the oil and electronically signals the activation of the Oil Pump and the deactivation of the Water Pump. When sufficient oil has been discharged to cover the float switch with water, the system is returned to its previous condition. The processed water effluent from the first stage enters the suction port of the Water Pump and is discharged into the second stage. The second stage, which contains a filter element, performs the dual function of removing particulate matter and oil that were not separated in the first stage. The replaceable filter element is designed for inside-to-outside fluid flow. As fluid flows from the inside to the outside of the filter element, oil droplets form on the surface of the elements. As the oil droplets grow to sufficient size, they are forced off the surface by fluid flow. This attachdetach process works solely through fluid flow and requires no moving parts. The detached oil
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droplets rise and accumulate at the top of the vessel. If an element becomes clogged, or its surface chemically contaminated, it is easily replaced. Oil is continuously discharge from the second stage through a recirculation line located at the top of the vessel. This oil is returned to the system inlet where it rises to the top of the first stage vessel and is removed from the system upon activation of the Oil Pump. The pressure vessels are constructed of carbon steel. Each vessel is equipped with a Sight Glass through which to view water clarity and oil level and a combination water Sample/Drain Valve to either sample or drain water from each vessel. The elbows into which each of the Sight glasses are fitted are self-sealing to prevent leakage in the event a Sight Glass breaks. A manually operated vent valve is mounted on the cover of the stages to discharge air displaced by the influent. Oil flow from the second stage recirculation line to the system inlet is regulated by a manually operated metering valve. The Control Module panel contains a Auto Control Switch, which places the pump circuit in a manual circuit in a manual or automatic mode of the operation and also energizes the pump circuit relay, and a Supply Pump Switch, which provides an override capability for operating either the water or oil pump. An automatic motor stop and start option is also incorporated in the Control Module. High and low level fluid sensors, if installed in an oily water holding tank at the option of the user and connected to the Control Module, will provide an automatic start and stop capability for the pump motor circuit. The high-level provides the capability for automatic shutdown. Mounted on the control box is a vacuum gauge, which indicates the vacuum inside the First Stage Separator, and a pressure gauge on the inlet to the Second Stage Separator to indicate vessel backpressure. Should there be a loss of suction or the fluid level in the First Stage becomes too low, the internal Shut-Down Float Switch located in the First Stage will automatically shutdown the oil and water pumps. The system is equipped with a remotely mounted Bilge Alarm (BA-1A), which continually monitors the contamination level of non-soluble oil in the effluent flow from the Second Stage Vessel, and controls the operation of the water discharge valve and the recirculation valve. If the oil contamination in the effluent rises above the set limits of the Bilge Alarm, discharge overboard is prohibited and the effluent is diverted back to the bilge or holding tank for reprocessing. A visual indicator is automatically activated when the system enters the recirculation mode. A separate enclosure is mounted at the rear of the unit and houses a customer specified time relay device. This relay provides contacts, which can be set to close after a predetermined period of time. The relay can be adjusted to close at any time between 4 minutes and 25 minutes after the separator unit has been started.
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The equipments performance is contingent upon and consistent with the recommendations stated in the IMCO Recommendations for Performance and Test Specifications for Oil Content Meters: Detergents should not be used in the bilges for cleaning purposes, as the emulsifying effects of such compounds seriously affect the operation of the equipment. Particulate matter can also have a detrimental effect on equipment performance when subjected to a vibration environment, which does not exceed the levels specified by the IMCO test requirements.
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FIGURE 3
COMPONENT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION NUMBER System Inlet Cover Retainer Clamp First Stage Separator Cover First Stage Separator Pulling Elbow Float Switch Bleed Valve First Stage Separator Pulling Elbow Float Switch Pump Selector Switch Vacuum Gauge First Stage Separator Control Module - Separator Pressure Gauge Second Stage Separator Inlet System Selector Switch Bleed Valve Second Stage Separator Cover Second Stage Separator Cover Retainer Clamp Second Stage Separator Sight Glass Second Stage Separator COMPONENT 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION NUMBER Sight Glass Shutoff Valve Second Stage Separator Second Stage Separator Sample/Drain Valve Second Stage Separator Water Pump Motor Water Pump First Stage Separator Sample/Drain Valve First Stage Separator Sight Glass Shutoff Valve First Stage Separator Sight Glass First Stage Separator Control Module Bilge Alarm Power Switch Bilge Alarm Recirculate Light Water Discharge Light Digital Display Bilge Alarm
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FIGURE 4
COMPONENT
1 17 21 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 65
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION NUMBER

System Inlet Second Stage Separator First Stage Separator Bilge Alarm Sensing Module Solenoid Valve Solenoid Operated Recirculating Valve Sensing Module Cleanout Plug Oil Return Line Solenoid Valve Solenoid Operated Water Discharge Valve Metering Valve Oil Pump Motor Oil Pump Oil Discharge Line Skid Time Delay Relay Enclosure
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FIGURE 5
COMPONENT 25 29 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION NUMBER Bilge Alarm Control Module Digital Display Alarm Set Switch Calibration Check Switch Zero Set Point Adjustment Knob Alarm Set Point Adjustment Screw Digital Volt Meter Adjustment Screw (DVM) Recorder Adjustment Screw (REC) Amplifier Printed Circuit Board Power Supply Board Fuses Transformer COMPONENT 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION NUMBER Alarm Relay Harness Sockets Terminal Block TB3 Terminal Block TB2 Terminal Block TB1 Chassis Terminal Strip Cover Digital Display Circuit Board Mother Board Recorder & DVM Adjustment Guard Test Points Calibration Check No. 115/220 VAC Switch
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE - The procedures listed in the following index are described in the referenced paragraphs and should be performed at the intervals shown. Except for performing a periodic calibration check of the Bilge Alarm, and cleaning the Bilge Alarm Sensor Windows, the procedures listed below are corrective maintenance and therefore performed on an as required basis. TABLE 2 - SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE INDEX
FREQUENCY When filter element becomes clogged with particles and the differential pressure reaches 25 psi. Periodically, once every hour As required As required As required. When sight glasses become dirty Periodically no stipulated frequency. Also, after replacement of bilge alarm components. As required Periodically. Depending on type of fluids processed PROCEDURE Replacement of Filter Differential Pressure Calculation Cleaning the First Stage Separator Supply Pump Disassembly and Reassembly Cleaning the Sight Glasses Bilge Alarm Calibration Check Adjustment of Alarm Set Point Cleaning the Bilge Alarm Sensor Windows
TESTING OIL CONTENT MONITORS - There are several ways to test an oil water separator. The most common way is to use a photocell and basically look through the solution. If there is a small amount of oil still present then the solution will not pass the light in the same way that it would if the oil was not present. For test purposes there is a small piece of glass that, on first look, looks clear. There is only a very slight tint. When this glass is inserted it sets of the alarm. The separators are set for 15 ppm (parts per million). This test glass is normally kept with the spare parts. It has its own off-yellow paper container. It is not a replacement glass!
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
LAWS CONCERNING DISCHARGE OF WASTE AND FINES MARINE SAFETY MANUAL Control of Discharge of Oil from Cargo Tank Areas of Oil Tankers
Sea Areas Within a SPECIAL AREA Within 50 nautical miles from land Discharge Criteria NO DISCHARGE except clean* or segregated ballast NO DISCHARGE except clean or segregated ballast NO DISCHARGE except either: (a) clean or segregated ballast; (b) or when: (1) the tanker is enroute; and (2) the instantaneous rate of discharge of oil does not exceed 60 litres per nautical mile; and [Changed to 30 litres per nm] (3) the total quantity of oil discharged does not exceed 1/15,000 (for existing tankers) [ 1/30,000 for new tankers] of the total quantity of cargo which was carried on the previous voyage; and (4) the tanker has in operation an oil discharge monitoring and control system and slop tank arrangements as required by Regulation 15 of Annex I of MARPOL 73/78
Outside a SPECIAL AREA
More than 50 nm from land
* Clean ballast is the ballast in a tank which has been so cleaned that the effluent there from does not create a visible sheen or the oil content exceed 15 PPM
Note: Items in brackets [ ] are not in the current MSM but show changes due to current regulation changes
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
MARINE SAFETY MANUAL Control of Discharge of Oil and Oily Waste from all Ships Within a Special Area (Machinery Space / Fuel Oil Tank Ballast Water)
Ship Type & Size Location Within Special Area Discharge Criteria NO DISCHARGE except when: (1) the ship is proceeding enroute; and (2) the oil content of effluent without dilution does not exceed 15 PPM; and (3) the ship has in operation oil filtering equipment with automatic 15 PPM stopping device; and (4) for oil tankers the bilge water does not originate from cargo pump room bilges or is not mixed with oil cargo residue NO DISCHARGE except when the oil content of effluent without dilution does not exceed 15 PPM NO DISCHARGE except when either: (a) the oil content of effluent without dilution does not exceed 15 PPM; or (b) (1) the ship is proceeding enroute; and (2) the oil content of the effluent is less than 100 PPM
Oil tankers of all sizes and other ships 400 grt
ANYWHERE
Ships <400 grt other than oil tankers
Within 12 nm from land Beyond 12 nm from land
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
MARINE SAFETY MANUAL Control of Discharge of Oil and Oily Waste from all Ships Outside a Special Area (Machinery Space / Fuel Oil Tank Ballast Water)
Outside Special Areas Within 12* nm from land Ship Type & Size Oil tankers of all sizes and other ships 400 grt Other ships < 400 grt Discharge Criteria NO DISCHARGE except when the oil content of effluent without dilution does not exceed 15 PPM The conditions for ships 400 grt apply as far as practicable and reasonable NO DISCHARGE except when either: (a) the oil content of effluent does not exceed 15 PPM; or [for existing ships] (1) the ship is proceeding en route; and (2) the oil content of the effluent is less than 100 PPM; and (3) the ship has in operation an oil discharge monitoring and control system, oily-water separating or filtering equipment or other installation required by Regulation 16 of Annex I of MARPOL 73/78; and (4) for oil tankers the bilge water does not originate from cargo pump room bliges or is not mixed with oil cargo residue The conditions for ships 400 grt apply as far as practicable and reasonable
More than 12 nm from land
Oil tankers of all sizes other ships 400 grt
Other ships < 400 grt
* Discharges of a quantity of oil that may be harmful are prohibited within the territorial
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86
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Table of Contents
SANITARY SYSTEMS 1. PIPING DESCRIPTION 2. DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD TOILETS, LOW FLOW TOILETS AND VACUUM TOILETS-HOW THEY WORK 3. SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEMS HOW THEY WORK- PROCESS FLOW 4. TROUBLE SHOOTING SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEMS AND VACUUM TOILETS 5. HYDRO-PNEUMATIC TANKS 6. KEEP WARM PUMPS 7. RULES FOR POTABLE WATER
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
PIPING DESCRIPTION - The plumbing drain system collects waste liquids from plumbing fixtures, interior and weather deck drains, and air-conditioning cooling coils. Plumbing vents connect plumbing drain piping to the weather to remove odors and prevent the buildup of positive or negative internal pressure. There are two independent plumbing drain systems. Soil drain piping collects sewage, also called black water from toilets and urinals. Waste drain piping collects liquids from sinks, lavatories, showers, laundries, galleys and similar sources; such wastes are commonly called gray water. Separate soil and waste drain systems are necessary to protect human health and because regulations for restricting pollution are different for each type of waste. The required capacity of a black water holding tank is determined by the number of people on board, the per capita waste generation rate and the holding time required. The holding tank should be provided with an aeration system, a vent to the weather, a floatless level indicator, and connections for internal flushing with seawater or fresh water. Two pumps should be provided and arranged fro discharging tank c0ntents overboard or to hose connections on the weather deck. The pumps must be of a type designed for operation with sewage to prevent clogging with solids. Piping for gravity drain plumbing systems should be installed with a minimum continuous downward pitch of 1/8 to per foot of horizontal distance. The required pipe size decreases with increasing pitch. A pitch of per foot is preferred, particularly for fore and aft pipe runs. Valves in gravity drain plumbing systems should be of a non-clog design such as ball, plug, or gate valves. Each plumbing fixture and deck drain should have a trap installed. Branches should be connected to mains using Y-fittings instead of right angle tees. A cleanout should be installed at each change in direction greater than 45o in horizontal runs at intervals no greater than 50 and at the base of each vertical pipe run. Plumbing system trap seals should be protected from siphonage or backpressure by vents connected to the drain piping. Vents should be sized to allow sufficient airflow so that under normal use the seal of any fixture trap is not subjected to a pressure differential of more than 1 of water. A vent should be installed as a continuation of each vertical drain header, with individual fixture drain vents connected to it. The open end of the vent pipe should not be below the level of the highest trap weir. All vent piping should be sloped to drain back to the soil or waste pipe. Vacuum collection is an alternative to gravity drainage for black water or gray water. Vacuum collection systems employ special plumbing fixture, a vacuum source, and a tank. Vacuum piping links the fixture to the tank. Two basic types of vacuum collection systems are used. One makes use of a collection tank that is under vacuum. The other applies a vacuum source to the collection piping near the tank inlet, and discharges the collected waste into a tank that is at atmospheric pressure. Vacuum collection is preferred for some applications since the piping is much smaller than gravity-drain piping. The piping does not have to be installed with slope, and vents are not
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required. In addition, vacuum water closets and urinals require only about 10% of th freshwater usage of standard units. DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD TOILETS, LOW FLOW TOILETS AND VACUUM TOILETS-HOW THEY WORK PARTS OF A TOILET - There are several interrelated components that make a toilet do what it does, as shown here: If you take off the tank cover and peer inside, you will see all of these parts. They might look slightly different in your particular toilet, but they are all there in one form or another. The three main systems that work together are: The bowl siphon The flush mechanism The refill mechanism Let's look at each of these parts separately until the secrets of the toilet are revealed. THE BOWL SIPHON - Let's say that you somehow disconnected the tank, and all you had in your bathroom was the bowl. You would still have a toilet. Even though it has no moving parts, the bowl solves all of the problems a toilet needs to solve. The crucial mechanism that is molded into the bowl is called the bowl siphon, shown here:
You can understand how the siphon works by trying two experiments with your toilet. First, take a cup of water and pour it into the bowl. You will find that approximately nothing happens. What's even more interesting is that you can pour 25 cups of water into a toilet, one at a time, and still, nothing will happen. That is, no matter how many cups of water you pour in, the level of the water in the bowl never rises! You can see in the figure why this is the case. When you pour the cup of water in, the water level in the bowl rises but the extra water immediately spills over the edge of the siphon tube and drains away.
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Now, take a bucket of water, approximately 2 gallons, and pour it into the bowl. You will find that pouring in this amount of water causes the bowl to flush. That is, almost all of the water is sucked out of the bowl, and the bowl makes the recognizable "flush" sound and all of the water goes down the pipe. What's happened is this: You've poured enough water into the bowl fast enough to fill the siphon tube. And once the tube was filled, the rest was automatic. The siphon sucked the water out of the bowl and down the sewer pipe. As soon as the bowl emptied, air entered the siphon tube, producing that distinctive gurgling sound and stopping the siphoning process. You can see that, even if someone were to cut off the water to your bathroom, you could still flush the toilet. All you need is a bucket containing a couple of gallons of water. THE FLUSH MECHANISM - The purpose of the tank is to act like the bucket of water described in the previous section. You have to get enough water into the bowl fast enough to activate the siphon. If you tried to do that using a normal house water pipe, water would not come in fast enough -- the siphon would never start. So the tank acts as a capacitor. It holds several gallons of water, which it takes perhaps 30 to 60 seconds to accumulate. When you flush, all of the water in the tank is dumped into the bowl in about three seconds -- the equivalent of pouring in a bucket of water. There is a chain attached to the handle on the side of the tank. When you push on the handle, it pulls the chain, which is connected to the flush valve. The chain lifts the flush valve, which then floats out of the way, revealing a 2- to 3-inch (5.08- to 7.62-cm) diameter drain hole. Uncovering this hole allows the water to enter the bowl. In most toilets, the bowl has been molded so that the water enters the rim, and some of it drains out through holes in the rim. A good portion of the water flows down to a larger hole at the bottom of the bowl. This hole is known as the siphon jet. It releases most of the water directly into the siphon tube. Because all of the water in the bowl enters the tank in about three seconds, it is enough to fill and activate the siphon effect, and all of the water and waste in the bowl is sucked out. THE REFILL MECHANISM - So the bowl will flush as long as we dump enough water into it to activate the siphon. And the purpose of the tank and the flush valve is to hold and then dump about 2 gallons of water very quickly into the bowl. Once the tank has emptied, the flush valve resituates itself in the bottom of the tank, covering the drain hole so the tank can be refilled. It is the job of the refill mechanism to fill the tank back up with enough water to start the whole process again. The refill mechanism has a valve that turns the water on and off. The valve turns the water on when the filler float (or ball float) falls. The float falls when the water level in the tank drops. Some of the water goes down the refill tube and starts refilling the tank. The rest goes through the bowl refill tube, and down the overflow tube into the bowl. This refills the bowl slowly. As the water level in the tank rises, so does the float. Eventually the float rises far enough to turn the valve off. What would happen if the float were to become detached, or the filler valve were to jam so that it never cut off? Theoretically, the tank would overflow and flood the bathroom. But the overflow tube is there to prevent that from happening, directing the extra water into the bowl instead of onto the floor.
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER - Now that you have seen all the parts, you can understand the complete mechanism: Pushing on the handle pulls the chain, which releases the flush valve. About 2 gallons of water rush from the tank into the bowl in about three seconds. The flush valve then reseats. This rush of water activates the siphon in the bowl. The siphon sucks everything in the bowl down the drain. Meanwhile, when the level of the water in the tank falls, so does the float. The falling float turns on the refill valve. Water flowing through the refill valve refills the tank as well as the bowl. As the tank refills, the float rises, and when it reaches a certain level the refill valve shuts off. Should something go wrong and cause the refill valve to keep running, the overflow tube prevents a flood. WHY DO WE NEED A SEWER SYSTEM? - Each time you flush the toilet or you wash something down the sink's drain, you create sewage (also known in polite society as wastewater). One question that is important to ask is, "why not simply dump this wastewater onto the ground outside the house, or into a nearby stream?" There are three things about wastewater that make it something you don't want to release into the environment: 1. It stinks. If you release wastewater directly into the environment things get very smelly very fast. 2. It contains harmful bacteria. Human waste naturally contains coliform bacteria (for example, e. coli) and other bacteria that can cause disease. Once water becomes infected with these bacteria it becomes a health hazard. 3. It contains suspended solids and chemicals that affect the environment. For example: o Wastewater contains nitrogen and phosphates that, being fertilizers, encourage the growth of algae. Excessive algae growth can block sunlight and foul the water.
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Wastewater also contains organic material that bacteria in the environment will start decomposing, and when they do these bacteria consume oxygen in the water. The lack of oxygen kills fish. o In addition, the suspended solids in wastewater make the water look murky and can affect the ability of many fish to breath and see.
The increased algae, reduced oxygen and murkiness destroy the ability of a stream or lake to support wildlife, and all of the fish, frogs, and other life forms quickly die. No one wants to live in a place that stinks, is full of deadly bacteria and cannot support aquatic life. That's why communities MEASURING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A TREATMENT PLANT - The effectiveness of waste water treatment plants is measured on several different scales. Here are some of the most common: pH - the measure of the water's acidity once it leaves the plant. Ideally the water's pH will match the pH of the river or lake that receives the plant's output. BOD - Biological Oxygen Demand. BOD is a measure of how much oxygen in the water will be required to finish digesting the organic material left in the effluent. Ideally the BOD would be zero. Dissolved Oxygen - the amount of oxygen in the water as it leaves the plant. If the water contains no oxygen, it would kill any aquatic life that comes into contact with it. Dissolved oxygen should be as high as possible and needs to cover the BOD. Suspended solids - the measure of the solids remaining in the water after treatment. Ideally suspended solids would be zero. Total phosporous and nitrogen - measures of the nutrients remaining in the water. Chlorine - The chlorine used to kill harmful bacteria needs to be removed so it does not kill beneficial bacteria in the environment. Ideally, chlorine should not be detectable. Coliform bacteria count - the measure of fecal bacteria remaining in the water. Ideally this number would be zero. Note that water in the environment is not totally free of fecal bacteria - birds and other wildlife do introduce some. Airplane toilets use an active vacuum instead of a passive siphon, and they are therefore called vacuum toilets. When you flush, it opens a valve in the sewer line and the vacuum in the line sucks the contents out of the bowl and into a tank. Because the vacuum does all the work, it takes very little water (or the blue sanitizing liquid used in airplanes) to clean the bowl for the next person. Most vacuum systems flush with just half a gallon (2 liters) of fluid or less, compared to 1.6 gallons for a water saving toilet and up to 5 gallons for an older toilet. It turns out that vacuum toilets have lots of advantages even for normal installations: They use very little water They can use much smaller diameter sewer pipes They can flush in any direction, including up. Since a vacuum system does not use gravity to move the water, there is nothing to stop the sewer pipe from going straight up.
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
The fact that the pipe does not have to go down also means you can avoid cutting into the floor to put in new toilets. They can be put anywhere in the building.
SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEMS HOW THEY WORK- PROCESS FLOW SEWAGE TREATMENT - The methods now in use on ships for the treatment of sewage include the following: collection and retention; maceration and chlorination; physical separation; physical/chemical treatment; and biological treatment. COLLECTION AND RETENTION - Collection and retention systems involve, as the name implies, no more than simple holding tanks. These tanks must be capable of retaining the collected waste until it can be discharged ashore, or in unrestricted waters that are acceptable. Where there is no shore receiving facilities, it may be necessary to retain the waste for a considerable period. Under such circumstances measures must be taken to prevent septic conditions occurring which generate toxic, corrosive, and inflammable gases. MACERATION AND CHLORINATION - Macerator/chlorinators are simple and relatively inexpensive systems. They include a macerator which discharges the sewage into a small holding tank in which the waste is treated with a metered dose of disinfectant (usually a sodium hypochlorite) and held for approximately 30 minutes before it is discharged overboard. However, this type of unit is not usually capable of discharging an effluent product acceptable to the legislating authorities. PHYSICAL SEPARATION - A number of systems utilize physical separation of sewage. This generally involves the use of some form of filter, and in some instances includes a settling tank. The separated liquid effluent is disinfected before being discharged overboard. Sludge accumulated by filtration and settling must be stored or incinerated. If stored, measures have to be taken to prevent the onset of septic conditions. PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL TREATMENT - Physical/chemical treatment systems use flocculating agents to aid the physical separation and precipitation of solids. These systems may be started in a very short period of time and can discharge good effluents almost immediately. Like physical separation units they produce sludge that must be continuously removed and eliminated. BIOLOGICAL METHOD - There are a number of different processes in the biological treatment of sewage universally used for the management of municipal wastes. Several of these processes have been applied to the treatment onboard ships, and have become, for the most part, the preferred systems. The basis of all these treatment variations is nature's own purification process in which microorganisms use the waste as food material. Two variations of the biological method found in modern marine sewage treatment units are extended aeration and the trickling filter.
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
In the extended aeration process the sewage is held in an aeration tank for approximately 24 hours, and air is continuously bubbled through the liquid (mixed liquor, as it is called). Mixed liquor is then displaced by incoming sewage into a settling tank where the biological floe is formed and allowed to settle under quiescent conditions. The settled material (activated sludge) is continuously withdrawn from the bottom of the settling chamber and recycled to mix with the waste material entering the aeration tank. Clear effluent from the top of the settling tank is discharged after disinfection. The trickling filter process utilizes the ability of certain aggregate materials to hold large communities of microorganisms, allowing the waste to trickle over the material and the organisms to remove the substrate. The effluent draining from the bottom of the filter then settles and any entrained floe is removed before it is disinfected and discharged overboard. Variations of this process utilize submerged filters with air bubbling through the material to provide the oxygen required by the microorganisms. Assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of these processes must include such factors as ease of maintenance, degree of supervision required, running costs, capital costs, and, where installation in existing vessels is being considered, the cost of installation. The designer of shipboard equipment must take into consideration all of the advantages and disadvantages of these processes. In addition, he must examine his design with respect to manufacturing techniques, because the manufacturing of the unit has a significant bearing on its final cost. Finally, the equipment must, of course, comply with the requirements established by the legislating authorities and must be approved by the relevant local authority. DESIGN OF SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEMS - Almost all of the early sewage treatment plant designs were of the biological type, and many of these used the anaerobic process similar to septic tanks found ashore. Although they required the absolute minimum of supervision and had only one moving component, a discharge pump, these anaerobic plants were not capable of producing effluents of the quality proposed by IMO and other legislating bodies. Consequently, anaerobic plants were superseded by equipment using other biological processes that were capable of meeting the proposed standards for discharges. Aerobic biological plants, which superseded the earlier anaerobic units, are based on the extended aeration process of waste treatment. As may be expected the designers of early units drew on experience gained from the operation of industrial equipment, and while the process remained the same as in the earlier anaerobic plants, the practical problems associated with shipboard use were not insignificant. The evolution of the present day unit the extended aeration method has been along a path of trial and error where the need to make it as simple as possible has been a prime objective. Since the plants had to be small, compact, and suitable for installation in the limited spaces available onboard ship, the biological oxygen demand per volume of aeration space (BOD/vol.) imposed on them was considerably higher than those accepted ashore and in some cases was more than double. This deviation from land practice means that there is a need for fairly frequent, periodic desludging. For example, a shipboard unit needs to be desludged at intervals of 2 to 3 months, whereas an industrial unit for an equivalent population on shore would be
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expected to operate for 10 to 12 months without desludging. Sludge built up in an extended aeration unit consists of biological solids together with any non-degradable material that may be present in the waste. The non-degradable material increases the solid content of the liquid in the aeration chamber until a point is reached where settling in the final sedimentation chamber is impaired, and a reduction in the solids level becomes necessary. The reduction in the solids content of the mixed liquor is achieved by desludging, an operation consisting of pumping out 90 percent of the contents of the aeration tank and refilling with clear water. Although the sludge, 99 percent water and handled entirely by the discharge pump, may not be dumped into waters covered by regulations, it may be discharged at sea well clear of the protected areas. If the vessel is in port when desludging becomes necessary, the sludge will have to be retained on board or discharged to a shore receiving facility. Where ships are fitted with incinerators, small quantities of sludge may be incinerated daily with other wastes having higher caloric value. The size of a waste treatment plant is determined by the biological load, or material to be digested per unit time, and the hydraulic load, or liquids to be physically separated per unit time. While it is possible to increase biological load, the limitation is established by the hydraulic load on the final settling chamber where the minimum retention time of fluids is 4 to 5 hours to achieve the effluent condition required. The size of the extended aeration sewage treatment unit for a given population equivalent will depend on a number of parameters. For example, the separation of black and gray wastes in the shipboard systems is of prime importance because if both wastes were introduced into the sewage treatment plant, the size of the plant would be unacceptably large. Units using flocculating agents to aid settling can usually accept higher hydraulic loads or be reduced in size. The sludge storage or disposal unit is independent of the sewage unit and therefore is sized for the material it must handle for the assumed time period. Aeration of the mixed liquor is a fundamental requirement of aerobic treatment systems. The air supplied is necessary as a source for the oxygen required by the bacteria for metabolism. It also provides the means of creating the turbulence needed to promote mixing of the bacterial population with the waste material and to prevent settling in the aeration tank. A number of different aerating methods have been used on marine installations, including: (a) Coarse bubble; (b) Venturi tube; and (c) Fine bubble aeration system. Each of these methods has unique advantages and disadvantages. COARSE BUBBLE SYSTEM - The coarse bubble system has a simple perforated tube with relatively large holes, not easily blocked, and not requiring particularly clean air. Since the oxygen transfer efficiency is not high because of large bubble size, air requirement is greater than in other methods. However, the large bubble size creates good mixing. VENTURI INJECTION SYSTEM - The venturi injection system has high oxygen transfer. No air compressor is necessary because the power source for the injector can be a simple centrifugal pump used to pump the re-circulated, activated sludge. The venturi nozzle is prone to blockage, and the minute air bubbles coming out of solution in the aeration tank adhere to sludge floc, causing the sludge floc to have a tendency to rise.
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
FINE BUBBLE AERATION SYSTEM - The fine bubble aeration system, provided by aerator diffusers, has relatively high oxygen transfer efficiency, and consequently the quantity of air required for bacterial metabolism is low (the quantity of air approximates 100 in 3 /kg of BOD). The aerator diffusers are invariably of a porous material and relatively clean air is necessary to prevent diffuser blockages. This system, in most common use at the present time, requires additional air to be supplied to power airlifts for recycling sludge and for skimming settling tanks. The air is supplied in most instances by small compressors of either the rotary vane or lobe type. Since the air quantity is not large, the pressure necessary is that which is needed to overcome the depth of submersion of the aerator diffuser.
FIGURE 1 EARLY MODEL OF AN EXTENDED AERATION SEWAGE SYSTEM. Figures 1 through 3 show the stages of development of the marine extended aeration sewage treatment unit depicts an early design utilizing an aeration system of the coarse bubble type. Figure 2 shows a similar tank design with an aeration system of the venturi type. The unit illustrated in Figure 3 is of a design in which the arrangement of process compartments provides more compact configuration and permits the discharge, pump to be built onto the unit, and is a good example of the fine bubble aeration type. Design for the settling tank of the fine bubble aeration system has required more effort than any other section of any treatment plant. This is because the floc formed in the biological plants is much lighter than that formed in physical/chemical plants where the flocculating agents are added. For this reason, the settling time is longer with the tank requirement being proportionately larger. The retention time desirable in the settling tank of a biological unit is on the order of 4 to 5 hours with, ideally, a mean upward velocity of the effluent of approximately 1 meter per hour (3.28 ft./hr.). Unfortunately, the restrictions imposed by the need to build marine units as compact as possible have made this objective difficult to achieve. As a result the final design has invariably been a compromise. To reduce the effect of ship motion on the settling process, the position of the settling tank has been changed from time to time and later designs have incorporated the tank in
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the center of the complete plant with the aeration tank wrapped around it in a U form. Several designs have used settling tanks which are slightly pressurized and which have no free surface. Disinfection of the final effluent before discharge overboard is necessary to reduce coliform to a level acceptable to legislating authorities. In most cases the reduction is brought about by treating the effluent with sodium or calcium hypochlorite. The Saint Lawrence Seaway and Great Lakes authorities impose severe limitations on the quantities of residual disinfectants that may be discharged in an effluent. These limitations have Stimulated interest in disinfection by means of ultraviolet light. This method is now being widely used and disinfection is achieved by passing the clean effluent through tubes fitted with ultraviolet lamps. The effect of the ultraviolet radiation at a wavelength of 254 n.m. is that it breaks down the outer membrane of the microorganism and destroys the nucleus. Ultraviolet disinfection had no residual effect and is therefore suitable for treating effluents being discharged into confined receiving waters. A typical ultraviolet module is shown on Figure 4.
FIGURE 2 IMPROVED MODEL OF AN EXTENDED AERATION SEWAGE SYSTEM Most manufacturers use steel tanks in their sewage treatment plants and these must be suitable protected from the corrosive effects of their contents, although it should be noted that where aerobic conditions prevail, these effects are likely to be no worse than those encountered in seawater ballast tanks. Where holding tanks are in use and anaerobic conditions can occur, it is then probable that the space above the liquid level would be subjected to considerable corrosive conditions created by the conversion of hydrogen sulfide to sulfuric acid. Therefore, it is essential that care be taken to ensure that adequate plate protection is provided. From experience
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with sewage plants already in service and from tests carried out on development units, it has been found that the coal tar epoxy compounds provide one of the most effective coatings available, and in terms of cost about the most economical. Some manufacturers use fiberglass for tank materials, but it seems that cost and legislation will limit further use of this material.
FIGURE 3A ADVANCED MODEL OF AN EXTENDED AERATION SEWAGE SYSTEM OPERATION OF A SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT - Figure 3(b) is a cutaway view of a typical modern sewage treatment plant for shipboard use. This type of unit is manufactured in sizes for daily sewage flow range of 250 to 3,830 gallons suitable to support 9 to 127 persons per day at the anticipated rate of 30 gallons per day per person. The unit is divided into 3 compartments: the aeration section (11); settling chamber (12); and the chlorine contact tank adjustment to the pumps and compressors. Sewage enters the aeration compartment (11), via the soil inlet (1), and is retained for approximately 24 hours. During this period it is mixed and aerated by the compressed air delivered to the bottom of the chamber by the aerator (10). The aerobic bacteria and microorganisms break down the organic waste material into carbon dioxide, water, and inert organic material. The mixture passes through a coarse screen into the settling compartment (12).
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QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
FIGURE 3B CUTAWAY OF AN ADVANCED EXTENDED AERATION SEWAGE SYSTEM. 1 Raw sewage inlets 9 Emergency overflow 2 Visual indication pipe for activated 10 Air diffuser assemblies sludge return 3 Screen 11 Aeration tank 4 Vent 12 Settling tank 5 Skimmer to remove floating debris 13 Discharge pump (2 pumps fitted as standard to units ST15 ST 30) 6 Control panel 14 Filling connection 7 Chlorinator for continuous chlorination 15 Aeration compressors of effluent 8 Wastewater inlet 16 Float switches The settling compartment is designed to precipitate all solid material to the bottom of the hopper as sludge. The sludge is returned by pneumatic lift (2) to the aeration compartment, where it mixes with the incoming raw sewage. The clear liquid in the settling compartment is displaced into the chlorination compartment via a flow-through type chlorinator. A combined surface skimmer and outlet weir (5), located in the center of the settling compartment surface, removes any floating debris and controls the flow of clear liquid into the chlorinator. The chlorinator compartment provides residence time for the chlorine to kill any remaining bacteria. A float-switch operated pump controls the discharge of the chlorinated effluent.
USMMA GMATS
100
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
FIGURE 4 ARRANGEMENT OF ULTRAVIOLET DISINFECTION UNIT TROUBLE SHOOTING SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEMS AND VACUUM TOILETS FIX A RUNNING TOILET / UNDERSTAND TOILETS - The only tricky thing about toilets are all the different names for the parts. There aren't many parts, and the function of each part is easy to see and understand, but they're named differently depending on who's talking. This section will stick with one set of names, but will also include the others for reference. Here's how it works: There are three basic parts to toilet function: filling, stopping, and flushing. You need these three functions working together in order for the toilet to work properly. Anytime you have a problem with toilet running, take off the lid of the tank, flush the toilet, and watch the filling, stopping, and emptying cycle a few times. This will help you identify the source of the problem.
USMMA GMATS
101
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Filling:
The tank is the large, oblong ceramic container that's located behind the toilet bowl and at waistto-chest level of the person sitting on it. The tank is important for two reasons: one, it contains the water that flushes waste down the pipes, and two, it contains all the hardware necessary for filling, stopping, and emptying. The overflow pipe (a.k.a., the ball cock) is a long, hollow tube, fastened to the bottom of the tank. A narrow pipe usually snakes up the side of the overflow pipe and fills the tank. Flushing - When the tank is full and you push down the handle on the outside of the tank, the lift arm, which connects to the handle on the inside of the tank, pulls up either a chain or a thin, rigid, metal rod called a lift wire. The lift wire/chain piece pulls up a rubbery black plug that's called one of many names: the stopper, flapper, disk, seal, or tank-ball. As the stopper is lifted, the water in the tank rushes out the drain at the bottom of the tank, into the toilet bowl, and continues down to pipes to a sewer. Stopping - The process of stopping is when problems can happen. Stopping happens at the flush valve, which consists of the stopper and a flush valve seat (a brass or plastic seal which surrounds the drain). When the tank is empty, the stopper is lowered onto the flush valve seat (that's where the stopper "sits") and closes the drain, preventing any passage of water. A good seal at the connection between the stopper and the flush valve seat allows the tank to be filled up. FIX A RUNNING TOILET - This step freely uses all the terms of toilet technology described in Step 1. If there's something you don't understand, go back to Step 1.
USMMA GMATS
102
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
So there you are, staring at the toilet you've just flushed. You watch the water flush out the bowl, and now the toilet is refilling the tank, and now...it won't stop refilling. The toilet is running, it's wasting water--what to do? Don't panic. Take off the lid of the tank and see what's happening. Chances are, the stopper isn't sitting squarely on the flush valve seat--the chain is probably caught under the side of the stopper. You can fix the situation by pulling the chain out from the stopper; if you've ever been told to "jiggle the handle" of a running toilet, this is exactly what you're doing. A more permanent solution is to shorten the length of the chain so that there isn't excessive slack to interfere with the action of the stopper. Loosen: Use a pair of small pair of pliers to loosen the link of top of the stopper that attaches the stopper to the chain. Pull and link: Then place the stopper squarely on the valve seat, and pull the chain taut to the stopper. Choose a link that will keep the chain fairly taut (leave a little slack, though), and attach the chain to the link on the stopper. Make sure the handle (on the outside) is up and the lift arm is down; this will put them in the correct position to pull up the chain and stopper. No chain in your toilet? Then your toilet uses a lift wire. Check the wire: Look down the length of the lift wire--if it's bent, it may be throwing the stopper off center. Remove it and try it push the bend out of it. If that's too hard or it's bent past the point of repair, you can purchase a new one at hardware store for a few dollars.
Still running? - Like the rest of us, stoppers get old and run-down and don't work as well.
USMMA GMATS
103
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Retired stoppers: If the toilet doesn't respond to the measures above, the stopper may need to be replaced. A stopper that's soft or distorted, or has pockmarks or small splits near the edge, is ripe for retirement. Replacement time: Remove the old stopper from the chain or lift wire and bring it down to the local hardware store. (Some brands of toilets won't accept the one-size-fits-all type of stopper, so be sure to bring the old stopper with you.) It won't cost you more than a few dollars and five minutes of work.
Alignment - As you re-attach the chain to the link on the stopper, make sure the handle (on the outside) is up and the lift arm is down. This will put them in the correct position to pull up the chain and stopper. Fix a slow leak - If your toilet doesn't run continuously, yet you can hear it refill every 15 minutes or more, the problem may be with the flush valve seat. If you want to be sure, add several drops of dark-colored food dye to the tank. If there's a leak in the valve seat, the dyed water will seep through the seal and into the toilet bowl, right in front of your suspecting eyes! Aha! An old valve seat won't form a good seal with the stopper or the base of the tank, and will leak water until the entire tank is empty. Fortunately it's easy to buy a replacement which can be cemented directly on top of the old one. Most hardware stores will have a valve seat replacement kit which will fit most models of valve seats. It won't fit all of them, though, and the kit's packaging will often depict what types of valve seats aren't compatible. To avoid a mistaken purchase, take a careful look at the valve seat, noting the size and any distinguishing marks, before leaving for the hardware store. And if nothing else, note what the valve seat is made of: brass or plastic, usually.
USMMA GMATS
104
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
First, you need to clear out the tank. Turn off the water at the main water valve (located on the wall near the floor), flush the toilet to empty the tank, and remove the stopper, chain, and lift arm, and anything else that might be in the way. Take a clean rag and mop up any puddles of water on the tank floor. Clear and clean: The crucial step with valve seat replacement is thorough preparation of the old seat. If it's brass, scrub it with steel wool or wet/dry sandpaper. If it's plastic, use a non-abrasive nylon ball or sponge. After you've cleaned wipe down the seat again, making sure to remove any grit or moisture that remains. Study and stick: Most seat replacements have a self-adhesive, with a layer of paper backing that's peeled off. Before you peel off the backing, study the illustrations for that particular model of seat replacement, and practice aligning it over the old seat.
USMMA GMATS
105
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
You're ready to attach the new seat. Remove half of the paper backing (only half!) and, having lined the new seat carefully, press it gently on the old seat. Repeat with the other side: remove the paper and press gently. Once the new seat is on and aligned correctly, press down firmly and evenly for at least a minute. Place, pull, and position: Then place the stopper squarely on the valve seat, and pull the chain taut to the stopper. Choose a link that will keep the chain fairly taut (leave a little slack, though), and attach the chain to the link on the stopper. Make sure the handle (on the outside) is up and the lift arm is down; this will put them in the correct position to pull up the chain and stopper.
All flushed - Turn the main water valve back on, and you're ready to flush. Preventative Maintenance for Your Toilets - According to a survey on the life expectancy of materials done by the National Association of Home Builders, a toilet can last 50 years. That is of course, that it is given reasonable care, and you don't get tired of the avocado green that was so popular when you selected the bathroom fixtures in the first place. This statistic should give anyone shopping for new bathroom fixtures cause to pause before they select the latest fad in colored fixtures. My guess is that few avocado green toilets will die a natural death. Most will be replaced long before their 50th anniversary for purely cosmetic reasons. That said, let's look at what we can do to make our fixtures last 50 years. Treat your toilet tanks and bowls like the "china bowls" that they are; they can and will crack if abused. BE CAREFUL with tools around a toilet, don't compound the problem when making a repair. You can't fix a cracked toilet bowl or tank. Never hit a toilet tank or bowl connection with a hammer to break a fitting...use a penetrating lubricant. Never use a toilet for a ladder. Don't stand or sit on a toilet tank lid. And don't put a lot of pressure against a tank by leaning back. Throw the toilet bowl cleaning brush away as soon as the bristles wear down and metal is showing. Once the bowl is scratched, it's impossible keep clean, and you won't be able to repair the scratches. A plastic brush is less likely to scratch the china. Don't treat your toilets as a universal garbage disposal. Just because a product is called disposable doesn't mean it should be flushed down the toilet. Keep a waste paper basket in the bathroom for such things as facial tissues, gum, all sanitary products, bandages and paper towels. Disposable diapers don't belong in a toilet unless you first remove the plastic liner and tear the paper diaper into smaller pieces. Flushing a facial tissue down a toilet is unlikely to cause a problem, but it helps to develop a bad habit that creates the impression that a toilet can digest everything. Plus, flushing a toilet to dispose of a facial tissue is a real waste of water. Also remember that hazardous chemicals may not harm your toilets, but they shouldn't be flushed away either. Don't store small items or heavy items on the lid of the toilet tank to minimize the risk of a something falling in, such as toys, brushes, combs, etc. A toothbrush that gets stuck in the
USMMA GMATS
106
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
interior passageway of a toilet bowl that can't be dislodged means replacing the toilet. A very heavy item that hits the china bowl could also chip or crack the bowl. Never pour hot water into a toilet bowl or tank, the bowl or tank may crack, and never mix toilet cleaning products. HYDRO-PNEUMATIC TANKS -- Water is basically a non-compressible fluid. When the pressure is built up by the potable water pump it will only take someone to open any faucet for just a moment to drop the pressure down. The potable water pumps are generally located in the lower spaces on either a rig or on a ship. This creates a problem If we did not buffer the system the pump would be starting and stopping constantly. This would result in overheating of the motor and a very shortened life for that motor. The cure for the problem is to install a hydro-pneumatic tank. As the name implies this tank is water and air in the same tank. The tank is cylindrical in shape for strength. The tank sits on the discharge side of the potable pumps. The potable water pump raises the pressure n the tank. The lower part of the tank is filled with water. The upper part of the tank is filled with air. The air is compressed when the pump is operating. When a faucet is opened, or a toilet flushed, the air expands and the pressure drops slowly. When the low pressure point is reached the water pump starts again. Even after the faucet is shut-off the pump will continue to run to build up the pressure in the tank. By law the air cannot be hard-piped to the hydro-pneumatic tank. There has to be separation between the air system and the water system. Normally, the fitting is a Schroeder fitting, also known as a bicycle fitting. This line has to be held in place while the air is added to the tank. Newer hydro-pneumatic tanks are coated when new and require very little maintenance. If the is a lot of use the air will, over time, escape from the tank. Air will have to added to make up for this. KEEP WARM PUMPS - It is a small centrifugal pump. Less than 1 horsepower. Because of the size of a system on a ship it is necessary to have a keep warm pump. The heater is down in the engineroom. You put on the shower and you live, let's say, on the bridge deck. The water coming out of your shower would be cold until the water from the heater got up to the shower head. You would not be in the shower at this time so the water is lost ( there is no value to that water even though it cost a lot to make). Now with a small "keep warm" pump a small amount of water is always looping around in the system. It takes suction from the various hot water headers on the ship and returns to the hot water tank. Now when you turn on the shower hot water comes out immediately. Now there is no waste of the water. Hotels, motels, function centers, convention center, etc. all use the keep warm pumps. The heater is only used to heat the water. The hot water is pushed by the pressure from the cold water system.
USMMA GMATS
107
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
RULES FOR POTABLE WATER - Black water may generally be discharged at sea beyond a minimum distance from land, but while near land, in port, and in some restricted waters, regulations usually prohibit black water discharges. Therefore provisions for the onboard retention or treatment of black water are commonly provided. The required capacity of a black water holding tank is determined by the number of people on boad, the per-capita waste generation rate and the holding time required. The direct overboard discharge of gray water is also restricted in some waters.
USMMA GMATS
108
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
PURFIERS
MECHANICAL FUNCTION BOWL - The bowl body 10 and bowl hood 5 are held together by the large lock ring 21. Housed in the bowl are the distributor 8 and the disc set 7 through which the dirty oil flows and where the separation takes place. Uppermost in the disc set is the top disc 6. The top disc neck and the level ring form a paring chamber where the paring disc 3 pumps the clean oil from the bowl. The separated water flows to the upper paring chamber of the bowl through the gravity disc 2, which is clamped to the bowl hood 5 by the small lock ring 22 that also forms the top part of the upper paring chamber. The parts, by which sludge and/or water ejection is effected are marked by an asterisk (*) in the list below, and their functions are described on page 8.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9* 10 11*
Paring disc, water Gravity disc Paring disc, oil Level ring Bowl hood Top disc Disc set Distributor Sliding bowl bottom Bowl body Operating slide
BOWL PARTS 12* Spring 13* Control paring disc 14* Closing and make-up water inlet 15* Opening water inlet 16* Dosing ring 17* Dosing chamber 18* Drain valve 19* Sludge port Liquid seal and displacement 20 water inlet 21 Large lock ring 22 Small lock ring
USMMA GMATS
109
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE - In all Centrifugal separators the bowl is running at a very high speed, normally between 4000 and 9000 rpm. Great forces are at work, subjecting the machine to heavy stress. It is essential to follow exactly the directions given in the instruction book concerning assembly of bowl, operation, and overhaul, and the safety precautions as well. Remember particularly that the bowl is a balanced unit, which will get out of balance when incorrectly assembled or insufficiently cleaned.
Checking Thread Condition - The threads of the large bowl lock ring and bowl body should be checked for wear at least once a year. If the mark on the lock ring goes past the stationary mark by more than 25, consult an ALFA-LAVAL representative immediately, as this indicates an excessive thread wear.
Disc Pressure 1. Bowl hood 2. Large lock ring 3. Top disc 4. Bowl disc set 5. Bowl body
USMMA GMATS
110
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
If the lock ring can be screwed down without resistance until tight contact between bowl hood and bowl body is obtained, increase the pressure by adding the spare bowl disc to the top of the bowl disc set (beneath top disc). Guide Means - When assembling, make certain that the bowl parts are in the proper position. Take care not to damage the guides when assembling.
Height Adjustment Of Paring Discs - The Maintenance and Repair Manual (MR) contains information on height adjustment measures as well as checking and adjusting procedure. It is essential that the paring discs should be correctly positioned relative to the rotary parts of the bowl.
Purification - The flow chart shows a separator A arranged for purification - liquid/liquid/solids separation.
The dirty oil (1) is pumped by the feed pump (61) through a heater B to the separator, by means of the valve (V1) the liquid can be brought to re-circulate through the heater until it has obtained the correct separating temperature. The clean oil leaves the separator through the outlet (4), the water through outlet (5), and the sludge through outlet (6).
USMMA GMATS
111
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
1 4 5 6 10
Dirty oil inlet Clean oil outlet Water outlet Sludge outlet Sealing liquid inlet
61 V1 V5 A B X
Feed pump Three-way valve Ball valve in water outlet Separator Heater Re-circulation
Clarification - The flow chart shows a separator A arranged for clarification - liquid/solids separation.
The dirty oil (1) is pumped by the feed pump (61) through a heater B to the separator, by means of the valve (V1) the liquid can be brought to re-circulate through the heater until it has obtained
USMMA GMATS
112
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
the correct separating temperature. The clarified oil leaves the separator through the outlet (4) and the sludge through outlet (6).
1 4 6 61
Dirty oil inlet Clean oil outlet Sludge outlet Feed pump
V1 A B X
Three-way valve Separator Heater Re-circulation
Liquid Flow In Bowl - From the inlet (1) the dirty oil flows through the distributor C into the spaces between the bowl discs D where separation takes place. Water and solids (or sludge alone, respectively) will move towards the bowl periphery. In purification the water leaves the bowl by the outlet (5) through the gravity disc M and the paring disc (N). The clean oil is moved towards the bowl center and proceeds to the outlet (4) through the level ring (1) and the paring disc (K). Liquid Seal - In Purification - To prevent the oil from passing the outer edge F of the top disc and escaping the outer way with the water by 5, a liquid seal (G) must be provided in the bowl. To this end the bowl must be filled with water through 10 before the contaminated oil is supplied. The latter will then force the water towards the bowl periphery. An interface (H) will form between the water and the oil. Its position can be adjusted by altering the diameter of the water outlet (5), i.e. by exchanging the gravity disc (M).
USMMA GMATS
113
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
1 4 5 10 C D E
Dirty oil inlet Clean oil outlet Water outlet Liquid seal inlet Distributor Bowl discs Bowl Wall
F G H I K M N
Top disc Liquid seal Interface Level ring Paring disc, oil Gravity disc Paring disc, water
Displacement Of Oil In Purification - To prevent ejection of oil through the bowl sludge ports together with sludge (and water), so-called displacement water is fed to the sludge space of the bowl. Prior to sludge ejection the valve M) in the water outlet is closed arid water added by the inlet 0 0) through valve (V10). This water will force the oil-water interface (H) towards the bowl center, so that sludge arid water alone are ejected
USMMA GMATS
114
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Gravity Disc And Level Ring - The gravity disc (M) determines the free water level ( DM) 10 in the bowl arid the position (H) of the interface. The level ring (1) determines the free oil level ( DI) in the bowl. Purification: Use the level ring (1) with the smaller hole pitch diameter (DI), and a gravity disc M according to nomogram. Clarification: Use the level ring (1) with the larger hole pitch diameter (DI), and the gravity disc M with the smallest hole diameter (DM).
USMMA GMATS
115
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
EJECTION CYCLE
Before Ejection Valve V16 open. Compartment under sliding bowl bottom (a) filled Sliding bowl bottom (a) is pressed against seal ring (b), as force F2 is greater than F1 Operating slide (c) keeps drain valves (d) closed by means of the force F produced by coil springs (f). Valve V15 is closed. Separation is going on and solids are moving towards the bowl wall.
USMMA GMATS
116
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Initiation of ejection Valve V 16 open Valve V5 is closed. Valve V10 is opened for displacement 10of oil-water interface H1 towards bowl center position H2. Valve V1 5 is opened. Chamber at dosing ring (e) above operating slide (c) is filled. Liquid force F3 exceeds spring force F. Operating slide (c) moves downwards, thereby uncovering drain valves (d). Compartment below sliding bowl bottom (a) is drained and force F2 decreases. Low-rate outflow through nozzle gl. Overflow begins to the chamber at dosing ring (e) below operating slide (c).
USMMA GMATS
117
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Ejection Compartment below sliding bowl bottom (a) is drained and force F2 becomes smaller than F1 Sliding bowl bottom (a) moves downwards and ejection of sludge and water takes place through ports (h) in the wall. The interface (H2) moves towards the bowl wall to position (1-13). Valve V1 5 is closed. The chamber in dosing ring (e) below operating slide (c) has become filled and force F4 together with spring force F4 is greater than F3 The operating slide is moved upwards and closes drain valves (d). The chambers in dosing ring (e) are drained through nozzles g1, and g2. The compartment below the sliding bowl bottom (a) is filled from operating water tank (76). Force F2 increases. The separating space above the sliding bowl bottom (a) is filled. Force F1 increases. Liquid seal is supplied through valve V10
USMMA GMATS
118
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
After ejection Force F2 now exceeds F1. Sliding bowl bottom (a) is forced into closing position. The compartment below and the separating space above the sliding bowl bottom are full. Valve V10 is closed. Valve V5 is opened. Any excess water leaves the bowl by outlet 5. The interface moves back from position (H3) to (Hi). Ejection has been completed.
USMMA GMATS
119
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
FACTORS INFLUENCING SEPARATION
1. Viscosity - Low viscosity facilitates separation. Viscosity can be reduced by heating.
2. Density Difference (Specific Gravity Ratio) - The greater the density difference between the phases of the process liquid, the easier will be the separation. The difference can be increased by raising the separating temperature.
USMMA GMATS
120
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
3. Separating Temperature - A high separating temperature is normally favorable in mineral oil separation. The temperature should be uniform throughout separation. 4. Rate Of Throughput - see recommendations on 5. Optimum Utilization Of Machine - see trimming instructions on page 2 6. Position Of Interface - The interface between the liquid seat (water) and the oil should be positioned as close as possible to the bowl periphery. However, the interface must not be located so far from the bowl center that the oil will pass the outer edge of the top disc, breaking the liquid seal and discharging with the water.
Factors influencing the interface position are: a. Oil viscosity and density - A high oil density will position the interface closer to the bowl periphery than will a low density.
USMMA GMATS
121
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
b. Throughput and backpressure - As a rule, the interface will be located closer to the bowl periphery at a high throughput than at a low one. The same effect is produced by a high backpressure, and a low one respectively, in the clean oil outlet.
c. Gravity disc - The location of the interface is adjusted by altering the outlet for the water, i.e. exchanging the gravity disc. Changing to a gravity disc with larger hole diameter will move the interface towards the bowl periphery, whereas a disc with smaller hole diameter will position the interface closer to the bowl center.
USMMA GMATS
122
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
OPERATING LIQUID Pure soft water can be used as operating liquid. Hard water involves the risk of lime deposits, which may cause obstruction of the narrow channels in the operating liquid system and thus interruption of the service. The demands on the softness of the water increase with higher temperature, since lime precipitation is more liable to occur at higher temperature s. Addition of a dehardening agent of provision of a dehardening filter in the operating liquid line will prevent lime precipitation. OPERATING LIQUID TANK The operating liquid tank, which should be made of copper or stainless steel and hold 50 100 lit. (11 22 Im. Gal.), must be placed so that the liquid level will be lying within the height measurement limits stated in figure xx. In case the head room is too small, the tank may be replaced by a reducing valve or the like. This may, however, be less reliable than the tank. Besides, the tank system saves liquid during operation, since the back pressure of the control paring disc is balanced in an open system. SLUDGE BLOCKAGE If the nature of the sludge is such that it forms deposits in the upper frame or the sludge discharge bend, flushing should be provided to avoid sludge blockage. The flushing liquid should preferably be at the same temperatures as the process liquid and is supplied through connections provided for the purpose. If the sludge may not be diluted with any other liquid than the process liquid or if it is such a nature that it forms deposits in the bowl, then interval between discharges should be reduced. Flushing of the sludge cover in the frame should begin immediately before and continue throughout the discharge cycle. With timer-controlled machines, the flushing operation is generally included in the program. PARING DISC The paring disc has for its object to discharge the liquid under pressure. The liquid rotates, driven by the rotating paring chamber, in the form of a ring around the stationary paring disc. This dips radially, to a greater or smaller depth, into the rotating liquid ring, which exerts a pressure rising rapidly with increasing diameter. The pressure produced by the paring disc is composed partly of the centrifugal pressure prevailing at the periphery, partly of the kinetic energy of the rotating liquid ring, which is converted more or less completely into pressure energy. When the throughput is small and there is no back pressure in the discharge line, the inner diameter of the liquid ring will practically equal the outer diameter of the paring disc. If the liquid must overcome a back pressure, such as a high delivery head or pressureabsorbing apparatuses, the diameter of the liquid ring in the paring chamber will diminish until the back pressure is neutralized. Thus the paring disc will pump out all liquid fed to the paring chamber (not withstanding the back pressure) up to the highest pressure the paring disc can produce at this liquid quantity.
USMMA GMATS
123
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
PARING DISC
USMMA GMATS
124
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
WESTFALIA BOWL CROSS-SECTION
USMMA GMATS
125
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
TYPICAL WESTFALIA PURIFIER
USMMA GMATS
126
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
USMMA GMATS
127
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
USMMA GMATS
128
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
WESTFALIA INTERMITTENT SELF-CLEANING CENTRIFUGE. OIL PURIFICATION SHOWN AT LEFT, SLUDGE REMOVAL AT RIGHT
USMMA GMATS
129
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
SHARPLES TUBULAR TYPE CENTRIFUGAL PURIFIER
USMMA GMATS
130
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
ALPHA LAVAL PURIFIER
USMMA GMATS
131
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
WESTFALIA PURIFIER COMPONENTS OF THE BOWL IN THE ORDER OF ASSEMBLY
USMMA GMATS
132
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
FUEL/LUBE OIL PURIFICAITON

CENTRIFUGES There is often confusion between the maximum throughput or rated capacity of a centrifuge and the recommended service capacity. The rated capacity gives the maximum volume of fuel that can be passed through the machine. This is usually based on the treatment of light distillate fuel at ambient temperature. The recommended service capacity is the amount that can be passed through the machine at maximum separating efficiency. This is based essentially upon the dynamic viscosity of the fuel at the separation temperature. The maximum separation tempEratuRe, irrespective of viscosity, has an upper limit of 98C Above this temperature there is a risk of the water seal being lost due to the formation of steam bubbles. Based upon centrifuge tests with fuels varying viscosity from marine diesel oil (taken as 85 sec Redwood 1 at100F or 14 cSt at 40C) to the most viscous fuel likely to be sold for marine bunkers, namely, 6000 sec Redwood 1 at 100F or approximately 600 cS at 50C, the maximum throughput capacities for the different viscosities are recommended by the various purifier manufacturers. For Bunker C fuels and those more viscous, a maximum separation temperature of 98 C is recommended. To select a centrifuge that will provide maximum separating efficiency, the rated capacity of the centrifuge must be divided by a factor that is a function of the fuel viscosity. For fuel viscosities of 180, 380, and 600 cSt, the rated centrifuge capacity is divided by 3.3, 4.0, and 6.7, respectively, to determine the recommended service capacity for maximum separating efficiency. That is, the more viscous the fuel, the lower the recommended throughput rate and the larger the centrifuge required. The difference in specific gravity between the fuel being processed and water, either fresh or salt, also influences the separation efficiency. Straight-run residual fuels seldom have a specific gravity that exceeds about 0.96, whereas the specific gravity of cracked residual fuels can exceed unity. The specific gravity of most fuels is inversely proportional to the temperature; however, the specific gravity of water does not have a straight-line relationship with temperature. The maximum difference between the specific gravities of oil and water occurs at about 85 C, and is slightly less at 98 C. From a specific gravity point of view, there is no advantage in heating the fuel above about 85 C. However, by increasing the temperature to 98 C, there is a marked reduction in the viscosity of the fuel, which permits a more effective separation of sludge and solids. Centrifuge manufacturers' generally agree that to effectively separate water and solids from high-specific-gravity, high-viscosity residual fuels, the throughput must be substantially less than that appropriate for less-dense, less-viscous fuels. For engines that are intended to be operated on residual fuel, it is recommended that the centrifuge capacity be designed to treat fuels characterized as 600 cSt viscosity at 50 C with a maximum specific gravity of 0.991 and up to 5% water and possibly 2% sludge. A centrifuge having this capacity should be able to treat the poorest fuels likely to be offered as diesel engine fuels.
USMMA GMATS
133
11/3/2006
QMED
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Two properly sized, correctly operated, self-cleaning centrifuges are considered necessary to provide a reliable fuel-treatment system. Most engine warranties become invalid if centrifuges are not used. To establish and maintain effective separator procedures, several fundamental principles should be noted: The centrifuge is the first major stage of fuel treatment. To treat contaminated fuel oils, supplementary systems, in addition to the centrifuges, are required. These supplementary systems can consist of fine filtration, deimulsifier chemicals, and homogenizer-emulsifiers. Each centrifuge should be supplied with all parts necessary to operate as a purifier and as a clarifier as well as complete spares and a complete set of tools. The single centrifuge flow rate (for series operation) or the combined centrifuge flow rate (for parallel operation) must not exceed the engine demand by more than 10%. All residual fuel oil centrifuges should be on-line and operated continuously. This increases the effective fuel treatment time and further reduces contaminants. To properly adjust and operate a centrifuge, the following residual fuel-oil properties must be known: - viscosity, - specific gravity (or density), - compatibility of fuel oil, - water content, - mash content (bottom sediment content is an alternative), and - catalyst fines content (aluminum content is an alternative). This information can be used to make decisions on fuel treatment options. When fuel is transferred to a settling tank from a different source, a specific gravity check of the settling tank should be made and the centrifuge gravity disk should be checked to ensure that it is correct. The centrifuge is the foundation of the total shipboard fuel treatment system. Its efficient operation is critical to the safety and reliability of the engines. Its operation must be thoroughly understood so that the shipboard engineers can immediately troubleshoot fuel-oil problems when they occur. Some conditions that can cause centrifuge mal-operation include the following: Incorrect fuel handling before the separator, such as: improper barge blending, incompatible fuels, and emulsified fuels. Improper flow, such as: varying flow rates, excessive flow rate, or flow with varying densities. Improper temperature, such as: varying temperatures or too low a temperature. Incorrect positioning of the water/oil interface, thereby inhibiting a uniform flow of oil through all disks; this is usually caused by using an improper gravity disk. A gravity disk establishes the separation zone between the clean fuel and the water according to fuel temperature and density. As fuel characteristics change, the gravity disk must be changed to control the water fuel separation zone for maximum efficiency.
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Overloading the centrifuge with an accumulation of sludge, which is usually caused by extended desludging intervals, or incompatible residual fuel oils.
The centrifuge valving is very important for proper start-up, to prevent contamination and for effective operation. Immediately before the centrifuges, valving should be provided that permits re-circulation back to the settling tanks to provide settling tank mixture for heating in the event that the heating coils in the settling tank are inoperative. Downstream of the centrifuges, the valving should permit re-circulation back to the settling tanks so that the fuel centrifuged can be returned to the settling tanks. This is desirable because a considerable period of time is required for the flow rate and temperature to become uniform and for equipment adjustments to be made (gravity disks, back-pressure settings, etc.) commensurate with, the stabilized conditions. A minimum of two centrifuges that are properly sized, arranged, and operated is required. Each centrifuge should be capable of purifying the total fuel requirements of the engine plus a 10% margin or surplus when operating at the recommended service capacity required for maximum separating efficiency. If there is a high water content in the fuel oil, centrifuge operation in parallel is recommended. By configuring both of the centrifuges as purifiers in parallel and by reducing the flow rates by 50%, the fuel has twice the residence time in the purifier to remove water. When properly set up and carefully operated, parallel operation can produce the highest cleaning effectiveness and, thereby, the cleanest fuel oil to the engine. However, if one of the purifiers should malfunction, there would be no provisions to prevent the contaminated oil from going directly to the engine. Therefore the drain from the day (service) tank must be checked at least three times daily. The series and parallel modes of centrifuge operation entail both advantages and disadvantages; therefore, to determine the most appropriate operational mode, the fuel flow, viscosity, density, water content, sediment and ash content, contamination, and compatibility must be assessed. When the fuel oil has a high water or sediment content, a parallel purifier/purifier alignment would be preferred. But if the fuel contains impurities that can be severely damaging, the risk of a purifier malfunction would suggest a series purifier/clarifier mode of operation. Three centrifuges are commonly installed aboard ship. The third machine is nominally a spare, but it can be used to provide a parallel purifier, purifier alignment followed by a clarifier for cleaning highly contaminated fuel.
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LUBRICATION AND ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT
LUBRICATION AND ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT LUBRICATION AND ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT

Lubrication reduces friction between moving parts by substituting fluid friction for sliding or rolling friction. Without lubrication, you would have difficulty moving a 100-pound weight across a rough surface; however, with lubrication and properly designed bearing surfaces with a very small motor you could move a 1,000,000-pound load. By reducing friction, lubrication lowers the amount of energy required to perform mechanical actions and causes less heat to be produced. Lubrication is a matter of vital importance throughout the shipboard engineering plant. Moving surfaces must be steadily supplied with the proper kinds of lubricants. Lubricants must be maintained at specified standards of purity and at designed pressures and temperatures. Without proper lubrication, many units of shipboard machinery would grind to a screeching halt. The lubrication requirements of shipboard machinery are met in various ways, depending on the machinery. In this chapter we will discuss the basic theories of lubrication, the lubricants used aboard ship, and the lubrication systems installed for many shipboard units. Also we will discuss the devices used to maintain lubricating oils in the required condition of purity. At the end of this chapter, you will find information on the Lube Oil Management Program. THEORY OF LUBRICATION - Friction is the natural resistance to motion caused by surface contact, and the purpose of lubrication is to reduce this friction. The friction that exists between a body at rest and the surface upon which it rests is called STATIC friction. The friction that exists between moving bodies (or between one moving body and a stationary surface) is called KINETIC friction. Static friction is greater than kinetic friction. Static friction and inertia must be overcome to put a body in motion. To keep a body in motion, you must overcome kinetic friction. There are three types of kinetic friction: sliding friction, rolling friction, and fluid friction. Sliding friction occurs when one solid body slides across another solid body. Rolling friction occurs when a curved body, such as a cylinder or a sphere, rolls across a surface. Fluid friction is the resistance to motion exhibited by a fluid. Fluid friction occurs because of two properties of a lubricant: cohesion and adhesion. COHESION is the molecular attraction between particles which tends to hold a substance together. ADHESION is the molecular attraction between particles which tends to cause unlike surfaces to stick together. If a paddle is used to stir a fluid, for example, cohesion between particles of the fluid tends to hold the molecules together. This retards motion of the fluid. But adhesion of fluid particles causes the fluid to stick to the paddle. This further causes friction between the paddle and the fluid. In the theory of lubrication, cohesion and adhesion have a major role. Adhesion is the property of a lubricant which causes it to stick (or adhere) to the parts being lubricated; cohesion is the property which holds the lubricant together and enables it to resist breakdown under pressure. Later in this chapter, we will discuss other important properties of a lubricant.
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Different materials have varying degrees of cohesion and adhesion. In general. solid bodies are highly cohesive but only slightly adhesive. Most fluids are highly adhesive but only slightly cohesive. FLUID LUBRICATION - One of the qualities of a liquid is that it cannot be forced into a smaller space than it already occupies. A liquid is incompressible. This fact allows moving metal surfaces to be separated from each other. Because of this, liquid is used for most lubrication needs. As long as the lubricant film remains unbroken, fluid friction replaces sliding friction and rolling friction. In any process involving friction, some power is consumed and some heat is produced. Overcoming sliding friction consumes the greatest amount of power and produces the greatest amount of heat. Overcoming fluid friction consumes the least power and produces the least amount of heat. LANGMUIR THEORY - A presently accepted theory of lubrication is based on the Langmuir theory of the action of fluid films of oil between two surfaces, one or both of which are in motion. Theoretically, three or more layers or films of oil exist between two lubricated bearing surfaces. Two of the films are BOUNDARY films (indicated as I and V in Figure 1A), one of which clings to the surface of the rotating journal and one of which clings to the stationary lining of the bearing. Between these two boundary films are one or more FLUID films (indicated as II. III, and IV in Figure 1A). When the rotating journal is set in motion, a wedge of oil is formed (Figure 1B). Contact between the two metal surfaces is prevented when oil films II, III, and IV (Figure lA) slide between the two boundary films. The theory is again illustrated in Figure 1C. The position of the oil wedge, W, is shown with respect to the position of the journal as it starts and continues in motion. The views shown in Figure 1C represent a journal or shaft rotating in a solid bearing. The clearances are enlarged in the drawing to show the formation of the oil film. The shaded portion represents the clearance filled with oil. The stationary view shows the film in the process of being squeezed out while the journal is at rest. As the journal begins to turn and to increase speed, oil adhering to the surfaces of the journal is carried into the film. The film increases in thickness and tends to lift the journal, as shown in the starting view. As the speed increases, the .journal takes the position shown in the running view. Varying temperatures cause changes in oil viscosity. These changes modify the film thickness and position of the journal. Viscosity will be discussed later in this chapter. If conditions are correct, the two surfaces are properly separated. A momentary contact may occur at the time the motion is started.
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FIGURE 1 OIL FILM LUBRICATION FACTORS AFFECTING LUBRICATION - A number of factors determine the effectiveness of oil film lubrication. They include pressure, temperature, viscosity, speed, alignment, condition of the bearing surfaces, running clearances, and the purity of the lubricant. Many of these factors are interrelated and interdependent. For example, the viscosity of any given oil is affected by temperature, and the temperature is affected by running speed. Therefore, the viscosity is partially dependent on the running speed. A lubricant must stick to the bearing surfaces and support the load at operating speeds. More adhesiveness is required to make a lubricant adhere to bearing surfaces at high speeds than at low speeds. At low speeds, greater cohesiveness is required to keep the lubricant from being squeezed out from between the bearing surfaces.
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Large clearances between bearing surfaces require high viscosity and cohesiveness in the lubricant to ensure maintenance of the lubricating oil film. The larger the clearance, the greater must be the lubricants resistance to being pounded out, with consequent destruction of the lubrication oil film. High unit load on a bearing requires high viscosity of the lubricant. A lubricant subjected to high loading must be sufficiently cohesive to hold together and maintain the oil film. LUBRICANTS - Although synthetic lubricants are used today, the Navy uses petroleum as their main source of oils and greases. By various refining processes, lubricating oils are extracted from crude, petroleum and blended into a number of products. Sometimes additives (chemical compounds) are included in the process. Lubricating oils have to meet a wide range of lubrication requirements.
CAUTION
All lubricants are hazardous materials. All lubricants, especially synthetics, are toxic and hazardous to health. You should avoid prolonged skin and eye contact. Remove lubricant-soaked clothing promptly and wash skin thoroughly with soap and water. The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for each item includes precautions, disposal information, and hazards. If you need any MSDS, ask your supervisor. Lubricating Oils - Lubricating oils approved for shipboard use are limited to those grades and types that are necessary to provide proper lubrication under all anticipated operating conditions. Diesel engines use a detergent-dispersant type of additive oil to keep the engines clean. These lubrication oils must be fortified with oxidation and corrosion inhibitors. This allows long periods between oil changes and prevents corrosion of bearing materials. Steam turbines use an oil of high initial film strength. This oil is fortified with anti-foaming additives and additives that control oxidation and corrosion. Also, extreme pressure (EP) additives are used. These additives help the oil carry the very high loading found in the reduction gear. For general lubrication and in hydraulic systems using petroleum lubricants, the Navy must use certain oils. These special viscosity series of oils are strengthened with oxidation and corrosion inhibitors and antifoam additives. Deck machinery uses compounded oils, which are mineral oils with additives. Special lubricating oils are available for a wide variety of services. The Federal Supply catalog has a list of these oils, Among the most important specialty oils are those used for lubricating refrigerant compressors. These oils must have a very low pour point and must be maintained with a high degree of freedom from moisture. The main synthetic lubricants in naval use are (1) a phosphate-ester type of fire-resistant hydraulic fluid, used chiefly in the deck-edge elevators of carriers, and (2) a water-base glycol hydraulic fluid, used chiefly in the catapult retracting gears.
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CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICATING OILS -The Navy identifies lubricating oils by number symbols. Each identification symbol consists of four digits and, in some cases, appended letters. The first digit shows the class of oil according to type and use; the last three digits show the viscosity of the oil. The viscosity digits are actually the number of seconds required for 60 milliliters (mL) of the oil to flow through a standard orifice at a certain temperature. Symbol 3080, for example, shows that the oil is in the 3000 series. It also shows that a 60-mL sample flows through a standard orifice in 80 seconds when the oil is at a certain temperature (210F, in this instance). Another example is symbol 2135 TH. This symbol shows that the oil is in the 2000 series. It also shows that a 60-mL sample flows through a standard orifice in 135 seconds when the oil is at a certain temperature (130F, in this case). The letters H, T, TH, or TEII added to a basic number show that the oil contains additives for special purposes. PROPERTIES OF LUBRICATING OILS - Lubricating oils used by the Navy are tested for a number of properties. These include: 1. Viscosity 2. Pour point 3. Flashpoint 4. Fire point 5. Auto-ignition point 6. Demulsibility 7. Neutralization number 8. Precipitation number Standard test methods are used for making all tests. The properties of lube oil are briefly explained in the following paragraphs. 1. Viscosity - The viscosity of an oil is its tendency to resist flow or change of shape. A liquid of high viscosity flows very slowly. In variable climates, automobile owners, for example, change oils in accordance with prevailing seasons. Oil changes are necessary because heavy oil becomes too sluggish in cold weather, and light oil becomes too thin in hot weather. The higher the temperature of an oil, the lower its viscosity becomes; lowering the temperature increases the viscosity. The high viscosity or stiffness of the lube oil on a cold morning makes an automobile engine difficult to start. The viscosity must always be high enough to keep a good oil film between the moving parts. Otherwise friction will increase, resulting in power loss and rapid wear on the parts. Oils are graded by their viscosities at a certain temperature. Grading is set up by noting the number of seconds required for a given quantity (60 mL) of the oil at the given temperature to flow through a standard orifice. The right grade of oil, therefore, means oil of the proper viscosity. Every oil has a viscosity index based on the slope of the temperature-viscosity curve. The viscosity index depends on the rate of change in viscosity of a given oil with a change in temperature. A low index Figure means a steep slope of the curve, or a great variation of viscosity with a change in temperature; a high index Figure means a flatter slope, or lesser variation of viscosity with the same changes in temperatures. If you are using an oil with a high viscosity index, its viscosity or body will change less when the temperature of the
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2.
3.
4. 5.
6.
7.
8.
engine increases. Pour Point - The pour point of an oil is the lowest temperature at which the oil will barely flow from a container. At a temperature below the pour point, oil congeals or solidifies. Lube oils used in cold weather operations must have a low pour point. (NOTE: The pour point is closely related to the viscosity of the oil. In general, an oil of high viscosity will have a higher pour point than an oil of low viscosity.) Flashpoint - The flashpoint of an oil is the temperature at which enough vapor is given off to flash when a flame or spark is present. The minimum flashpoints allowed for Navy lube oils are all above 315 F. However, the temperatures of the oils are always far below that under normal operating conditions. Fire Point - The fire point of an oil is the temperature at which the oil will continue to burn when ignited. Auto-Ignition Point - The auto-ignition point of an oil is the temperature at which the flammable vapors given off from the oil will burn. This kind of burning will occur without the application of a spark or flame. For most lubricating oils, this temperature is in the range of 465 to 815F. Demulsibility - The demulsibility, or emulsion characteristic, of an oil is its ability to separate cleanly from any water present-an important factor in forced-feed systems. You should keep water (fresh or salt) out of oils. Neutralization Number - The neutralization number of an oil is the measure of the acid content. The number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize 1 gram of the oil defines the neutralization number. All petroleum products oxidize in the presence of air and heat. The products of this oxidation include organic acids. High amounts of organic acids have harmful results on galvanized surfaces and on alloy bearings at high temperatures. The demulsibility of the oil with respect to fresh water and seawater also relies on the amount of organic acids. High organic acid levels may cause decreased demulsibility. The formation of sludge and emulsions too stable to be broken by available means may result. This last problem may occur in turbine installations. An increase in acidity is a sign that the lubricating oil is breaking down. Precipitation Number - The precipitation number of an oil is a measure of the amount of solids classified as asphalts or carbon residue contained in the oil. The number is reached by diluting a known amount of oil with naphtha and separating the precipitate by centrifugingthe volume of separated solids equals the precipitation number. The test helps you find out quickly the presence of foreign materials in used oils. An oil with a high precipitation number may cause trouble in an engine. It could leave deposits or plug up valves and pumps.
Lubricating Greases - Some lubricating greases are simple mixtures of soaps and lubricating oils. Others are more unusual, such as silicones and dibasic acids, which are exotic liquids. These may be thickened with metals or inert materials to provide enough lubrication. Requirements for oxidation inhibition, corrosion prevention, and extreme pressure performance are met by adding special substances (additives). Lubricating greases are supplied in three ,Trades: soft, medium, and hard. The soft greases are used for high speeds and low pressures; the medium greases are used for medium speeds and medium pressures; the hard greases are used for slow speeds and high pressures.
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CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICATING GREASES - Navy specifications have been drawn to cover the several grades of lubricating greases. The grades most common in engineroom use are ball and roller bearing grease and extreme pressure grease. 1. Ball And Roller Bearing Grease, Mil-G-24508 - Ball and roller bearing grease is for general use in equipment designated to operate at temperatures up to 300F. For temperature applications above 300F, high-temperature, electric-motor, ball and roller bearing grease (MILL-15719) must be used. 2. Extreme Pressure Grease, Mil-G-17740 - Extreme pressure grease has anti-rust properties and is suitable for lubrication of semi-enclosed gears, or any sliding or rolling metal surfaces where loads may be high and where the equipment may be exposed to salt spray or moisture. It is intended for use in a temperature range of 0 to 140F. GRAPHITE GREASE, VV-G-671 - Graphite grease may be applied with compression grease cups to bearings operating at temperatures not to exceed 150 F. The three grades of this grease are listed below: Grade 1 Soft For light pressures and high speeds Grade 2 Medium For medium pressures and medium speeds Grade 3 Medium Hard For high pressures and slow speeds LUBRICATING SYSTEMS - The following paragraphs contain information about different lubricating systems and their related equipment. We will discuss the important functions and use of each system and describe their operating procedures. MAIN LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEMS - Main lubricating oil systems in steam-driven ships provide lubrication for the turbine bearings and the reduction gears. In some ships, the main lube oil system also provides control oil for the main engine throttle control system and hydraulic gland seal regulators. The main lube oil system generally includes a filling and transfer system, a purifying system, and separate service systems for each propulsion plant. Most ships have three positive displacement pumps for main lobe oil service. One pump is an attached pump driven by either the propulsion shaft or the quill shaft of the reduction gear. This pump provides main lube oil service when the main engines are turning fast enough for the pump to supply the required pressure. The other two pumps may be both electric-motor driven or a combination of one turbine-driven and one electric-motor driven. These pumps are used when lighting off, securing, and at low speeds when the attached pump is not supplying enough pressure. Another use is as a standby pump when the attached pump has the load. Some ships have automatic features which provide for electric pumps to start and stop or shift speeds at various pressures and shaft rpm. This system automatically provides enough main lube oil pressure for all operating conditions. Some ships have only two electric-motor driven main lube oil pumps. One pump is supplied by ac electrical power and the other by dc electrical power. One pump is always in standby for the running pump and will automatically start if oil pressure drops below a certain value.
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Lube oil pressures which provide control features for the main lube oil system (such as alarms, pump standby features, etc.) are monitored at or near the bearing farthest from the tube oil supply (main tube, oil pumps); this is known as the most remote bearing. In a typical main tube oil system (Figure 2), the pump takes suction from the main sump and discharges the tube oil into the duplex strainers (Figure 3). From the strainer, the tube oil goes to the oil cooler (discussed in chapter 6 of this manual). The oil is cooled to 120 to 130. This temperature is maintained by using the overboard valve to adjust the flow of seawater through the cooler. After leaving the cooler, the oil goes to the turbine and reduction gear bearings. In. the main lube oil service line between the cooler and the bearing supply lines, an unloading valve is installed to dump excess pressure back to the main sump. This valve is set to maintain designed operating pressure to the most remote bearing and is normally spring loaded or air pilot controlled. After leaving the bearings, the tube oil returns to the main sump by gravity flow. Also, relief valves are installed in each pump discharge line to protect the pump against excessive pressure. An orifice or a needle valve is installed in each bearing supply line to regulate the flow of oil to the individual bearing. Figure 4 shows a forced-feed lubricated bearing.
FIGURE 2 - TYPICAL LUBE OIL SYSTEM.
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FIGURE 3 - DUPLEX STRAINER. AUXILIARY MACHINERY LUBRICATION SYSTEMS - Lube oil systems for auxiliary machinery have the same components as the main tube oil system and serve the same purpose. However, the construction and size of the components are different. The tube oil pump is normally of the simple gear type and is driven by a pinion on the gear shaft. The tube oil filter is of the stacked disk type. You should keep this filter clean in accordance with PMS requirements. The cooler is a doublepass water-tube type. The water for this cooler is supplied by the auxiliary machinery cooling water system. The temperature of the tube oil leaving the cooler is controlled by regulating the cooling water flow with the inlet valve to the cooler. By using the inlet valve, you will not subject the tube oil cooler to the full pressure of the cooling water system. If you allow full pressure on the cooler, it could rupture. An orifice is installed in the cooling water line leaving the oil cooler. This orifice ensures that the cooler remains full so that no air pocket will form and reduce the performance of the cooler. A Tube oil relief valve is located in the upper transmission housing. This valve protects the system from excessive pressure and should be set to maintain designed bearing oil pressure. The ship service turbo-generator and the main feed pump may have a different system. Their systems may use a duplex tube oil strainer and may also have a hand or electric tube oil pump for startup and securing.
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Duplex tube oil strainers are installed in the main tube oil system and in some auxiliary tube oil systems to trap foreign matter. The installation of strainers prevents damage to the gears, bearings, and journals. The strainers (Figure 3) are of the duplex basket type. They are designed so that one strainer can be opened for inspection and cleaning while the other is in service. Also by having two strainers, a standby strainer is available if a casualty occurs. Most of these strainers contain a removable magnetic element (not shown in the Figure) in each basket to remove ferrous (magnetic) particles from the oil. The strainers are usually shifted, inspected, and cleaned at the following intervals:
FIGURE 4 - ADJUSTABLE SPHERICAL-SEATED BEARING LUBRICATED BY FORCE FEED. 1. Once each watch for the first 24 hours underway 2. Once each watch for the first 48 hours underway if major work has been done on the tube oil system 3. Once each watch when operating at more than 85 percent of full power 4. Once every 24 hours after number I or 2 conditions have been satisfied 5. When the differential pressure (d/p) across the strainer in service raises more than 1 1/2 psi above normal (some strainers have valves which will automatically shift with an excessive d/p) 6. When required by casualty control procedures
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If your particular PMS does not give the same intervals for shifting, inspecting, and cleaning the strainers as stated above, then follow the intervals given in your PMS. Carefully follow the proper procedures when you are shifting the strainers. If you use improper procedures, you can cause a loss of tube oil pressure and/or a fire. The proper procedure for shifting is normally posted near the strainers. Routinely check your strainer cap gaskets and strainer shields to ensure they are in satisfactory condition. Also make sure the strainer in use is properly identified. GREASE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS - Grease lubrication is used in many locations where it is difficult to keep tube oil at the bearing surface. The grease is applied either through grease cups or through pressure fittings, such as the Zerk type. Grease Cup Lubrication - Dirt in lube oil will generally settle out, but dirt in grease remains mixed with the grease and becomes abrasive. For this reason, you should take particular care to prevent contamination, especially where grease cups are used. Before you open the container, carefully remove all dirt from the exterior. Do NOT allow any dirt to enter either the opening or the grease cups. You should often empty, clean, and refill the cups with fresh grease. Pressure Greasing - Pressure fittings form an easy means of lubricating numerous low-speed, lightly loaded, or widely separated bearings. They are not, however, good for use on electric generators and motors. Pressure fittings used on these units may force grease out of the bearing and onto windings. These fittings are similar to those on an automobile, where grease guns are used for lubrication. Before using the grease gun, clean the pressure fittings and gun tip. Apply pressure to the fitting until grease comes out around the edges of the bearing. In bearings fitted with felt or other seals, you must be careful to avoid breaking the seals by overpressure. Excessive pressure in the lubrication of needle-type roller bearings may unseat the needles. BALL AND ROLLER BEARING LUBRICATION - The oil or grease used to lubricate ball and roller bearings (roller contact bearings) serves many important functions. It provides a lubricating film among the halls, rollers, and retainers and between the ends of the rollers and the races. The oil or grease disperses heat caused by friction and prevents corrosion of the highly polished parts. It also helps keep dirt, water, and other foreign matter out of the parts. You should use the lubricant recommended for each machine, and you should avoid too much lubrication. LUBE OIL PURIFICATION - The forced-feed lubrication systems in modern naval ships rely on pure oil. Oil that stays pure can be used for a long time. LUBE OIL DOES NOT WEAR OUT it is merely robbed of its lubricating properties by foreign substances. Contaminants interfere with the ability of the oil to maintain a good lubricating film between metal surfaces. These contaminants must be removed or the oil will not meet lubrication requirements. Dirt, sludge, and other contaminants will act as abrasives to score and scratch the rubbing metal surfaces within engines, generators, pumps, and blowers. Water is the greatest
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source of contamination. Strainers, filters, settling tanks, and centrifugal purifiers are used in lubrication systems to keep the oil pure. Filters and strainers were discussed earlier in the chapter. This section will deal with settling tanks and centrifugal purifiers. Lubricating oil piping is generally arranged to permit two methods of purification: batch purification and continuous purification. The batch process uses settling tanks while the continuous process uses centrifugal purifiers. SETTLING TANKS - In the batch process, the lube oil is transferred from the sump to a settling tank by a purifier or transfer pump. Settling tanks permit oil to stand while water and other impurities settle out. Settling is caused by the force of gravity. A number of layers of contaminants may form in the bottom of the tank. The number of layers depends on the specific gravity of the various contaminating substances. For example, a layer of metal may form on the bottom, followed by a layer of sludge, a layer of water, and then the clean oil on top. Settling tanks are normally used when the ship is in port. After the oil is heated and allowed to settle for several hours, water and other impurities that have accumulated in the settling tanks are removed. The oil that is left in the tanks is then centrifuged and returned to the sump or storage tank. CENTRIFUGAL PURIFIERS - When a ship is at sea or when time does not permit batch purification in the settling tanks, the continuous purification process is .used. Centrifugal purifiers are used in this process. The purifier takes the oil from the sump in a continuous cycle. Before entering the purifier, the oil is heated to help remove the impurities. Detailed instructions on constructing, operating, and maintaining purifiers are furnished by manufacturers technical manuals, PMS, and the Engineering Operation Sequencing System (EOSS). Carefully follow these documents when you are operating or performing maintenance on purifiers. The following general information will help you understand the purification and the purposes and principles of purifier operation. A purifier may be used to remove water and/or sediment from oil. When water must be removed, the purifier is called a SEPARATOR. When the main source of contamination is sediment, the purifier is used as a CLARIFIER. When used to purify lubricating oil, a purifier may be used as either a separator or a clarifier. Aboard ship, a purifier is almost always operated as a separator. TYPES OF CENTRIFUGAL PURIFIERS AND THEIR OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS - Two types of purifiers are used in Navy installations. Both types operate on the same principle. The principal difference is in the design of the rotating units. In one type the rotating element is a bowl-like container which encases a stack of disks. This is the disk-type DeLaval purifier. In the other type, the rotating element is a hollow, tubular rotor and is the tubular-type Sharples purifier. Disk-Type Purifier - A sectional view of a disk-type centrifugal purifier is shown in Figure 5. The bowl is mounted on the upper end of the vertical bowl spindle, which is driven by means of a worm wheel and friction clutch assembly. A radial thrust bearing at the lower end of the bowl
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spindle carries the weight of the bowl spindle and absorbs any thrust created by the driving action. The parts of a disk-type bowl are shown in Figure 6. The flow of oil through the bowl and additional parts is shown in Figure 7. Contaminated oil enters the top of the revolving bowl through the regulating tube. The oil then passes down the inside of the tubular shaft and out at the bottom into the stack of disks. As the dirty oil flows up through the distribution holes in the disks, the high centrifugal force exerted by the revolving bowl causes the dirt, sludge, and water to move outward. The purified oil flows inward and upward, discharging from the neck of the top disk. The water forms a seal between the top disk and the bowl top. (The top disk is the dividing line between the water and the oil.) The disks divide the space within the bowl into many separate narrow passages or spaces. The liquid confined within each passage is restricted so that it can flow only along that passage. This arrangement minimizes agitation of the liquid as it passes through the bowl. It also makes shallow settling distances between the disks.
FIGURE 5 - DISK-TYPE CENTRIFUGAL PURIFIER.
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FIGURE 6 - PART OF A DISK-TYPE PURIFIER BOWL
FIGURE 7 - PATH OF OIL THROUGH DISK-TYPE PURIFIER. Most of the dirt and sludge remains in the bowl and collects in a more or less uniform layer on the inside vertical surface of the bowl shell. Any water, along with some dirt and sludge, separated from the oil, is discharged through the discharge ring at the top of the bowl.
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Tubular-Type Purifier - A cross section of a tubular-type centrifugal purifier is shown in Figure 8. This type of purifier consists essentially of a hollow rotor or bowl which rotates at high speeds. The rotor has an opening in the bottom to allow the dirty lube oil to enter. It also has two sets of openings at the top to allow the oil and water (separator) or the oil by itself (clarifier) to discharge (see insert, Figure 8). The bowl, or hollow rotor, of the purifier is connected by a coupling unit to a spindle. The spindle is suspended from a ball bearing assembly. The bowl is belt-driven by an electric motor mounted on the frame of the purifier. The lower end of the bowl extends into a flexibly mounted guide bushing. The assembly restrains movement of the bottom of the bowl, but is also allows the bowl enough movement to center itself during operation. Inside the bowl is a device consisting of three flat plates equally spaced radially. This device is commonly referred to as the three-wing device, or just the threewing. The three-wing rotates with the bowl and forces the liquid in the bowl to rotate at the same speed as the bowl. The liquid to be centrifuged is fed, under pressure, into the bottom of the bowl through the feed nozzle.
FIGURE 8.-TUBULAR-TYPE CENTRIFUGAL PURIFIER.
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When the purifier is used as a lube oil clarifier, the three-wing has a cone on the bottom. The feed jet strikes against this cone in order to bring the liquid smoothly up to bowl speed without making an emulsion. This type of three-wing device is shown in Figure 9.
FIGURE 9.-PRINCIPLES OF A CENTRIFUGAL PURIFIER. Separation is basically the same in the tubular-type purifier as in the disk-type purifier. In both types, the separated oil assumes the innermost position and the separated water moves outward. Both liquids are discharged separately from the bowls, and the solids separated from the liquid remain in the bowl (Figure 10).
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FIGURE 10.-PATH OF OIL THROUGH THE BOWL-TYPE PURIFIER. GENERAL NOTES ON PURIFIER OPERATIONS - You should get the specific details from the instructions provided for operating a given purifier. The information provided here is general, and you can apply it to both types of purifiers. For maximum efficiency, run purifiers at maximum designed speed and rated capacity. Since turbine oils are always contaminated with water from condensation, you should operate the purifier as a separator and not as a clarifier: However, do not run a purifier at designed rated capacity when a unit is used as a separator of 9000 series (compounded- or additive-type heavyduty lube oils) detergent oil. Some engine installations using oils of the 9000 series are exposed to large quantities of water. If the oil becomes contaminated with water, the oil has a tendency to emulsify. The tendency is greater when the oil is new. This condition decreases during the first 50 to 75 hours of engine operation. When an emulsion appears, you should lower the purifier to 80 percent of the rated capacity. You should continue this operation as long as a noticeable amount of free water discharges along with the emulsion.
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When a purifier is run as a separator, you should prime the bowl with fresh water before you open the suction valve. The water serves to seal the bowl and to make the liquid layers equal. If you do not prime the bowl, you will lose oil through the water discharge ports. Influencing Factors in Purifier Operation - The time required for purification and the output of a purifier depend on many factors. The viscosity of the oil and the pressure applied to the oil are such factors. Two other important factors are the size of the sediment particles and the difference in the specific gravity of the oil. The viscosity of the oil determines to a great extent the length of time required to purify lube oil. The more viscous the oil, the longer the time required to purify it to a given degree of purity. Decreasing the viscosity of the oil by heating will help purification. Even though certain oils may be properly purified at operating temperatures, you will get greater purification by heating the oil to a higher temperature. To do this, the oil is passed through a heater. The oil reaches the proper temperature in the heater before it enters the purifier bowl. Oils used in naval installations may be heated to specified temperatures without adverse effects. Prolonged heating at higher temperatures, however, is not recommended because of the tendency of such oils to oxidize. In general, oil should he heated enough to produce a viscosity of about 90 seconds, Saybolt Universal (90 SSU). Pressure should not be increased above normal in order to force a high viscosity oil through the purifier. Instead, viscosity should be decreased by heating the oil. The use of excess pressure to force oil through the purifier will result in poor purification. But if you reduce the pressure of the oil as it is forced into the purifier, you will improve purification. This happens because you have increased the length of time the oil is under the influence of centrifugal force. For clean oil to be discharged from a purifier and for the water discharged to be free of oil, you must use the proper size discharge ring (RING DAM). The size of the discharge ring depends on the specific gravity of the oil being purified. All discharge rings have the same outside diameter, but they have inside diameters of different sizes. Ring sizes are shown by even numbers: the smaller the number, the smaller the ring size. The size, in millimeters, of the inside diameter is stamped on each ring. Sizes vary by 2-mL steps. Charts provided in manufacturers technical manuals show the proper ring size to be used with an oil of a specific gravity. Generally, the ring size shown on a chart will produce good results. However, the recommended ring may not produce good purification. In that case, you must determine the correct size by trial and error. In general, purification is best when you use the ring of the largest possible size to prevent loss of oil. MAINTENANCE OF PURIFIERS - Proper care of an oil purifier requires that the bowl be cleaned often and that all sediment be carefully removed. How often you clean a purifier depends on the amount of foreign matter in the oil to be purified. If the amount of foreign matter in an oil is not known, you should shut down the machine and check it. The amount of sediment found in the bowl at this time will indicate how often you should clean the purifier. Thoroughly clean the bowl assembly each time lube oil is run through for batch purification from the settling tank.
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While the purifier is operating on a sump of an operating unit, you should make checks to ensure that the purifier has not lost its seal. A casualty caused by a loss of lube oil can occur fairly rapidly. This happens if all the tube oil from a sump is dumped to the bilge or drain tank by an improperly operating purifier. THE LUBE OIL MANAGEMENT PROGRAM - The Lube Oil Management Program was developed because of the importance of good quality lubricating oil. This program is in the form of an instruction. These instructions may vary somewhat in procedure, but their objectives are the same. Some of the major points covered by this instruction are listed below: 1. How often you should take oil samples 2. The type of equipment on which you should take oil samples 3. The required logs and records of lube oil 4. The type of testing you are required to do on oil samples 5. Your required action as a result of the tests If this program is properly maintained, you can reduce the down time of your machinery caused by oil related failures. You should become very familiar with the Lube Oil Management Program and carefully follow each step and detail listed.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS ABLE OF ONTENTS

WATER MAKERS
1) TYPES a) SINGLE STAGE LOW PRESSURE b) TWO STAGE LOW PRESSURE c) REVERSE OSMOSIS 2) OPERATING PRINCIPLES 3) PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS PROPER OPERATING PARAMETERS 4) TROUBLESHOOTING
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1.. TYPES 1 TYPES

SINGLE STAGE LOW PRESSURE TWO STAGE LOW PRESSURE REVERSE OSMOSIS INTRODUCTION - Both personnel and equipment generate requirements for fresh water. Personnel need water for drinking, hygiene, laundry, cleaning, and other purposes, while equipment needs water for cooling (diesel engines, large compressors, etc.) and for boiler feed on ships equipped with either steam generators or boilers. Since the quantities of chemically and biologically pure water required by all but the smallest vessels make storage tanks impractical, distilling or purification plants must be used to ensure adequate supplies of fresh water for long periods of time. Plants for making fresh water from seawater are available in several different configurations based on different operating principles. Shipboard distilling systems are based either on successive stages of evaporation and condensation or on the principle of reverse osmosis (RO). This chapter will describe the basic principles and operating characteristics of flash type evaporators and reverse osmosis units. GENERAL - Three general types of distilling plants are installed in marine applications. These are the vapor compression, low-pressure steam (flash, submerged tube and basket), and heat recovery types. The major differences among the three types of plants are the form of energy used for operation and the pressure under which distillation takes place. Vapor-compression distillers use electrical energy for heaters and compressors, and boil the seawater feed near atmospheric pressure. Low-pressure steam units use steam from the auxiliary exhaust steam system or the auxiliary steam system as a heat source (they are usually only found on steam vessels); heat recovery units use diesel engine cooling jacket water for this purpose. Both these plants operate at a higher vacuum (and consequently lower temperature) than the vaporcompression type. LOW-PRESSURE STEAM - There are three types of low-pressure steam-distilling plants: submerged-tube, vertical-basket, and flash. The first two types are similar, differing only in the kind of heat transfer surface used to boil the seawater feed. In the flash-type plant, the seawater feed is not boiled but is flashed to vapor by a pressure drop. FLASH-TYPE DISTILLING UNITS - One of the major types of marine distilling plant is the flash type, shown in Figure 1. The flash type depends upon temperature and pressure differences between the stages (effects) to generate vapor from the seawater feed. Flash-type units consist of one or more stages, each stage having a flash chamber, a feed box, a vapor separator, and a distiller condenser. A two- or three-stage air ejector, a distillate cooler, and a vapor feed heater are also provided. Seawater (feed) pumped in from the sea passes through the tubes of the distillate cooler, the stage distiller condensers, and the air ejector condenser. In each of these heat exchangers, the feed picks up energy as heat. The final heating is done by auxiliary exhaust steam admitted to the shell of the feedwater heater. From this heater the feedwater enters the first-stage feed box and sprays out through orifices into the flash
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chamber. As the heated feedwater enters the chamber, a portion flashes or vaporizes, because the pressure in the chamber is maintained lower than the saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature of the hot feed. Vapor then condenses on the tubes of the first-stage distiller condenser. The feed that does not vaporize in the first chamber (brine) passes via a loop seal to the second chamber, which is maintained at a lower pressure than the first stage. The process is repeated in each stage, and the brine remaining in the last stage is removed by the brine overboard pump. Vapor formed in each stage passes through a vapor separator and into the stage distiller condenser, where it is condensed into distillate. The distillate passes through a loop seal on its way to the distiller condenser of the next stage. The distillate pump removes the distillate from the last stage and discharges it through the distillate cooler to fresh-water storage tanks.
FIGURE 1 - SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE TYPICAL FLASH-TYPE DISTILLING UNIT REVERSE-OSMOSIS PLANTS - Reverse-osmosis plants have been developed to provide water of acceptable quality for ships requiring feedwater of less than 50-ppm purity. These single-pass units force seawater through membranes, reducing the average salt content of 25,00035,000 ppm levels to less than 50 ppm, which is acceptable for everything aboard ship except high pressure boiler feed water. Osmosis is a natural process in which a fluid migrates through a semi-permeable membrane, such as the wall of a biologic cell, into a fluid having a higher concentration of substances and thereby balances the levels of concentration on both sides of the cell wall. Reverse osmosis (RO)
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is the opposite, the fluid being driven against a membrane where the fluid is permitted to pass but the salts are retained. The membrane blocks the passage of the salts, which are concentrated and removed as brine. The pressure under which this process operates ranges from 74 psia for brackish water to 410 psia for seawater. The osmotic pressure for seawater increases about 0.01 psi for each milligram of salt per liter in the water. A typical reverse osmosis system flow path is shown in Figure 2. A suction pump sends seawater through pre-filters, where silt and suspended solids are removed. The filtered seawater is then pumped to the RO unit, which consists of a synthetic semi-permeable membrane. The salts are pumped back to the sea as brine. Purified water that is forced through the membrane is given a post-treatment with a sterilizer and a charcoal filter before being sent to the fresh-water storage tank.
FIGURE 2 - SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF REVERSE-OSMOSIS SYSTEM FLOW (Courtesy MECO Corp.) BRINE OVERBOARD - The RO unit used for marine installations is usually a spiral-wound type consisting of a polyamide or cellulose fiber. The plies of fibrous material are sandwiched into multiple layers and reinforced with a coarser mesh spaced around each layer. The complete assembly is wound around a permeable collection tube fitted within a fiberglass wrapper and encased in a fiberglass pressure case. Seawater is pumped to the intake at one end of the module and flows over the membrane surfaces, passing through the inner section and collecting in the inner tube. The concentrate (brine) leaves the unit at the opposite end from the purified water.
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In operation, seawater is forced against the membrane in the unit, where a stagnant layer helps to hold the salts behind as the water is forced through. Continuous removal of the brine helps to maintain equilibrium within the filter. As in the distilling types, almost all the biologic material is removed from the process as brine, but it is standard practice to chlorinate the product and pass it through a charcoal filter to assure the purity of the water. Multistage RO units are preferred for naval service. With a multistage unit, fresh water may continue to be produced even if one stage fails to operate correctly. Furthermore, in some operating conditions, RO units are more economical to operate than evaporation-type distilling units.
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2.. OPERATING PRINCIPLES FOR EACH TYPE 2 OPERATING PRINCIPLES FOR EACH TYPE
THE DISTILLATION PROCESS - Boiling seawater in a closed vessel at atmospheric pressure and leading the vapor through a heat exchanger until it condenses is a simple method of making fresh water from seawater. Either atmospheric air or seawater may be used as coolant for the condensing process, with seawater the better choice because of its greater capacity to absorb energy as heat (specific heat). The final products are brine, which is salt water with a greater concentration of salt than normal seawater, and distillate, the potable product of vapor condensation. Figure 3 represents a simple distillation process.
Figure 3 Basic Diagram Of The Distillation Process For clarity, terms used are defined as follows: Distillation - The process of boiling seawater and then cooling and condensing the resulting vapor to produce fresh water. Evaporation - The first step in the distillation process. It is the process of boiling seawater to separate it into fresh water vapor and brine. Brine - Water in which the concentration of salt is greater than that in normal seawater. Vapor - Water in the gaseous state. The terms vapor and fresh water vapor are used interchangeably. Condensation - The conversion of vapor into usable fresh water by cooling. Feed - Seawater used as the raw material for the distillation process.
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Distillate - The product of condensation of the fresh water vapor produced by the vaporization of seawater. Distillate also may be referred to as condensate, as fresh water, as fresh water condensate, and as seawater distillate. The term condensate should be avoided wherever there is any possibility of confusion between condensate from the distilling plant and condensate from condensation in a ship's main and auxiliary condensers. Confusion may be avoided by referring to the product of condensation in the distilling plant as distillate. Salinity This is the concentration of salt in water, normally given in parts per million (ppm). FACTORS AFFECTING OPERATION OF THE DISTILLING PLANT - The rate at which seawater is evaporated in a distilling plant depends on the rate at which heat is transferred to the seawater. The major influences on this transfer are the pressure at which the heat exchange takes place, the temperature difference between the fluids exchanging heat, the surface areas available for heat exchange between the two substances, and the coefficients of heat transfer of the substances and materials used in the various heat-exchange devices. Additional factors are fluid flow rates and cleanliness of heat-exchanger surfaces. Seawater, the raw material of the distilling plant, is an aqueous solution of various minerals and salts. It also contains suspended matter such as vegetable and animal growths and bacteria and other microorganisms. Under proper operating conditions, distilling plants are capable of producing fresh water that contains only minute traces of these chemical and biological contaminants. Distilling plants cannot remove volatile gases or liquids that have lower boiling points than water, nor can they kill all microorganisms. These points are of particular importance when a ship or rig is operating in contaminated or polluted waters. Several common problems can arise in the distillation of seawater. Some of the salts present in seawater are negatively soluble that is, they are less soluble in hot water than they are in cold water. A negatively soluble salt remains in solution at low temperatures, but precipitates out of solution at higher temperatures. Precipitation of various salts forms scale on the heat-transfer surfaces and thereby interferes with heat transfer. In marine distilling plants this problem is partially avoided by designing the plants to operate under vacuum or, in the case of one type of plant, at approximately atmospheric pressure. The use of low pressures, and therefore low boiling temperatures, has the additional advantage of greater thermal efficiency than can be achieved when higher pressures and temperatures are used. With low pressures and temperatures, less heat is required to make the seawater boil, and less heat is lost overboard through the circulating water that cools and condenses the vapor. Satisfactory operation of a distilling plant may require maintaining a specified vacuum. If a plant is operated at less than the designed vacuum, the temperature level rises throughout the unit, and there is an increased tendency toward scale formation. Scale formation is highly undesirable, since as noted above the scale interferes with the rate of heat transfer and the flow of water and thereby reduces the capacity of the unit. Excessive scale build-up also lowers the quality of the distillate.
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To reduce the rate of scale formation in distilling plants, chemical compounds are used for treatment of distiller feedwater. In addition, special techniques for cold shocking the tubes within the distiller help crack the scale formation from the tubes. (Cold shocking consists of passing cold water through the hot tubes to let thermal contraction of the tubes crack scale off the tube exterior- this is a procedure normally only used with high pressure evaporators.) None of these procedures completely eliminates bacteria or pollutants from the water. Distilling plants should never be operated in waters that might be seriously contaminated by oil and other chemicals. Almost all distilling plants are designed to operate at or below atmospheric pressure, and therefore at low temperatures. The distillate is not sterilized by the boiling process and may contain harmful organisms or other matter harmful to health and to the ship's freshwater systems. All waters in harbors, rivers, streams, inlets, bays, landlocked waters, and the sea within ten miles of the entrance to such waters must be considered contaminated unless a specific determination to the contrary is made. When you are operating in contaminated waters, the distillers, if used, must be operated in strict accordance with special procedures. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION - In flash-type plants seawater is heated in a series of heat exchangers and subsequently discharged into the first-stage flash chamber. Since the pressure in the first-stage flash chamber is lower than the saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature of the feed, a portion of the feed flashes or vaporizes as it passes through the firststage flash chamber. The vapor rises through a moisture separator or mesh-type demister and is condensed on the first-stage condenser tubes by the cooler seawater flowing through them. The condensed vapor (or distillate) then falls into the first-stage distillate trough. The remaining unflashed feed (brine) enters the second stage through restrictions in the bottom of the flash chamber. Since the brine is now at the saturation temperature of the first-stage vacuum and the second-stage flash chamber is at a lower pressure, a portion of the brine again flashes. Distillate is formed and collected in the second-stage distillate trough in the same manner as in the first stage. The distillate pump removes the distillate (formed in both stages) from the second-stage distillate trough. The remaining brine in the bottom of the second-stage flash chamber is pumped overboard. This subject is discussed more fully under the individual circulating system descriptions. A constant rate of distillate production will be maintained with a constant generating steam pressure above the orifice plate in the steam line to the feed-heater. Increasing or decreasing this pressure will increase or decrease the quantity of the feed pumped through the unit and the temperature of the feed to the first stage. A change in the pressure above the orifice will produce a corresponding change in distillate production. The flash-type distiller has no separate condenser cooling circuit. The feed is used as distillate cooler, stage condenser, and air ejector condenser coolant, picking up heat in the process. It is heated in the feedheater to its terminal temperature and then sequentially directed through all of the stages. All of the heat input to the seawater is sensible heat. The pressure that suppresses boiling is maintained until the feed is discharged into the first-stage flash device. The quantity of freshwater produced depends on the quantity of feed entering the first-stage flash chamber and the total reduction in feed temperature in the flashing process. The ratio of distillate produced to feed through a flash-type distilling plant is approximately 1 gallon of distillate per 10 to 20
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gallons of feed. This ratio is independent of the number of stages but varies directly with the seawater temperature. Using Steam as the energy medium: (Figure 4)
FIGURE 4 DIAGRAM OF A TWO-STAGE FLASH-TYPE DISTILLING PLANT 4 Flash-type distilling plants have the following advantages over boiling distillers: a. Low scaling and corrosion rates because no boiling occurs on heat transfer surfaces, and brine is concentrated to only 5 to 10 percent above normal seawater b. Operation can be at full capacity for long periods c. No brine level or density control required d. Easy to automate.
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Disadvantages of flash-type plants are: a. High gas release (carbon dioxide, etc.) in the first-stage requiring larger air ejectors b. High feed rates resulting in high chemical consumption. INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS - The shell of a flash-type plant is constructed of welded copper nickel alloy (and is welded to a structural steel frame). It is divided into two compartments of equal size to form the two stages. The first and second-stage compartments are connected at the bottom by loop seals to provide feed flow from the first stage to the second stage, but prevent vapor from flowing between stages. These assist in maintaining stage differential pressure. These compartments are also connected at the top, normally through an orifice sized to provide proper venting of the first-stage compartment. This also aids in maintaining proper stage differential pressure. EXTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS - The air ejector, distillate cooler, and air ejector condenser/feedheater are normally mounted on the shell. These components are connected through piping arranged so that it will not interfere with stage access or block the view through the sight glasses. In some units a drain regulator is installed in the distillate line between the first and second stages in place of the loop seal and orifice arrangement. Feed, brine, distillate, and feedheater drain pumps are normally installed and arranged to take advantage of the limited space, minimize suction piping restrictions, and maintain the pump's required submergence head. Pressure, temperature, and salinity measuring devices are located as necessary to monitor the distilling plant's operation. CIRCULATING SYSTEMS - The circulating systems for flash-type distilling plants are as follows. a. Generating-steam circuit b. Vapor circuit. c. Distillate circuit d. Air removal circuit e. Seawater feed circuit f. Brine circuit. GENERATING STEAM CIRCUIT - The steam supply source for the seawater feedheater may be auxiliary exhaust, steam bled from the turbines, or live steam reduced from boiler pressure. Where exhaust steam is used, provide means for automatically augmenting the supply with live or bleed steam whenever the amount of auxiliary exhaust is insufficient to obtain the desired distilling plant capacity. Steam pressure to the seawater feedheater is controlled by a regulating valve (adjustable over the desired pressure range of a particular unit). An orifice plate is downstream of this valve to provide a constant flow of steam to the seawater feedheater shell at a pressure below atmospheric. As the steam enters the shell of the seawater feedheater, it condenses on the outside of the tubes and thereby transfers heat to the seawater in the tubes. The condensate is removed from the heater shell by a drain pump (by way of a drain regulator). When the supply steam pressure is reduced, as it passes through the regulating valve, superheating of the steam results. A high degree of superheat may lead to operating difficulties.
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A desuperheater is installed in the steam line, normally below the orifice, and condensate for desuperheating is supplied from the discharge of the seawater heater drain pump. The flow of steam through an orifice is constant for a given upstream pressure, provided the downstream pressure is not greater than approximately 58 percent of the upstream pressure. For higher downstream pressures the flow falls off very rapidly. For a clean heater, a shell vacuum of 14 to 16 inches of Hg is normal. As deposits accumulate on the tubes, the steam does not condense as rapidly for a given temperature difference (between steam and feed temperatures). Since it enters the shell at the same rate, however, it accumulates in the shell and decreases the vacuum. As the vacuum decreases the temperature difference increases, and the rate of condensation increases to equal the rate of the steam admission. When the shell vacuum has been reduced by this process to 0 or 1 inch Hg, the heater tube surface will require cleaning if rated output is to be maintained. Plant output is directly related to the amount of heat transfer that occurs in the feedheater. This heat transfer is controlled by regulating steam pressure before the orifice, by changing the amount of desuperheating flow, and (in some plants) by allowing steam to bypass the orifice. VAPOR CIRCUIT - In passing through the first-stage flash device the pressure of the feed is reduced to the pressure in the first-stage chamber, causing some of the feed to flash into vapor. The flashing process reduces the temperature of the feed since the latent heat of vaporization comes from the feed itself. The separator/demister removes any seawater particles from the vapor. After emerging from the separator (or demister), the vapor condenses on the tubes of the stage condenser, transferring heat to the seawater feed in the tubes. DISTILLATE CIRCUIT - The distillate formed on the outside of the first-stage condenser tubes drains to the distillate trough in the bottom of the condenser. From there it flows through a loop seal and orifice, or drain regulator, over a salinity cell to the second-stage condenser. The loop seal and orifice prevent blow-by of vapor from the first-stage condenser to the second-stage condenser. The distillate from the first stage flows into the bottom of the second-stage condenser where a small portion flashes because of the lower pressure of the second stage. The vapor flashed in the second-stage flash chamber rises and passes through a vapor separator, or mesh demister, into the second-stage condenser. There it condenses on the outside of the tubes and combines with the distillate from the first stage. The total distillate of both stages is drained from the second-stage distillate trough by the distillate pump. The discharge of this pump passes over a salinity cell and into a distillate cooler, where the incoming seawater feed cools it. (Some units have distillate cooler sections built into the second-stage heat exchanger, and some eliminate the distillate cooler completely.) After emerging from the distillate cooler, the distillate passes over a salinity cell that controls a solenoid operated trip valve. Depending on the purity of the distillate as it passes over this salinity cell, the trip valve will direct it overboard (usually by way of the bilge) or through the distillate watermeter to the ship's freshwater system or reserve feed system. AIR REMOVAL CIRCUIT - Normally, a two-stage air ejector is used to maintain the required vacuum in the second-stage distiller condenser. This unit removes the non-condensable vapors
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and air that enter the system in solution in the feed and by leakage at the vacuum joints. Steam for both ejectors is supplied from the auxiliary steam line. The first air ejector takes suction from the coolest portion of the second-stage distiller condenser. The second air ejector takes suction from the discharge of the first air ejector and discharges the gases and steam into the air ejector condenser, where the seawater feed absorbs the heat. The non-condensable vapors escape through the vent in the top of the condenser shell. The condensate is discharged over a salinity cell and, depending on its purity and the plant design, is routed to the steam drain collecting system, the feedheater drain pump, the condensate system, or the bilge. SEAWATER FEED CIRCUIT - The feed for the distilling plant is supplied from the sea by means of a suction sea chest. The water is picked up by the seawater feed pump and discharged through a suitable strainer to the tubes of the distillate cooler. The feed is preheated and passes through the distillate coolers, second-stage condenser, first-stage condenser, and air ejector condenser. The final heating takes place in the seawater feedheater, where low-pressure steam heats the feed to its required terminal temperature. The heated feed then passes through the feed regulating valve and into the first-stage flash chamber. BRINE CIRCUIT - Any seawater feed not vaporized in the first stage exits through an external loop seal into the second-stage flash chamber. Since the second stage is at a lower pressure (higher vacuum) than the first stage, an additional portion of the feed will vaporize in the secondstage flash chamber. Releasing the flashed vapor in the first and second stages increases the density of the feed, converting it into brine. The brine is pumped out of the last-stage shell and discharged overboard by the brine overboard pump. On some units the brine pump suction is protected with either an internal or an external screen. OPERATION IN CONTAMINATED WATER -When operating in contaminated or brackish freshwaters, the salinity-indicating system is of little value in protecting the purity of the distilled water. The low salt concentration in the feed means that high salinity would not necessarily occur when carryover, priming, or leakage takes place. Under these circumstances, use the distilling plant only when absolutely necessary. When operating in such waters, the feed terminal temperature shall be 165F or higher. This will sterilize the seawater feed and any carryover or priming will not create a bacteriological hazard. The possibility of contamination still exists, however, because of the possibility of a leaky tube or joint in any of the stage condensers or distillate cooler. SCALE FORMATION AND PREVENTION - During the evaporation process that produces distilled water from seawater, insoluble minerals are formed in the water. These minerals may deposit on the heating surfaces and form insulating scale. This is the greatest single obstacle to the continuous production of distilled water. Except under emergency conditions, do not force a plant beyond its rated capacity because higher pressures will be required and the resulting higher temperatures will cause more rapid scale formation. The rate of buildup and the composition of the deposits also depend on such factors as brine density, feed treatment, sea versus shore feed, and flow rates. Scale formation is indicated by consistently rising temperatures in the distilling plant stages and seawater feedheater shell (with a corresponding decrease in vacuum). An
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increase in the steam pressure required at the seawater feedheater to produce the specified feed terminal temperature also indicates scaling. Scaled heat exchanger tubes can be cleaned chemically by circulating a diluted acid solution through or on the tubes. Acid cleaning will cause a slight but acceptable loss of some metal and will have a slight effect on gasket materials. This low-level acid attack should not reduce distilling plant life significantly, provided that chemical cleaning is used only when necessary and in the recommended manner. Do not consider acid cleaning to be a cure-all for all distilling plant problems or a substitute for all other distilling plant maintenance. Do not neglect seawater feed treatment with the expectation that heavy scale can be removed by acid cleaning. CAUTION Concentrated scale preventive compound is strongly alkaline. Avoid contact of the liquid with skin or eyes. Wash hands thoroughly after using. In case of contact with eyes, flush with freshwater for at least 15 minutes. FEED TREATMENT - Scale preventive compound is another means of controlling scale formation. This material helps to retard scale formation and foaming in distilling plants, providing higher plant output and less downtime over extended periods. MIXING PROPORTIONS - Use 1 pint of scale preventive compound for each 4,000 gallons per day of distilling plant capacity. The total amount of scale preventive compound should be combined in the mixing tank with enough freshwater to make 24 gallons of solution. INJECTION RATE - With the proportioning pump, inject the prepared solution into the feed circuit at the rate of 1 gallon per hour. Record the mixing tank level hourly to confirm the feed rate. OPERATING NOTES - The following notes are general and apply to all flash-type plants. Refer to the manufacturer's technical manual for detailed information. Brine Density. Brine density is not considered an operating parameter for flash-type distillers. Water Level. The first and second-stage flash chambers should operate empty or nearly empty. Carrying a water level in the flash chambers can lead to flooding of the stages. The brine pump discharge valve may be throttled, if necessary, to ensure that the pump does not run dry.
Drain regulator gage glasses should show a level during normal operation. An empty or full glass indicates a drain regulator malfunction or air leak in the associated piping system. Gage glasses on brine and distillate pump suction lines should operate empty or with a water level anywhere in the glass. A flooded glass indicates pump malfunction or air leaks in the associated piping. An inter-stage loop seal should operate with a water level anywhere in the gage glass or above it.
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EVAPORATORS High Salinity. Distillate having a salinity content over 0.065 equivalents per million (epm) of chloride shall be discharged to the bilge. After diverting the contaminated distillate to the bilge with the solenoid-operated trip valve, determine the salinity of the distillate discharge from each stage condenser to locate the cause of the contamination. Seawater leaking into the distillate and priming is a major cause of contamination. Carryover. Carryover is one of the main causes of distillate contamination. The following plant conditions cause carryover: a. A high water level in the flash chambers resulting from improper operation of the brine overboard pump can cause overloading of the vapor separator. b. Reducing the feed flow to very low levels can cause flashing to occur ahead of the inlet orifice. Such flashing releases very fine moisture droplets in the form of a fog or mist that can pass through the vapor separator/mesh demister, resulting in high salinity distillate from the first stage. c. A fluctuating vacuum in the second-stage flash chamber can be caused by faulty air ejector operation from either low steam pressure or wet steam to the nozzle. Less common causes of a fluctuating vacuum are an incorrectly operating distillate pump and excessive or erratic air leaks at vacuum joints or pump glands.
Tube/tube joint leakage in stage condensers or in the distillate cooler may also contaminate the distillate. Condensate from the air ejector condenser and seawater feedheater drain may occasionally show salinity in excess of 0.065 epm of chloride. High salinity in the air ejector condenser drain may be due to high gas content or to a leaky tube/tube joint. High salinity in the seawater feedheater drain indicates a leaky tube/tube joint. When high salinity conditions persist, with a resulting drop in distillate output, secure the plant and conduct a hydrostatic test. Correct any leaks found before restarting the plant.
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EVAPORATORS
TWO-STAGE FLASH DISTILLING PLANT FLOW DIAGRAM
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EVAPORATORS
NIREX FRESH WATER DISTILLER - The NIREX fresh water distiller is a vacuum evaporation distiller, normally using the waste heat from the fresh cooling water of a diesel engine as heating medium. The distiller consists of the following main components: Separator vessel Evaporator section This is a plate heat exchanger, enclosed in the separator vessel. Condenser suction Here again a plate heat exchanger is applied and, as the evaporator section, enclosed in the separator vessel Air ejector Brine ejector (pump) Fresh water pump Salinometer Electric panel For distillers the electric panel is fitted on the separator vessel, containing starters for the pump motors of the distiller and a terminal for the salinometer. Ejector pump
The design of the distiller and the principle of operation appear from the below description. The vacuum necessary for the evaporation process is established and maintained by the air ejector. Together with the brine ejector the air ejector is driven by jet water from the ejector pump. The ejector pump also supplies feed water to the evaporator section. The feed water is induced into the evaporator section through an orifice and disperses into every second plate channel. The jacket water is induced into the alternate inter-plate channels, transferring heat to the feed water. Having reached the boiling temperature for the vacuum in the shell, the feed water undergoes a partial evaporation. The mixture of generated steam and brine enters the separator vessel, in which baffle plates separate the steam from the brine. As previously mentioned, the brine is discharged by means of an ejector. (It can be a pump). Before the condenser section the steam passes through a demister (a filter, in which possible remaining salt particles are removed from the steam). In the condenser sea water from the ship's sea water system is normally used as cooling medium.
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The seawater is induced into every second plate channel and absorbs the heat transferred from the steam during the condensation in the alternate inter-plate channels. The produced fresh water is extracted from the condenser and pumped to the tank by the fresh water pump. On the delivery side of the distillate pump an electrode unit is fitted, which, together with the salinometer, continuously checks the salt content. Furthermore, a solenoid valve (opens at alarm for salinity), a watermeter and a backpressure valve are fitted on the delivery side. FRESH WATER QUALITY - The salt content of the produced fresh water is so low that it meets all common requirements on boiler feed water. If no special requirements from the authorities are to be kept, it can be used directly as drinking water. STEAM HEATING - If steam is required as heating medium, the distiller can be provided with a steam injector. In the steam injector the steam, transfers partly heat, partly kinetic energy. The condensate produced in the circuit is lead to the feed tank through a backpressure valve. Other than injecting the steam the distiller is operating as described above. POSITIONING - Within the limitations given on the sketch "vertical plant positioning" enclosed, the distiller can be placed anywhere in the engine room. Normally, a position close to the main coolers will give the lowest installation cost. It should be remembered that when this type of evaporator is used heat will be rejected and the main coolers will have to reject less heat. The ejector pump is not self-priming and is to be placed below lowest water line. If the pump is connected to a sea water line with pressure, it can be placed anywhere. It will then be necessary to arrange that the delivery pressure of the pump can be adjusted so as not to surpass 6.o kg/cm (85 lb./in). For type 7W(S)P-200 max. 7.5 kg/cm (l05 lb./in) JACKET WATER SYSTEM - The branches for inlet and outlet pipes for jacket water are marked C3 and C4 respectively. The best operating conditions will be obtained if the distiller is connected to the jacket water-cooling system before the fresh water cooler. If the cooling system is provided with a thermostatic valve, connection must be made before this to ensure a constant flow rate even with varying loads of the main engine. On engines provided with separate systems for cooling of pistons and the jacket, the distiller is to be connected to the jacket cooling water system, see Figure 6.
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EVAPORATORS
A by-pass valve, C 10, is to be mounted between the inlet and outlet lines for jacket water to the evaporator to make adjustments of the flow rate possible. Shut-off valves are to be placed on the pipelines min. 2 m from the distiller. On these pipelines BSP sockets are to be placed near the distiller for fitting of thermometer pocket. SEA WATER SYSTEM - The branches for inlet and outlet pipes for seawater are marked C1 and C2 respectively. When connecting the distiller to the sea water system, please consider that the heat transfer surface is normally dimensioned for a maximum temperature of 32C. A by-pass valve C9 is to be mounted between the inlet and outlet lines for seawater to the condenser to make adjustments of the flow rate possible. Shut-off valves are to be placed on the pip lines min. 2m from the distiller. On these pipelines BSP sockets are to be placed near the distiller for fitting of thermometer pocket. If the cooling system is provided with piston pumps, these must be provided with air vessel on the pressure side to reduce pulsation. JET WATER - The ejector pump inlet line B2 is to be fitted with a shut-off valve and a strainer on the discharge line B3 a shut-off valve must be fitted conveniently near to the pump. Please note: The jet water line B3 should in its complete length be installed in a dimension according to the installation diagram and B3. BRINE AND JET WATER OVERBOARD - For plants with brine ejector - The brine and air are extracted separately by means of a brine ejector B5 and an air ejector B4. For plants with brine pump - The brine is extracted by means of a one stage centrifugal pump B8 placed on the distiller base. On the brine pump discharge a valve must be placed for giving possibility of regulating the discharge pressure to min. 1.0 kg/cm. The air is extracted by means of an ejector B4. In both cases jet water, brine and air are discharged through a common overboard line B7 which is to be provided with a, shut-off valve (non-return valve). Maximum back pressure 0.8 kg/cm (11.4 lbs./in). PRODUCED FRESH WATER TO TANK - The pipe connection D1 to the fresh water tank is made just after the water meter. Max. backpressure 2.0 kg/cm (28 lbs./in). DISCHARGE TO BILGE - A discharge to bilge should be arranged below the distiller.
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EVAPORATORS
ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLY AC - All necessary electric components are included in the delivery. By installation only the main power supply F1 should be connected to the electric panel, F, from which a connection to the ejector pump B should be fitted. The electric panel is delivered with isolating switch and prepared for remote start and stop as standard. ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLY DC - Electric components NOT fitted and NOT wired. PRESSURE TESTING - When pressure testing the separator vessel a max pressure of 1.5 kg/cm (21 lbs./in) should be applied. The corresponding Figure for pressure testing of the jacket and seawater side of the heat exchangers is 4 kg/cm (57 lbs./in) STEAM HEATING - The steam supply line G1 is connected to the injector G mounted on the distiller. On the supply line a shut-off valve and a safety valve G6 are to be fitted. The safety valve must be adjusted to an opening pressure of 4.5 kg/cm (64 lbs./in). If stable fresh water production is required irrespective of the seawater temperature; means for varying the steam pressure must be available. STEAM CONDENSATE DISCHARGE - The condensate discharge line G3 from the injector G is provided with a spring-loaded valve, after which a shut-off valve is to be installed. The spring-loaded valve is preset to a backpressure of 0.6 kg/cm (8.5 lbs./in). The condensate is to be returned to the condensate-well. Max backpressure in condensate discharge line 1.0 kg/cm (14 lbs./in) PRIMING WATER FOR STEAM HEATING ARRANGEMENT - For priming of the steam heating arrangement a connection G2 provided with a shut-off valve must be made to the ship's hydrophor system. DRAIN PIPE FOR JACKET WATER - For distillers arranged for alternative jacket water and steam heating means for draining the jacket water in the evaporator are to be arranged. This should be done to ensure that the additives normally used in the jacket water system are not contaminating the water in the condensate well when switching the distiller from jacket water heating to steam heating. The drainpipe G4 must be provided with a shut-off valve.
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EVAPORATORS
MATERIAL SPECIFICATION
Component
Vessel Front cover Pipe for brine discharge Bed plate Evaporator plates Condenser plates Demister
Material
St 37 (MS) St 37 (MS) Steel pipe St 37 (MS) Titanium Titanium Al. Brass 21% Zn 2% Al 77% CU
Surface Treatment
Interior of vessel and front cover sandblasted to SA 3, and provided with 3 coats of flake reinforced polyester lining FLAKELINE 252. Thickness 1.0-1.2 mm. Exterior of vessel, cover and bed plate sandblasted painted with primer and hammertone finish None None
Fresh water pump Seawater pump Brine pump Impeller for F.W. pump Impeller for ejector pump Impeller for brine pump Shaft for pumps Air ejector Brine ejector
85% CU Gun metal 5 5%Sn 5% Zn 5%Pb 85%CU Gun metal 9 9%Sn 4%Zn 2%Pb 79%Cu 5%Fe Alu-bronze 5%Ni .5%Mn 9.5%Al 18%Cr Stainless steel 12%Ni 2.7%Mo Gun metal 5 (see spec for pumps) Stainless steel 26% Cr 5% Ni 1.5% Mo Cast iron Bronze Al. brass 76%CU (Yorcalbro) 2% Al 22% Zn Steel pipe
Painted with primer and hammertone finish. None
None
None Painted with primer and hammertone finish.
Nozzle for air and brine ejector Steam injector Nozzle Pipe for seawater Pipe for fresh water
Painted with primer and hammertone finish Painted with primer and hammertone finish. Galvanized. Painted with primer and hammertone finish.
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FIGURE 5. NIREX JWP-36-125/150
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FIGURE 6. NIREX FRESH WATER DISTILLER JWSP-36-125 with BRINE EJECTOR
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FIGURE 7. NIREX VERTICAL PLANT POSITIONING P-36-125/150 with brine ejector Highest plant installation position in reference to the lowest water line BWL Limiting factor: Minimum pressure of water to ejectors 4.5 Kp/cm Lowest plant installation position in reference to highest water line LWL. Limiting factor: Maximum back pressure of 0.8Kp/cm on the brine and air ejectors. The stated installation heights are given under the conditions that the line pressure drop does not exceed 0.1kp/cm, which should. If the 0.1kp/cm is exceeded the heights must be diminished accordingly.
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EVAPORATORS
FIGURE 8. NIREX FRESH WATER DISTILLER JWSP-36-125 with BRINE EJECTOR
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FIGURE 9. NIREX FRESH WATER DISTILLER JW(S)P-36-125/150 with BRINE EJECTOR
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EVAPORATORS
Open the valves on the suction and delivery side of the ejector pump as well as the overboard valve for the ejectors. Close the vacuum breaker valve. Start the ejector pump. Check that the ejector pump pressure and the overboard pressure are normal, i.e. 4.5-6.0 kp/cm and 0- 0.8 kp/cm respectively. Open the valves for seawater in- and outlet for the condenser completely. In case of a seawater by-pass being fitted, adjust on the by-pass until seawater is flowing through the condenser. Deaerate the condenser via the air relief cock on the seawater discharge branch. Check the evacuation time, which must be maximum 10 minutes for obtaining 90% vacuum. Check that no water is seen in the water gauge glass.
Having obtained: 90-94% vacuum (after max. 10 min.), the valves for jacket water in and outlet to the evaporator section are completely opened. Adjust on the jacket water by-pass, until jacket water is flowing through the evaporator section. EVAPORATION - JACKET WATER HEATING - Having obtained 90-94% vacuum (after max. 10 min), the valves for jacket water in- and outlet to the evaporator section are completely opened. Adjust on the jacket water by-pass, until the jacket water is flowing through the evaporator section. Deaerate the evaporator section via the air relief cock on the jacket water discharge branch. The boiling temperature now rises at the same time as the obtained vacuum falls to between 85% and 80%. This indicating that evaporation has begun. CONDENSATION After approx. 3-5 min. the boiling temperature will again drop, and normal vacuum will be reestablished. This indicates condensation has begun. Shortly after, water flow is to be seen in the sight glass on the air extraction pipe. Connect the salinometer and start the fresh water extraction pump. Check the solenoid valve for FW to bilge. Check fresh water pump pressure, which shall normally be 1.2 1.5 kp/cm. Check sight glass. If continuous water flow in sight glass, see number under trouble-shooting, item 6.3 Note: Health authorities in several countries do not allow fresh water distillers to produce drinking water within a distance of 20 nautical miles of the land. STOP
Open by-pass for jacket water and close in and outlet valves to the distiller. Stop the fresh water pump, when the water meter shows no production. Switch off the salinometer. Wait approx. 10 minutes. Stop the ejector pump. Open vacuum breaker valve.
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QMED EVAPORATORS Open by-pass for seawater and close in and outlet valves to the distiller. Close valves before and after the ejector pump as well as the overboard valve for ejectors. NOTE: When the distiller is out of operation, all valves to and from the distiller SHALL remain closed, and the vacuum breaker valve shall be open.
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EVAPORATORS
3.. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS PROPER OPERATING PARAMETERS 3 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS PROPER OPERATING PARAMETERS
FIGURE 10 - FRESH WATER DISTILLER TYPE JWSP 36 125 WITH BRINE EJECTOR
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PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS PROPER OPERATING PARAMETERS
FIGURE 11 - FRESH WATER DISTILLER TYPE JWSP 36 125 WITH BRINE EJECTOR
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EVAPORATORS
SEMIPERMEABLE MEMBRANES ARE AT THE HEART OF RO SYSTEMS - The process of reverse osmosis (RO) represents the finest level of liquid filtration available today. While ordinary liquid filters use a screen to separate particles from water streams, an RO system employs a semi-permeable membrane that separates an extremely high percentage of unwanted molecules. For example, the membrane may be permeable to water molecules of dissolved salt. If this membrane is placed between two compartments in a container as shown in Figure 20, and a salt solution is placed in one half of the container and pure water in the other, water passes through the membrane while the salt cannot. PRESSURE IS APPLIED TO REVERSE NATURAL OSMOTIC FLOW - Now a fundamental scientific principle comes into play. That is, dissimilar liquid systems will try to reach the same concentration of materials on both sides of the membrane. The only way for this to happen in our example is for pure water to pass through the membrane to the salt-water side in an attempt to dilute the salt solution. This attempt to reach equilibrium is called osmosis. However, if the goal in our water purification system is to remove the salt from water, it is necessary to reverse the natural osmotic flow by forcing the salt water through the membrane in the reverse direction. This can be accomplished by applying pressure to the salt water as it is fed into the system, creating a condition known as "reverse osmosis." See Figure 12.
FIGURE 12 REVERSE OSMOSIS CROSS-FLOW FILTRATION PERMITS LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE - While the principles of reverse osmosis are simple, in practical terms, the RO process cannot go on indefinitely unless steps are taken to ensure that the membrane does not become clogged by the precipitated salts and other impurities forced against by the pressurized stream of feed water. To significantly reduce the rate of membrane fouling, RO systems employ cross-flow filtration
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EVAPORATORS
(shown in Figure 13), which allows water to pass through the membrane while the separate flow of concentrate sweeps rejected salts away from the membrane surface. Watermakers RO systems are designed optimal performance, minimal maintenance and long life.
FIGURE 13 CROSS-FLOW FILTRATION
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EVAPORATORS
4.. TROUBLE SHOOTING PROBLEMS WITH WATERMAKERS 4 TROUBLE SHOOTING PROBLEMS WITH WATERMAKERS
GENERAL Full output can be maintained for relatively long periods without interruption only if every part of the plant is maintained in reliable operating condition. This can be ensured by periodic inspections, tests, cleaning and by replacing worn parts.
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EVAPORATORS TABLE 1 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR FLASH-TYPE DISTILLING PLANTS 22 FAULTY COMPONENTS
STEP
SYMPTON Improper salinity, distillate
PROBABLE CAUSE(S) Improper heat balance Salinity indicating equipment out-of-calibration Foaming in evaporator
Leaky distillate trough High water level in stages
Air ejector malfunction Tube leak in stage condenser of distillate cooler Carryover Instrument calibration Improperly installed feed distribution equipment inside evaporator
REMEDY Establish pressures, temperatures and flow rates according to manufacturers technical manual. Stabilize operation Chemically test distillate. If salinity cells are reading inaccurately, conduct cell Planned Maintenance System (PMS) Ensure proper feed treatment. If feed is of high organic content or other unusual substance (most likely to occur in port), secure operation until seawater conditions improve. With unit secured, fill trough with water and check for leaks, then repair. If flooding occurs in first or intermediate stages, check feed temperature, equalization of pressure between stages and air leaks. If flooding occurs in last stage, increase brine flow overboard. See step 3B if unable to lower level. See step 4 See steps 5 and 6 See step 8 See step 9 Install according to technical manual.
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EVAPORATORS TABLE 1 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR FLASH-TYPE DISTILLING PLANTS (continued) FAULTY COMPONENTS
STEP
SYMPTON Low distillate output (as determined by meter and tank soundings
PROBABLE CAUSE(S) Improper heat balance Distillate transfer valve leaking to waste system Temperature of steam supply to feedheater excessive; that is 10F of more above the heater shell temperature Stage condenser (s) flooding Low stage vacuum Feedheater malfunction Instrumentation out-ofcalibration Improperly installed feed distribution equipment inside evaporator.
REMEDY Install according to technical manual. Repair of replace. Adjust desuperheater water flow.
See step 3A See step 4 Secure unit and hydrostatically test. See step 7 See steps 9 See step 8
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EVAPORATORS TABLE 1 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR FLASH-TYPE DISTILLING PLANTS (continued) FAULTY COMPONENTS Pumps (all)
STEP
SYMPTON Noise and vibration
PROBABLE CAUSE(S) Excessive misalignment of pump to motor. Refer to technical manual Maintenance Requirement Cards (MRCs) for maximum allowed values Excessive misalignment of piping to pump Binding at packing /seals faulty bearing. If coupled, faulty coupling. If external inspection is not conclusive, open pump; a. Inspect for rubbing b. Inspect for damaged bearings c. Inspect for foreign matter. d. Inspect for impeller erosion. e. Remove rotating element and check for straightness and proper balance.
REMEDY Realign if excessive.
Ensure that piping shows no strain on casing. Repair discrepancy.
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EVAPORATORS TABLE 1 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR FLASH-TYPE DISTILLING PLANTS (continued) FAULTY COMPONENTS Distillate pump
STEP
3A
3B
Brine pump
SYMPTON PROBABLE CAUSE(S) REMEDY Flooding in Improper valve alignment. Open or close valves as necessary distillate trays Improper direction of pump rotation. Reverse motor rotation. and pump Air leak at shaft seal Check for discharge very Check for air leak, utilizing potable low or in vacuum water hose. When water is applied to leak, an immediate increase in pump discharge pressure normally occurs and flooding is eliminated. If air leak is indicated. a. Ensure sealing water to mechanical seals/packing. b. Ensure alignment of packing lantern ring with sealing water inlet. Ensure seal between shaft/shaft sleeve. Flooding in last Excessive wearing of ring clearance Open, inspect and repair as necessary stage and pump Improper venting Ensure vent piping is clear of discharge very obstruction and free of air leaks. low or in vacuum
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EVAPORATORS TABLE 1 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR FLASH-TYPE DISTILLING PLANTS (continued) FAULTY COMPONENTS SYMPTON Feedheater drain Flooding in pump distillate trays and pump discharge very low or in vacuum Feed pump Excessive feedheater temperature when feed valve is wide open Steam discharge from air ejector condenser vent NOTE: These indications may also be caused by excessive scale in heater and condense. See step 7
STEP
3C
PROBABLE CAUSE(S) See 3B
REMEDY See 3B
3D
Excessive wearing of ring clearance/impeller erosion
Check pump discharge pressure (shutoff head) with discharge valve closed. If pressure is 10-psig of more below technical manual valve, open, inspect, and repair as necessary.
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EVAPORATORS TABLE 1 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR FLASH-TYPE DISTILLING PLANTS (continued) FAULTY COMPONENTS SYMPTON Air ejector Loss of or low vacuum; Last stage temperature is high and temperature difference between last and next to last stage is low. Refer to technical manual for values
STEP
PROBABLE CAUSE(S) Steam pressure to air ejector is not according to technical manual Air ejector nozzles faulty
REMEDY Determine cause of pressure discrepancy and correct
Inspect air ejector nozzles for; c. Scale in throat d. Erosion (wire drawn) e. Location in proper stage f. Steam bypass at nozzle to chest. Correct discrepancy Air ejector condenser faulty as Inspect for low feed rate and evidenced by; malfunctioning feed pump. See step a. large amount of steam from vent 3D. Inspect for excessive scale. (based on operator experience) Hydrostatically test, including b. Large amount of air from vent feedheater, to find air leaks. (based on operator experience). Excessive moisture in steam supply. Air ejector discharge valve is binding, has loose flapper, or is installed backwards Verify all low point drains and traps in steam supply are functional. Eliminate discrepancy.
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EVAPORATORS
TABLE 1 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR FLASH-TYPE DISTILLING PLANTS (continued) FAULTY STEP COMPONENTS SYMPTON Interstage High salinity condensers
5 6
PROBABLE CAUSE(S) Saltwater leak in condenser
Distillate cooler
Feedheater
High salinity at cooler discharge while maintaining satisfactory salinity to the cooler Heater shell temperature above 206F or vacuum is less than 3 inches mercury (Hg)
Saltwater leak in condenser
REMEDY While operating, use salinity indicating system to identify the faulty stage. Hydrostatically test the suspected stage condenser. Repair leaks Hydrostatically test cooler. Repair leaks
Temperature of steam to feedheater is excessive; that is, 10F or more above shell temperature. Excessive scale on waterslides (last pass normally most heavily scaled) If no scale is present, inspect for an air leak Hot well flooded Feed system malfunction Saltwater leak in feedheater
Adjust desuperheater water flow. Remove scale using acid and mechanical means. Hydrostatically test feedheater and steam piping, including the critical flow orifice See step 3C See step 3D Hydrostatically test feedheater steamside with water boxed removed.. Repair
Impure condensate from feedheater drain
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EVAPORATORS TROUBLE-SHOOTING UNDER OPERATION SITUATION OF P-36 DISTILLERS SYMPTOMS POSSIBLE DEFECTS REPAIR Dismantling of evaporator section for cleaning. See chapter concerning this. Dismantling of condenser section for cleaning. See chapter concerning this. Dismantling of evaporator section for cleaning.
OPERATION DEVIATIONS Drop in production 15.0
Scaling of plates on steam side and/or deposit of sludge on the Lower boiling temperature jacket waterside. and less t over evaporator 15.1 Sludge on the plates an seawater side. NOTE! Higher boiling temperature and less t over condenser For 15.2 and 15.3 it 15.2 Blocking of the inlet channel in may be a question plate stack, f. inst. with rust of a sudden drop in Lower boiling temperature scales, welding residues, bits of production and higher t over gaskets etc. evaporator 15.3 Blocking of the inlet channel in plate stack, f. inst. with rust scales, Higher boiling temperature welding residues, bits of gaskets and higher t over etc. condenser 16.0 a. Too low ejector pump pressure. b. Leakages on distiller. Low Vacuum c. Extraneous matters in air ejector (Normal vacuum above 90% nozzle. d. Defective air ejector nozzle. e. Defective vacuum manometer. 16.1 High boiling temperature (see also under item 15.1 and 15.3) a. Too low ejector pump pressure.
Dismantling of condenser section for cleaning.
a. See under item 16.2. b. Pressure test the distiller (see chapter concerning this). c. Inspect nozzle. d. Renew nozzle e. Inspect vacuum pressure gauge and delivery pipe renew Defective parts.
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EVAPORATORS
OPERATION DEVIATIONS
SYMPTOMS 16.2
POSSIBLE DEFECTS
REPAIR a. Clean the filter. b. Examine and overhaul defective valves. c. Replace the pressure gauge. d. Repair the leakages. e. Examine and overhaul pump. f. Change phases. a. Examine the suction pipe for leakages, especially at union and pipe connections. b. Replace mechanical seal. c. Examine and overhaul pump the pump. d. Change phases. e. Examine the valves. f. Clean the filters. a. Examine the water clock. Let the produced water flow through the water clock into a 10-liter pail, and check the production with a stopwatch.
a. Blocked suction strainer b. Defective valves on suction or pressure pipe. Too low ejector c. Defective pressure gauge. pressure (normal d. Leakages on suction pipe for pump. pressure 4.5 6.0 e. Defective ejector pump. kp/cm). f. Wrong direction of rotation of pump 16.3 a. Leakage in the suction pipe of the FW extraction pump. Overflow in sight b. Defective mechanical seal in FW extraction pump. glad (normal c. Defective FW extraction pump. backpressure for d. Wrong direction of rotation of the FW extraction FW extraction pump. pump 1.2-1.5 e. Valves to FW tanks not open. kp/cmr f. Blocked filter in the inlet of water clock. a. Defective water clock. 16.4 Too low a production acc. to water clock, when pressure and temperatures are normal.
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EVAPORATORS
OPERATION SYMPTOMS DEVIATIONS Salinity 17.0 Too high salinity (Above 4.0 ppm)
POSSIBLE DEFECTS a. Demister is not fitted correctly. b. Defective front cover gasket, wrongly fitted. c. Insufficient brine extraction. d. Defective electrode unit. e. Leakage on condenser.
REPAIR a. Check fitting of demister, this shall fit against the baffle plate and the front cover. b. Renew front cover gasket filter. c. See under chapter Insufficient brine extraction. d. Examine the electrode unit for cracks and short circuit, and whether it has been correctly connected. e. Open the distiller and pressure test the condenser. If a defective plate is found, this and the adjacent plate are removed. Check also the plate gaskets and replace possibly if defects are found. a. See under item 16.2. b. Check nozzle and clean it. c. Examine overboard pipe and the valves. d. Replace nozzle. e. Examine size of orifice compared with the technical specification. f. Examine the valve and overhaul it. a. Check overboard pipe and the valves. b. Make pressure test and replace defective parts. c. Check size of orifice compared with the technical specification. d. Overhaul the pump and replace defective parts. e. Change phases.
a. Too low ejector pump pressure. b. Extraneous matters in the brine Insufficient brine Water level is seen in ejector nozzle. extraction the water gauge glass c. Too high backpressure after brine (under normal ejector. operation the glass shall d. Defective brine ejector nozzle. be empty). e. Defective feed water orifice. f. Defective non-return valve on the suction pipe of the ejector. a. Too high backpressure after the 18.0 pump. (For distillers provided b. Leakage on suction side of the pump or in mechanical seal. with brine pump). c. Defective feed water orifice. (Normal backpressure d. Defective brine pump. 0.6 1.0 kp/cm) e. Wrong direction of rotation.
18.0
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a. Open the distiller and pressure test the evaporator section. If a defect is found, Loss of jacket Frequent filling up of FW this and the adjacent plate are removed. cooling water expansion tank without Check the plate gaskets too and replace, if provable leakages. defects are found. 20. a. Defective rubber sleeve a. Fit a new one. Water is leaking b. The rubber sleeve is not in the right b. Check the position of the deairating from the tell-tale Water is flowing from the position under the internal flange of the cock and correct position of same if hole below the tell-tale hole. deariation cock. necessary. seawater outlet c. Internal collar of the rubber sleeve is not c. Dismantle the condenser plates and branch in the right position after adjusting the correct the position of the collar of the condenser plates. rubber sleeve. (for distillers wit rubber sleeve and tell-tale hole only) 21.0 a. Defective nozzle in air ejector. a. Remove the nozzle and examine it for Abnormal current b. Defective bearings in motor. wear and tear, especially on the inlet side. consumption The current consumption c. Defective contractor. b. Examine bearings with a stethoscope ejector pump. for the ejector pump is too d. Defective orifice in feed water inlet. and examine for heating of bearings. high as per the rated e. Breaking of phases. c. Examine and polish the contactor. consumption of the motor. d. Check orifice according. to the technical specification. e. Max. 5% excess current between the phases
OPERATION SYMPTOMS DEVIATIONS 19.0
POSSIBLE DEFECTS a. Leakage on evaporator section.
REPAIR
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OPERATIONS DEVIATIONS
TROUBLE-SHOOTING UNDER OPERATION SITUATION OF JWSP/SP DISTILLER SYMPTOMS POSSIBLE DEFECTS REPAIR a. Worn or incorrect nozzle in steam injector. b. Arrangement not deairated sufficiently c. Incorrect steam pressure. d. Incorrect backpressure in condensate discharge pipe. a. Replace nozzle. b. Deairate the steam arrangement and the evaporator section. c. Compare steam pressure with the one specified and adjust it. d. Adjust the backpressure to min. 0.6 kp/cm and max. 1.0 kp/cm
24.0 Too low fresh water production. Incorrect temperature on the circulated heating water
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PUMPS 1. General information 2. Centrifugal Pumps o Construction o Maintenance and Repair o Operation 3. Venturi Pumps o Construction o Maintenance and Repair o Operation 4. Displacement Pumps o Construction o Maintenance and Repair o Operation 5. Wilden Pumps Reference Manual 6. Chesterton Pumps Reference Workbooks
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GENERAL INFORMATION
1.. GENERAL INFORMATION 1 GENERAL INFORMATION

Pumps are vital to the operation of the ship. If they fail, the plant they serve also fails. You will have to keep the pumps in good working order. In this section, we will discuss the principles of operation, classification, and maintenance of some of the pumps you may have to maintain. PRINCIPLES OF PUMP OPERATION Pumps are used to move any substance which flows or which can be made to flow. Most pumps are used to move water, oil, and other liquids. However, air, steam, and other gases are also fluid and can be moved with pumps, as can such substances as molten metal, sludge, and mud. A pump is essentially a device, which uses an external source of power to apply a force to a fluid in order to move the fluid form one place to another. A pump develops no energy of its own; it merely transforms energy from the external source (steam turbine, electric motor, and so forth) into mechanical kinetic energy, which is manifested by the motion of the fluid. This kinetic energy is then used to do work. Here are some examples: to raise a liquid from one level to another, as when water is raised from a well; to transport a liquid through a pipe, as when oil is carried through an oil pipeline; to move a liquid against some resistance, as when water is pumped to a boiler under pressure; or to force a liquid through a hydraulic system, against various resistances, for the purpose of doing work at some point. Every pump has a POWER END, whether it is a steam turbine, a reciprocating steam engine, a steam jet, or some kind of electric motor. Every pump also has a FLUID END, where the fluid enters (suction) and leaves (discharges) the pump. When a pump delivers energy to a liquid, it usually causes an increase in pressure, which is generally referred to as HEAD. There are four types of heads: 1. Net positive suction head 2. Suction head 3. Discharge head 4. Total discharge head. TYPES OF PUMPS Pumps are by far the most numerous units of auxiliary machinery aboard ship. They include: 1. Centrifugal pumps 2. Propeller pumps 3. Variable stroke pumps 4. Reciprocating pumps 5. Positive displacement rotary pumps 6. Eductors Simple language and diagrams explain the basic principles of each of the general classes of pumps. This section also discusses the characteristics of each type that make it adaptable to a particular service in the various engineering systems.
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GENERAL INFORMATION
PROPELLER PUMPS - Propeller pumps are used primarily where there is a large volume of liquid with a relatively low total head requirement. These pumps are usually limited to use where the total head does not exceed 40 to 60 feet. The chief use of the propeller pump is for the main condenser circulating pump. In most ships this has an emergency suction for pumping out the engine room. The main condenser-circulating pump is of the vertical propeller type. The pump unit consists of three major parts: the propeller, together with its bearings and shaft; the pump casing; and the driving unit, which may be an auxiliary steam turbine or electric motor. The propeller is a multi-bladed screw propeller having a large pitch. The blades are thick at the roots and flare out toward the tips. The blades and hubs are cast or forged in one piece and are then machined and balanced. The lower shaft bearing is a water-lubricated, sleeve bearing. The shaft packing gland prevents excessive leakage of water between the casing and the shaft.
Positive Displacement Pump Family Tree
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2.. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 2 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS FOR VARIOUS APPLICATIONS CONSTRUCTION OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS - The following information applies in general to most of the centrifugal pumps used in marine service. Figure 1 shows the parts of a centrifugal pump that are used for the cooling water system on a diesel engine. Figure 2 shows a cutaway view of a fire and flushing pump. For the relative location of components, refer to Figure 2 as we continue our discussion of the construction of centrifugal pumps.
FIGURE 1 EXPLODED VIEW OF A CENTRIFUGAL WATER PUMP The shaft is protected from excessive wear and corrosion by a Monel or corrosion-resistant steel sleeve wherever the shaft comes in contact with the liquid being pumped or with the shaft packing. The advantage of using a shaft sleeve is that it can be replaced more economically than the entire shaft. The impellers are carefully machined and balanced to reduce vibration and wear since they rotate at very high speeds. To prevent corrosion of pumps that handle seawater, the components of these pumps are made of nonferrous materials such as bronze, stainless steel or Monel. A close radial clearance must be maintained between the outer hub of the impeller and that part of the pump casing in which the hub rotates to minimize leakage from the discharge side of the pump casing to the inlet side. Because of the close clearances at the hub and the high rotational speed of the impeller, the running surfaces of both the impeller hub and the casing at that point are subject to wear. Wear results from erosion as the liquid passes between the close spacing
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(clearance) of the wearing rings, from the high-pressure side of the impeller, and back to the lowpressure side of the pump. (See the insert in Figure 3)
FIGURE 2 - FIRE PUMP (VERTICAL, DOUBLE SUCTION IMPELLER) Centrifugal pumps are provided with replaceable wearing rings to eliminate the need for renewing an entire impeller and pump casing because of wear. One ring is attached to each outer hub of the impeller. This ring is called the IMPELLER WEARING RING. The other ring, which is stationary and attached to the casing, is called the CASING WEARING RING.
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FIGURE 3 - STUFFING BOX ON A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP Some small pumps with single-suction impellers have only a casing wearing ring and no impeller ring, in this type of pump; the casing-wearing ring is fitted into the end plate. Re-circulating lines are installed on some centrifugal pumps to prevent the pumps from overheating and becoming vapor bound in case the discharge is entirely shut off or the flow of fluid is stopped for extended periods. Seal piping is installed to cool the shaft and the packing, to lubricate the packing, and to seal the rotating joint between the shaft and the packing against air leakage. A lantern ring spacer is inserted between the rings of the packing in the stuffing box. Seal piping, Figure 3, leads the liquid from the discharge side of the pump to the annular space formed by the lantern ring. The web of the ring is perforated so that the water can flow in either direction along the shaft (between the shaft and the packing). Water flinger rings are fitted on the shaft between the packing gland and the pump bearing housing. These flingers prevent water from the stuffing box from flowing along the shaft and entering the bearing housing. During pump operation, a certain amount of leakage around the shafts and casings normally takes place. This leakage must be controlled for two reasons: (1) to prevent excessive fluid loss from the pump, and (2) to prevent air from entering the area where the pump suction pressure is below atmospheric pressure. The amount of leakage that can occur without limiting pump efficiency determines the type of shaft sealing selected. Shaft sealing systems are found in every pump. They can vary from simple packing to complicated sealing systems. Packing is the most common and oldest method of sealing. Leakage is checked by the compression of packing rings that causes the rings to deform and seal around the pump shaft and casing. The packing is lubricated by liquid moving through a lantern ring in the center of the packing. The sealing slows down the rate of leakage. It does not stop it completely since a certain amount of leakage is necessary during operation for cooling and lubrication.
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Mechanical seals are rapidly replacing conventional packing on centrifugal pumps. A typical mechanical seal is shown in Figure 4. Some of the reasons for the use of mechanical seals are as follows: 1) Leaking causes bearing failure by contaminating the oil with water. This is a major problem in engine-mounted water pumps. 2) Properly installed mechanical seals eliminate leak-off on idle (vertical) pumps. This design prevents the leak (water) from bypassing the water flinger and entering the lower bearings. Leak-off causes two types of seal leakage: a) Water contamination of the engine lubrication oil. b) Loss of treated fresh water which causes scale buildup in the cooling system.
FIGURE 4 - TYPE 1 MECHANICAL SEAL In regard to the use of mechanical seals; there are two important safety considerations: 1) Flammable liquids must be contained in the system 2) Pumps in the vicinity of electrical or electronic gear where moisture can be a major problem, must have zero leak-off. Fire pumps and seawater pumps that are provided with mechanical shaft seals may also have cyclone separators. These separators use centrifugal force to prevent abrasive material (such as sand) in the seawater from passing between the sealing surfaces of the mechanical seal. (Refer to Figure 2) As Figure 2 shows, this abrasive separator has no moving parts. Liquid from the high-pressure side of a pump is directed through tubing to the opening in the sides of the separator device, which is offset from the centerline. As the liquid enters, it is given a swirling motion (cyclone effect), which causes heavier abrasive materials to be forced to the walls of the center tube, which is shaped to form a venturi. There is an opening at each end of the separator. The opening
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at the top is for clean water, which is directed through tubing to the mechanical seals in the pump. The high-velocity dirty water is directed through the bottom of the separator, back to the inlet piping for the pump. Shaft and thrust bearings support the weight of the impeller, and maintain the position of the rotor, both radially and axially. (Radial bearings may be sleeve or ball type) Thrust bearings may be pivoted segmental type.) The power end of a centrifugal pump may be a steam turbine, an electric motor, or a diesel engine. Pumps used for continuous service can be either turbine or motor driven. Smaller pumps, such as those used for in-port or cruising operations, are generally motor driven. Pumps used for emergency firemain service are generally diesel driven.
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HOW TO INSTALL PACKING AND MECHANICAL SEALS REPACKING - Lubrication of the pump packing is extremely important. The quickest way to wear out the packing is to forget to open the water piping to the seals or stuffing boxes. If the packing is allowed to dry out, it will score the shaft. When operating a centrifugal pump, be sure that there is always a slight trickle of water coming out of the stuffing box. How often the packing in a centrifugal pump should be renewed depends on several facts-such as the type of pump, condition of the shaft sleeve, and hours in use. To ensure the longest possible service from pump packing, make certain that the shaft or sleeve is smooth when packing is removed from a gland. Rapid wear of the packing may be caused by roughness of the shaft sleeve (or shaft where no sleeve is installed). If the shaft is rough, it should be sent to the shop for a finishing cut to smooth the surface. If it is very rough, or has deep ridges in it, it will have to be renewed. It is absolutely necessary to use the correct packing. To find the right packing, check the packing chart for the particular pump. When replacing packing, be sure that the packing fits uniformly around the stuffing box. If you have to flatten the packing with a hammer, YOU ARE NOT USING THE RIGHT SIZE. Pack the box loosely, and set up the packing gland lightly. Allow a liberal leak-off for stuffing boxes that operate above atmospheric pressure. Next, start the pump. Let it operate for about 30 minutes before you adjust the leak-off. This gives the packing time to run-in and swell, if it is going to. When this requirement has been satisfied, you may begin to adjust the packing gland. Tighten the adjusting nuts one flat at a time. Wait about 30 minutes between adjustments. Be sure to tighten the same amount on both adjusting nuts. If you pull up the packing gland unevenly (or cocked), it will cause the packing to overheat and score the shaft sleeves. Once you have the desired leak-off, all you have to do is check it regularly to ensure that sufficient flow is maintained. MECHANICAL SEALS - Mechanical seals are rapidly replacing conventional packing as the means of controlling leakage on centrifugal pumps. Mechanical seals eliminate the problem of excessive stuffing box leakage, which causes failure of pump and motor bearings and motor windings. Mechanical seals are ideal for pumps operating in closed systems (such as air conditioning, chilled water systems, and various sonar, radar, and other electronic cooling systems). They not only conserve the fluid being pumped but also improve system operation. Mechanical seals are well suited for pumps operating under varying discharge pressures. Mechanical seals are now used for most centrifugal pumps that may operate under vacuum conditions (such as condensate and ships potable water pumps). Fire pumps and all seawater pumps in surface ships are being provided with mechanical shaft seals with cyclone separators. The glands incorporate two or more rings of packing for use in the event of a mechanical shaft seal failure. Opposing seal faces are constructed of tungsten carbide against carbon, or tungsten carbide against tungsten carbide. The tungsten carbide seal ring(s) are of solid construction. The cyclone separators are constructed of nickel-copper alloy. Fittings for
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abrasive separators and pump casing are of the straight thread type with 0-ring seal. They are constructed of nickel-copper alloy. Tubing is copper nickel (70-30). Replace mechanical seals whenever the seal is removed for any reason or whenever the leakage rate exceeds 5 drop per minute. Mechanical shaft seals are positioned on the shaft by stub or step sleeves. Mechanical shaft seals shall not be positioned by setscrews. Shaft sleeves are chamfered on outboard ends for easy mechanical seal mounting. The driving unit may be connected, or coupled, to the pump by a FLANGE COUPLING. Here too, frequent realignment of the shafting may be necessary. Each pump shaft must be kept in proper alignment with the shaft of the driving unit. Such things as abnormal temperatures, abnormal noises, and worn bearings or bushings indicate misalignments. Where mechanical shaft seals are used, they ensure that positive liquid pressure is supplied to the seal faces under all conditions of operation. They also ensure adequate circulation of the liquid at the seal faces to minimize the deposit of foreign matter on the seal parts.
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MECHANICAL SEAL VS PACKING ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES A - Some of the benefits of using mechanical seals are: Lower frictional drag than traditional packing means improved pump efficiency; A mechanical seal will not wear out a shaft, or sleeve, as fast as packing; Near zero leakage is possible with mechanical seal; packing requires much greater leakage (usually visible) for proper lubrication; Properly applied mechanical seals require less periodic maintenance than packing; Specially designed mechanical seals can be applied to higher pressures and speeds than traditional packing. Some of the advantages of packing are: Lower upfront cost; Low-tech selection, installation, maintenance, and trouble-shooting.
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS ADVANTAGES Simple construction one moving part, the rotor Low cost Small space requirements Low maintenance Quite operation/dependable service Low NPSH requirements Ample clearances can handle liquid containing solids, abrasives etc. Can be built in a wide range of sizes Flexible operating characteristics Capacity automatically adjusts to change in head DISADVANTAGES Pressure limitations Viscosity limitation effects head flow and efficiency Unstable at low flow
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OVERHAUL OF PUMPS- WEAR ITEMS, INDICATIONS OF WEAR, PROCEDURES FOR PUMP OVERHAUL This overhaul procedure is written in generic form. It is intended to act only as a guideline in the overhaul of Overhung, single stage centrifugal pumps. In following these steps, one should always refer to the Manufactures Installation, Operation and Maintenance Instructions for the given pump being overhauled. Determination of when a pump should be overhauled should be related to either factual of circumstantial evidence. Factual evidence is dictated through deteriorated pump performance, noise or driver overload trouble. Circumstantial evidence refers to past pump history. Always maintain records of daily, semiannual, annual and overhaul inspections. Each pump should have an individual record of history. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Lock out/Tag out the electrical power source to the pumps motor. Close the discharge piping valve and tag out Close the suction piping valve and tag out. Drain the pump casing Remove the coupling guard Disconnect the coupling between the pump and motor shafts. Remove the spacer piece from between the hubs. 7. If any environmental control lines are present, disconnect and remove them. (i.e. flush lines, seal lines etc) 8. Drain the oil from the power end. Tag pump, No Oil. Follow plant procedures for disposal. 9. Unfasten the hold down bolts from the bearing frame footing and the pump baseplate. 10. Unfasten the bolts that connect the pump power end to the wet end and remove the power end from the wet end. 11. Clean all machined surfaces of the wet end casing. The main casing joint should be stoned to remove all rust, burrs or raised surfaces. Check for evidence of rubbing, cuts, grooves, extreme wear and/or corrosion. 12. Unlock the mechanical seal from the shaft. (if utilized) 13. Remove the impeller from the shaft. 14. Inspect the impeller vanes for signs of wear, breakage or corrosion. Inspect any hubs, O ring grooves, or pressure reducing balance vanes or holes that might be present. If wear rings are used, check wear ring clearance at wear ring I.D. and the impeller hub O.D. If installation, operation and maintenance instructions do not exist for wear ring specifications, check wear ring clearance and tolerance standards for correct fit. 15. Remove nuts from the mechanical seal gland or gland follower at stuffing box. 16. Remove the rear cover from the pump bearing frame 17. Clean stuffing box cavity thoroughly. Clean machined surfaces and gasket joint. Inspect for damage or wear in the stuffing box cavity. 18. Remove the mechanical seal or gland follower from the pumps shaft. 19. If a mechanical seal is present, inspect all seal faces and gaskets. Inspect for seal face chipping, scoring, cracking or chemical attack. Inspect elastomers and gasketing for
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hardness, tears or chemical attack. Inspect all metal parts for rubs, damage or chemical attack. Rebuild or replace the seal before reinstalling. 20. Remove shaft sleeve if present. Inspect sleeve for grooves or wear. Replace O rings and sleeve if required. 21. Check shaft run out. Run out should be less than 0.002 T.I.R. Check shaft end at seal area and coupling area. 22. Check shaft deflection. Deflection should be less than 0.002 T.I.R. 23. Check shaft end play. End play should be less than 0.002 maximum. IF POWER END CHECKS 21. 22. AND 23. ARE WITHIN SPECIFICATIONS, GO TO STEP #39. 24. Remove the coupling from the pump shaft. 25. Remove the bearing seals, radial and thrust ends, from the bearing frame. 26. Remove the rotating element from the bearing frame. Refer to manufacturers installation, operation and maintenance instructions of pump for details. 27. Clean oil sump thoroughly, removing all dirt and debris. 28. After removing and retaining devices, press the thrust bearing from the shaft. Do not use a hammer or other tool that may damage the shaft. 29. Press the radial bearing from the shaft. Do not use a hammer or other tool that may damage the shaft. 30. After removing bearings, clean thoroughly. Inspect bearings for any damage. 31. Check to ensure shaft is straight, within 0.001 T.I.R. (this can be accomplished through the use of shaft v-blocks and dial indicators) Inspect shaft for nicks, grooves or wear. Replace if required. 32. Check bearing fits at housing and shaft. Measurements should be taken in at least two different locations. If first measurement is taken at 12 and 6 oclock, second measurement should be taken at 3 and 9 oclock. a. Radial bearing housing I.D. _______________ b. Thrust bearing housing I.D. _______________ c. Radial bearing shaft O.D. _______________ d. Thrust bearing shaft O.D. _______________ 33. Clean all parts thoroughly 34. Replace all O rings, gaskets, thrust bearings, radial bearing, bearing seals, etc 35. Heat the thrust bearing to a temperature of 240o F (115o C) and place on shaft 36. Install and retaining devices necessary 37. Heat the radial bearing to a temperature of 240o F (115o C) and place on shaft 38. Following the re-assembly instructions given in the manufactures installation operation and maintenance instructions for the pump, install the rotating element into the bearing frame. 39. Install the appropriate new bearing seals at thrust and radial ends of bearing frame box bores. 40. If shaft sleeve is used, install with new O ring 41. Rotate pump by hand to ensure that no internal interferences exist 42. Measure shaft or shaft sleeve diameter for mechanical sealing device. Diameter should be +0.000 / -0.002
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43. Check shaft run out. Run out should be less than 0.002 T.I.R. Check shaft sleeve end. 44. If a cartridge mechanical seal is to be used, slide appropriate seal on shaft. If a component mechanical seal is to be used, follow component seal instructions for installation. 45. Install rear cover to bearing frame. 46. Check face squareness from shaft to stuffing box. This should be 0.002 T.I.R. or less. 47. Install impeller to shaft with appropriate wear rings (if utilized). This should have been checked in step #13. 48. Replace gasket between rear cover and wet end. Move power end to engage bolts in wet end. Tighten all nuts finger tight. 49. Tighten all nuts with appropriate tool using appropriate bolting pattern and techniques. 50. Check motor, pump mounting and / or C-frame feet for soft foot. Movement should be less than 0.002 Shim or machine as required. 51. Secure all feet to baseplate 52. Add appropriate oil to bearing housing to manufacturers recommended level. 53. Adjust impeller per manufacturers installation, operation and maintenance instructions for pump taking thermal growth into account if required 54. Slide cartridge mechanical seal (that was installed on the shaft in step #45) up to stuffing box to bolt seal gland to stuffing box. Attach to shaft and remove centering clips. Follow cartridge mechanical seal instructions to complete installation) 55. Unlock motor and check for proper motor rotation. 56. Lock out motor
IF A C-FRAME ADAPTER IS BEING USED, OMIT STEPS 57 AND 58

57. Set coupling gap per coupling manufacturers specifications 58. Perform motor and pump alignment according to plant procedures 59. Connect coupling 60. Connect or reconnect any environmental controls necessary 61. Open the suction valve 100% and the discharge valve approximately 20% for pump start up. 62. Ensure the pump wet end has been filled with fluid and vented 63. Unlock the motor 64. Start up process. Open discharge valve to obtain design flow from the pump.
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TROUBLE SHOOTING CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS Some of the operating troubles you may have to deal with in centrifugal pumps, together with the probable causes, are described in the following paragraphs. If a centrifugal pump DOES NOT DELIVER ANY LIQUID, the trouble may be caused by; 1. Insufficient priming; 2. Insufficient speed of the pump; 3. Excessive discharge pressure, such as might be caused by a partially closed valve or some other obstruction in the discharge line; 4. Excessive suction lift; 5. Clogged impeller passages; 6. The wrong direction of rotation; 7. Clogged suction screen (if used); 8. Ruptured suction line; or 9. Loss of suction pressure. If a centrifugal pump delivers some liquid but operates at INSUFFICIENT CAPACITY, the trouble may be caused by; 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Air leakage into the suction line, Air leakage into the stuffing boxes in pumps operating at less than atmospheric pressure; Insufficient speed of the pump; Excessive suction lift; Insufficient liquid on the suction side; Clogged impeller passages; Excessive discharge pressure; or Mechanical defects such as worn wearing rings, impellers, stuffing box packing, or sleeves.
If a pump DOES NOT DEVELOP ENOUGH DISCHARGE PRESSURE, the trouble may be caused by; 1. Insufficient speed of the pump; 2. Air or gas in the liquid being pumped; or 3. Mechanical defects such as worn wearing rings, impellers, stuffing box packing, or sleeves. If a pump WORKS FOR A WHILE AND THEN FAILS TO DELIVER LIQUID, the trouble may be caused by 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Air leakage into the suction line; Air leakage in the stuffing boxes; Clogged water seal passages; Insufficient liquid on the suction side; or Excessive heat in the liquid being pumped.
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If a motor-driven centrifugal pump TAKES TOO MUCH POWER, the trouble will probably be indicated by overheating of the motor. The basic cause may be 1. Operation of the pump to excess capacity and insufficient discharge pressure; 2. Too high viscosity or specific gravity of the liquid being pumped; or 3. Misalignment, a bent shaft, excessively tight stuffing box packing, worn wearing rings, or other mechanical defects. VIBRATION of a centrifugal pump is often caused by 1. 2. 3. 4. Misalignment; A bent shaft; A clogged, eroded, or otherwise unbalanced impeller; or Lack of rigidity in the foundation. Insufficient suction pressure may also cause vibration, as well as noisy operation and fluctuating discharge pressure, particularly in pumps that handle hot or volatile liquids.
If the pump fails to build up pressure when the discharge valve is opened and the pump speed is increased, proceed as follows: 1. Secure the pump. 2. Prime the pump and be sure that all air is expelled through the air cocks on the pump casing. 3. Open all valves on the pump suction line.
START THE PUMP AGAIN - If the pump is electric driven be sure the pump is rotating in the correct direction. If the discharge pressure is not normal when the pump is up to its proper speed, the suction line may be clogged, or an impeller may be broken. It is also possible that air is being drawn into the suction line or into the casing. If any of these conditions exist, stop the pump, try to find the source of the trouble, and correct it, if possible.
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WHAT IS HEAD PRESSURE? WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRESSURE AND HEAD? HEAD - In newtonian fluids (non-viscous liquids like water or gasoline) we use the term head to measure the kinetic energy which a pump creates. Head is a measurement of the height of a liquid column, which the pump could create resulting from the kinetic energy the pump gives to the liquid (imagine a pipe shooting a jet of water straight up into the air, the height the water goes up would be the head). The main reason for using head instead of pressure to measure a centrifugal pumps energy is that the pressure from a pump will change if the specific gravity(weight) of the liquid changes, but the head will not change. So we can always describe a pumps performance on any newtonian fluid, whether its heavy (sulfuric acid) or light (gasoline) by using the term head. Remember, head is related to the velocity which the liquid gains when going through the pump CONVERTING HEAD TO PRESSURE - To convert head to pressure the following formula applies: Pressure = (Head x S.G) / 2.31
Where: S.G = Specific Gravity

Head = Feet Newtonian liquids have specific gravitys typically ranging from 0.5 (light, like light hydrocarbons) to 1.8 (heavy, like concentrated sulfuric acid). Water is a benchmark, having a specific gravity of 1.0. IMPELLER DIAMETER AND RPM - The two main factors in determining how much head a pump creates are: The Impeller Diameter The RPM of the Impeller (revolutions per minute) Impeller Diameter - If the speed, revolutions per minute, of the impeller remains the same then the larger the impeller diameter the higher the generated head. Note that as you increase the diameter of the impeller the tip speed at the outer edge of the impeller increases commensurately. However, the total energy imparted to the liquid as the diameter increases goes up by the square of the diameter increase. This can be understood by the fact that the liquids energy is a function of its velocity and the velocity accelerates as the liquid passes through the impeller. A wider diameter impeller accelerates the liquid to a final exit velocity greater than the proportional increase in the diameter. RPMs (Revolutions Per Minute) - As the number of revolutions per minute of an impeller increases, the velocity (and head) imparted to the liquid passing through it increases as well. As the impeller revolves more rapidly the rate of increase in the liquid velocity is higher than the rate of rpm increase. In other words, an impeller spinning at 2000 RPMs generates more than twice the head of the same impeller spinning at 1000 RPMs.
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READING AND UNDERSTANDING PERFORMANCE CURVE Lets take a look at a pump curve, the common way of showing a centrifugal pumps performance.
FIGURE 5 PUMP SIZE NUMBER - Size: 1-1/2 x 3 6 - The size of the pump, 1-1/2 x 3 - 6 is shown in the upper part of the pump curve Figure 10. Note that the size number 1-1/2 x 3 - 6 indicates that the pump has a 1-1/2 inch discharge port, a 3 inch suction port, and a maximum nominal impeller size of 6 inches. This type of nomenclature is common, with some companies putting the 3 in the first position instead of the 1-1/2. In either case, standard procedure is that the suction port is the larger of the first two numbers shown and the largest of the three numbers is the nominal maximum impeller size. PUMP SPEED IN RPMS - RPM: 3450 - Also in the upper right hand corner of Figure 5, notice that the curve indicates performance at the speed of 3450 RPM (a common electric motor speed in 60 Hz countries). All the information given in the curve is valid only for 3450 RPM. Generally speaking, curves, which indicate RPM to be between 3400 and 3600 RPM are used for all two pole (3600 RPM nominal speed) motors applications. FLOW - The pumps flow range is shown along the bottom of the performance curve (Figure 5). Note that the pump, when operating at one speed, 3450 RPM, can provide various flows. The
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amount of flow varies with the amount of head generated. As a general rule with centrifugal pumps, an increase in flow causes a decrease in head. HEAD - The left side of the performance curve in Figure 5 indicates the amount of head a pump is capable of generating. TRIMMED IMPELLER CURVES - Notice also in Figure 5 that there are several curves which slope generally downward as they move from left to right on the curve. These curves show that actual performance of the pump at various impeller diameters. For this pump the maximum impeller diameter is shown as 6 inches and minimum is 3 inches. Impellers are trimmed in a machine shop to match the impeller to the head and flow needed in the application. DUTY POINT - The point on the curve where the flow and head match the applications requirement, in Figure 5, is known as the duty point. A centrifugal pump always operates at the point on its performance curve where its head matches the resistance in the pipeline. For example, if the pump shown above was fitted with a 6-inch impeller and encountered 100 feet of resistance in the pipeline, then it would operate at a flow of approximately 240 gallons per minute and 100 feet of head. It is important to understand that a centrifugal pump is not limited to a single flow at a given speed. Its flow depends on the amount of resistance it encounters in the pipeline. To control the flow of a centrifugal pump it is normally necessary to restrict the discharge pipeline, usually with a valve, and thus set the flow at the desired rate. Note: Generally speaking, do not restrict a pumps flow by putting a valve on the suction line. This can cause damage to the pump! BRAKE HORSEPOWER (BHP) - Along the bottom of this performance curve are brake horsepower lines sloping upward from left to right in Figure 6. These lines correspond to the performance curves above them (the top performance curve corresponds to the top BHP line, and so on). These lines indicate the amount of driver horsepower, which is required at different points of the performance curve. The lines correspond to a BHP horsepower scale on the lower right hand corner of the page. In our example operating point at 120 gpm and 150 feet of head we observe that the corresponding BHP line equals about 6.8 horsepower. See the chart below. END OF CURVE HORSEPOWER - When sizing a motor driver to fit an application it is necessary to consider whether the pump will ever be required to operate at a flow higher than the duty point. The motor will need to be sized accordingly. If the pump may flow out to the end of the curve (if someone opens the restriction valve all the way, for example) it is important that the motor does not become overloaded as a result. Therefore it is normal practice to size the motor not for the duty point, but for the end of curve (EOC) horsepower requirements. In Figure 7, a 71/2 hp motor would adequately power the pump at a duty point of 120 gpm at 150 feet. But notice that the end of curve brake horsepower requires that a 10 hp motor be used.
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FIGURE 6
FIGURE 7
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CAVITATION - Cavitation is a phenomenon, which occurs when a liquid vaporizes as it passes through a pump and then quickly turns back into a liquid. The collapse of the vapor bubbles creates destructive micro-jets of liquid strong enough to damage the pump. Vaporization occurs if the pumped liquid drops below its vapor pressure. As a liquid accelerates through a pump it loses pressure (Bernoullis Principle). If the pressure drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid then gas bubbles will instantly form as the liquid vaporizes. These bubbles just as quickly collapse, causing cavitation to occur. To prevent cavitation the pressure (more correctly the head) of the liquid entering the pump must be high enough to prevent the subsequent liquid pressure drop from reaching liquid vapor pressure.
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NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD REQUIREMENTS NPSH - A minimum amount of suction pressure (head) is needed for a pump to operate without cavitating. The term used to describe this suction pressure is Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH). The amount of NPSH the pump requires to avoid cavitation is called NPSHR. The amount of NPSH available to the pump from the suction line is termed NPSHA. Figure 13 has NPSHR lines highlighted in green. When selecting a pump it is necessary to see how much NPSH it requires at the duty point and make sure the NPSH available exceeds that amount. For example, in the curve below, a pump operating at 60 gpm and 120 feet of head would require nearly 6 feet of NPSH available at the suction port to avoid cavitation. It is normal practice to have at least 2 feet of extra NPSH available at the suction flange to avoid any problems at the duty point. Also, if the pump were inadvertently operated at a flow higher than the rating point then a higher NPSH would be required to avoid cavitation.
FIGURE 8 NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (N.P.S.H.) - The head in fluid column absolute as measured or calculated at the pump suction flange, less the vapor pressure (converted to fluid column absolute) of the fluid.
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USEFUL FORMULAS FPS (FOOT/POUND/SECOND) SYSTEM Velocity vs. flow rate
v: average flow velocity D: pipe diameter Q: flow rate : kinematic viscosity : dynamic (absolute) viscosity SG: specific gravity
Kinematic vs. dynamic (absolute) viscosity
Saybolt Second Universal (SSU) vs. centiStoke (cSt) : kinematic viscosity Pressure vs. fluid column height
Hf: head in fluid column height p: pressure SG: specific gravity Re: Reynolds number : kinematic viscosity v: average flow velocity D: pipe diameter H: pipe friction head loss L: length of pipe g: acceleration due to gravity f: friction factor D: pipe diameter v: average flow velocity
Reynolds number definition
Friction loss (Darcys formula)
N.P.S.H. available
(All units are in feet of fluid) N.P.S.H. avail.: Net Positive Suction Head available HF1-S: friction loss between points 1 (surface of suction tank) and S (the pump suction inlet) HEQ1-S: Friction loss due to equipment between points 1 and S z1: elevation of the suction tank fluid surface
H1: pressure head at the suction tank fluid surface zS: elevation of the pump suction inlet HB: barometric pressure head Hva: vapour pressure head
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Total Head (single inlet/single outlet system)
HF: pipe friction head loss HEQ: equipment friction head loss Hv: velocity head HTS: total static head P: power at the pump shaft Q: flow rate HP: total head SG: specific gravity : % pump efficiency f: friction factor : pipe surface roughness (R.M.S. value) D: pipe diameter Re: Reynolds number f: friction factor : pipe surface roughness (R.M.S. value) D: pipe diameter Re: Reynolds number
Pump Brake Power
Friction factor - turbulent flow (Colebrooks equation)
Friction factor - Other equation
Friction factor - laminar flow f: friction factor Re: Reynolds number
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USEFUL EQUATIONS - SI SYSTEM Velocity vs. flow rate
v: average flow velocity D: pipe diameter Q: flow rate
Kinematic vs. dynamic (absolute) viscosity : kinematic viscosity : dynamic (absolute) viscosity SG: specific gravity
where the density of water = 997.8(kg/m3) @ 15.55 C Saybolt Second Universal (SSU) vs. centiStoke (cSt)
Pressure vs. fluid column height
Hf: pressure head in fluid column height p: pressure
Reynolds number definition Re: Reynolds number
Friction loss (Darcys formula)
HF: pipe friction head loss L: length of pipe g: acceleration due to gravity f: friction factor
N.P.S.H. available
(All units are in meter of fluid) N.P.S.H. avail.: Net Positive Suction Head available HF1-S: friction loss between points 1 (surface of suction tank) and S (the pump suction inlet) HEQ1-S: friction loss due to equipment between points 1 and S z1: elevation of the suction tank fluid surface
H1: pressure head at the suction tank fluid surface zS: elevation of the pump suction inlet HB: barometric pressure head Hva: vapour pressure head
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Total Head (single inlet/single outlet system)
HP: total head HEQ: equipment friction head loss Hv: velocity head HTS: total static head P: power at the pump shaft : % pump efficiency
Pump Brake Power
Friction factor - turbulent flow (Colebrooks equation)
f: friction factor : pipe surface roughness (R.M.S. value) D: pipe diameter Re: Reynolds number f: friction factor : pipe surface roughness (R.M.S. value) D: pipe diameter Re: Reynolds number
Friction factor - turbulent flow (Swamee & Jain)
Friction factor - laminar flow
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TYPES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS HOW TO CLASSIFY Centrifugal pumps can be grouped into several types using different criteria such as its design, construction, application, service, etc. Thus one specific pump can belong to different groups and oftentimes this becomes descriptive of the pump itself. Some of these groups are: Based on compliance with industry standards: ANSI pump - ASME B73.1 specifications API pump - API 610 specifications DIN pump - DIN 24256 specifications ISO pump - ISO 2858, 5199 specifications Nuclear pump - ASME specifications UL/FM fire pump - NFPA specifications Based on number of impeller/s in the pump: SINGLE STAGE - Pump has one impeller only; for low head service TWO-STAGE - Pump has two impellers in series; for medium head service MULTI-STAGE - Pump has three or more impellers in series; for high head service The number of impellers, not the number of volutes, determines the number of stages. Thus a pump with 4 volutes but only 3 impellers is normally referred to as a 4-stage pump destaged to 3-stage, or 4/3-stage. Based on impeller suction: SINGLE SUCTION - Pump with single suction impeller (impeller has suction cavity on one side only); simple design but impeller is subjected to higher axial thrust imbalance due to flow coming in on one side of impeller only. DOUBLE SUCTION - Pump with double suction impeller (impeller has suction cavities on both sides); has lower NPSHR than single suction impeller. Pump is considered hydraulically balanced but is susceptible to uneven flow on both sides of impeller if suction piping is not done properly. In a pump with more than one impeller the design of the first stage impeller determines if the pump is considered single or double suction type. Based on type of volute: SINGLE VOLUTE - Pump volute has single lip which is very easy to cast. Is usually used in small low capacity pumps where a double volute design is impractical due to relatively small size of volute passageway which makes obtaining good quality commercial casting difficult. Pumps with single volute design have higher radial loads.
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DOUBLE VOLUTE - Pump volute has dual lips located 180 degrees apart resulting in balanced radial loads; most centrifugal pumps are of double volute design. Based on nozzle location: END SUCTION/TOP DISCHARGE - The suction nozzle is located at the end of, and concentric to, the shaft while the discharge nozzle is located at the top of the case perpendicular to the shaft. Pump is always of an overhung type and typically has lower NPSHR because the liquid feeds directly into the impeller eye. TOP/TOP NOZZLES - The suction and discharge nozzles are located at the top of the case perpendicular to the shaft. Pump can either be overhung type or between-bearing type but is always a radially-split case pump. SIDE/SIDE NOZZLES - The suction and discharge nozzles are located at the sides of the case perpendicular to the shaft. Pump can either be an axially or radially split case type. Based on shaft orientation: HORIZONTAL - Pump with shaft in horizontal plane; popular due to ease of servicing and maintenance. VERTICAL - Pump with shaft in vertical plane; ideal when space is limited or of a premium, or when pumping from a pit or underground barrel to increase the available NPSH. Based on orientation of case-split: HORIZONTAL OR AXIAL SPLIT - Pump case is split horizontally or axially; the upper half is called the upper or top case, the lower half is called the lower or bottom case. The case cannot be supported at shaft centerline because of the case split; is usually limited to temperature up to 450 F0 to avoid misalignment because of uneven thermal expansion from shaft centerline. The flat case gasket and irregular bolting pattern makes containing the bolt stress difficult hence it is limited in its hydrotest and allowable working pressure. VERTICAL OR RADIAL SPLIT - Pump case is split vertically or radially; the split parts are usually referred to as case and cover; can be supported at shaft centerline for even thermal expansion and is the preferred construction for high temperature application. The confined case gasket and circular bolting pattern makes containing the bolt stress more manageable hence it can be designed for higher hydrotest and allowable working pressure. Based on bearing support:
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OVERHUNG - The impeller overhung on one end of shaft which is unsupported by a bearing; usually has lower NPSHR because there is no shaft blockage at the impeller eye. The trade-off is that pump has higher shaft deflection. BETWEEN-BEARING - The shaft has bearing support on both ends, thus impeller is located in between-bearings. Pump has lower shaft deflection than overhung pump but usually has higher NPSHR because shaft is blocking the impeller eye and shaft diameter at the impeller is usually of larger size. Based on shaft connection to driver: CLOSE-COUPLED - The impeller is mounted on the driver shaft which is of special design. This is also known as integral shaft design. Typically used for light service. The pump-driver assembly is very compact, lightweight, and inexpensive. DIRECT-COUPLED - The pump and driver have separate shafts connected by a flexible coupling. Usually a spacer coupling is used to allow the removal of seals without disturbing the driver.
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 10
A single suction, end suction/top discharge, vertically split-case, overhung pump (Figure 9.) A double suction, side/side nozzles, horizontally split-case, between-bearing pump (Figure 10.) Both are single-stage, radial flow type centrifugal pumps.
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BEST EFFICIENCY POINT Best Efficiency Point (BEP) is the capacity at maximum impeller diameter at which the efficiency is highest. BEP is an important parameter in that many parametric calculations such as specific speed, suction specific speed, hydrodynamic size, viscosity correction, headrise to shutoff, etc. are based on capacity at BEP. Many users prefer that pumps operate within 80% to 110% of BEP for optimum performance. BEST EFFICIENCY POINT (B.E.P.) - The point on a pumps performance curve that corresponds to the highest efficiency. SHUT OFF HEAD SHUT-OFF HEAD - The Total Head corresponding to zero flow on the pump performance curve.
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OPERATION/TEMPERATURE RISE WITH DISCHARGE VALVE CLOSED A pump should be started in such a manner that its required starting torque is at a minimum. Since torque is directly proportional to BHP, then a pump should be started with the discharge valve either closed, or opened, depending on whether the lowest required BHP in the pump performance is at shut-off (valve closed) or at the end-of-curve (valve opened.) Generally, radial and mixed-flow type centrifugal pumps have lowest required BHP at shut-off, with increasing BHP towards higher flow rates, and should therefore be started with the discharge valve closed. In contrast, axial flow pumps generally have the highest required BHP at shut-off, with decreasing BHP towards higher flow rates, and should therefore be started with the discharge valve opened. When starting a pump with the discharge valve closed, the valve should be opened gradually as soon as the driver reaches its full speed. Q - FOR HOW LONG CAN A PUMP OPERATE SAFELY WITH THE DISCHARGE VALVE FULLY CLOSED? A - The rate of temperature rise when a pump operates with fully closed discharge valve can be calculated from: Tr = [ (42.4 x HP) / (W x C) ] WHERE: Tr = rate of temperature rise, deg F/min HP= BHP at shut-off W = weight of liquid in pump case, lbs C = specific heat of liquid; use 1.0 for water, 0.5 for hydrocarbons if exact value is unknown This equation neglects the heat loss through the pump case so its result is conservative. The weight of liquid can be calculated by estimating the case volume or requesting for the case volume data from the pump manufacturer; some manufacturers collect this data from hydrotest or from hydraulic drawings. Based on the above rate of temperature rise the duration of safe operation at shut-off can then be calculated by dividing the allowable temperature rise with the rate of temperature rise. RULE-OF-THUMB: For safe operation the allowable temperature rise should be limited to 50 F0 maximum. A lower value of allowable temperature rise should be considered if the 50 degree limit would result in exceeding the case design temperature, or to an increase in vapor pressure that could result in critical NPSH or to potentially damaging vaporization at mechanical seal face. EXAMPLE: For how long can a multi-stage pump be operated safely with the discharge valve closed if the pump required 500 BHP at shut-off and the pump case contained 200 lbs of water? SOLUTION:
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Calculate the rate of temperature rise Tr = [(42.4 x 500)/(200x1)] = 106 degree/min Calculate time required to limit temperature rise to 50 degrees F T = 50/106 = 0.47 minute or 28 seconds
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PROCEDURES FOR LONG TERM LAY UP OF PUMPS Here are some general suggestions. The applicability of all, or some, of these suggestions depend on several factors such as type of pump, length of storage, and condition of environment: Drain the pump completely and dry it thoroughly, including its bearing housing and stuffing box or seal chamber. Apply a coat of soluble rust preventive solution both internally and externally. Cover all openings. Flanged openings (such as suction and discharge nozzles) should be covered with blind flanges with elastomer gasket. Threaded openings should be covered with steel plugs or caps. Remove the shaft coupling; it may cause the shaft to develop a permanent sag during prolonged storage. Wrapped the exposed shaft and key with corrosion inhibitor waterproof paper or waxed cloth. Protect the bearing housing from moisture by placing bags of vapor phase inhibitor crystals around the housing. Cover the pump with industrial strength plastic, preferably transparent to allow visual inspection of the pump and its nameplate without uncovering the unit. Store the unit in its normal position in a dry place. Inspect the unit periodically and turn the shaft a few times plus 1/4 turn. Turning the shaft prevents pitting of finished surfaces. The extra 1/4 turn is to displace the sag and prevent the shaft from developing a permanent bow.
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REVIEW AND COMMON QUESTIONS Q - WHAT IS A PUMP? A - A pump is a machine that expends energy to increase the pressure of a fluid (liquid or gas) and move it from one point to another. In practice the term pump refers to a machine that pumps liquid while a machine that pumps gas is specifically referred to as vacuum pump, compressor, blower, or fan. A pumps performance is shown in its characteristics performance curve where its capacity (in GPM) is plotted against its developed head (in FT), efficiency (in %), required input power (in BHP), and NPSHR (in FT.) The pump curve also shows its speed (in RPM) and other information such as pump size and type, impeller size, etc. The term head refers to the differential head developed by a pump expressed in feet of liquid: H = [Pd-Ps] x 2.31 / SG where: H = pump head, FT of liquid Pd = pump discharge pressure, PSIG Ps = pump suction pressure, PSIG SG = liquid specific gravity If a pump were an ideal machine the required input power to drive the pump, called hydraulic horsepower (HHP), is calculated from: HHP = [Q x H x SG] / [3960] where Q = capacity in GPM [ANSI/HI 1.1-1.5-1994, section 1.2.6.3 refers to this term as water horsepower, which is a misnomer. If the specific gravity were omitted (SG=1) then the term is correctly referred to as water horsepower, WHP] But since a pump is not an ideal machine the required input power, called brake horsepower (BHP), is calculated from: BHP = [Q x H x SG] / [3960 x E] where E = pump efficiency in decimal Q - WHAT IS A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP? A - There are various classification of pumps. One main classification is according to the method energy is imparted to the liquid: kinetic energy pump, or displacement pump. A centrifugal pump is of kinetic energy type - it imparts energy to a liquid by means of centrifugal force produced by a rotating impeller. A displacement pump imparts energy by mechanical displacement. Piston, diaphragm, plunger, screw, vane, and gear pumps are some examples.
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Centrifugal pumps are widely used because of its design simplicity, high efficiency, wide range of capacity and head, smooth flow rate, and ease of operation and maintenance. (Displacement pumps are of lower flow range and have pulsating flow rate). Q - WHAT IS SELF-PRIMING PUMP? A - Priming is the addition of liquid in the pump casing to displace or evacuate the entrained air through a vent and create a liquid seal inside the casing. Self-priming pump is one that develops a vacuum sufficiently enough for atmospheric pressure to force the liquid to flow through the suction pipe into the pump casing without priming the pump. Only positive displacement pumps are truly self-priming but the term has been loosely used to include self-priming centrifugal pumps. A self-priming centrifugal pump is especially designed with a large chamber at its discharge side that acts both as an air separator that separates the air from the liquid, and a reservoir that holds residual liquid used for priming or re-priming the pump. The pump has to be primed during the initial start-up but re-priming is done automatically without outside attention. Although selfpriming appears to be a desirable feature for centrifugal pumps the trade-off is that pump efficiency is slightly compromised due to certain design constraints. This type of pump is popular with intermittent service such as in contractors, drainage, sewage, and similar applications, but is less popular in continuous service where optimum efficiency is desirable and re-priming is very seldom needed due to continuous operation. Q - WHAT IS SPECIFIC SPEED? A - The old definition of specific speed (NS) is simply a restatement of its equation. It states that NS is the speed in RPM at which a pump, if sufficiently reduced in size, would deliver 1 GPM at a head of 1 FT. This definition is meaningless and has no practical application. In fact, because its equation has inconsistent units, NS is considered dimensionless. A newer meaning of specific speed defines NS as a dimensionless number or index that identifies the geometric similarity of pumps. Pumps of the same NS but of different size are considered to be geometrically similar, one pump being a size-factor of the other. Specific speed (NS) is calculated from: NS = [N x Q^0.50] / [H^0.75] where: N = pump speed, RPM Q = capacity at best efficiency point (BEP) at maximum impeller diameter, GPM H = head per stage at BEP at maximum impeller diameter , FT EXAMPLE: What is the specific speed of a two-stage pump whose capacity and total head at BEP is 400 GPM, and 200 FT, respectively when the pump runs at 1780 RPM? SOLUTION: NS = [1780 x (400)^0.50 / (200/2)^0.75] = 1126
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Q - WHY IS SPECIFIC SPEED VERY IMPORTANT? A - Specific speed has many practical applications: Specific speed identifies the type of pump according to its design and flow pattern. According to this criteria a pump can be classified as radial flow, mixed flow, or axial flow type. A radial flow pump is one where the impeller discharges the liquid in the radial direction from the pump shaft centerline, an axial flow pump discharges the liquid in the axial direction and a mixed flow pump is one that is a cross between a radial and an axial flow pump design. Specific speed identifies the approximate acceptable ratio of the impeller eye diameter (D1) to the impeller maximum diameter (D2) in designing a good impeller. NS: 500 to 5000; D1/D2 > 1.5 - radial flow pump NS: 5000 to 10000; D1/D2 < 1.5 - mixed flow pump NS:10000 to 15000; D1/D2 = 1 - axial flow pump Specific speed is also used in designing a new pump by size-factoring a smaller pump of the same specific speed. The performance and construction of the smaller pump are used to predict the performance and model the construction of the new pump. RULE-OF-THUMB: For similar pumps with about the same capacity at BEP, the pump with higher specific speed will typically have a higher efficiency also. Q - WHAT IS SUCTION SPECIFIC SPEED? A - Suction specific speed (NSS) is a dimensionless number or index that defines the suction characteristics of a pump. It is calculated from: NSS = [(N x Q^0.5) / (NPSHR)^0.75] where: N = speed, RPM Q = capacity at BEP, GPM (For double suction impeller, Q=GPM/2) NPSHR = NPSHR at BEP based on 3% head loss, FT In multi-stage pump the NPSHR is based on the first stage impeller NPSHR. EXAMPLE: What is the suction specific speed of a double suction pump operating at 3560 RPM if it required 18 FT of NPSH at its BEP of 800 GPM? SOLUTION: NSS = [3560 x (800/2)^0.50 / (18)^0.75] = 8148 A practical application of NSS is that it is commonly used as a basis for estimating the safe operating range of capacity for a pump. The higher the NSS is, the narrower is its safe operating range from its BEP. Most users prefer that their pumps have NSS in the range of 8000 to 11000 for optimum and trouble-free operation.
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Q - WHAT ARE THE AFFINITY LAWS? A - The Affinity Laws are mathematical expressions that define changes in pump capacity, head, and BHP when a change is made to pump speed, impeller diameter, or both. According to AFFINITY LAWS: Capacity Q changes in direct proportion to impeller diameter D ratio, or to speed N ratio: Q2 = Q1 x [D2/D1] Q2 = Q1 x [N2/N1] Head H changes in direct proportion to the square of impeller diameter D ratio, or the square of speed N ratio: H2 = H1 x [D2/D1]^2 H2 = H1 x [N2/N1]^2 HP changes in direct proportion to the cube of impeller diameter ratio, or the cube of speed ratio: HP2 = HP1 x [D2/D1]^3 HP2 = HP1 x [N2/N1]^3 WHERE the subscript: 1 refers to initial condition, 2 refers to new condition If changes are made to both impeller diameter and pump speed the equations can be combined to: Q2 = Q1 x [(D2xN2)/(D1xN1)] H2 = H1 x [(D2xN2)/(D1xN1)]^2 HP2 = HP1 x [(D2xN2)/(D1xN1)]^3 This equation is use to hand-calculate the impeller trim diameter from a given pump performance curve at a bigger diameter: H2 = H1 x [Q2/Q1]^2 The Affinity Laws are valid only under conditions of constant efficiency.
Q - HOW CAN THE AFFINITY LAWS BE USED TO CALCULATE THE REQUIRED RPM IN THIS SCENARIO? The original capacity, head, and pump speed are given as Q1, H1, N1. The new capacity is unchanged (Q2=Q1); the new head H2 is (1.2*H1); assume the same impeller diameter D and efficiency. Since the Affinity Laws seem to result in a change in flow, how is the required new speed (N2) calculated? Can the Affinity Laws be condensed to one equation [(Q1^2*H1)/(N1^2*D1^2)] = [Q2^2*H2)/(N2^2*D2^2)] like the ideal gas law?
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A - The N2 calculated by Affinity Laws will be a slightly faster than actually required because Q2 will increase to Q1*(N2/N1) but the required Q2 is the same as Q1. The best way to handle this is to draw the pump performance curve at the new calculated speed N2. Calculate and locate the point (Q2, H2). Pick a convenient capacity Q3 (where Q3>Q2) and calculate H3 using Affinity Laws. Draw a line connecting points (Q2, H2) and (Q3, H3) extending it to intersect the new performance curve at speed N2. Mark the intersection point as (Q4, H4). Now using Q2, H2 and Q4, H4, N4 (where N4=N2) recalculate the corrected speed N2 using the Affinity Laws again. The various relationships among the parameters Q, H, N, and D can be condensed into one equation, but it has very little practical application. In practice, either N or D are varied one at a time; very rarely are the two parameters varied at the same time. Q -DOES IMPELLER NPSHR CHANGE WITH IMPELLER CUT DIAMETER? A - No. NPSHR is dependent upon the impeller suction geometry such as eye diameter, eye area, and vane inlet angle. Cutting the impeller diameter has no effect on suction geometry and therefore should have no effect on NPSHR.
Q - MOST PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVES SHOWS THE SAME NPSHR CURVE REGARDLESS OF IMPELLER DIAMETER BUT THERE ARE ALSO SOME THAT SHOW TWO NPSHR CURVES: ONE FOR MAXIMUM IMPELLER DIAMETER AND ANOTHER FOR MINIMUM DIAMETER. I NOTICED THAT THE NPSHR FOR MINIMUM DIAMETER IS HIGHER THAN FOR MAXIMUM DIAMETER. YOU SAID THAT NPSHR DOES NOT CHANGE WITH IMPELLER CUT DIAMETER. PLEASE EXPLAIN THIS APPARENT DISCREPANCY. A - You raised a very interesting point. Our sources think that this has more to do with how NPSHR is determined rather than with actual change in NPSHR. These explanations were given: This is an anomaly that is caused by internal flow recirculation and how flow rate is measured. In some instances cutting the impeller diameter will result in higher internal flow recirculation. Radial flow impellers whose ratio of eye diameter to impeller diameter is greater than 0.50 are more sensitive to this phenomenon. FOR CLARITY, ASSUME A HYPOTHETICAL SITUATION WHERE A PUMP HAS: Qd, flow at discharge nozzle = 100 GPM Qi, internal flow recirculation = 10 GPM Qs, flow at impeller suction, Qd+Qi = 110 GPM During test the NPSHR is measured at 100 GPM discharge flow rate. That NPSHR is considered the NPSHR at 100 GPM but in reality it applies to 110 GPM, the actual flow rate at the impeller suction, of which 10 GPM is due to internal recirculation. Now assume that the impeller diameter is cut and, as a result, the internal recirculation flow increases to 15 GPM. The NPSHR at 100 GPM discharge flow will now appear to be higher because in reality it is the NPSHR for 115 GPM suction flow.
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The problem is that there is no practical way to measure internal flow recirculation and hence there is no practical way to correct the NPSHR. ANOTHER EXPLANATION: It is common practice in the pump industry to measure NPSHR based on a 3% head loss. But 3% of what head? If a pump is tested at maximum impeller diameter then it is 3% of the head at maximum impeller diameter; if tested at minimum diameter, then it becomes 3% of the head at minimum diameter. In my opinion this practice is inconsistent and needs to be corrected. Heres why: Say that a pump, at 1000 GPM, has a head of 500 FT at maximum impeller diameter. Under the present industry-wide practice a head drop of 15 FT will determine its NPSHR. But if that same impeller is cut 20% of its diameter and the head at 1000 GPM is reduced to 300 FT then its NPSHR will be based on a head drop of only 9 FT. See the inconsistency? The same pump, with same impeller and same suction geometry, ends up with different NPSHR at same capacity because the NPSHR are based on different absolute values of head drop. This seems to explain why the NPSHR at impeller cut diameter may at times appear to be higher. Specific speed (NS) and suction specific speed (NSS) are always calculated based on data at maximum impeller diameter for data consistency. It makes sense that NPSHR should also be based on 3% head drop at maximum impeller diameter regardless of actual impeller cut diameter. During test the NPSHR is measured at 100 GPM discharge flow rate. That NPSHR is considered the NPSHR at 100 GPM but in reality it applies to 110 GPM, the actual flow rate at the impeller suction, of which 10 GPM is due to internal recirculation. Now assume that the impeller diameter is cut and, as a result, the internal recirculation flow increases to 15 GPM. The NPSHR at 100 GPM discharge flow will now appear to be higher because in reality it is the NPSHR for 115 GPM suction flow. The problem is that there is no practical way to measure internal flow recirculation and hence there is no practical way to correct the NPSHR.. Specific speed (NS) and suction specific speed (NSS) are always calculated based on data at maximum impeller diameter for data consistency. It makes sense that NPSHR should also be based on 3% head drop at maximum impeller diameter regardless of actual impeller cut diameter. During test the NPSHR is measured at 100 GPM discharge flow rate. That NPSHR is considered the NPSHR at 100 GPM but in reality it applies to 110 GPM, the actual flow rate at the impeller suction, of which 10 GPM is due to internal recirculation. Now assume that the impeller diameter is cut and, as a result, the internal recirculation flow increases to 15 GPM. The NPSHR at 100 GPM discharge flow will now appear to be higher because in reality it is the NPSHR for 115 GPM suction flow. The problem is that there is no practical way to measure internal flow recirculation and hence there is no practical way to correct the NPSHR.
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Q - IS THERE A PRACTICAL WAY OF CHECKING FOR WORN-OUT CLEARANCES ON WEAR RINGS, BUSHINGS, SLEEVES, ETC., WITHOUT OPENING THE PUMP CASE? A - Checking the shut-off head of a centrifugal pump and comparing it with previous readings is a good way of checking for worn-out clearances. When the shut-off head starts to fall off it is a good indication of increased clearances and worn out parts. When checking for shut-off head use a calibrated test gauge in lieu of a permanently installed discharge gauge which is likely to lose its accuracy over time. RULE-OF-THUMB: A wear part should be replaced when its clearance is already worn-out to twice its original clearance. Q - WHAT IS MINIMUM CONTINUOUS STABLE FLOW? A - Minimum continuous stable flow refers to the lowest flow rate (GPM) at which a pump can operate continuously without exceeding the noise and vibration limits specified by the customer. In setting these limits the customer usually refers to industry standards, such as ANSI, API, ISO, etc., or in some cases to the customers own set of pump specifications. Thus an API pump, for example, must comply with the noise and vibration limits set forth in API 610 standard. The noise and vibration limits are imposed to ensure the design integrity of the pump, improve its reliability, and reduce its mean-time-between-failures
CARE OF LANTERN RINGS, SLEEVES, AND FLINGERS When a stuffing box is fitted with a lantern ring, be sure to replace the packing beyond the sealing ring at the bottom of the stuffing box. Also be sure that the packing does not blank off the scaling water connection to the lantern ring. See Figure 11. Sleeves fitted at the packing on the pump shafts must always be tight. These sleeves are usually made secure by shrinking or keying them to the shaft. Ensure that water does not leak between the shaft and shaft sleeve. Water slinger rings are fitted on the shaft between the packing gland and the pump bearing housing. These flingers prevent water from the stuffing box from following along the shaft and entering the bearing housing. Shaft sleeves are made fast to the pump shaft in various ways. Some slip on and are held in place by a nut. Some may screw on. In this case, the threads will be cut so that the sleeve tightens in the opposite direction from the pump rotation. Some sleeves have 0-rings between the shaft and the abutting shoulder to prevent water leakage between the shaft and the sleeve. Others may use packing or tight-fitting threads. Use the manufacturers technical manual for detailed information.
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FIGURE 11 - STUFFING BOX ON A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
ALIGNMENT OF SHAFTING AND COUPLINGS - Shaft alignment must be checked frequently. If the shafts are out of line, the unit must be realigned. This will prevent shaft breakage and damage to bearings, pump casing wearing rings, throat bushings, etc. Check the shaft alignment with all piping in place. If the pump is turbine driven, or if it pumps a hot liquid, recheck the alignment after it has operated for several hours and is up to operating temperature. The driving unit may be connected to the pump by a FLEXIBLE COUPLING. Remember that flexible couplings (Figure 12) are intended to take care of only slight misalignment. Misalignment should never exceed the amount specified by the pump manufacturer. If the misalignment is excessive the coupling parts are subjected to severe punishment, which causes frequent renewal of pins, bushings, and bearings. The driving unit may be connected, or coupled, to the pump by a FLANGE COUPLING. Here too, frequent realignment of the shafting may be necessary. Each pump shaft must be kept in proper alignment with the shaft of the driving unit. Misalignments are indicated by such things as vibration, abnormal temperatures, abnormal noises, and worn bearings or bushings. Shims are placed under the feet of both the driven and driving units to facilitate alignment when the machinery is installed. Jacking screws may also be used to level the units. The pump or driving unit, or both, may need to be shifted sidewise to align the couplings. This is made easier by side brackets welded in convenient spots on the foundations, and large setscrews used to shift the units sidewise or endwise.
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FIGURE 12- GRID-TYPE FLEXIBLE COUPLING The shims must be adjusted so that the outside diameters and faces of the coupling flanges run true as they are manually revolved. When that is done, the chocks should be fastened, the units should be securely bolted to the foundation, and the coupling flanges should be bolted together. THE ALIGNMENTS MUST BE CHECKED - From time to time, and misalignments must be promptly corrected. There are three methods in general practice for checking the alignments: 1. Use of a 6-inch scale 2. Use of a thickness gauge 3. Use of a dial indicator Shaft alignment should be checked whenever the pump is opened up and whenever you feel a noticeable vibration. If shafts are found out of line or inclined at an angle to each other, the unit should be realigned. This will avoid shaft breakages and renewal of bearings, pump casing wearing rings, and throat bushings. Consult the appropriate technical manual in aligning the pump. MEASURING BEARING CLEARANCES - Some centrifugal pump installations are fitted with a water-lubricating bearing inside the pump casing (such as condensate pumps). An adequate supply of clean water must be supplied to this bearing for lubricating and cooling. Check the condition of the internal water-lubricated bearings frequently to guard against excessive wear, which results in misalignment and possible shaft failure.
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On oil-lubricated sleeve or shell-bearings, measure the bearing clearances following procedures described for the pump. Maintain clearances within the limits shown in the manufacturers technical manual. RENEWAL OF WEARING RINGS - The clearance between the impeller wearing ring and the casing wearing ring (Figure 13) must be maintained as shown in the manufacturers plans. When the maximum allowable clearance is exceeded the wearing rings must be replaced. In most cases, this can be done by the ships force. However, if your machine shop does not have the proper lathe, then you must send the pump out for repairs. All necessary information on disassembly of the unit, dimensions of the wearing rings, and reassembly of the pump, can be found in the manufacturers technical manual. In deciding whether the wearing rings need renewing, you must consider the capacity and discharge pressure of the pump. On low-pressure pumps the wearing ring diametrical clearance may be 0.015 to 0.030 inch more than the designed amount without any appreciable effect on the pumps capacity. For pumps having a discharge pressure up to 75 psi, a wear of 0.030 to 0.050 inch is permissible. The percentage of capacity loss, with a wearing ring clearance of 0.030 inch in excess of standard, may be large with a small pump, but comparatively small with a large pump. Increased wearing ring clearance on a high-pressure boiler feed pump is readily noticeable in the efficiency and maximum capacity of the pump. The wearing rings on high-pressure pumps should be renewed when the clearance shown on the manufacturers plans is exceeded by 100 percent. It is usually not necessary to renew wearing rings unless the wear is at least 0.015 inch. If a pump has to be disassembled because of some internal trouble, check the wearing rings for clearance. Measure the outside diameter of the impeller wearing ring with an outside micrometer and the inside diameter of the casing wearing ring with an inside micrometer. The difference between the two diameters is the actual wearing ring diametral clearance. By comparing the actual wearing ring clearance with the maximum allowable clearance, you can decide whether to renew the rings before you reassemble the pump. Wearing rings for most small pumps are carried as part of the ships repair parts allowance. These may need only a slight amount of machining before they can be installed. For some important pumps, such as main condensate and main feed booster pumps, spare rotors are carried aboard. The new rotor can be installed and the old rotor sent to a repair shop for overhaul. Overhauling a rotor includes renewing the wearing rings, the bearings, and the shaft sleeve.
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FIGURE 13 IMPELLER, IMPELLER WEARING RING, AND CASING WEARING RING FOR A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP DEVELOPING KINETIC ENERGY - A centrifugal pump is a device that converts driver energy to kinetic energy in a liquid by accelerating it to the outer rim of a revolving device known as an impeller. The key idea here is that the energy created is kinetic energy. The amount of energy given to the liquid corresponds to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of the impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is, then the higher will be the velocity of the liquid at the vane tip and the greater the energy imparted to the liquid. PRESSURE IS AN INDICATION OF RESISTANCE TO FLOW - The kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is harnessed by creating a resistance to the flow. The first resistance is created by the pump volute (casing), which catches the liquid and slows it down. When the liquid slows down in the pump casing some of the kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy. It is the resistance to the pumps flow that is read on a pressure gauge attached to the discharge line. NOTE!!! A PUMP DOES NOT CREATE PRESSURE, IT ONLY CREATES FLOW! PRESSURE IS A MEASUREMENT OF THE RESISTANCE TO FLOW. PRINCIPLE OF SUCTION FORCE - The principle of suction force, or suction lift, as applied to reciprocating pumps, is illustrated in Figure 14. In diagram a, the piston cylinder is open at both the top and bottom so the liquid level at A and B is the same. In diagram b, the cylinder is closed at the bottom. A piston has been inserted and partly withdrawn, thus creating a partial vacuum. In diagram c, the foot valve (check valve) at the bottom of the cylinder opens as a result of the lower pressure in the cylinder. The liquid then rises up into the cylinder, which causes the liquid level in the well to drop. Assuming the liquid is water and that there is a perfect vacuum below the piston, atmospheric pressure will push water up into the cylinder to a height of 34 feet, even though the piston may be raised higher than 34 feet.
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You must understand that the preceding example is for the theoretical condition of a perfect vacuum. In practice, leakage between the piston and the cylinder, friction (fluid) in piping, and gases dissolved in the liquid limit the suction lift of a pump to a height of approximately 22 feet, as shown in diagram d of Figure 14. When a pump is pumping certain liquids, such as hot water, oil, or gasoline, some of the liquid will vaporize because of the vacuum on the suction side of the pump. This may cause the pump to become vapor bound, which will reduce the possible suction lift. The suction force principle applies to other types of pumps, as well as to the reciprocating type, though to a lesser degree and in a somewhat different manner. The centrifugal, propeller, and rotary pumps all use suction force to a certain extent. Here a partial vacuum can be produced by the revolving mechanisms instead of by the reciprocating plunger. An additional characteristic of centrifugal pumps is that they are not self-priming because they will not pump air. Their casing must be flooded before they will function. In the eductor (jet pump), flow is maintained by the suction force created by a jet of water, compressed air, or steam passing through a nozzle at high velocity.
FIGURE 14
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3.. VENTURI PUMPS 3 VENTURI PUMPS

EDUCTORS - Although the pumps that we have discussed so far in this chapter were either motor-or steam-driven, the eductor (Figure 15) is a jet pump and has no moving parts. It is actuated by steam or water. It basically operates on the same principle as the air ejector nozzle assembly.
FIGURE 15 EDUCTOR 17 An eductor is a type of jet pump, Unlike other pumps, a jet pump has no moving parts. A simple jet pump, illustrated in Figure 16, consists of a jet supply line, a jet or nozzle, a suction line, a suction chamber, a diffuser, and a discharge line. In a jet pump, pumping action is created as a fluid (water, steam, or air) passes at a high pressure and velocity through a nozzle and into a chamber that has an inlet and outlet opening. The operating principle of a jet pump is as follows: Upon starting up, the rapidly moving jet fluid pushes on and gives sufficient motion to the air (or whatever substance may be in the suction chamber) to carry it out through the discharge line. Displacement of the air from the suction chamber creates a partial vacuum within the suction chamber, causing fluid to flow through the suction line. The fluid entering the chamber from the suction line is picked up by the highvelocity fluid, thus providing continuous pumping action.
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FIGURE 16 SIMPLE JET PUMP Eductors are designed to pump large volumes of water. In modern ships, fixed eductors have replaced fire and bilge pumps as a primary means for pumping bilges, deballasting, and dewatering compartments. Eductors allow centrifugal fire pumps to serve indirectly as drainage pumps without the risk of becoming fouled with debris from the bilges. The centrifugal pumps pressurize the firemain, and water from the fire main actuates the eductors. The eductors in modern combat ships have a much larger pumping capacity than fire and bilge pumps. They are installed as part of the piping in the drainage system and are flanged to permit easy removal and disassembly when repairs are necessary. Because of their simplicity, jet pumps generally require very little maintenance. Since there are no moving parts, only the nozzles will show wear. The erosion action will cause the nozzles to become enlarged; in this case they are generally renewed. Occasionally the nozzles are removed; the strainers, if fitted, are cleaned; and a special reamer is inserted in the nozzles to clean out any rust or scale that may have accumulated. CAUTION: Improper starting or securing of an eductor can cause rapid flooding of the space being pumped. Always follow the procedure on the posted operating card. CAUTION: Improper lighting off and securing of an eductor can cause rapid flooding of the space being pumped. Always follow the proper procedure!
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LIQUID JET EDUCTORS - Eductors use the kinetic energy of a motive liquid to entrain another liquid, mix the two, and discharge the mixture against a counter pressure. Therefore, an eductor converts energy of pressure into energy of motion to entrain a suction fluid, then back into energy of pressure to discharge against a head. Ejectors of this type are used in large numbers throughout industry for pumping and mixing operations. Liquid under pressure enters the eductor and produces a high velocity jet. This jet action creates a vacuum in the line that causes the suction liquid to flow up into the body of the eductor where it is entrained by the motive liquid. Both liquids are thoroughly mixed in the throat of the eductor and are discharged against back pressure. The body, which has no pockets, allows the motive liquid to move straight through the eductor and reduces the possibility of solids in the suction material collecting and clogging. In addition, pressure drop in the suction chamber is held to a minimum.
20
ADVANTAGES Safe - Eductors can be used in hazardous No other pumping-mixing device offers all locations where electrically operated alternates these outstanding features. would require explosion proofing at considerable cost. Low Cost - Units are small in relation to the Versatile - Various piping arrangements permit work they do and cost is correspondingly low. adapting to environmental conditions. Eductors of various types can handle granular solids, semi-solids, and slurries without contamination. Self Priming - Eductors are self-priming. Automatically Controlled - Units can be They operate equally well in continuous or adapted for automatic control by means of a intermittent service. pressure liquid regulating spindle or a snapvalve and float arrangement. No Moving Parts - Eductors are exceedingly Perform Double Duty - Eductors mix motive simple and reliable. There are no moving parts and suction liquids intimately while pumping to wear or break in a basic eductor. Even against a counter pressure. when equipped with accessories such as regulating spindles, snap valves, float mechanisms, they require little attention, only periodic inspection and maintenance. Corrosion and Erosion Resistant - Because Easy to Install - Connections can be made to they can be made of practically any workable suit your piping requirements. Little space is material, or coated with corrosion-resistant required to accommodate units and they are materials, eductors can be made highly normally so light in weight they can be resistant to the actions of the liquids handled supported by the piping to which they are or the environment in which located. attached.
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AIR JET SYPHONS - Air Jet Syphons are designed for liquid pumping operations where steam is not readily available or where liquids must be sampled without dilution. Small samples of liquid can be taken and very high lifts up to 15 meters can be obtained. The conditions under which these units will give satisfactory performance are strictly limited. They produce small suction capacities (0.22 M3/Hr or less) and operate against very limited discharge pressures because the motive gas is non-condensable and energy is expended in the recompression of the gas at the discharge of the siphon. Air under pressure enters the siphon through the pressure nozzle and produces a high velocity jet. This jet action creates a vacuum in the line that causes the suction material to be drawn up into the body of the siphon where it is entrained by the air. Since air does not condense, it is still present in the discharge and it is therefore necessary to allow for separation of the air and liquid at the discharge. 21 Generally stated, the smaller the siphon the more efficient its performance. In the smaller sizes the motive gas mixes intimately with the suction fluid and remains in that state through the discharge piping. In the larger sizes, however, this intimate mixing does not occur so readily and the suction fluid has a tendency to be discharged in slugs. This has a detrimental effect on the performance of the jet and is especially bad on available discharge head.
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4.. DISPLACEMENT PUMPS 4 DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

TYPES OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS
RECIPROCATING PUMPS - A reciprocating pump moves water or other liquid by a plunger or piston that reciprocates (travels back and forth) inside a cylinder. Reciprocating pumps are positive-displacement pumps; each stroke displaces a definite quantity of liquid, regardless of the resistance against which the pump is operating. CLASSIFICATION OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS - Reciprocating pumps are usually classified as the: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Direct acting or indirect acting Simplex (single) or duplex (double) Single acting or double acting High pressure or low pressure Vertical or horizontal
The reciprocating pump shown in Figure 17 is a direct-acting, simplex, double-acting, highpressure, vertical pump. Now lets see what all these terms mean about the pump shown in the illustration. DIRECT-ACTING AND INDIRECT-ACTING PUMPS - The pump shown is direct acting because the pump rod is a DIRECT extension of the piston rod and, therefore, the piston in the power end is DIRECTLY connected to the plunger in the liquid end. Most reciprocating pumps are direct acting. In an indirect-acting pump, there is some intermediate mechanism between the piston and pump plunger. The intermediate mechanism may be a lever or a cam. This arrangement can be used to change the relative length of the strokes of piston and plunger or to vary the relative speed between piston and plunger. Or the pump may use a rotating crankshaft such as a chemical proportioning pump in a distilling unit. SIMPLEX AND DUPLEX PUMPS - The pump shown in Figure 17 is called a single or simplex pump because it has only one liquid cylinder. Simplex pumps may be either direct acting or indirect acting. A double or duplex pump is an assembly of two single pumps placed side by side on the same foundation; the two steam cylinders are cast in a single block, and the two liquid cylinders are cast in another block. Duplex reciprocating pumps are seldom found in modern combatant ships, but were commonly used in older ships. SINGLE-ACTING AND DOUBLE-ACTING PUMPS - In a single-acting pump, the liquid is drawn into the liquid cylinder on the first or SUCTION stroke and is forced out of the cylinder on the return or DISCHARGE stroke. In a double-acting pump, each stroke serves both to draw in liquid and to discharge liquid. As one end of the cylinder is filled, the other end is emptied; on the return stroke, the end which was just emptied is filled and the end which was just filled is emptied.
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The pump shown in Figure 17 is double acting. (NOTE: Only one of two sets of valves is shown in Figure 17)
FIGURE 17 RECIPROCATING PUMP HIGH-PRESSURE AND LOW-PRESSURE PUMPS - The pump shown in Figure 17 is designed to operate with a discharge pressure that is higher than the pressure of the steam operating the piston in the steam cylinder; in other words, it is a high-pressure pump. In a highpressure pump the steam piston is larger in diameter than the plunger in the liquid cylinder. Since the area of the steam piston is greater than the area of the plunger in the liquid cylinder, the total force exerted by the steam against the steam piston is concentrated on the smaller working area of the plunger in the liquid cylinder. Therefore, the pressure per square inch is greater in the liquid cylinder than the steam cylinder. A high-pressure pump discharges a comparatively small volume of liquid against a high pressure. A low-pressure pump, on the other hand, has a comparatively low discharge pressure but a larger volume of discharge. In a low-pressure pump, the steam piston is smaller than the plunger in the liquid cylinder.
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The standard way of designating the size of a reciprocating pump is by giving three dimensions, in the following order: 1. The diameter of the steam piston 2. The diameter of the pump plunger 3. The length of the stroke For example, a 12 x 11 x 19-inch reciprocating pump has a steam piston which is 12 inches in diameter, a pump plunger which is 11 inches in diameter and a stroke which is 18 inches in length. The designation enables you to tell immediately whether the pump is a high-pressure or a low-pressure pump. VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL PUMPS - Finally, the pump shown in Figure 1 is classified as vertical because the steam piston and the pump plunger move up and down. Most reciprocating pumps in naval use are vertical; however, you may occasionally encounter a horizontal pump, in which the piston moves back and forth rather than up and down. The following discussion of reciprocating pumps is generally concerned with direct-acting, simplex, double-acting, vertical pumps. Most reciprocating pumps used in the Navy are of this type. CONSTRUCTION OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS - The power end of a reciprocating pump consists of a bored cylinder in which the steam piston reciprocates. The steam cylinder is fitted with heads at each end; one head has an opening to accommodate the piston rod. Steam inlet and exhaust ports connect each end of the steam cylinder with the steam chest. Drain valves are installed in the steam cylinder so that water from condensation may be drained off. Automatic timing of the admission and release of steam to and from each end of the steam cylinder is accomplished by a valve operating assembly. This assembly connects the pilot valve operating rod and the pump rod (Figure 18). As the crosshead arm (sometimes called the rocker arm) is moved up and down by the movement of the pump rod, the moving tappet slides up and down on the pilot valve rod. The tappet collars are adjusted so that the pump will make the full designed stroke. The piston valve gear, commonly used for automatic timing, consists of a piston slide valve and a pilot slide valve. The position of the pilot slide valve is controlled by the position of the main piston in the steam cylinder. At the completion of the down stroke of the pump, the crosshead arm moves the tappet against the upper adjustable tappet collar to actuate the pilot slide valve. This movement admits steam to reposition the floating piston. The movement of the floating piston opens ports to admit steam to the underside of the piston in the steam cylinder and to exhaust the steam above the piston. This causes the piston to move upward. Once the pump has completed the up-stroke, the cycle repeats itself in reverse. Piston valves are used for steam pressures in excess of about 150 to 200 psi. Floating piston valves also eliminate unbalanced loads and minimize steam leakage and wear.
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FIGURE 18 VALVE OPERATING ASSEMBLY The liquid end of the reciprocating pump has a piston and cylinder assembly similar to that of the power or steam end. The piston in the liquid end is often called a PLUNGER. A VALVE CHEST, sometimes called a WATER CHEST, is attached to the liquid cylinder. The valve chest contains two sets of suction and discharge valves: one set to serve the upper end of the liquid cylinder and one to serve the lower end. The valves are so arranged that the pump takes suction from the suction chamber and discharges through the discharge chamber on both the up and down strokes. A relief valve is installed in the discharge piping between the pump and the discharge valve. The relief valve is to protect the pump and the piping against excessive pressure. RECIPROCATING PUMP CARE AND MAINTENANCE - Reciprocating pumps are easy to operate and usually are very reliable units. They do, however, require routine maintenance and, upon occasion, some repair work. Consult the manufacturers technical manual for details concerning the repair of a specific unit. Routine maintenance, however, is performed according to PMS requirements.
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Before repairing or examining a pump, assemble the MRCS and all the pertinent blue-prints, drawings, and available data. These drawings and data will give you the required clearances, tools, measurements, materials, and other important information to be used. In addition, you should have the complete history of the pump being repaired. You will know what has been done previously, when repairs were made, and what kind of trouble has been encountered with this particular pump. Whenever reciprocating pumps are opened for repairs, you should take micrometer or caliper measurements of the main cylinders and the valve chest cylinders. Make these measurements on the fore and aft and athwartship diameters at the top, middle, and bottom. Record the results with accompanying remarks on a diagrammatic sketch showing the measurements and the date on which they were made. Remember that the steam end of a reciprocating pump should NOT be dismantled until a thorough check reveals that the water end is satisfactory. Most reciprocating pump troubles, however, are caused by fouled water cylinders, worn valves, or faulty conditions in the pipe connections external to the pump.
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TYPES OF ROTARY PUMPS ROTARY PUMPS - The operation of a positive-displacement rotary pump depends upon the principle that rotating gears, vanes, screws, or lobes trap liquid in the inlet side of the pump casing and move it to the outlet connection-thus producing flow. (POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT) means that a definite quantity of liquid is moved from the inlet to the outlet side on each revolution.) In a positive displacement pump, pressure is the result of RESISTANCE TO FLOW in the system to which it discharges. Pressure is limited only by the bursting strength and available power of the pump. For this reason, relief valves are always fitted on the pump discharge. Positive-displacement rotary pumps have largely replaced reciprocating pumps for pumping viscous liquids in naval ships, as they have a greater capacity for their weight and occupy less space. Rotary pumps have very small clearances between rotating parts to minimize slippage (leakage) from the discharge side back to the inlet of the pump. With close clearances, these pumps must be operated at relatively low speeds to obtain reliable operation and maintain capacity over an extended period of time. ROTARY PUMPS - Operate in a circular motion and displace a constant amount of liquid with each revolution of the pump shaft. In general, this is accomplished by pumping elements (e.g., gears, lobes, vanes, screws) moving in such a way as to expand volumes to allow liquid to enter the pump. These volumes are then contained by the pump geometry until the pumping elements move in such a way as to reduce the volumes and force liquid out of the pump. Flow from rotary PD pumps is relatively unaffected by differential pressure and is smooth and continuous. Rotary PD pumps have very tight internal clearances, which minimize the amount of liquid that slips back from discharge to suction side of the pump. Because of this, they are very efficient. These pumps work well with a wide range of viscosities, particularly high viscosities. DRIVEN GEAR - Clearances between the gear teeth (the outside diameter of the gear) and the casing, and between the end face and the casing are only a few thousandths of an inch. As they turn, the gears unmesh and liquid flows into the pockets, which are vacated by the meshing gear teeth. This creates the suction that draws the liquid into the pump. The liquid is then carried around in the pockets formed by the gear teeth and the casing. At the outlet, or discharge side, the liquid is pushed out (displaced) by the meshing of the gear teeth and is forced to flow through the outlet connection of the pump. SIMPLE GEAR PUMP - The simple gear pump (Figure 19) has two spur gears which mesh together and revolve in opposite directions. One is the DRIVING GEAR, and the other is the DRIVEN GEAR. Clearances between the gear teeth (outside diameter of gear) and the casing and between the end face and the casing are only a few thousandths or an inch. As the gears turn, the gears unmesh and liquid flows into the pockets which are vacated by the meshing gear teeth. This creates the suction that draws the liquid into the pump. The liquid is then carried along in the pockets formed by the gear teeth and the casing. On the discharge side, the liquid is displaced by the meshing of the gears, and forced out through the discharge side of the pump.
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FIGURE 19 SIMPLE GEAR ROTARY PUMP HERRINGBONE GEAR PUMP - In the herringbone gear pump (Figure 20), a modification of the simple gear pump, one discharge phase begins before the previous discharge phase is entirely complete. This overlapping tends to give a steadier discharge pressure than is found in the simple gear pump. Power-driven pumps of this type are sometimes used for low-pressure lubricating oil service and fuel service
. FIGURE 20 - HERRINGBONE GEAR PUMP
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HELICAL GEAR PUMP - The helical gear pump (Figure 21) is still another modification of the simple gear pump. Because of the helical gear design, the overlapping of successive discharges from spaces between the teeth is even greater than it is in the herringbone gear pump. The discharge flow is, accordingly, even smoother. Since the discharge flow is smooth in the helical gear pump, the gears can be designed with a small number of large teeth, thus allowing increased capacity without sacrificing smoothness of flow.
FIGURE 21 HELICAL GEAR PUMP The pumping gears in this type of pump are driven by a set of timing and driving gears, which also function to maintain the required close clearances while preventing actual metallic contact between the pumping gears. Metallic contact between the teeth of the pumping gears would provide a tighter seal against leakage. However, it would cause rapid wear of the teeth because foreign matter in the pumped liquid would be present on the contact surfaces. Roller bearings at both ends of the gear shafts maintain proper alignment, thereby minimizing the friction loss in the transmission of power. Stuffing boxes are used to prevent leakage at the shafts. The helical gear pump is used to pump nonviscous liquids and light oils at high speed. At lower speed, it can be used to pump heavy, viscous materials. LOBE PUMP -The lobe pump is still another variation of the simple gear pump. A lobe pump (heliquad type) is illustrated in Figure 22. The lobes are considerably larger than gear teeth, but
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there are only two or three lobes on each rotor. The rotors are driven by external spur gears on the rotor shafts. Some lobe pumps are made with replaceable inserts (gibs) at the extremities of the lobes. These inserts take up the wear which would otherwise be sustained by the ends of the lobes. In addition, they maintain a tight seal between the lobe ends and the casing. The inserts are usually seated on a spring. In this way, they automatically compensate for considerable wear of both the gibs and the casing. Replaceable cover plates (liner plates) are fitted at each end of the casing where the lobe faces cause heavy wear.
FIGURE 22 LOBE PUMP (HELIQUAD TYPE) SCREW PUMP -There are several types of screw pumps. The main points of difference between the various types are the number of intermeshing screws and the pitch of the screws. Figures 23 and 24 show a positive displacement, double-screw, low-pitch pump. Screw pumps are primarily used for pumping all viscous fluids such as JP-5 and diesel oil. Hydraulic systems on some ships use the screw pump as the pressure supply for the system. The pump may be either motor-driven or turbine-driven. In the screw pump, liquid is trapped and forced through the pump by the action of rotating screws. As the rotor turns, the liquid flows in between the threads at the outer end of each pair of screws. The threads carry the liquid along within the housing to the center of the pump where it is discharged.
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FIGURE 23 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT, DOUBLE SCREW LOW PITCH PUMP
FIGURE 24 TRIPLE SCREW HIGH PITCH PUMP
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VANE PUMPS - Vane pumps are used successfully in a wide variety of applications (see below). Because of vane strength and the absence of metal-to-metal contact, vane pumps are ideally suited for low-viscosity, nonlubricating liquids up to 2,200 cSt / 10,000 SSU. Such liquids include LPG, ammonia, solvents, alcohol, fuel oils, gasoline, and refrigerants. Vane pumps are available in a number of vane configurations including sliding vane (left), flexible vane, swinging vane, rolling vane, and external vane. Vane pumps are noted for their reliability, dry priming, easy maintenance, and good suction characteristics. Moreover, vanes can usually handle fluid temperatures from -32C / -25F to 260C / 500F and pressures to 30 BAR / 400 PSI. Each type of vane pump offers unique advantages. For example, external vane pumps can handle large solids. Flexible vane pumps, on the other hand, can only handle small solids but create good vacuum. Sliding vane pumps can run dry for short periods of time and handle small amounts of vapor.
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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - All personnel concerned with the Operation of rotary pumps MUST observe the following safety precautions: 1. Before they are fitted, test relief valves to see that they function at the designed pressure or as PMS directs. 2. NEVER attempt to jack a pump by hand while the steam valve to the driving unit is open 3. Do NOT tie down, or otherwise render inoperative, the overspeed trip, the speed-limiting governor, or the speed-regulating governor. 4. NEVER operate a positive-displacement rotary pump with the discharge valve closed unless the discharge is protected by a properly set relief valve of a size sufficient to prevent a dangerous rise in pressure. OPERATING TROUBLES - From time to time you are likely to have some troubles with rotary pumps. The most common causes of trouble are (1) the system fails to build up the required pressure, or (2) the pump fails to discharge fluid. When these troubles occur, proceed as follows: 1. Stop the unit. 2. See that all valves in the pump suction lines are open. 3. Check the packing of all inlet valves and manifold valve stems to ensure that no air is being drawn into the suction piping. 4. Check the pump shaft packing for air leakage into the pump. 5. Check the spring case and the inlet and outlet connections of the discharge relief valve to ensure that no air is leaking into the pump suction. 6. Start the pump again. When it is up to the proper speed, read the suction gauge to see if the pump is pulling a vacuum. If a low vacuum (5 or 6 inches of mercury, or less) is indicated, air is probably leaking into the pump casing. If no vacuum is shown on the suction pressure gauge, it is possible that the pump is not primed. (This should rarely occur once the pump casing has once been filled.) If the system still does not build up pressure, close the discharge valve gradually, and note the pressure gauge at the same time. If the pressure increases, an open discharge line is indicated. If the pressure does not increase, open the discharge valve and close the suction valve. If the pump is in good condition with close clearances, a vacuum ranging from 15 to 25 inches of mercury (in.Hg) should be indicated by a vacuum gauge connected to the inlet of the pump. CAUTION Do not operate the pump any longer than necessary to get a gauge reading; the pumping elements depend on a constant flow for lubrication. If a higher than normal vacuum is indicated, there may be an obstruction in the inlet piping or the suction strainer may be clogged. If the pump is noisy, mechanical defects such as misalignment or a bent shaft may be indicated.
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CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL FOR VARIOUS APPLICATIONS Materials Of Construction / Configuration Options vane pumps Externals (head, casing, bracket) - Cast iron, ductile iron, steel, and stainless steel. Vane, Pushrods - Viton, Ryton, PPS, carbon, Teflon, and peek. Liner & End Plates - Cast iron, ductile iron, steel, carbon, and stainless steel Bearing Cap - Cast iron, ductile iron, steel, and stainless steel Shaft Seal - Component mechanical seals, industry-standard cartridge mechanical seals, and magnetically-driven pumps Packing - Impregnated packing, if seal not required.
Materials Of Construction / Configuration Options Lobe pumps Externals (head, casing, bracket) - Cast iron gearbox and bracket, stainless steel gearbox, 316 stainless steel head and casing. Internals (rotor, idler) - 316 stainless steel lobes and shaft. Shaft Seal - Lipseals, component mechanical seal, double mechanical seal.
Materials Of Construction / Configuration Options Internal gear Externals (head, casing, bracket) - Cast iron, ductile iron, steel, stainless steel, Alloy 20, and higher alloys. Internals (rotor, idler) - Cast iron, ductile iron, steel, stainless steel, Alloy 20, and higher alloys. Bushing - Carbon graphite, bronze, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, ceramic, colomony, and other specials materials as needed. Shaft Seal - Lip seals, component mechanical seals, industry-standard cartridge mechanical seals, gas barrier seals, magnetically-driven pumps. Packing - Impregnated packing, if seal not required.
Materials Of Construction/Configuration Options - As the following list indicates, rotary pumps can be constructed in a wide variety of materials. By precisely matching the materials of construction with the liquid, superior life cycle performance will result. External gear pumps in particular can be engineered to the exact need of corrosionresistant pumps. By using readily-available materials such as Ryton, Ultimet, Viton, stainless steel, and other materials, external gear pumps can be constructed to perform very well in corrosive liquid applications. For example, composite external gear pumps can handle Acetone, Sulphuric Acid, Tomato Juice, Zinc chloride, and hundreds of other corrosive liquids
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EXTERNAL GEAR Externals (head, casing, bracket) Iron, ductile iron, steel, stainless steel. Internals (rotor, idler) - Steel, stainless steel. Bushing - Carbon, bronze, silicon carbide. Shaft Seal - Packing, lip seal, component mechanical seal, magnetically-driven pump. A composite external gear pump performs well in corrosive liquid
applications.
Composite External Gear Externals (head, casing, bracket) - Ryton bracket and casing, stainless steel internal pressure relief valve. Internals (rotor, idler) - Ryton gears, Teflon gears, hardened stainless steel shaft, and Teflon shaft. Bushing - Carbon graphite, silicon carbide. Shaft Seal - Packing, lip seal, component mechanical seal, magnetically-driven pump.
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS DISPLACEMENT PUMPS POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS RECIPROCATING ADVANTAGES Simple, flexible and reliable design Easy operation High head / low flow Some designs can be used for metering Handles hi viscosities up to 100,000 ssu No packing or seals (self contained diaphragm only) Handle slurries (diaphragm only) High mechanical efficiency Constant capacity Self priming (sometimes) Can be powered by steam, gas (air) or electricity depending on design POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS RECIPROCATING DISADVANTAGES Limited materials of construction Large space requirements High NPSH requirements Not suitable for slurries (exception diaphragm) High cost Inflexible operating characteristics Pump must be protected against over pressure Pulsating flow Higher maintenance cost POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS ROTARY ADVANTAGES Lower cost than reciprocating Small space requirements Wide range of capacity head and viscosity Good vapor handler Many types can be operated in either direction Many types are very simple with no valves POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS ROTARY DISADVANTAGES Close tolerances Limited handling of solids Must be protected from over pressure by suitable relief device Low volumetric efficiency Many types require a viscous fluid to function satisfactorily High maintenance cost
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VANE PUMPS ADVANTAGES Medium capacity Medium speed Thin liquids Sometimes preferred for solvents, LPG Can run dry for short periods Can have one seal or stuffing box Develops good vacuum
VANE PUMPS DISADVANTAGES Can have two stuffing boxes Complex housing Not suitable for high pressures Not suitable for high viscosity Not good with abrasives LOBE PUMP ADVANTAGES Pass medium solids. No metal-to-metal contact. Superior CIP/SIP capabilities. Positive suction, nonpulsating discharge.
LOBE PUMP DISADVANTAGES Requires timing gears. Requires two seals. Reduced lift with thin liquids.
INTERNAL GEAR PUMP ADVANTAGES Only two moving parts. Only one stuffing box. Positive suction, nonpulsating discharge. Ideal for high-viscosity liquids. Constant and even discharge regardless of pressure conditions. Operates well in either direction. Can be made to operate with one direction of flow with either rotation. Low NPSH required. Single adjustable end clearance. Easy to maintain. Flexible design offers application customization.
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INTERNAL GEAR PUMP DISADVANTAGES Usually requires moderate speeds. Medium pressure limitations. One bearing runs in the product pumped. Overhung load on shaft bearing.
EXTERNAL GEAR PUMP ADVANTAGES High speed. Medium pressure. No overhung bearing loads. Relatively quiet operation. Design accommodates wide variety of materials.
EXTERNAL GEAR PUMP DISADVANTAGES Four bushings in liquid area. No solids allowed. Fixed End Clearances.
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DESCRIPTION OF HOW THE VARIOUS PUMPS WORK HOW VANE PUMPS WORK - Despite the different configurations, most vane pumps operate under the same general principle described below. 1. A slotted rotor or impeller is eccentrically supported in a cycloidal cam. The rotor is located close to the wall of the cam so a crescent-shaped cavity is formed. The rotor is sealed into the cam by two sideplates. Vanes or blades fit within the slots of the impeller. As the impeller rotates (yellow arrow) and fluid enters the pump, centrifugal force, hydraulic pressure, and/or pushrods push the vanes to the walls of the housing. The tight seal among the vanes, rotor, cam, and sideplate is the key to the good suction characteristics common to the Vane pumping principle. 2. The housing and cam force fluid into the pumping chamber through holes in the cam (small red arrow on the bottom of the pump). Fluid enters the pockets created by the vanes, rotor, cam, and sideplate. 3. As the impeller continues around, the vanes sweep the fluid to the opposite side of the crescent where it is squeezed through discharge holes of the cam as the vane approaches the point of the crescent (small red arrow on the side of the pump). Fluid then exits the discharge port.
HOW LOBE PUMPS WORK - Lobe pumps are similar to external gear pumps in operation in that fluid flows around the interior of the casing. Unlike external gear pumps, however, the lobes do not make contact. Lobe contact is prevented by external timing gears located in the gearbox. Pump shaft support bearings are located in the gearbox, and since the bearings are out of the pumped liquid, pressure is limited by bearing location and shaft deflection. 1. As the lobes come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the pump. Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes as they rotate. 2. Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the lobes and the casing -- it does not pass between the lobes. 3. Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure. Lobe pumps are frequently used in food applications because they handle solids without damaging the product. Particle size pumped can be much larger in lobe pumps than in other PD types. Since the lobes do not make contact, and clearances are not as close as in
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other PD pumps, this design handles low viscosity liquids with diminished performance. Loading characteristics are not as good as other designs, and suction ability is low. Highviscosity liquids require reduced speeds to achieve satisfactory performance. Reductions of 25% of rated speed and lower are common with high-viscosity liquids.
HOW INTERNAL GEAR PUMPS WORK 1. Liquid enters the suction port between the rotor (large exterior gear) and idler (small interior gear) teeth. The arrows indicate the direction of the pump and liquid. 2. Liquid travels through the pump between the teeth of the "gear-within-a-gear" principle. The crescent shape divides the liquid and acts as a seal between the suction and discharge ports. 3. The pump head is now nearly flooded, just prior to forcing the liquid out of the discharge port. Intermeshing gears of the idler and rotor form locked pockets for the liquid which assures volume control. 4. Rotor and idler teeth mesh completely to form a seal equidistant from the discharge and suction ports. This seal forces the liquid out of the discharge port.
HOW EXTERNAL GEAR PUMPS WORK - External gear pumps are similar in pumping action to internal gear pumps in that two gears come into and out of mesh to produce flow. However, the external gear pump uses two identical gears rotating against each other - one gear is driven by a motor and it in turn drives the other gear. Each gear is supported by a shaft with bearings on both sides of the gear. 1. As the gears come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the pump. Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the gear teeth as they rotate. 2. Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the teeth and the casing -- it does not pass between the gears. 3. Finally, the meshing of the gears forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure.
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Because the gears are supported on both sides, external gear pumps are quiet-running and are routinely used for high-pressure applications such as hydraulic applications. With no overhung bearing loads, the rotor shaft can't deflect and cause premature wear.
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TRAPS
STEAM TRAPS - Steam traps in steam lines drain condensate from the lines without allowing steam to escape. There are many different kinds of steam traps. They all consist essentially of a valve and some temperature or liquid level sensing device or an arrangement that will cause the valve to open and close as necessary to drain the condensate without allowing the escape of steam. Some designs are suitable for low pressures and low temperatures, others for high pressures and high temperatures. Some examples of common types of steam traps are the mechanical, thermostatic, and orifice. MECHANICAL STEAM TRAPS - Mechanical steam traps may be of the ball float type or the bucket type. BALL-FLOAT TRAP - In a ball-float steam trap, such as the one shown in Figure 25, the valve of the trap is connected to the float in such a way that the valve opens when the float rises. The operating principle of the trap is quite simple. When steam cools, it condenses (changes state) back to water. The liquid water, called condensate, flows by gravity into the chamber around the ball valve. As the water level rises, the float is lifted, thereby lifting the valve plug and opening the valve. The condensate drains out and the float settles to a lower position, closing the valve. The condensate that passes out of the trap is returned to the feed system. In Figure 25, the two white circles directly above and below the ball float are connections (holes) for a gauge glass, which the operator checks to set the desired liquid level in the steam trap.
FIGURE 25 BALL FLOAT STEAM TRAP BUCKET-TYPE TRAP - Figure 26 shows a common bucket trap that is suitable for high pressures and temperatures and has a large capacity. Its operation may be described as follows: As soon as sufficient water enters the trap, the bucket, being buoyant, floats and closes the valve.
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As condensation increases, the body of the trap fills and water enters the bucket, causing it to sink. The bucket being attached to the discharge valve, opens the discharge valve and the trap begins to discharge, continuing to do so until the condensation is blown out of the body to the edge of the bucket. At this point, the water in the bucket continues to be forced out until the bucket again becomes buoyant and rises, closing the valve.
FIGURE 26 BUCKET TYPE STEAM TRAP THERMOSTATIC STEAM TRAPS - There are several types of thermostatic steam traps. In general, these traps are more compact and have fewer moving parts than most mechanical steam traps. The operation of a bellows-type thermostatic trap is controlled by expansion of the vapor of a volatile liquid enclosed in a bellows-type element. Steam enters the trap body and heats the volatile liquid in the sealed bellows, thus causing expansion of the bellows. The valve is attached to the bellows in such a way that the valve closes when the bellows expands. The valve remains closed, trapping steam in the trap body. As the steam cools and condenses, the bellows cools and contracts, opening the valve and allowing the condensate to drain. The impulse and bimetallic steam traps are two examples of those that use the thermostatic principle.
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IMPULSE STEAM TRAPS - Impulse steam traps of the type shown in Figure 27 are commonly used in steam drain collecting systems onboard ship. Steam and condensate pass through a strainer before entering the trap. A circular baffle keeps the entering steam and condensate from striking on the cylinder or on the disk. The impulse trap operates on the principle that hot water under pressure tends to flash into steam when the pressure is reduced. So that you understand how this principle is used, let's consider the arrangement of parts shown in Figure 20 and see what happens to the flow of condensate under various conditions.
FIGURE 27 IMPULSE STEAM TRAP The only moving part in the steam trap is the disk, which is rather unusual in design. Near the top of the disk is a flange that acts as a piston. As you can see in the insert, the working surface above the flange is larger than the working surface below the flange. The importance of having this larger effective area above the flange is brought out later in this discussion. A control orifice runs through the disk from top to bottom and is considerably smaller at the top than at the bottom. The bottom part of the disk extends through and beyond the orifice in the seat. The upper part of the disk (including the flange) is inside a cylinder. The cylinder tapers inward, so the amount of clearance between the flange and the cylinder varies according to the
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position of the valve. When the valve is open, the clearance is greater than when the valve is closed. When the trap is first cut in (put in service), pressure from the inlet (chamber A) acts against the underside of the flange and lifts the disk off the valve seat. Condensate is thus allowed to pass out through the orifice in the seat. At the same time, a small amount of condensate (CONTROL FLOW) flows up past the flange and into chamber B. The control flow discharges through the control orifice, into the outlet side of the trap. The pressure in chamber B remains lower than the pressure in chamber A. As the line warms up, the temperature of the condensate flowing through the trap increases. The reverse taper of the cylinder varies the amount of flow around the flange. This continues until a balanced position is reached in which the total force exerted above the flange is equal to the total force exerted below the flange. It is important to note that there is still a PRESSURE DIFFERENCE between chamber A and chamber B. The FORCE is equalized because the effective area above the flange is larger than the effective area below the flange. As the temperature of the condensate approaches its boiling point, some of the control flow going to chamber B flashes into steam as it enters the low-pressure area. The steam has a much larger volume than the water from which it is generated. Therefore, pressure is built up in the space above the flange (chamber B). The force exerted on the top of the flange pushes the disk downward and closes the valve. With the valve closed, the only flow through the trap is past the flange and through the control orifice. When the temperature of the condensate entering the trap drops slightly, condensate enters chamber B without flashing into steam. Pressure in chamber B is thus reduced to the point that the valve opens and allows condensate to flow through the orifice in the valve seat. Thus the entire cycle is repeated. With a normal condensate load, the valve opens and closes at frequent intervals. This discharges a small amount of condensate at each opening. With a heavy condensate load, the valve remains wide open and allows a heavy, continuous discharge of condensate. (You can tell if this valve is working properly by listening to it with an engineer's stethoscope. A clicking sound indicates the valve disk is moving up and down on its seat.) BIMETALLIC STEAM TRAPS - Bimetallic steam traps are used in many ships to drain condensate from main steam lines, auxiliary steam lines, and other steam components. The main working parts of this type of steam trap are a segmented bimetallic element and a ball-type check valve (Figure 28). The bimetallic element consists of several bimetallic strips fastened together in a segmented fashion. One end of the bimetallic element is fastened rigidly to a part of the valve body. The other end, which is free to move, is fastened to the top of the stem of the ball-type check valve.
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Line pressure acting on the check valve tends to keep the valve open. When steam enters the trap body, the bimetallic element expands unequally because of the different response to the temperature of the two metals. The bimetallic element deflects upward at its free end. This moves the valve stem upward and closes the valve. As the steam cools and condenses, the bimetallic element moves downward toward the horizontal position. This opens the valve and allows some condensate to flow out through the valve. As the flow of condensate begins, an unbalance of line pressure across the valve is created. Since the line pressure is greater on the upper side of the ball of the check valve, the valve now opens wide and allows a full capacity flow of condensate.
FIGURE 28 - BIMETALLIC STEAM TRAP
ORIFICE-TYPE STEAM TRAPS - Figure 29 shows the assembly of an orifice-type steam trap, Constant-flow drain orifices may be used in systems of 150 psi and above where condensate load and pressure remain near constant. The constant-flow drain orifice operates on a thermodynamic principle-the variable density of condensate. The density of any fluid changes with temperature. As the temperature of the condensate decreases, its density will increase, as will the flow of condensate through the orifice. The reverse is also true. As the temperature of the condensate increases, its density will decrease, as will the flow of the condensate through the orifice. Because of the difference in densities between the steam and the condensate, the condensate will flow through the orifice at a faster rate.
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FIGURE 29 ORIFICE TYPE STEAM TRAP ASSEMBLY PACKING AND GASKET MATERIALS - You will use gasket materials to seal fixed joints in steam, water, fuel, air, lube oil, and other piping systems. You will use packing materials to seal joints that slide or rotate under operating conditions (moving joints). There are many commercial types and forms of packing and gasket material. The Navy has simplified the selection of packing and gasket materials commonly used in naval service. The Naval Sea Systems Command has prepared a packing and gasket chart. This chart shows the symbol numbers and the recommended applications of all types and kinds of packing and gasket materials. A copy of the chart should be located in all engineering spaces. A four-digit symbol number identifies each type of packing and gasket. The first digit indicates the class of service with respect to fixed and moving joints. For example, if the first digit is 1, it indicates a moving joint (moving rods, shafts, valve stems, and so forth). If the first digit is 2, it indicates a fixed joint (such as a flange or a bonnet). The second digit indicates the material of which the packing or gasket is primarily composed. This may be vegetable fiber, rubber, metal, and so on. The third and fourth digits indicate the different styles or forms of the packing or gaskets made from the material. To find the right packing material, check the maintenance requirement card (MRC) or the NAVSEA packing and gasket chart. The MRC lists the symbol numbers and the size and number or rings required. The NAVSEA packing and gasket chart lists symbol numbers and includes a list of materials. FLANGE SAFETY SHIELDS - A fire in the engine room can be caused by a leak at a fuel or lube-oil pipe-flange connection. Even the smallest leak can spray fine droplets of lube oil or fuel on nearby hot surfaces, such as the exhaust manifold of a diesel engine. To reduce this possibility, spray shields (flange safety shields) are installed on piping flanges of flammable liquid systems, especially in areas where the fire hazard is apparent. (See Figure 30.) The spray shields are usually made of aluminized glass cloth and are simply wrapped and wired around the flange.
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FIGURE 30A FLANGE SAFETY SHIELDS
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FIGURE 30B FLANGE SAFETY SHIELDS EQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENT TAG-OUT - Whenever you make repairs to equipment, you will be required to isolate and tag-out the equipment of that section of the system. The tagout program provides procedures to be used when a component, a piece of equipment, a system, or a portion of a system must be isolated for preventive or corrective maintenance. The tag-out program also provides procedures to be used when an instrument becomes unreliable or is not operating properly. The major difference between equipment tag-out and instrument tag-out is that labels are used for instrument tag-out and tags are used for equipment tag-out. Tag-out procedures are MANDATORY and are standardized aboard ship and repair activities through local written instructions.
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PACKING OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS The importance of packing the pump correctly cannot be overemphasized. Many packing failures are due to incorrect installation of the packing. The following steps have been devised to ensure effective installation of packing on pumps. 1. REMOVE ALL THE OLD PAKCING FROM THE STUFFING BOX. Clean box and shaft thoroughly and examine shaft or sleeve for wear and scoring. Replace shaft or sleeve if wear is excessive. 2. USE THE CORRECT CROSS SECTION OF PAKCING OR DIE-FORMED RINGS. To determine the correct packing size, measure the diameter of the shaft (inside the stuffing box area if possible) and then measure the diameter of the stuffing box (to give the outer diameter OD of the ring). Subtract the inner diameter ID measurement from the OD measurement and divide by two. The result is the required size. 3. WHEN USING COIL OR SPIRAL PACKING, ALWAYS CUT THE PACKING INTO SEPARATE RINGS. Never wind a coil of packing into a stuffing box. Rings can be cut with butt (square), skive (or diagonal) joints, depending on the method used for cutting. The best way to cut packing rings is to cut them on a mandrel with the same diameter as the shaft in the stuffing box area. If there is no shaft wear, rings can be cut on the shaft outside the stuffing box. Hold the packing tightly on the mandrel, but do not stretch. Cut the ring and insert it into the stuffing box, making certain it fits the packing space properly. Each additional ring can be cut in the same manner, or the first ring can be used as a master from which the balance of the rings are cut. If the butt cut rings are cut on a flat surface, be certain that the side of the master rings, and not the OD or ID surface, is laid on the rings to be cut. This is necessary so that the end of the rings can be reproduced. When cutting diagonal joints, use a miter board so that each successive ring can be cut at the correct angle. It is necessary that the rings be cut to the correct size. Otherwise, service life is reduced. This is where die-cut rings are of great advantage, as they give you the exact size ring for the ID of the shaft and the OD of the stuffing box. There is no waste due to incorrectly cut rings. 4. INSTALL ONE RING AT A TIME. Make sure it is clean and has not picked up any dirt in handling. Seat rings firmly. Joints of successive rings should be staggered and kept at least 90 degrees apart. Each individual ring should be firmly seated with a tamping tool, or suitable split bushing fitted to the stuffing box bore. When enough rings have been individually seated so that the nose of the gland will reach them, individual tamping should be supplemented by the gland. 5. AFTER THE LAST RING IS INSTALLED, take up gland bolts finger tight or very slightly snugged up. Do not jam the packing into place by excessive gland loading. Start pump and take up gland bolts until leakage is decreased to a tolerable minimum. Make sure gland bolts are taken up evenly. STOPPING LEAKAGE ENTIRELY AT THIS POINT WILL CAUSE THE PACKING TO BURN, HARDEN, AND DAMAGE EQUIPMENT.
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6. ALLOW PACKING TO LEAK FREELY STARTING UP A NEWLY PACKED PUMP. Excessive leakage during the first hour of operation will result in a better packing job over a longer period of time. Take up gradually on the gland as the packing seats, until leakage is reduced to a tolerable level, preferably 8-10 drops per minute, per inch of shaft diameter. Some packing can run virtually leak free. 7. WHEN SPECIFIED BY THE PUMP MANUFACTURER, PROVIDE MEANS OF LUBRICATING THE SHAFT AND PACKING THROUGH THE LANTERN RING BY SUPPLYING WATER, OIL, GREASE, OR LIQUID HANDLED IN THE PUMP. Fittings for this purpose are standard on many pumps. Flush pressure should be minimum 15 psi (1 bar) above stuffing box pressure. 8. IF THE STUFFING BOX HAS A LANTERN RING, make sure that the lantern ring is installed properly so it will remain under the inlet as gland pressure is applied. 9. REPLACE PACKING WHEN LEAKAGE CANNOT BE CONTROLLED BY FURTHER TAKE UP ON THE GLAND. DO NOT ADD MORE PAKCING RINGS. 10. ON BOTH CENTRIFUGAL AND RECIPROCATING PUMPS, about 70% of wear is on the outer two packings nearest the gland. However, each additional ring does throttle some fluid pressure. On most pumps, there must be enough rings so if one fails, another does the sealing, and the pump need not be shut down.
CAUTION: ALL PACKING MUST BE INSTALLED IN ACCORDANCE WITH MANUFACTURERS INSTRUCTIONS!!!
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USEFUL MATH FORMULAS Heat (feet) = Pressure (psig) x (2.31/specific gravity) Pressure (psig) = Head (feet) x (specific gravity/2.31) Capacity = Q Q = A (area) x V (velocity) = cubic feet per second GPM = 448.83 x (cubic feet per second) Horsepower Calculations Hydraulic Horsepower (HHP) = (gpm) x H(feet) x s.g/3960 Brake Horsepower (BHP) = gpm x H(feet) x s.g/3960 x pump efficiency
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PUMPS
OPERATIONS Starting Positive Displacement Pumps - Rotary 1) Check valve arrangement. Be sure where and what you are pumping. 2) Open Suction and Discharge valves. If the relief valve is on the line, rather than the pump, ensure that it is operative. ( no block valves are to be closed) 3) Start pump by turning electrical switch. 4) Watch amperage draw and/or discharge pressure. Make sure it stays within limits. 5) If the pump has to pull suction it may take a little time for the fluid to fill the pump. Be aware of any odd noises. If fluid does not fill the pump secure pump, check valve line-up and tank for discrepancies. 6) If fluid is cold it may take a little longer than normal. If system has been run recently the check valve should ensure discharge pressure right away. Stopping Positive Displacement Pumps - Rotary 1) Turn electrical switch to off position. 2) Make sure that the pump does not run backwards. ( this checks the condition and operation of discharge check valve) 3) Secure suction and discharge valves. Starting Positive Displacement Pumps Reciprocating 1) Check valve arrangement. Be sure where and what you are pumping. 2) Open Discharge Valve. 3) Open outlet of Steam or air end. 4) With air or steam drains open, drain condensate from the pump. 5) Crack Inlet Steam or Air line. Make sure condensate is discharged through the drains. 6) Open the Inlet Steam or Air line to desired amount. 7) Open the Suction line. 8) Make sure the pump is operating properly. 9) Regulate Inlet Steam or Air line for proper pumping rate. Stopping Positive Displacement Pumps Reciprocating 1) Secure Inlet Steam or Air Valve. Pump will stop. 2) Secure Suction and Discharge Valves. 3) Secure Steam or Air Outlet Valve. 4) Open Drain valve and drain condensate from driving side of piston. 5) Close Drain Valves on pump.
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PACKING
PACKING - There are many different kinds of packing that are used to seal machinery joints against leaks. As an engineer, you will be concerned primarily with the packing of moving and fixed joints. PACKING MOVING JOINTS - The packing of moving joints: sliding (pistons, piston rods, and expansion joints), rotating (shafts), and those operating helically and intermittently (valve stems), offer the most difficulty. The seals must prevent leakage without causing excessive friction, undue wear of the moving part, or rapid deterioration of the packing. Packing is inserted in stuffing boxes that consist of annular chambers located around valve stems, rotating shafts, and reciprocating pump rods. The packing material is compressed to the necessary extent and held in place by gland nuts or other devices. The types of packing used for moving joints depends primarily on whether the seal is for a sliding or rotating joint. The most common forms used are coils, rings, spirals, and molded rings (Figure 1 and 2). The packing of a sliding joint maybe one of a large variety of types. High-pressure asbestos rod packing was formerly used exclusively for sealing steam joints (rods, valve stems, etc.). This type has been superseded to a large extent, however, by wire-inserted square-braided asbestos, (for pressures up to 400 psi and temperatures up to 700F) and by plastic non-metallic asbestos encased in a braided wire covering (for pressures up to 650 psi and temperatures up to 850F). The sealing of rotating joints is a more difficult problem than that of sliding joints. With this type of joint, it is possible for the packing to create enough friction to prevent the machine from operating. In the sliding joint, the heat of friction created by the packing is dissipated through the moving part of the joint. This does not happen in the rotating joint, where the friction heat builds up on the wearing faces of the packing and the shaft, unless other means are provided for its dissipation. Packings composed of materials with high heat conductivity properties, along with an allowance for leakage, take care of this heat dissipation in rotating joints. It is very important, however, that pressure applied to the packing be kept at the minimum, which keeps the leakage within the allowable limits. In the installation of rod packing, care must be taken both to use the proper packing material and to detect and correct any deficiencies existing in the joint itself. The best grade of packing cannot seal a rod effectively if: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) The rod is bent, scored, or rusty. The gland is cocked. The stuffing box and gland are scored or nicked. The gland is out of alignment with the shaft. All the old, hard, dry packing is not removed. The threads on the gland studs are burred to the extent that the setting up of the gland nuts is prevented.
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PACKING
Whenever a stuffing box is broken down, the box, gland, rod, and studs should be carefully inspected to determine if any of the above conditions exist. The packing of any moving joint should never be jammed tight with a wrench, as this increases the friction and causes wear of both the packing and the rod. When installing packing rings in stuffing boxes of moving rods, the ends of the rings should be cut square, not beveled. Enough clearance should be left between the ends of the rings to allow for elongation when the packing is set up. After any possible causes of faulty sealing have been corrected, the cut rings should be installed in the box one at a time with the joints staggered. Insert the gland, draw it up with a wrench, and then back it off until it is finger tight. A slight leakage will occur during the time the packing is adjusting itself to the rod and box. As the packing expands, further backing off on the nuts may be necessary. Hydraulic rod packing, such as tuck, and rock hard, must be soaked in water for about 12 hours to allow for swelling, before cutting and fitting in a pump plunger. Step-type joints are best. When it is necessary in an emergency to use this packing dry, be sure to allow enough clearance to provide for the swelling which will occur after the packing has absorbed moisture. PACKING OF FIXED JOINTS - Fixed steam joints used to be satisfactorily sealed with gaskets of compressed asbestos sheet packing (Figure 3A), but the 15-percent rubber content of the packing makes it unsatisfactory for modern high temperature steam. Gaskets of corrugated copper or of asbestos and copper are sometimes used on low and medium pressure lines. The following two types of metallic or semi-metallic gaskets are in use in present day high temperature high-pressure installations: (1) Serrated-Face Metal Gaskets (Figure 3B), also made of Monel or soft iron, have raised serrations to make a better seal at the piping flange joints. These gaskets have resiliency, and line pressure tends to force the serrated faces tighter against the adjoining flange. The gaskets shown are two variations. (2) Spiral-Wound Metallic -Asbestos Gaskets (Figure 3 C, are composed of alternate layers of dove-tailed stainless steel ribbon, and strips of asbestos spirally wound, ply upon ply, to the desired diameter. The gasket is then placed into a retainer or centering ring. The solid steel centering ring also acts as reinforcement to prevent blowouts. The gaskets can be compressed to the thickness of this centering ring. When renewing a gasket in a flanged joint, special precautions must be exercised when breaking the joint, particularly in steam and hot water lines, or in salt water lines which have a possibility of direct connection with the sea. Care should be taken that: (1) There is no pressure on the line. (2) The line pressure valves including the bypass valves, are firmly secured, wired closed, and tagged. (3) The line is completely drained. (4) At least two flange-securing bolts and nuts diametrically opposite remain in place until the others are removed, then slackened to allow breaking of the joint, and removed after the line is clear.
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PACKING
(5) Precautions are taken to prevent explosions or fire when breaking joints of flammable liquid lines. (6) Proper ventilation is ensured before joints are broken in closed compartments. These precautions may prevent serious explosions, personnel scalding, or compartment flooding. All sealing and bearing surfaces should be thoroughly cleaned for the gasket replacement. The gasket seats should then be checked with a surface plate, and scraped as necessary, to afford uniform contact. All damaged bolt studs and nuts should be replaced. In flanged joints that have raised faces, the edges of gaskets may extend beyond the edge of the raised face. When cutting a plain full-faced gasket from compressed asbestos sheet, lay an appropriate size piece of the asbestos sheet on the flange. Scribe in the boltholes and flange circle lines with light blows of a ball-peen hammer. Using a gasket punch, about l/16 inch larger in diameter than the bolts, cut the boltholes into the gasket material. Use a piece of hard wood as the supporting and backing surface for the material while punching it. This will prevent damage to the lips of the punch. After the holes have been punched, use shears or a sharp knife to cut the center and outside circles to form the ring. PACKING PRECAUTIONS - The following general precautions should be observed with regard to the use of packings: (1) Do not use metallic or semi-metallic packing on bronze or brass shafts, rods, plungers, or sleeves. Where this is done, scoring may result. Use braided packing that is lubricated throughout, or nonmetallic plastic packing in the center of the box, with an end ring of the braided packing at each end of the box. (2) Do not use packing frictioned with rubber or synthetic rubber of any kind on rotary or centrifugal shafts. Such packing will overheat. (3) Do not use braid -over -braid packing on rotary or centrifugal shafts. The outer layer will wear through quickly, and eventually the packing will become rags. (4) Do not use packing with a rubber binder on rotary type compressors. It will swell and bind and, thereby, develop excessive frictional heat. The use of flexible metallic packing is recommended, or lead base packing alternated with the flexible metallic packing can be used. (5) On hydraulic lifts, rams, and accumulators use V-type packing. For water, this packing should be frictioned with crude, reclaimed, or synthetic rubber. For oils, the packing should be fractioned with oil-resistant synthetic rubber. (6) Do not use a plastic packing, alone on worn equipment or out-of-line rods: it will not hold. A combination of end rings of plain braided asbestos, or flexible metallic packing may be satisfactory for temporary service, until defective parts can be repaired or replaced. (7) Do not use soft packing against thick or sticky liquids having solid particles. This packing is too soft to hold back such liquids as cold boiler fuel oil, and usually gets torn. Some of the solid particles that may be suspended in these liquids embed themselves in the soft packing, thereafter acting as an abrasive on the rod or shaft. Flexible metallic packing is best for these conditions.
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FIGURE 1 PACKING FOR MOVING PARTS
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FIGURE 2 PACKING FOR MOVING PARTS
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FIGURE 3 FIXED JOINT GASKET: A) SHEET ASBESTOS GASKET. B) SERRATED-FACE METAL GASKET. C) SPIRAL-WOUND METALLIC-ASBESTOS GASKETS.
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VALVES
SELECTION, INSTALLATION, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF VALVES VALVE SELECTION There are five basic groups or types of valves. A valve can stop flow, allow flow, regulate the amount of flow, or control the direction of flow. No one valve will do all four items; for that reason, many different valves must be used in piping systems, whether they are used in shipboard piping systems, or used in industrial piping systems. All valves will be either one of the five valve types, or combine features from one or more of the valve types. The five basic valve types are: (a) Globe Valves - Designed to regulate the amount of flow a piping system, as well as stopping flow or allowing flow in a system. Globe valves are the most common valve type used in piping systems. Due to the design of the internal valve area, some friction will be developed, as the path of flow is not straight. Engineers must always take flow into account when designing a piping system. These valves must always be installed in the proper direction with respect to flow to maximize the life of a valve.
1. HANDWHEEL LOCK NUT 2. IDENTIFICATION PLATE 3. PERFECT GRIP WHEEL 4. STEM 5. PACKING NUT
6. GLAND 7. PACKING 8. BONNET 9. UNION BONNET RING 10. LOCK NUT 11. DISC 12. BODY
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(b) Gate Valves - Will provide almost full flow, with little or no loss due to friction, due to its design. Other advantages include minimal turbulence, minute pressure drops, and no specific requirement as to direction of flow. They also tend to hold the higher pressures better than globe valves. Another item to note is that these valves are not well suited for flow regulation.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
HANDWHEEL LOCK NUT IDENTIFICATION PLATE PERFECT GRIP WHEEL STEM PACKING NUT GLAND
7. PACKING 8. BONNET 9. SOLID WEDGE 10. BODY
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(c) Check Valves - Basically designed to prevent backflow of fluids, automatically sealing when flow is reversed or stopped. Three types of check valves are the swing check, the lift check, and the ball check.
1. CAP OR COVER 2. BODY 3. DISC HOLDER
4. DISC 5. DISC GUIDE NUT
(d) Relief Valves - A spring-loaded valve, used to prevent over-pressurization in an enclosed system. The main force of the flow when the valve opens will be directed to an area where the pressurized flow would do no serious damage either to life or property. (e) Ball Valves - A quick operating valve, opened and closed within one-quarter turn. Similar in nature to a gate valve (no flow regulation), these valve types open and close easier and faster, which makes ball valves ideal for safety purposes. A close relative of a ball valve is a butterfly valve.
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
HANDLE STEM HANDLE NUT LICK WASHER PACKING NUT GLAND PACKING
8. THRUST WASHER 9. O-RING CAP GASKET 10. SEAT 11. BALL 12. CAP 13. CAP BOLT 14. BODY
VALVE MATERIALS The basic materials from which valves are manufactured include bronze (most common), steel, plastic, cast iron, and stainless steel. However, body material is only one of the many factors to consider when selecting a valve material. For a valve to be long lasting mechanism in a piping system, other factors to be considered include combining body material with the proper seating material, and the proper packing material to resist wear and corrosion throughout the life span of the valve. SOME OF THE COMMON MATERIALS USED IN VALVE CONSTRUCTION INCLUDE: (a) Bronze - Commonly used in valves for hot and cold water service, salt water systems, low pressure steam systems, and some corrosive applications. Because bronze is a durable, non-corrosive and easily worked material, it is often used for seating surfaces in some iron and steel bodied valves to ensure tight closure by eliminating the possibility of rust in the sealing area. (b) Steel - Due to its composition, steel is a strong, ductile material; therefore, valves made from this material are used in higher pressure services, such as steam lines up to 600 psi and 800 degrees F. Many steel valves are available with either threaded or weld ends,
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depending on the method of installation. Forged steel valves are used to withstand higher pressures and temperatures, due to the added strength of the steels manufacturing method. (c) Stainless Steel - Used mainly for corrosive service and other service applications. (d) Cast Iron - Normally used in medium to high-pressure systems where pressures and temperatures do not change rapidly. C. VALVE IDENTIFICATION Information identifying a valve and its parameters may be found in two places on a valve; cast into the body or stamped into an identification plate found on the valve. Information found usually includes the valve size, pressure and temperature rating, size of the valve, and the manufacturer. D. PRESSURE RATINGS The primary rating provides an indication of the safe operating pressure for a valve at some elevated pressure and temperature. The temperature rating is dependant on the materials used in the construction of the valve, and the design of the valve. When specific data is not available, a good rule of thumb to follow is the temperature of saturated steam on the primary rating indicated on the valve body would approximate a safe pressure to subject the valve to. In the sketch below, this valve has a primary rating of 150 psi, as indicated by 150 S, and a maximum operating temperature of 3067 degrees F. E. TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE The safe operating pressure of a valve is always relative to the working temperature. Basically, as the pressure increases, there must be a proportional decrease in temperature to remain within the safe operating limits of the valve. For example, a cast carbon steel valve, rated at 150 psi, may be safely operated up to 100 degrees F. at 275 psi. This same valve may sustain a working temperature of 800 degrees F. if the working pressure does not rise above 92 psi. F. VALVE SEAT MATERIAL (a) Gate Valves - Gate valve seats may be of the same material as the valve body. Bronze, iron, Monel, or stainless steel rings may be welded, screwed, or pressed into the valve body. There are three types of valve discs, or wedges used: solid, used in most general applications, flexible, used for tight fitting seats used at higher pressure and temperature as and split, which may be used for light, volatile fluids where tight closure is critical. (b) Globe Valves - Globe valve seats may be either integral (part of the body), or screwed into the valve body. Globe valve discs may be replaceable composition (elastomer or Teflon), or the metal plug or bevel type. Bevel metal discs may offer a regrind or a renew feature. (c) Check Valves - Swing check seats are similar to gate valves, while lift check seats are similar to globe seats. The same materials used for both gate and globe valves are used. Discs for both swing and lift check valves may be bronze, steel, or composition materials. The regrind-renew feature is offered in both valves. Ball checks prevent back flow when the ball seats against an integral seat cast into the valve body. (d) Ball Valves - Teflon seats and seals allow ball valves to be operated with little effort; however, Teflon or elastomer seats limit the operating temperature of the valve. Leakproof sealing, is provided by a polished ball compressed against the elastomeric seats.
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(e) Butterfly Valves - Similar to a ball valve, elastomeric seats provide a tight seal in butterfly valves. Other materials, such as Teflon, may be used for oil resistance and low temperature service (0 to 40 degrees F.). Butterfly valve discs can be bronze, ductile iron, or stainless steel, depending on the service requirements of the valve. (f) Relief Valves - Very similar in nature to globe valves. G. VALVE MAINTENANCE (a) Gate Valves - As its name implies, as the valve wheel is turned to lift the wedge or disc of the valve, (opened); it is literally like opening a floodgate. Fluid flows freely through a fully opened port with little pressure drop. As with all standard valves, turning the valve wheel counterlockwise will open it, while turning the valve wheel clockwise will close it. Gate valves are not designed to be used as throttling or regulating valves, nor are they meant to be used for frequent operating conditions. Operation of a gate valve with the disc partly open could cause vibration and rapid wear of the disc and seating surfaces, causing premature valve failure. Unless specially constructed, gate valves may be installed in either direction with respect to flow inlet. Discoloration or residue found on the valve bonnet may indicate a leaking packing gland. The packing gland nut should be tightened or the packing material replaced. If replacing the packing material, be sure the material will be compatible with the service requirements. When tightening the gland nut, be sure not to over tighten. Tighten gland nuts evenly to avoid a cocked gland flange. Frequently used valves should be lubricated frequently. Gate valve wedges and seats usually wear together, and should be repaired or replaced together. In gate valves, most wear occurs on the outlet side of the wedge. A temporary repair may simply involve reversing the wedge. A general inspection of the valve internals will show any evidence of corrosion or build-up of matter that may impede flow. Build-up on normally smooth walls can cause eddies which accelerates errosion. If there is a problem, check the manufacturers compatibility tables. Observe the valve stem for signs of dezincification, a form of corrosion peculiar to bronze gate valves, which leaves metal soft and spongy. If there is any evidence of dezincification, replace the valve stem immediately. Always be sure to lock out and tag out a valve on the inlet and outlet side of the valve to be repaired to prevent any possibility of accidental system pressurization while repairs are underway. (b) Globe Valves - As globe valves are generally used for flow regulation, the choice of disc and seat materials should be compatible with the system requirements. If unsure, consult the manufacturers compatibility chart. Regrind-renewable type globe valves have removable bronze or stainless steel valve seats, which are threaded into the valve body, and may be reground or replaced. Regrindable globe valves have permanent or integral seats, which can be ground by using a regrinding tool, or by using the metal valve disc pinned to the valve stem. Renewable composition disc globe valves are generally used when normal wear may result from frequent throttling. The disc is changed by removing the old disc, from the disc holder, and slipping on a new disc, which is held in place by the disc screw. About 90% of all globe valves are installed with the inlet pressure beneath the seat, which allows the valve to be opened somewhat easier. REPLACEMENT OF A COMPOSITION DISC (a) Isolate the valve to be repaired, drain the valve. (b) Break the body valve nut to separate the bonnet and the valve body.
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(c) Slip the disc holder off the valve stem and replace the disc by removing the disc screw. Replace the composition disc, replace the screw, and reassemble in reverse order. REPAIR OF A REGRIND-RENEWABLE DISC AND SEAT (a) Isolate and drain the valve to be repaired. (b) Remove the valve bonnet; place a small amount of valve grinding compound on the disc. (c) Place a pin in the disc nut notch, locking the disc in position; reassemble the valve, leaving the valve body nut slightly loose. (d) Using the valve stem as your grinding tool, turn the stem clockwise for approximately one-half turn, then turn back counterclockwise, putting downward pressure on the stem. Use machinist dye to check the quality of the repair. To reassemble the valve when repair is complete, clean all surfaces, and reverse the procedure used to disassemble the valve. CHECK VALVES Swing checks, like gate valves, assure almost full flow; however, fluid velocities should be low and non-pulsating, or the swing disc will flap and pound on seat, causing excessive wear and possible premature failure. Horizontal lift checks have a disc seating similar to a globe valve, and are sometimes used to prevent backflow in steam, air, gas or water lines with higher flow velocities than swing check valves. Ball checks are similar to lift checks, except a metal ball replaces the metal or composition disc. Ball checks are used in heavy, viscous fluid applications. In all cases, flow through a check valve must be from under the seat or normal line pressure will force the disc against the seat, stopping flow completely. Swing checks should only be installed in horizontal pipe runs, or in vertical lines where flow is upward only. Lift checks should only be installed in horizontal lines. All check valves normally trap fluid downstream of the valve, which must be drained when performing any maintenance on the valve. Many lift checks have replaceable seats. Discs may be either composition or metal, which may be reground or replaced. The regrinding repair techniques are similar to that of the globe valve, except that a screwdriver is used in a milled slot on the top of the disc holder. Swing checks are provided with an access opening in the line with the seat, which allows you to regrind the seat and, disc with the use of a screwdriver. 1. Ball Valves - Ball valves are popular due to their minute pressure drop and ease of operation. Elastomeric seats provide tight closure against a polished steel ball. The elastomeric seat also acts as a lubricant, providing smooth and easy valve operation. When soldering bronze valves, some manufacturers recommend complete disassembly to avoid heat damage to the seats. In any case, always maintain a constant awareness on the valve body temperature during the soldering operation. When installing ball valves, pipe alignment is important as strain on the valve itself may pinch or bind the ball and cause valve failure. Check for possible leaks at two Points: the packing, or the seat. When
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VALVES
2.
3.
installing threaded ball valves in a system, place a pipe wrench on the pipe, screw the body end of the valve onto the pipe and tighten with a flat-jawed wrench on the body and hex flats. Screw the other pipe into the cap end while holding the cap hex flats stationary with a flat-jawed wrench. Tighten the pipe into the cap with a pipe wrench. Do not allow the cap to turn and produce excessive pressure on the ball and the seats. When reassembling a ball valve, torque up bolts or screws evenly and rotate the ball during the final tightening to avoid binding. Make sure the stem is squarely in the milled slot in the ball-for proper alignment. Butterfly Valves - Butterfly valves are generally suited to low-pressure service. The fluid friction coefficient is low, and because of the narrow body design, sediment buildup is usually avoided. Butterfly valves are manufactured in two basic types: the wafer design, which fits between pipe flanges and inside the circle of bolts; and the lug type, which can be directly connected to a flange or flanges. Sharp instruments or tools should never be used during valve installation or maintenance near the elastomer liner as they may cut the material and damage the valve. The valve should always be closed during installation or maintenance to keep the disc within the body and avoid warping the valve body. Since the valve liner maintains a tight seal between the valve and the pipe flanges, gaskets are not always needed. To install a wafer type valve, fit the bottom lug bolts loosely in the pipe flanges, drop the valve in place on top of the bolts, insert the remaining bolts, and tighten the remaining bolts using the alternating cross-over method to ensure even distribution of torque. If long severe service results in leakage, the liner, disc, and 0 rings should be examined for signs of erosion. Relief Valves - due to the nature of relief valve use, it is recommended that no maintenance be performed. If leakage or any problem occurs with a relief valve, it should be replaced with a spare, and the faulty valve should be sent out to an authorized repair facility as soon as possible.
INSTALLATION OF VALVES Overly long pipe threads will allow the pipe to enter the valve too deeply and press against the seats, preventing proper seating of the disc or wedge and cause damage to the valve. Pipe sealing compound or Teflon tape should be applied to pipe thread only, not inside the valve body where it can cause a sealing problem between the disc and seat. After cutting the pipe to size, but before cutting the thread, ream out the end of the pipe to remove any restrictions that may impede flow. Blow out lines before putting valves into the system to remove welding scale and other debris. Always wipe threads free of chips and dirt to avoid damage that may cause leakage. Align flanges carefully- misaligned flanges can place strain on a valve. Use thread lubricant on all flange bolts and tighten all bolts evenly. Pipe hangers are a must to support valves and piping, minimizing stresses which can adversely affect the proper operation of the valve. Use a pipe wrench on the pipe near the valve and a flat-jawed wrench on the valve itself on the end nearest the pipe. Keep the valve tightly closed during installation to prevent twisting and distortion. When assembling pipe sections in the shop, always place the pipe in the vise, never the valve, when tightening. On pipe systems with flanged valves, tighten bolts with the alternate side cross-over method, which places less stress on the valve parts. Check for proper flow direction- in many cases, you
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can install a valve in either direction. Keep in mind that globe or check valves, due to their design, should always be installed with the flow inlet against the bottom of the disc. Whenever possible, install valves with the stem pointing up to prevent dirt and sediment from collecting in the threads and gland of the valve, causing excessive wear. Locate valves where they can easily be reached. If this isnt possible, install chain-wheel operators, extension stems, or motor powered actuators to open and close the valves. Be sure to allow for clearance for rising stem valves to open completely. Insulate piping systems containing hot gases or fluids to prevent injury from contact and to prevent freezing of lines exposed to cold climates.
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VALVES
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VALVE MANIFOLD SHOWING CUTAWAY VIEW OF THE VALVES TYPICAL COMBINATION OF SUCTION AND DISCHARGE VALVES.
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VALVES
OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF REDUCING VALVES - The heating system and the galley operate on low-pressure steam. The source of steam for these systems is the boilers, which are under high pressure. Reducing valves will hold a constant pressure in the delivery lines, even if the boiler pressure varies over a wide range. Most reducing valves depend on a balance between the outlet or operating pressure and the pressure of a spring or compressed air in a sealed chamber. Although some pf these valves are quite complicated, the principle on which they operate is easily understood. The simplified reducing valve shown in figure below has a main valve, a piston and a spring. The compression of the spring pushed the piston to the left and opens the valve. When the steam us turned on, it passes through the open valve and builds up pressure in the outlet chamber. Whenever the force exerted in the piston becomes greater than the force exerted by the spring, the piston moves to the right and closes the valve. During operation, the outlet steam pressure and spring force remain in balance with the valve partly open. Any slight variation in outlet pressure will upset this balance. The piston will move and increase or decrease the size of the valve opening and restore the original outlet pressure. In some valves the spring is replaced by a sealed chamber, which contains compressed air. The air pressure acts in a diaphragm instead of on a piston. The valve can be set to maintain any desired pressure by adjusting the air pressure in the sealed chamber. Sometimes the diaphragm is located between two chambers; one of them opened to the inlet and the other opened to the outlet steam. The action of the diaphragm operates a valve, which in turn regulates the steam pressure on a piston connected to the main valve. In all reducing valves, the outlet pressure controls the rate at which the inlet steam is permitted to pass through the valve
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VALVES
SPRING LOADED REDUCING VALVE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RELIEF VALVES & SAFETY VALVES RELIEF VALVES - Relief valves are installed in the steam, water, air and oil lines and on various units of machinery aboard ship. They open automatically when the pressure within the line becomes too high. Relief valves protect piping much the same way fuses protect electrical equipment and wiring in the home. There are many types of relief valves. Most relief valves have either a disk of or steel ball acting against a coil spring. The disk-type relief valve consists of a valve body, a valve disk and a stem. The steel spring pushes down on the disk and keeps the valve closed. The force of the spring is generally adjusted by setting an adjusting nut on top of the spring. The inlet side of the valve is connected to the system to be protected. When the force on the bottom of the disk, exerted by the pressure of the fluid in the line, becomes greater than the compression of the spring, the disk is pushed off the seat, opening the valve. The valve outlet may be opened to the atmosphere in compressed air or steam lines. When the valve is used to protect a pump, its outlet is connected to the suction line leading to
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RELIEF VALVES vs SAFETY VALVES
the pump; the excess fluid passes through the relief valve and back to the inlet side of the pump. The ball-type relief valve shown in figure 1 operates on the same principle as the disk valve. The ball valve is generally used on lube oil lines. The operating pressure is regulated by adjusting the threaded plug (not illustrated) that holds the spring in place. SAFETY VALVES - Each boiler is fitted with safety valves, which allow the steam to escape from the boiler when the pressure rises above the specified limits. The capacity of the safety valves installed in a boiler must be great enough to reduce the steam drum pressure to a specified safe point when the boiler is being operated at maximum firing rate with all steam stop valves completely closed. Safety valves are installed on the steam drum and at the superheater outlet. Several different types of safety valves are used on naval boilers, but all are designed to open completely (POP) when a specified pressure is reached and to remain open until a specified pressure drum (BLOWDOWN) has occurred. Safety valve must close tightly without chattering and must remain tightly closed after seating. It is important that you understand the difference between boiler safety valves and ordinary relief valves. The amount of pressure required to lift a relief valve increases as the valve lifts, because the resistance of the spring increases in proportion to the amount of compression. Therefore, a relief valve opens slightly at a specified pressure, discharges a small amount of fluid, and closes at a lower pressure that caused it to open. Can you see why relief valves will not do for boilers? If the valves were set to lift anything close to boiler pressure, the valves would be constantly opening and closing, pounding the seats and disks and causing early failure of the valves. Furthermore, relief valves will not rapidly discharge the large amount of steam that must be discharged quickly to bring the boiler pressure down to a safe point. Relief valves reseat very soon after they are opened. Figure 2 shows a typical safety valve
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RELIEF VALVES vs SAFETY VALVES
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
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VALVE SYMBOLS
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VALVE SYMBOLS
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STRAINERS
STRAINERS Straining is accomplished by metal fine-meshed screen, the degree of filtering is determined by the size of the minute openings through which the liquid must pass. The straining action may be in depth as in cotton or felt filters or on the surface as in most pleated, impregnated paper filters. PIPELINE STRAINERS strainers are fitted in all piping lines to prevent the passage of grit, scale, dirt and other foreign matter. Such matter could obstruct pump or throttle valves or damage machinery parts. Various types of strainers are used, depending upon the service intended. Suction Strainer This strainer is located in the bilge pump suction line between suction manifold and pump. Any debris that enters the piping will collect in the strainer basket. The basket is removed for cleaning by loosening the strong-back screws, removing the cover, and lifting out the basket by its handle. These strainers should be cleaned at least every 24 hours while in port, and every 4 hours while under way. Duplex Oil Strainer Duplex oil strainers, Figure 1, are used ordinarily in fuel or lube oil lines, where it is important that an uninterrupted flow be maintained. The flow may be diverted from one strainer to the other while one is being cleaned. The shutoff device works on the principle of a four-way cock. Manifold Steam Strainer This type of strainer is desirable where space is limited, since it eliminates the use of separate strainers and their fittings. The cover is located so that the strainer basket can be easily removed for cleaning. A clean spare strainer basket of correct size (plainly marked or tagged) should be kept convenient to each strainer location. If the removed basket is heavily encrusted with foreign matter, clean the strainer with a steam jet or boil in a boiler compound solution CARE OF LUBE OIL STRAINERS Basket type strainers are provided in most lube oil systems. These should be cleaned frequently. The basket type strainers are frequently fitted with magnets to catch any small metallic particle that may be in the lube oil. When cleaning basket strainers, be sure to remove any metallic particles that adhere to the magnets. FUEL OIL STRAINERS Strainers are installed in the fuel oil service system to catch particles that might otherwise interfere with atomizer operation. On some older ships, basket type strainers were installed on the suction side of the fuel oil service pump. Strainers are installed between the fuel oil heaters and the burner manifold. After the oil has been heated, it is very fluid and readily gives up any foreign particle contained in it. Duplex strainers of the basket type are usually used in fuel oil service systems. The strainers are installed in such a way that the oil flows from the center of the basket to the outside leaving dirt and sediment in the basket. Duplex strainers are installed with a valve arrangement that allows you to remove one basket for cleaning while the other basket remains in service. At least two
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STRAINERS
clean baskets should be kept near the strainer so that baskets can be changed and cleaned when necessary. A duplex pressure gauge, installed by means of a three-way plug cock arrangement, indicates the pressure on each side of the basket in use. If the pressure is noticeably higher on the inlet side than on the outlet side, the basket probably needs to be cleaned. Even if there is no special indication that the basket in use needs to be cleaned, baskets should be shifted and cleaned once a day as a matter of routine. Before removing a basket from a duplex strainer, open the drain at the bottom of the casing and drain of all entrapped oil. Back off on the binding screw or head nuts a few turns; if there is no oil seepage around the cover, it is now safe to remove the cover. Remove the basket after inserting a clean basket, replace the cover and close the drain. CAUTION Never start to clean a strainer basket without first shifting the other basket. Serious fires have occurs when inexperienced personnel have tried to remove a strainer basket while it was still in service. A lot of oil can spray out awfully fast if you open up the wrong side of a fuel oil strainer. SIMPLEX STRAINERS (#125, #125-B, #125- CS, #125-SS) Figure 2 Features These strainers have been designed for applications where easy maintenance and large capacity straining are needed. Service time is minimal because the cover is secured with quick opening, non-yoke knobs. Both the cover and basket use O-ring seals, eliminating the need to replace gaskets each time the strainer is serviced. This, combined with the machined basket seat eliminates particle bypass. With appropriate wire mesh these strainers can be used to strain particles as small as 5 microns. DUPLEX STRAINERS Figure 3 Features The diverter valves on Mueller Steam Specialty Duplex Strainers are dual cylinder plug valves operated by a common, sealed shaft. This design positively separates clean fluid from contaminated fluid. It also means that diverting flow from one basket to the other is accomplished in one simple rotation of the handle. An equalizing arrangement is standard in 3 sizes and larger for easy changeover. The chamber in use is covered by the valve handle allowing easy access to the side to be serviced and preventing accidental opening of the pressurized chamber. Sizes through 4 inches have quick release non-yoke type knobs to facilitate cover removal for convenient basket servicing. The large open area ratio of the basket assures minimum pressure drop across the unit. Perforated stainless steel baskets are standard on all models unless otherwise specified.
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STRAINERS
FIGURE 1 A) BILGE STRAINER
B) DUPLEX OIL STRAINER
C) MANIFOLD STEAM STRAINER
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STRAINERS
FIGURE 2 - SIMPLEX STRAINERS (#125, #125-B, #125- CS, #125-SS)
FIGURE 3 DUPLEX STRAINERS
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STRAINERS
FIGURE 4 - BRONZE SELF CLEANING Y TYPE STRAINERS
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GAUGES AND THERMOMETERS
INSTRUMENTS AND MONITORING DEVICES INSTRUMENTS AND MONITORING DEVICES

Some of the instruments and monitoring devices that enable the QMED to determine how the boiler is working are water glasses, remote water-level indicators, superheater temperature alarms, smoke indicators and oil-drip detector periscopes. TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES Since temperature is one of the basic engineering variables, temperature measurement is essential to the proper operation of a shipboard engineering plant. The temperature of steam, water, fuel oil, lubricating oil, and other vital fluids must be measured at frequent intervals and the results of this measurement must, in many cases, be entered in engineering records and logs. Devices used for measuring temperature may be classified in various ways. In this discussion we will consider the two major categories of 1 Expansion thermometers 2 Pyrometers PROBE LEVEL SWITCH Used to trip or alarm on low or high water level. Electrical probe that is inserted into the waterside of the boiler or water column. Several probes used one for a common and others for each level alarm or trip as desired. Electricity supplied to each probe, if water is present at the probe, the water conducts the electricity to the common probe and the circuit is complete. Complete circuit pulls in a relay to activate controls. WATER LEVEL INDICATORS Device used to indicate the level of water in a boiler, either directly or indirectly. Each boiler must have two independent means of water level indication One must be a level gage illuminated by the emergency electrical system Secondary may be gag glass or other device PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE GAUGES To operate a boiler you must be constantly aware of pressure and temperatures in the boiler and in it associated machinery and systems. Pressure gauges are installed on or near each boiler to indicate steam drum pressure, superheater outlet pressure, and auxiliary steam pressure, auxiliary exhaust pressure, and feedwater pressure, steam pressure to the forced draft blowers, air pressure in the casings and fuel oil pressure. Temperature gauges are installed to indicate superheated steam temperature, desuperheated steam temperature (if the boiler has a desuperheater), feedwater temperature at the economizer inlet and outlet, and in some ships, uptake temperatures. Most of these pressure and temperature gauges are classified as boiler external fittings. In some firerooms, the gauges that indicate steam drum pressure, superheater outlet pressure, superheater outlet temperature and combustion air pressure are installed on the boiler front. As a
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rule, however, the indicating units of all pressure gauges are mounted on the boiler gauge board that is easily visible from the firing aisle. Distant reading thermometers are also installed with the indicating unit mounted on the boiler gauge board. Direct-reading thermometers must, of course, be read at their actual locations. In some installations, a common gauge board is used for all the boilers in one space, instead of having separate gauge boards for each boiler. Duplicate gauges for all major boiler operations parameters are located in the console operators booth for ships with automatic boiler (ABC) systems. Most of the pressure gauges used in connection with boilers are of Bourdon-tube type. However, some manometers and diaphragm gauges are also used in the fireroom. The temperature gauges most commonly used in the fireroom are 1. Direct-reading liquid-in-glass thermometers 2. Distant-reading Bourdon-tube thermometers are also used However bimetallic expansion are also used in the fireroom Some thermometers are of a bare-bulb type, that is, the bulb is in direct contact with the steam or other fluid being measured. Bare-bulb thermometers must NEVER be removed while the boiler is under pressure. Most thermometers are of the well or separable-socket type, that is, the bulb is inserted into a well or socket in the line where the temperature is to be measured. These thermometers are not designed to be used as bare-bulb thermometers; they must always be used in the well or socket. EXPANSION THERMOMETERS Expansion thermometers operate on the principle that the expansion of solids, liquids, and gases has a know relationship to temperature changes. The types of expansion thermometers discussed here are 1 Liquid-in-glass thermometers 2 Bimetallic expansion thermometers 3 Filled-system expansion thermometers LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETERS Liquid-in-glass thermometers are probably the oldest, simplest, and the most widely used devices for measuring temperature. A liquid-in-glass thermometer (Figure 1) consists of a bulb and a very fine bore capillary tube containing mercury, mercury-thallium, alcohol, toluol, or some other liquid that expands uniformly as the temperature falls. The selection is based on the temperature range in which the thermometer is to be used. Mercury (or mercury-thallium) is commonly used because it is a liquid over a wide range of temperatures (-60 to 1200F) and because it has a nearly constant coefficient of expansion. Almost all liquid-in-glass thermometers are sealed so that atmospheric pressure will not affect the reading. The space above the liquid in this type of thermometer may be a vacuum or it may be filled with an inert gas such as nitrogen, argon or carbon dioxide. The capillary bore may be either round or elliptical. In any case, it is very small so that a relatively small expansion or contraction of the liquid will cause a relatively large change in the position of the liquid in the capillary tube. Although the capillary bore itself is very small in
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diameter, the walls of the capillary tube are quite thick. Most liquid-in glass thermometers are made with an expansion chamber at the top of the bore to provide a margin of safety for the instrument if it should accidentally be overheated.
FIGURE 1 - TYPICAL MERCURY COLUMN (LIQUID EXPANSION) THERMOMETERS
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FIGURE 2 - A COMPARISON OF FAHRENHEIT AND CENTIGRADE BIMETALLIC (DIAL) THERMOMETERS Differential expansion of bimetallic thermometer operation is based upon the difference in thermal expansion of two metals. The most common type of bimetallic thermometer used in marine applications is one in which a strip of composite material is wound in the form of a helix or helices. The composite material consists of two dissimilar metals that have been fused together to form a laminate. The difference in thermal expansion of the two metals produces a change in curvature of the strip with changes in the temperature. The helical construction is used to translate this change of curvature to rotary motion of the shaft. This is illustrated below.
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FIGURE 3 A quality bimetallic thermometer, properly installed may be used, to indicate to within one percent of the instrument span from the true temperature. A precision type bimetallic thermometer may indicate to within percent of the instrument span from the true temperature. However, the bimetallic thermometer is commonly experienced in marine applications, for this reason the application of this thermometer is usually in the auxiliary or non-critical systems. Bimetallic thermometers are usually calibrated by comparing them with those of primary or secondary standard liquid filled thermometers, using variable oil baths, or in place with a portable thermocouple and digital read out test device. WATER GAUGE GLASSES Various combinations of water-level indicating devices are used on boilers. On older boilers, perhaps the most common arrangement has two water gauge glasses, one 10 inches long and one 18 inches long. Newer boilers may have two water gauge glasses and one remote water-level indicator, or they may have one water gauge glass and two remote water-level indicators. A device for direct viewing of the water level of a boiler. Must be fitted directly to the head or shell of the boiler. Considered direct viewing. Can be tubular or flat glass type.
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Every boiler must be equipped with at least two independent devices that show the water level in the steam drum, so that a false water level may be detected through the comparison of the two. At least one of these devices must be a water gauge glass. Some boilers have more than two devices for indicating water level. Several types of water gauge glasses are used on boilers. Gauges are identified by the amount of visibility permitted and usually are installed in pairs: One 10-inch gauges or 2 19-inch gauges One 10 inch gauge and one 18 inch gauge Two 10-inch gauges staggered vertically to provide a total visibility of18 inches
A more recent type of water gauge glass is shown in Figure 4. This gauge is assembled with springs, as shown in the illustration. This type of assembly makes it unnecessary to retorque the studs after the gauge has warmed up.
FIGURE 4 - FLAT THOROUGH GAGE GLASS - AN OBLIQUE SECTIONAL VIEW OF A TYPICAL BOILER WATER GAGE SECTION
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Each water gauge is connected to the steam drum through two cutout valves, one at the top of the drum and one at the bottom. The bottom cutout valve connection contains a ball-check valve. The ball rests on a holder. As long as there is equal pressure on each side of the ball, the ball remains on its holder. But if the water gauge breaks, the sudden rush of water through the bottom connection forces the ball upward onto its seat and thus prevents further escape of hot water. No check valve is installed in the top cutout connection. Detailed information on the water glasses installed on any particular boiler is found in the appropriate manufactures technical manual
FIGURE 5 - GAUGE GLASS - ALSO CALLED WATER GAUGE COLUMN
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FIGURE 6 - TUBULAR GAGE GLASS
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LIQUID-COLUMN ELEMENTS Liquid-column pressure elements include the devices commonly referred to as barometers and manometers. Liquid-column elements are simple, reliable, and accurate. They are used particularly (although not exclusively) for measurement of relatively low pressures or small pressure differentials. Liquids commonly used in this type of pressure gauge include mercury, water and alcohol. One of the simplest kinds of liquid-column elements is the fixed-cistern barometer Figure 7, which is used to measure atmospheric pressure. Mercury is always used as the liquid in this type of instrument. Atmospheric pressure acts upon the open surface of the mercury in the cistern. Since the tube is open at the cistern end, and since there is a vacuum above the mercury in the tube, the height of the mercury in the tube is at all times an indication of the existing atmospheric (barometric) pressure.
FIGURE 7 - SIMPLE BAROMETER (FIXED CISTERN) FOR MEASURING ABSOLUTE PRESSURE A simple U-tube liquid-column element for measuring absolute pressure is shown in Figure 8. The liquid used in this device is mercury. There is a vacuum above the mercury at the closed
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end of the tube; the open end of the tube is exposed to pressure to be measured. The absolute pressure is indicated by the difference in the height of the two mercury columns.
FIGURE 8 - U-TUBE LIQUID-COLUMN ELEMENT FOR MEASURING ABSOLUTE PRESSURE MANOMETERS - Manometers are available in many different sizes and designs. Some are installed in such a way that the U-tube is readily recognizable, as in part A of Figure 9; but in some designs the U-tube is inverted or inclined at an angle. The so-called single-tube or straight tube manometer (part B of Figure 9) is actually a U-tub in which only the one leg is made of glass. Manometers are available in many different sizes and designs. Some are installed in such a way that the U-tube is readily recognizable, as in part A of Figure 9; but in some designs the U-tube is inverted or inclined at an angle. The so-called single-tube or straight tube manometer (part B of Figure 9) is actually a U-tube in which only the one leg is made of glass.
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FIGURE 9 - TWO TYPES OF MANOMETERS (A) - Standard U-tube (B)- Single-tube ELASTIC ELEMENTS elastic elements used for pressure measurement include Bourdon tubes, bellows, and diaphragms. All three types of elastic elements are suitable for use in pressure gauges, vacuum gauges, and compound (both pressure and vacuum) gauges. Bourdontube elements are suitable for the measurement of very high pressures, up to 100,000 psig. The upper limit for bellows elements is about 800 psig and for diaphragm elements about 400 psig. Diaphragm elements and bellows elements are commonly used for the measurement of very high vacuum (or very low absolute pressure) but Bourdon tubes can be used for such applications Bourdon-tube elastic elements Bourdon-tube elements used in pressure gauges are essentially the same as those described for use in filled-system thermometers. Bourdon-tube pressure gauges are made of brass, phosphor bronze, stainless steel, beryllium-copper, or other metals, depending upon the requirements of service. Bourdon-tube pressure gauges are often classified as simplex or duplex, depending upon whether they measure one pressure or two. A simplex gauge such as the one shown in Figures 10,11,12 has only one Bourdon tube and measures only one pressure. (The pointer marked RED HAND in Figure 11 is a manually positioned hand that is set to the normal working pressure of the machinery or equipment on which the gauge is installed; the hand marked
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FIGURE 10 - OPERATING MECHANISM OF A SIMPLEX BOURDON-TUBE PRESSURE GAGE
FIGURE 11 - DIAL OF A SIMPLEX BOURDON-TUBE PRESSURE GAUGE
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FIGURE 12 - COMPOUND BOURBON-TUBE GAUGE MEASURES INCHES OF VACUUM (BELOW ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE) AND POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH (ABOVE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE)
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PNEUMERCATORS The principle function of a pneumercator tank gauge is to afford an accurate measurement of the amount of liquid contained in a tank or other storage container, in terms of either depth, weight or volume. The gauge will function for any liquid sufficiently fluid to seek its own level. It gives a direct reading, at any time at any reasonable distance, of the contents of the tank or container. For marine use, the indicating devise is a vertical mercury column adjacent to a graduated scale. Each gauge may be individually calibrated or the tank to which it is applied, and may be made to indicate in depth, weight or volume. It is also possible to place a scale on each side of the mercury column so that the gauge can be arranged to read in any two of the above units of measurement. In some types the average specific gravity of the tanks contents may be determined by direct scale readings without computation USE OF PNEUMERCATORS - The primary applications of pneumercator aboard ships are in water, oil bilge, ballast and other tanks that are often difficult to access. The indicating part of the system may be placed near the tank or at any point for convenient reading. The contents of a number of scattered tanks can thus be read at one central location. When several tanks of like dimensions are in use a single instrument may be so connected by manifolds as to serve all of the tanks. In such cases, the contents of any one tank in the group can be measured by operation of the manifold valves. PRINCIPLE OF PNEUMERCATOR GAUGES A pneumercator tank gauge consists of three principle elements 1. An indicator of a type suitable for the service required, and consisting of a mercury column and graduated scales. 2. A balance chamber, which is submerged in the liquid in the tank. 3. A control valve, or manifold control valves, attached to the indicator and connected to the top of the balance chamber. Air pressure may be supplied by an air compressor or a hand operated pump. The piping that connects the various elements is usually copper, steel or lead tubing. The indicator, as has been explained, consists of a column of mercury in a glass tube, next to which are mounted one or two direct reading graduated scales. The length of the gauge is determined by the nature of the liquid and the depth of the tank; while the scales, as stated, may be read in terms of depth, volume, or weight or in terms of any two measurements. The balance chamber is a hollow bell-shaped casting, with an orifice in its side near the base and an opening at the top, connected by means of tubing to the indicating column. It is submerged in the liquid in the tank as shown in the Figure below. The pipe or tubing that connects the balance chamber and the indicator may be installed in any suitable location.
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FIGURE 13 INSTALLATION DIAGRAM OF A MODEL L.T.I. PNEUMERCATOR TANK GAUGE OPERATION OF A PNEUMERCATOR GAUGE The liquid in the tank, upon entering the orifice in the side of the balance chamber, traps the air contained in the chamber and tube line and compresses it against the mercury column, causing the mercury to rise in proportion to the
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head, or depth of the liquid in the tank. As this takes place, a certain amount of liquid enters the chamber and rises above the center of the orifice, or zero level, compressing the air into too small a volume and causing an inaccuracy in the gauge indication. To compensate for this inaccuracy, the liquid in the chamber must be expelled by admitting air to the chamber at a pressure greater than that of the pressure head of the liquid in the tube line and balance chamber. This is done by manipulation of the 3-way cock, or control valve, mounted at the base of the indicator. The air pressure in excess of the liquid head escapes through the orifice in the balance chamber to the atmosphere. (See Figure 14). Thus the liquid in the balance chamber is restored to the zero level, the proper balance between the liquid head in the tank and the mercury column in the gauge is established, and a correct reading is indicates (Figure 15b) The scales of vertical indicating columns are usually graduated with marks corresponding approximately to each in of tank depth, but this is subject to variations, depending upon specific gravity of the liquid to be measured. In Figure 15 the depth of the liquid is indicated as being 3 ft in the tank and in the gauge. By multiplying this depth by the area of the tank in square feet and the weight of the oil, the weight of the liquid in the tank can be determined. Since most pneumercator gauge scales are calibrated for each tank, or group of similar tanks, and for liquid of one specific gravity, when the tanks are filled with liquids of other specific gravities slight corrections in the gauge readings are necessary. Charts are supplied for making such computations, which are simple problems in proportion. TAKING A PNEUMERCATOR READING To take a reading proceed as follows (refer to Figure 15) Move operating cock to the port marked Air and charge the system with air by giving the hand air pump several strokes. If the air is supplied by another source, leave the operating cock on Air for about 10 seconds. Move the operating cock to the port marked Shut and allow it to remain in this positing for several seconds, to permit the equalization of pressure throughout the system Move the operating cock to the port marked Gauge in order to allow the mercury to rinse in the tube Note the position of the mercury and repeat the foregoing steps. If the mercury gives the same reading as before the gauge reading is correct. If the mercury gives a higher reading there is insufficient air in the system. When this condition exists, recharge with air by repeating operations as described. ADJUSTING A PNEUMERCATOR SCALE - Correct readings will be obtained only when the scale is properly installed. The first step in adjusting the scale to the gage is to measure accurately the distance between the lowest point of the tank and the "zero line" of the balance chamber, the position of which is marked by a small opening near the bottom of the latter. Having determined this distance, the amount of liquid remaining in the tank when the level has reached the zero line of the measuring chamber can be computed. The scale is then so adjusted
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that when the level of the fluid in the tank drops to the zero-line level it will register the proper amount of liquid in the tank. If this procedure is not carried out and the scale is made to read zero when the level of liquid reaches the zero line, the readings will all be in error an amount corresponding to the amount of oil in the tank when the level reaches the zero-line mark. As an example, assume that a balance chamber is secured in an oil tank on board ship with the zero line 3 in. above the lowest point of the tank. Then the scale should be so cut off and placed on the gage that the lowest graduation thereon will show the amount of oil in the tank when the oil level is 3 in. from the bottom of the tank. PRECAUTIONS WHILE SYSTEM IS IN OPERATION - The following precautions should be taken with a pneumercator system while it is in operation: Before taking a reading, charge the system with air. Read the top of the curved surface of the mercury. If, after taking a reading, the level of the mercury slowly drops although the level in the tank remains the same, there is probably a leak in the line of tubing between the gage and the balance chamber. The leak can be located by charging the system, applying soapy water to the lines and connections and watching for bubbles. When the operating cock is at the "Vent" position, the mercury should rest opposite the bottom graduation on the scale. If the line of tubing becomes obstructed, or sufficient time is not allowed for the system to balance, the mercury will rise above the top graduation and enter the mercury catches. When the obstruction is removed and the system is fully charged with air, the mercury will automatically return to the proper level. PRECAUTIONS WHILE SYSTEM IS NOT IN OPERATION - The following precautions should be observed when the system is not in use: When the apparatus is not in use or when the tank is empty, move the operating cock to the port marked "Vent." Immediately upon starting to fill a tank, charge the system with air. Keep the system charged with air during the entire time that the tank contains liquid. If the gage glass is broken, see that a spare is put in place immediately. If the grease on the operating cock hardens, remove and, clean the cock and coat it with fresh grease. Never remove the gage scale from one pneumercator gage and install it in the gage of another tank, as the gages are calibrated to give readings on a tank of certain size and shape. If used on a tank of other dimensions than those of the tank for which it was calibrated, incorrect readings will be given. When filling a gage with mercury, never allow the mercury to come in contact with any metal except iron and steel, as it immediately amalgamates with other metals, thus spoiling the mercury for further use. If the mercury is left in contact with other metals for a sufficient length of time, the latter will be disintegrated When mercury is not in use it should be kept in stoppered glass, iron, or earthenware containers.
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Never use commercial or dirty mercury.
JOINTS AND FITTINGS - Practically the only pipe fittings on the lines of a pneumercator system are unions of a special type. The unions can be taken apart and remade several times with no danger of leaking, if properly made up. Do not use solder, packing or gaskets of any kind in making up the joints of either the copper or lead piping. ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS In connecting up to 20-volt circuit, which operates the annunciator, care should be taken to connect the positive wire to the positive ternimal. WORKING PRESSURE The effective working pressure of pneumercator systems is 30 lb. Per square inch. If the air is taken from the ships air system, the pressure must be reduced to this by means of a reducing valve. If the liquid in a tank is under pressure, the working pressure must be 30 lb above that in the tank. RELIEF VALVE The air relief valve should be kept in operating condition and correctly set at all times. CLEANING MERCURY Mercury can be cleaned by forcing it through a clean chamois skin. Correction for specific gravity If there is a radical change in the specific gravity of the fuel oil, a correction should be applied to the readings or a new scale installed.
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FIGURE 14 DIAGRAMS OF OPERATION OF PNEUMERCATOR
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FIGURE 15 DIAGRAMS OF OPERATION OF PNEUMERCATOR
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CONVERSION TABLES English Conversion Table

PRESSURE Lbs. per square inch Feet of water (60F) Inches of water (60F) Lbs per square inch Lbs per square inch Inches of Hg (60F) X X X X X X 2.31 .433 .0361 27.70= ins of eater (60F) 2.041 .490 = feet of water 60F = lbs per square inch = lbs per square inch = inches of water (60F) = inches of Hg. (60F) = lbs per square inch
Water Factors (at point of greatest density 39.2F Cubic inches (of water) X .57798 = ounces Cubic inches (of water) X .036124 = pounds Cubic inches (of water) X .004329 = U.S. gallons Cubic inches (of water) X .003607 = English gallons Cubic feet (of water) X 62.425 = pounds Cubic feet (of water) X .03121 = tons Cubic feet (of water) X 7.4805 = U.S. gallons Cubic feet (of water) X 6.232 English gallons Cubic of ice X 57.2 = pounds Ounces (of water) X 1.73 = cubic inches Pounds (of water) X 26.68 = cubic inches Pounds (of water) X .01602 = cubic feet Pounds (of water) X .1198 = U.S. gallons Pounds (of water) X .0998 = English gallons Tons (of water) X 32.04 = cubic feet Tons (of water) X 239.6 = U.S. gallons Tons (of water) X 199.6 = English gallons U.S. gallons X 231.00 = cubic inches U.S. gallons X .13368 = cubic feet U.S. gallons X 8.345 = pounds U.S. gallons X .8327 = English gallons U.S. gallons X 3.785 = liters English gallons (Imperial) X 277.41 = cubic inches English gallons (Imperial) X .1605 = cubic feet English gallons (Imperial) X 10.02 = pounds English gallons (Imperial) X 1.201 = U.S gallons English gallons (Imperial) x 4.546 = liters Water is at its greatest density at 39.2F. One cubic foot of water makes approximately 1 cubic foot of steam at atmospheric pressure. 26.8 cubic feet of steam at atmospheric pressure weighs 1 pound. Useful figures in heat balance calculations are that 500 pounds of fresh water per hour are very nearly 1 gallon per minute. And, less accurately, 1 pound of steam releases 1000 Btu per minute upon condensing in the condenser
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ABSOLUTE PRESSURE is found by adding to gauge pressure the atmospheric pressure, as indicated on a barometer. Barometer readings are given in inches of mercury, and are equivalent to the height of a mercury column of 760 millimeters (29.921) at sea level, 45 latitude and 32F. To add absolute pressure to gauge pressure, the former must be changed into pounds per square inch, by multiplying the barometer reading by a constant 0.491, since a column of mercury one inch high and one inch square inch in cross-section weighs or exerts a pressure of 0.491 lb. When the barometer reading is not given, atmospheric pressure may be assumed to be 14.7 lb per square inch. (Actually, the accepted pressure of the atmosphere under standard conditions is 14.696 lb per square inch. In rough calculations 15 lb per square inch is considered as being sufficiently accurate). When atmospheric pressure exceeds absolute pressure, this excess is registered on a vacuum gauge in inches of mercury, and is referred to as inches of vacuum. The corresponding absolute pressure may then be found by subtracting the vacuum gauge reading from the barometer reading. The result, in inches of mercury, may be changed into pounds per square inch by multiplying the barometer reading by 0.491, as previously explained. ABSOLUTE PRESSURE FORMULAS another method for determining absolute pressure is as follows: When the constant 2.04 is used as the standard number of inches of mercury per one pound of pressure per square inch then Gauge reading in lb per square inch = Barometer reading in inches of mercury 2.04 = Absolute or actual pressure Or Barometer reading in inches of mercury = vacuum gauge reading 2.04 = Absolute or actual pressure The constant 2.04 is arrived at in the following manner: Divide the height of the column of mercury in a barometer (29.921) by the atmospheric pressure (14.6996 lb per square inch) and the result is 2.04. For rough calculations the height of the column of mercury may be taken as 30 and atmospheric pressure as 15 lb per square inch. The, dividing 30 by 15 gives the constant of 2; but for more accurate results the constant 2.04 should be used
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HYDRAULICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS 1. Definition of terms-mass, force, pressure, work, energy, power, Pascals Law, Boyles Law 2. Comparison of systems 3. Flow and temperature 4. Hydraulic Pumps-types- gear, vane, piston, combination 5. Hydraulic loading valves and filters 6. Hydraulic pressure regulation 7. Air Compressors types-piston, screw, rotary, dynamic 8. Control systems for air compressors 9. Compressed air treatment 10. Compressed air regulation 11. Control Valves- types and symbols a. Poppet b. Spool c. Rotary d. Check e. Pilot operated f. Sequence valves g. Shuttle and fast exhaust valves h. Time delay valves 12. Actuators-construction details and seals, speed control, counterbalance and dynamic braking 13. Hydraulic and pneumatic accessories heat exchangers, reservoirs, accumulators, hoses 14. Troubleshooting including logic chart 15. Conversion Factors 16. Advantages of Hydraulics 17. Disadvantages of Hydraulics 18. Hydraulic Winches
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11/3/20061
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HYDRAULICS
1. DEFINITION OF TERMS-MASS, FORCE, PRESSURE, WORK, ENERGY, POWER, PASCALS LAW, BOYLES LAW
FORCE - Anything, which tends to produce or modify motion. Force can be push or a pull, and is generally measured as a unit of weight. The most common being pounds AREA The measurement of a bounded region or plane, or the surface of a solid. Area will be expressed in square inches (IN) To find the area of a rectangle or square - AREA = LENGTH x WIDTH Area = 12 x 8 Area = 96 square inches or 96 in2
FIGURE 1 - CALCULATING THE AREA OF A SQUARE To find the area of a circle AREA = Diameter2 X .7854 Area = 82 x .7854 Area = 64 x .7854 Area = 50.2656 Area = 50.27 in2
FIGURE 2 - CALCULATING THE AREA OF A CIRCLE PRESSURE - Force applied t o a unit area Pressure is created by a resistance to flow and is normally expressed in pounds per square inch (PSI). RESISTANCE - Any force that stops or retards the movement of a body. The resistance to the movement of solid could be such things as friction or inertia. PRESSURE = FORCE x AREA
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There are two ways pressure can be expressed: 1. PSIG (Gauge pressure) - This is the pressure reading that is indicated on a pressure gauge. This pressure reading does not take into account atmospheric pressure. 2. PSIA (Absolute pressure) - This is the pressure that is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. The application of Pascal's law in modern hydraulics can be best understood in the form of another power triangle. The triangle illustrates the three proportional values: F = Force (measured in pounds, #) P = Pressure (measured in PSI) A = Area (measured in square inches (IN) To find one of the unknown values lets say the force exerted by a cylinder, the other two values must be known. The area (A) and the pressure (P) must be multiplied together and their answer would be the force value (in pounds #). The power triangle is just a short way to illustrate these three formulas: Pressure = Force Area Force = Pressure x Area Area = Force Pressure
FIGURE 3 - PASCAL'S POWER TRIANGLE
FIGURE 4 - CALCULATING THE FORCE
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FIGURE 5 - CALCULATING THE PISTON AREA
FIGURE 6 - CLACULATING THE PRESSURE LAW OF ENERGY CONSERVATION - The law of energy conservation states that, "energy can neither be created nor destroyed", but instead will simply be changed from one energy form to another. An example, the potential energy in the form of liquid pressure may be decreased as the velocity (speed) increases, but the potential energy is not destroyed: It is changed to kinetic energy. More speed. What is gained in one energy form is lost in another. ENERGY - Energy is the ability or capacity to do work. There are two basic types of energy forms, they are: Potential energy, (referred to as stored energy), which is present in a hydraulic system in the form of pressure. Kinetic energy, (referred to as energy in motion), which is present in a hydraulic system in the form of flow. "WHAT IS GAINED IN FORCE IS LOST IN DISTANCE"
FIGURE 7
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Figure 7 illustrates the "mechanical advantage". A 10-pound block may support a 100-pound block, but a distance of 10 feet is needed to balance the two forces. Figure 8 shows the "hydraulic advantage". Because of the difference the piston will travel up only 1 inch. "What is gained in force is lost in distance". (The piston travel distance can be determined using the "volume power triangle").
FIGURE 8 VOLUME - Amount of space occupied in three dimensions and expressed in cubic inches (IN) VOLUME = AREA X HEIGHT Volume = Length x Width x Height Volume = L x W x H Volume = 4 x 5 x 3 Volume = 60 cubic inches or 60 in3
FIGURE 9 CALCULTAING VOLUME OF A BOX
FIGURE 10 CALCULATING VOLUME OF A CYLINDER
Additionally a power triangle may be formed to remember the volume formula. To find the volume (V), we would multiply the area (A) and the height (H) together. (V = A X H). If the area were not known, simply divided the volume by the height. To find the height, divided the volume by the area.
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11/3/20065
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V = VOLUME (IN) A = AREA (IN) H = HEIGHT (IN)
FIGURE 11 - VOLUME POWER TRIANGLE
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HYDRAULICS
2. COMPARISON OF SYSTEMS
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM - A suitable hydraulic system is shown in figure 12. The system requires a liquid fluid to operate; expensive and messy and, consequently, the piping must act as a closed loop. With fluid transferred from a storage tank to one side of the piston, and returned from the other side of the piston to the tank. Fluid is drawn from the tank by a pump which produces fluid flow at the required 150 bar. Such high-pressure pumps cannot operate into a dead-end load, as they deliver constant volumes of fluid from input to output ports for each revolution of the pump shaft. With a dead end load, fluid pressure rises indefinitely, until a pipe or the pump itself fails. Some form of pressure regulation, as shown, is therefore required to spill excess fluid back to the tank. A three-position changeover valve controls cylinder movement. To extend the cylinder, port A is connected to the pressure line and port B to the tank. To reverse the motion, port B is connected to the pressure line and port A to the tank. In its center position the valve locks the fluid into the cylinder (thereby holding it in position) and dead ends the fluid lines (causing all the pump output fluid to return to the tank via the pressure regulator). There are a few auxiliary points worthy of comment. First, speed control is easily achieved by regulating the volume flow rate to the cylinder. Precise control at low speeds is one of the main advantages of hydraulic systems. Second, travel limits are determined by the cylinder stroke and cylinders, generally, can be allowed to stall at the ends of travel so no over-travel protection is required. Third, the pump needs to be turned by an external power source, almost certainly an AC induction motor, which in turn, requires a motor starter and overload protection. Fourth, hydraulic fluid needs to be very clean, hence a filter is needed to remove dirt particles before the fluid passes from the tank to the pump.
FIGURE 12 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM AND COMPONENTS
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11/3/20067
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HYDRAULICS
PNEUMATIC SYSTEM - Figure 13 shows the components of a pneumatic system. The basic actuator is again a cylinder, with maximum force on the shaft being determined by air pressure and piston cross sectional area. Operating pressures in pneumatic systems are generally much lower than those in a hydraulic system; 10 bar being typical which will lift 10 kg cm-2 of piston area, so a 16cm diameter piston is required to lift the 2000 kg load. Pneumatic systems therefore require larger actuators than hydraulic systems for the same load. The valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in a similar way to its hydraulic equivalent. One notable difference arises out of the simple fact that air is free only after compression; return air is simply vented to atmosphere because air is not a pollutant. Air is drawn from the atmosphere via an air filter and raised to required pressure by an air compressor (usually driven by an AC motor). The air temperature is raised considerably by this compressor. Air also contains a significant amount of water vapor. Before the air can be used it must be cooled, and this results in the formation of condensation. So, the air compressor must be followed by a cooler and air treatment unit. Compressibility of a gas makes it necessary to store a volume of pressurized gas in a reservoir, to be drawn on by the load. Without this reservoir, a slow exponential rise of pressure results in a similar slow cylinder movement when the valve is first opened. The air treatment unit is thus followed by an air reservoir.
FIGURE 13 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM AND COMPONENTS
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HYDRAULICS
COMPARISON OF ELECTRICAL, HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS. Electrical Usually from outside supplier Limited (batteries) Excellent, with minimal loss Lowest AC & DC motors. Good control on DC motors, AC motors cheap Short motion via solenoid. Otherwise via mechanical conversion Possible with solenoid & DC motors. Complicated by need for cooling Danger from electric shock Hydraulic Electric motor diesel driven Limited (accumulator) Limited, basically a local facility Medium Low speed. Good control, can be stalled Cylinders. Very high force Controllable high force Leakage, dangerous and unsightly, fire hazard Pneumatic Electric motor or diesel driven Good (reservoir) Good, can be treated as a plant wide service Highest Wide spread range. Accurate speed, control difficult Cylinders. Medium force Controllable medium force Noise
Energy source Energy storage Distribution system Energy cost Rotary actuators
Linear actuator
Controllable force
Points to note
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HYDRAULICS
3. FLOW AND TEMPERATURE

FLOW - Hydraulic and pneumatic systems are both concerned with the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas) down a pipe. Flow is a loose term that generally has three distinct meanings. VOLUMETRIC FLOW - Measures the volume of a fluid passing a point per unit of time. Where the fluid is a compressible gas, temperature and pressure must be specified or flow normalized to some standard temperature and pressure. Volumetric flow is the most common measurement in process control. MASS FLOW - Measures the mass of fluid passing the point in unit time VELOCITY OF FLOW - Measures linear speed past the point of measurement. Flow velocity is of prime importance in the design of hydraulic and pneumatic systems. TEMPERATURE - A temperature scale is established by choosing two observable physical effects, which are dependent upon temperature and assigning numerical values to them. The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales use the freezing and boiling points of water as the two reference points. Fahrenheit Celsius 32 0 212 100
Freezing point Boiling point
The Celsius scale is most widely used in industry. FORMULA C = 5/9 (F = 32) F = 9/5 C + 32
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11/3/200610
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HYDRAULICS
4. HYDRAULIC PUMPS-TYPES- GEAR, VANE, PISTON, COMBINATION

A pump is a device that is used to create flow by using an outside source of power (prime mover). Pumps will serve a number of purposes in the system. Initially, the pump is the component that converts mechanical energy into hydraulic (fluid) energy. The pump will apply a force to the liquid, as well as raise the liquid from one level to another. The pump will act as the "heart" of the system and transfers the hydraulic fluid through the pipes. There are a number of terms that should be outlined to further understand various pumps, their classifications, and applications. FLOW - The amount of fluid that passes a point in a given amount of time. Flow is created by a difference in pressure. Fluid will always travel from an area of high pressure towards an area of lower pressure. Flow is commonly measured in volume terms of GPM, (gallons per minute) but can also be measured in IN /MIN., (cubic inches per minute) There are two types of flow: 1. LAMINAR FLOW - A smooth, parallel flowpath with fluid particles traveling in a straight line; undisturbed. 2. TURBULENT FLOW - Upset, erratic flow path with fluid particles colliding with each other. This type of flow is undesirable and is generally a source of heat generation.
FIGURE 14 - TYPES OF FLOW
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11/3/200611
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HYDRAULICS
DISPLACEMENT - The volume of liquid that can pass through a pump, motor, or cylinder in one revolution or stroke. 1. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT - A pump classification. This class of pump will deliver a set quantity of fluid with each revolution or stroke. (Most pumps used in a hydraulic system are of this type.) 2. FIXED DISPLACEMENT A pump classification. This classification designates that the amount of fluid that the pump delivers in one revolution or stroke cannot be changed or varied. This classification is normally only applied to positive displacement pumps and the two terms tend to be interchangeable. 3. VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT - A pump classification. This class of pump can vary the amount of fluid it will put out in one revolution without changing the direction of rotation or the drive speed of the prime mover. Generally these are simply modified positive displacement pumps. 4. NON-POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT - A pump classification. This type of pump does not deliver a set of quantity of fluid with each revolution or stroke. The discharge of this type of pump is decreased as resistance increases. (An example of this type of pump would be a centrifugal pump). This type of pump is seldom used as a main-flow pump in a hydraulic system for that reason. DELIVERY - The amount of liquid flow that a pump will produce in a given time. Delivery is normally expressed in gallons per minute (GPM) All pumps are rated by, (1) their maximum operating pressure (MOP), and (2) their flow rate in GPM (delivery) at a given drive speed. Example: 2500 PSI (MOP) - 10 GPM A 1500 RPM
HEAD - The perpendicular distance from the pump discharge to the highest point in the discharge line. See figure 15.
FIGURE 15
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11/3/200612
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HYDRAULICS
LIFT The perpendicular distance from the fluid level in the reservoir to the pump inlet. See figure 15. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS - There are a wide variety of designs and styles of positive disp1acement pumps. All of them will essentially serve the same purpose in a hydraulic system but some may have a few added characteristics or features, and some of those will be discussed here. A word about positive displacement pumps; all positive displacement pumps operate on a principle of increasing and decreasing volume. Increasing volume on the inlet side of the pump, and decreasing volume on the discharge side. GEAR PUMPS - Gear pump construction utilizes two intermeshing gears, one that is turned by the prime mover (called the driving gear) and one gear that (called the driven gear) is turned by the rotating motion of the driving gear. See figure 16. Fluid is carried between the gear teeth along the outside edge of the casing. As the gear teeth unmesh (come apart), they create an increasing volume (which in turn creates a decreasing pressure) that is quickly filled by fluid, and because the fluid is incompressible, it pushes the fluid out of the pump's discharge port Gear pumps are considered fixed displacement pumps.
FIGURE 16 - GEAR PUMP OPERATION GEAR PUMP STYLES - There are three basic designs that the gears of a gear pump may come in. Each of the designs has their own special characteristic that makes them ideal for one purpose of another. All of these gear pumps will operate in the same manner being the shape of the gears. The gears must both be of the same style in order for the pump to operate. 1. Spur Gear - This type of gear style uses gear teeth that are cut straight across. This type of gear is the easiest to manufacture, so it is no surprise that this is the most inexpensive to purchase as well as the gear pump design that is most common to our service. Many automobile manufacturers use this type of gear pump as oil pumps for
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their engines. A disadvantage to this type; however, is the fact that it develops the most pulsations of the gear pumps. 2. Helical Gear - This type of gear style used teeth that are diagonally cut across the gear. This gear is a little more expensive to manufacture, so it is a little more expensive to purchase. Because the gear teeth form a scissor like action, this style develops the least amount of pulsations. A disadvantage to this gear style is the fact that end thrust" is developed. End thrust is an internal force that tends to always be forcing the two gears away from each other. This force tends to accelerate wear of certain internal parts, such as end plates, bearings, etc. 3. Herringbone Gear - This type of gear style uses teeth that are cut diagonally toward the center ("V" shapes teeth). Because of its elaborate design, it is the most expensive. This style does develop medium pulsations but its advantage is that it will develop no end thrust. These pump; however, must be mounted horizontally for proper operation.
FIGURE 17 - GEAR PUMP STYLES GEROTOR GEAR PUMPS - The Gerotor pump (sometimes called a "ring gear" pump) is considered an internal gear pump. This pump too, is considered a fixed displacement pump. It operates much like the previously discussed gear pumps. The inner spur gear is driven by the prime mover and carries the outer ring gear around in mesh. Pumping chambers are formed between the rotor lobes, figure 18. There are three main components of the pump, they are: 1. SPUR GEAR - Sometimes called the gerotor element. This gear is keyed to the pump's drive shaft. It is the inner gear that gives movement to the outer gear. 2. RING GEAR - Sometimes called the female gear rotor. This is the outside gear and it will contain one more groove than the spur gear has teeth. 3. CASE - This is the housing of the pump and it will contain the fluid ports (inlet and discharge).
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11/3/200614
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HYDRAULICS
FIGURE 18 - GEROTOR PUMP TRACKING - Tracking is the occurrence of the vanes extending from the rotor and riding on the cam ring. One or more of these ways can accomplish this: 1. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE - The spinning motion of the rotor will tend to sling the vanes outward to keep them pushed against the cam ring. A minimum of 600-RPM prime mover speed must be used. 2. SPRINGS - Springs under the vanes will keep them in contact with the cam ring. 3. PRESSURIZED FLUID - Fluid is ported to the underside of the vanes and will keep them pushed out against the cam ring.
FIGURE 19 - GEROTOR PUMP OPERATION OPERATION - The spur gear has one less tooth than the ring gear has grooves. The spur gear is mounted off center and meshes with the ring gear as the pump is rotated. See figure 19. Rotation of the spur and ring gears causes them to un-mesh at the inlet side of the pump, increasing volume, drawing fluid in. At the same time on the discharge side, the spur and ring gear mesh together, decreasing volume, pushing the fluid out of the pump.
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11/3/200615
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HYDRAULICS
VANE PUMPS - These pumps are very popular for use in hydraulic systems, and they are classified as positive displacement pumps There are a couple of different styles of vane pumps that we will be concerned with, one of which can be made into a variable displacement. There are three basic components common to all vane pumps, figure 20. These basic parts are: 1. Rotor - A drum like component that is fitted on splines to the drive shaft and will rotate off-center inside the cam ring. The rotor will be equipped with radial slots f o r holding the vanes. 2. HOUSING - The outside assembly that supports all the other components. The housing contains the ports for intake and discharge. 3. CAM RING - Sometimes this is a machined part of the housing, other times it is a separate piece that fits inside the housing. This is the component, which will ride against (or track on).
FIGURE 20 - VANE PUMP OPERATION - The rotor is mounted off-center in the housing and cam ring and as it rotates, the vanes in the rotor slots move out (tracking) against the cam ring. Between the extending vanes, an increasing volume occurs, drawing in fluid. The fluid is carried around to the opposite side of the pump where the vanes are being pushed back into the rotor, creating a decreasing volume. This applies a force to the fluid, pushing it out of the pump at the discharge port. TYPES OF VANE PUMPS 1. UNBALANCED - This type of vane pump contains one inlet and one discharge port within the pump body. It will also contain a circular-shaped cam ring. A disadvantage to this type is the development of "side loading". Because the discharge side houses greater pressures than the inlet, there tends to be an internal force trying to push the rotor towards the lower pressure inlet side. This is the reason it is called "unbalanced".
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11/3/200616
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HYDRAULICS
2. UNBALANCED VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT (SEE FIGURE 21) - The operation of this vane pump is primarily the same as the simple unbalanced vane pump, but has an adjustment mechanism that allows the cam ring to be moved closer or further from the rotor. This allows for the displacement to be varied.
FIGURE 21 - UNBALANCED, VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT VANE PUMP 3. BALANCED - This design of vane pump contains two Inlet and two outlet ports, located across from each other within the pump body, figure 22. It will also contain an elliptical (oval shaped) cam ring. Because there are two of each port, located across from each other, the higher pressure at the discharge side is balanced out and the side loading is eliminated. This type of vane pump can also be made variable.
FIGURE 22 - BALANCED VANE PUMP

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PISTON TYPE PUMPS - All piston pumps operate on the principle that a piston reciprocating in a cylinder will draw in fluid as it is retracted and expel it on the forward stroke. RECIPROCATING PUMPS - This style of pump uses one or more cylinders with close fitting pistons and piston rods. These pumps are popular for use as hand operated bilge or drum pumps, and are commonly used in the design of air compressors. These pumps have capacities for high volumes but have very high pulsations resulting. THERE ARE TWO BASIC STYLES, THEY ARE: 1. SINGLE ACTING - This type discharges on one stroke only, figure 23. This is because the pump uses a single check valve for each intake and discharge port. 2. DOUBLE ACTING - This type discharges on both strokes due to the construction that contains a double set of check valves.
FIGURE 23 - RICIPROCATING PUMPS RADIAL PISTON PUMPS - In a radial pump the cylinder block rotates on a stationary pintle and inside of a circular reaction ring or rotor. As the block rotates it causes the pistons to follow the inner surface of the ring, which is offset from the centerline of the cylinder block. The pistons will then reciprocate, causing a pumping action through the pump ports. There are four main parts: 1. PINTLE - This is a stationary shaft in the center of the pump that houses the intake and discharge ports. Internal passages allow fluid to and from pumping chambers figure 24 2. CYLINDER BLOCK - This component rotates around the pinion like pintle and houses the cylinders and pistons. The cylinder block is attached to the drive shaft. 3. PISTONS - These pistons, relatively small in size, can take on several different designs. They will have attached piston shoes, figure 24, that will ride on the reaction ring, and reciprocate inside the bores of the cylinder block.
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4. REACTION RING - This part is similar in design and purpose to the cam ring of a vane pump it will have a track (or some means similar) to keep the piston shoes in contact with the ring.
FIGURE 24 OPERATION - Fluid enters the pump housing and is carried along the passageways drilled through the pintle. When the fluid reaches the open cavity of the pintle it is allowed to enter into the cylinder bores. Because the cylinder is rotating off-center to the reaction ring, the piston shoes riding on the ring will reciprocate in and out. The fluid will be drawn into the cylinders where the pistons are moving out and pushed back in towards the pintle on the opposite side where the cylinder block is closer to the reaction ring. The fluid is pushed into the open cavity of the pintle, along the drilled passageways and directed to the discharge port of the pump housing. See figure 24. This pump can be made variable by adding a moveable slide block, see figure 25. The cylinder block would be rotated on a pintle mounted in the center and as the slide block moves from, one side to another it would vary the length of the piston stroke, thereby varying the displacement.
FIGURE 25 - RADIAL PISTON PUMP

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FIGURE 26 - VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT RADIAL PISTON PUMP AXIAL PISTON PUMPS - This pump is sometimes called a "swash plate" pump. In this type of pump the pistons will be reciprocating in a rotating cylinder block parallel to the drive shaft. This pump, also like the radial piston pump, will have an odd number of pistons in order to reduce fluid pulsations. There are a few basic components. 1. CYLINDER BLOCK - This component houses the pistons, which are parallel to the shaft. It will be connected to the drives haft through a universal joint, and will be rotated by the prime mover. 2. PISTONS - The pistons are connected to the swash plate by piston shoes (or rods). They will slide in and out of corresponding cylinders in the cylinder block. 3. SWASH PLATE - This is sometimes called tilt box. The drive shaft is also connected to this component. The swash plate is mounted on opposite corners by trunnions that allow it to tilt. By tilting this swash plate (varying the angle) we will be able to vary the discharge of the pump. 4. VALVE PLATE - This is a stationary component and supports the cylinder block on the end opposite the swash plate. It also contains the crescent shaped ports for pump intake and discharge.
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11/3/200620
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HYDRAULICS
FIGURE 27 - AXIAL PISTON PUMP OPERATION - As the prime mover turns the cylinder block, the piston shoes (which are connected to the swash plate) follow the tilted swash plate. This action causes the pistons to reciprocate. As the pistons withdraw from their bores they create an increasing volume, (and a decreasing pressure), quickly filled by fluid at the inlet port. The ports (in the valve plate) are arranged so that the piston passed the inlet as they are being pulled out and pass the outlet as they are being forced back in. Increasing the angle of the swash plate increases the stroke length of the pistons, which increasing the displacement. Moving the swash plate past "zero angle" (straight up and down, where no discharge is present) will cause the pump to move fluid in the opposite direction. This characteristic is called "bi-directional", (reversible, without reversing the direction of the prime mover).
FIGURE 28
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11/3/200621
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5. HYDRAULIC LOADING VALVES AND FILTERS

LOADING VALVES - Allowing excess fluid from a pump to return to the tank by a pressure relief valve is wasteful of energy and can lead to a rapid rise in temperature of the fluid as the wasted energy is converted to heat. It is normally undesirable to start and stop the pump to match load requirements, as this causes shock load to pump, motors and couplings. In figure 29, valve V1 is a normal pressure relief valve, regulating pressure and returning excess fluid to the tank as described in earlier sections. The additional valve V2 is opened or closed by an external electrical or hydraulic signal. With valve V2 open, all the pump output flow is returned to the tank at low pressure with minimal energy cost.
FIGURE 29 When fluid is required in the system the control signal closes valve V2, pressure rises to the setting of valve V1 and the system performs as normal. Valve V2 is called a pump loading or a pump unloading valve according to the interpretation of the control signal sense. FILTERS - A filter is a device in the fluid line used to trap fine particles and prevent them from remaining in the system. A filter provides a much finer degree of contamination control of the hydraulic fluid. THERE ARE TWO BASIC TYPES OF FILTERS 1. Proportional Flow Filters This is a type of filter that will pass a small amount (portion) of the fluid that comes to it through the filtering surface (See figure 30). This type of filter is not very effective and in most cases is being replaced with the full flow type of filter. 2. Full Flow Filters - This type of filter will pass all the fluid that comes to it through the filtering surface. This is the type of filter that is most commonly used. Sometimes this type of filter is equipped with a bypass check valve that operates on the principle of pressure differential. It will allow fluid to go around the filter in the event it becomes clogged. See figure 30.
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11/3/200622
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A very popular style of full flow filter is the indicator type - It has a special feature, which incorporates mechanical linkages to rotate a color indicator to visually identify the filter's condition. See figure 30.
FIGURE 30 - TYPES OF FILTERS FILTER RATING - Filters are rated in microns. This micron number refers to the diameter of the hole (or pore) on the filter's surface. One Micron Equals .000039" See Figure 31. The filter's micron rating can be a nominal or absolute rating. If the filter's micron rating is nominal, then that number would indicate the average hole size on the filter's surface. There may be larger holes and smaller holes on the filter, but the nominal rating would give you the average of the two. If the filter's micron rating is absolute, then that number would indicate the largest hole on the filter's surface. There may be smaller holes (or pores) but the largest will not exceed the manufacturers rating. This provides greater control over the size of particle that the filter will trap. It is important to know how filters are rated for proper replacement. In most cases, if it is not designated, the micron rating would be understood to be "nominal".
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11/3/200623
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Relative size of Micron Particles (magnified 500 times)
FIGURE 31 - MICRON COMPARATIVE SIZE CHART Relative sized Lower limit of visibility (naked eye) 40 microns White blood cells 25 microns Red blood cells 8 microns Bacteria 2 microns
FIGURE 32
FIGURE 33
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6. HYDRAULIC PRESSURE REGULATION

The simplest form of pressure regulation valve is the ball and spring arrangement of figure 34. System pressure in the pipe exerts a force on the ball. When the force is larger than the spring compressive force, the valve will crack open, bypassing fluid back to the tank. The higher the pipe pressure, the more the valve opens. Cracking pressure is set by the spring compression and in practical valves this can be adjusted to suit the application.
FIGURE 34 The difference between cracking pressure and full flow pressure is called the pressure override. The steady (non-working) system pressure will lie somewhere within the pressure override, with the actual value determined by pipe sizes and characteristics of the pressure regulating valve itself. The piston in this valve is free moving, but is normally held in the lowered position by a light spring, blocking flow to the tank. Fluid is permitted to pass to the upper chamber through a small hole in the piston. The upper chamber is sealed by an adjustable spring loaded poppet. In the low pressure state, there is no flow past the poppet, so pressure on both sides of the piston are equal and spring pressure keeps the valve closed. When fluid pressure rises, the poppet cracks and a small flow of fluid passes from the upper chamber to the tank through the hole in the piston center. This fluid is replenished by fluid flowing through the hole in the piston, which is acting only against a light spring. The whole piston lifts, releasing fluid around the valve stem until a balance condition is reached. Because of the light restoring spring a very small override is achieved.
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11/3/200625
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7. AIR COMPRESSORS TYPES-PISTON, SCREW, ROTARY, DYNAMIC

A compressor is selected by the pressure it is required to work at and the volume of gas it is required to deliver. Pressure in the receiver is generally higher that that required at the operating position, with local pressure regulation being used. Pressure at the compressor outlet is called the working pressure and is used to specify the compressor. Pressure at the operating point is called the operating pressure and is used to specify valves, actuators and other operating devices. PISTON COMPRESSORS - These are the most common types of compressors. As the piston descends during the inlet stroke, the inlet valve opens and air is drawn into the cylinder. As the piston passes the bottom of the stroke, the inlet valve closes and the exhaust valve opens allowing air to be expelled as the piston rises. Piston compressors go direct from atmospheric to required pressure in a single operation. This is known as a single stage compressor. Piston compressors are used where high pressure (above 20 bar) and relatively low volumes are required. Piston compressors are mechanically relatively complex with many moving parts. SCREW COMPRESSORS - These compressors consist of two intermeshing rotating screws with minimal clearance. As the screws rotate, air is drawn into the housing, trapped between the screws and carried along to the discharge port, where it is delivered in a constant pulse free stream. Screws in this compressor can be synchronized by external timing gears. Alternatively one screw can be driven, the second screw rotated by contact with the drive screw. This approach requires oil lubrication to be sprayed into the inlet air to reduce friction between screws, and is consequently known as a wet rotary screw compressor. ROTARY COMPRESSORS - The vane compressor operates on similar principles to the hydraulic vane pump, although air compressors tend to be physically larger than hydraulic pumps. Vanes can be forced out by springs or, more commonly, by centrifugal force. A single stage vane compressor can deliver air at up to 3 bar, a much lower pressure than that available with a screw or piston compressor. A two stage vane compressor with large low pressure and smaller high pressure sections linked by an intercooler allows pressures up to 10 bar to be obtained. There are two other types of rotary compressors: one is called a liquid ring compressor and the other is called a lobe compressor (often called a roots blower). DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS - When a large volume of air is often required for applications such as pneumatic conveying, ventilation or where air itself is one component of a process (i.e. combustion air for gas/oil burners), a dynamic compressor is used. They can be subdivided into centrifugal or axial types. Centrifugal blowers draw air in then fling it out by centrifugal force. An axial compressor comprises a set of rotating fan blades and produce very large volumes of air but at low pressure. They are primarily used for ventilation, combustion and process air.
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11/3/200626
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8. CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR AIR COMPRESSORS

Control of the compressor is necessary to maintain pressure in the receiver. The simplest method of achieving this is to start the compressor when receiver pressure falls to some minimum pressure, and stop the compressor when pressure rises to a satisfactory level. In theory two pressure switches are required (with the motor start pressure lower than the motor stop pressure) but, in practice, internal hysteresis in a typical switch allows one pressure switch to be used. The pressure in the receiver cycles between the start and stop pressure settings. Another method of compressor control is where the compressor runs continuously and an exhaust valve is fitted to the compressor outlet. This valve opens when the required pressure is reached. A non-return valve prevents air returning from the receiver. This technique is known as exhaust regulation. Compressors can also be controlled on the inlet side. An inlet valve is held open to allow the compressor to operate, and is closed when the air receiver has reached the desired pressure. The valves can be electrically operated solenoid vales controlled by pressure switches, or can be pneumatic valves controlled directly by receiver pressure. The control method is largely determined by flow rates from receiver to the loads and the capacity of the compressor. If the compressor has significant spare capacity, for example, start/stop control is commonly used. If compressor capacity and load requirements are closely matched, short start/stop cycling may cause premature wear in the electrical starter for the compressor motor. In this situation, exhaust or inlet regulation is preferred.
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11/3/200627
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9. COMPRESSED AIR TREATMENT

Atmospheric air contains moisture in the form of water vapor. We perceive the amount of moisture in a given volume of air as the humidity and refer to days with a high amount of water vapor as humid or sticky and days with low amounts of water vapor as dry. Air in a pneumatic system must be clean and dry to reduce wear and extend maintenance periods. Atmospheric air contains many harmful impurities (smoke, dust, water vapor) and needs treatment before it can be used. In general, this treatment falls into three distinct stages. First inlet filtering removes particles, which can damage the air compressor. Next there is the need to dry the air to reduce humidity and lower the dew point. This is normally performed between the compressor and the receiver and is termed primary air treatment. The final treatment is performed local to the duties to be performed, and consists of further steps to remove moisture and dirt and the introduction of a fine oil mist to aid lubrication. Not surprisingly this is generally termed secondary air treatment. Inlet filters are used to remove dirt and smoke particles before they can cause damage to the air compressor, and are classified as dry filters with replaceable cartridges, or wet filters where the incoming air is bubbled through and oil bath then passed through a wire mesh filter. Dirt particles became attached to oil droplets during the bubbling process and are consequently removed by the wire mesh. Both types of filters require regular servicing; replacement of the cartridge element for the dry type; cleaning for the wet type. Filters are classified according to size of particles they will stop.
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11/3/200628
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10. COMPRESSED AIR REGULATION

Flow velocities in pneumatic systems can be very high, which can lead to significant flowdependent pressure drops between the air receiver and the load. Generally, air pressure in the receiver is set higher than the required load pressure and pressure regulation is performed local to loads to keep pressure constant regardless of flow. There are basically three methods of local pressure control illustrated in figure 35. Load A vents continuously to atmosphere. Air pressure is controlled by a pressure regulator which simply restricts air flow to the load. This type of regulator requires some minimum flow to operate. If used with a dead end load which draws no air, the air pressure will rise to the main manifold pressure. Such regulators, in which air must pass through the load, are called non-relieving regulators.
FIGURE 35 Load B is a dead-end load, and uses a pressure regulator that vents air to atmosphere to reduce pressure. This type of regulator is called a three-port or relieving regulator. Finally, load C is a large capacity load whose air volume requirements are beyond the capacity of a simple in-line regulator. Here, a pressure control loop has been constructed comprising pressure transducer, electronic controller and separate vent valve. This technique can also be sued if the pressure-regulating valve cannot be mounted locally to the point at which the pressure is to be controlled.
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11/3/200629
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11. CONTROL VALVES- TYPES AND SYMBOLS

POPPET To control flow, simple discs, cones or balls are used in conjunction with simple valve seats. Figure 36 shows the construction and symbol of a simple 2/2 normally closed valve, where depression of the pushbutton lifts the ball off its seat and allows fluid to flow from port P to port A. When the button is released, spring and fluid pressure force the ball up again closing the valve.
FIGURE 36 Poppet valves are simple and cheap, but it is generally simpler to manufacture valves more complicated by using spool valves. A major disadvantage of poppet valves is the force needed to operate them. Large capacity valves need large valve areas, leading to large operating force requirements. The high pressure in hydraulic systems therefore tends to prevent the use of simple poppet valves and they are mainly found in low-pressure pneumatic systems. SPOOL OR SELECTOR VALVES - Although there are a number of different designs and configurations the "sliding spool" type is by far the most popular directional control valve. The basic design of all spool types consists of a spool; which is a cylindrical shaft-like component, and a spool housing (or valve body) that will contain the fluid ports coming into the valve. The spool will have raised portions, called "lands", and lowered spaces in between, called "grooves". With some means to actuate (move) the valve 31 the spool will shift inside the machined bore of the valve body and open and close different flow paths through the valve. See Figure37.
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11/3/200630
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FIGURE 37 SPOOL TYPE DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE The lines coming into the valve body at the bottom are the fluid lines to and from various points in the hydraulic system. Generally they are labeled with letters to indicate where the fluid ports will be connected in the system. " P" would b e connected to the pump discharge. "T" would be connected to the tank f o r oil return f low and " A" and (if used) " B" are the working ports that would be normally connected to an actuator. SYMBOLS FOR SPOOL OR SELECTOR VALVES 1. Position - The number of basic envelopes or boxes in the symbol will indicate the number of valve positions. See top row in figure 38. Positions of a valve are the different configurations that a valve may be placed in. if the symbol has two boxes, it is a two position valve, if it has three boxes, it will be a three position, and so on. 2. Ways - The ways of a valve will be the number of piping connections (ports) in the valve. The port connections on the symbol will always be shown outside the envelope (position) that will be used when the valve is in the "at rest" (un-actuated) position. See center rows in figure 38. 3. Fluid Paths - Will be indicated by arrows in the different position boxes to show the flow of fluid when the valve is shifted in that position. The little "T" shape in the boxes of the three positions, three-way (bottom row of figure 38) valve indicate that the port is blocked when the valve is in that position and will not allow fluid to pass from the port lined up with the "T". 4. Center Configurations - In valves with three positions, the center position can be one of three different configurations that will illustrate the flow paths of the valve when it is not actuated ("at rest").
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11/3/200631
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FIGURE 38 ROTARY - Rotary valves consist of a rotating spool that aligns with holes in the valve casing to give the required operation. Figure 39 shows the construction and symbol of a typical valve with center off action. Rotary valves are compact, simple and have low operating forces. They are low-pressure devices and are mainly used for hand operation in pneumatic systems.
FIGURE 39
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CHECK - Check valves are the simplest type of directional control valves. These valves are used to permit fluid flow in a single direction only.
FIGURE 40 PILOT OPERATED CHECK VALVE - This type of check valve will operate in the same manner as the others but will allow fluid to flow in the opposite direction only when the valve receives a remote hydraulic pilot signal. This type is a little more complicated than the others. Figure 41 illustrates the two common symbols that may be found to indicate a check valve. The arrow indicates the direction that the valve will allow normal flow. In many cases if the symbol with the spring is used the springs tension (in PSI) is also indicated next to it on the drawing.
FIGURE 41 SEQUENCE VALVES - A sequence valve is a pressure control valve used to cause action in a hydraulic system to take place in a definite order. A secondary function is to maintain a minimum pressure at the valve's primary (inlet) port, which allows the valve to remain open during the second (sequencing) operation. The sequence valve is held normally closed by an adjustable or preset spring's tension. They are either directly or remotely pilot-operated. Because there are pressures present on both sides of the valve (primary & secondary), sequence valves must be externally drained.
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11/3/200633
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FIGURE 42 The direct pilot operated sequence valve senses pilot pressure for operation at the inlet port. When pressure on the primary side of the valve builds up to the valve's setting, the valve will open and allow flow to the secondary port. If the pressure drops below the setting of the valve, the secondary operation stops. A sequence valve may have a reverse free flow check valve within the valve's housing, if it is placed in the system after the system's directional control valve. SHUTTLE AND FAST EXHAUST VALVES - A shuttle valve is also known as a double check valve, allows pressure in a line to be obtained from alternative sources. It is primarily a pneumatic device and is rarely found in hydraulic circuits. Construction is very simple and consists of a ball inside a cylinder, as shown in figure 43a. If pressure is applied to port X, the ball is blown to the right blocking port Y and linking ports X and A. Similarly, pressure to port Y alone connects ports Y and A and blocks port X. The symbol of a shuttle valve is given in figure 43b.
FIGURE 43
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A fast exhaust valve (figure 44) is used to vent cylinders quickly. It is primarily used with spring return pneumatic cylinders. The device shown in figure 44 consists of a movable disc which allows port A to be connected to pressure port P or larger exhaust port R. It acts like, and has the same symbol as, a shuttle valve. Fast exhaust valves are usually mounted local to, or directly onto cylinders and speed up response by avoiding any delay from return pipes and control valves. They also permit simpler control valves to be used.
FIGURE 44 TIME DELAY VALVES - Pneumatic time delay valves (figure 45) are used to delay operations where time-based sequences are required. This is similar in construction to a 3/2 way pilot operated valve, but the space above the main valve is comparatively large and pilot air is only allowed in via a flow reducing needle valve. There is a time delay between application of pilot pressure to port Z and the valve operation, as shown by the timing diagram in figure 45b. The time delay is adjusted by the needle valve setting. The built in check valve causes the reservoir space above the valve to vent quickly when pressure at Z is removed to give no delay off. The valve shown in figure 45 is a normally closed delay-on valve. Many other time delay valves, can be obtained. All use the basic principles of the air reservoir and needle valve like delay-off, delay on/off and normally-open.
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11/3/200635
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HYDRAULICS
FIGURE 45
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12. ACTUATORS-CONSTRUCTION DETAILS AND SEALS, SPEED CONTROL, COUNTERBALANCE AND DYNAMIC BRAKING
Actuators are devices, which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. They are the components of the system that actually perform the work. There are two types of actuators, linear and rotary. Both will be discussed in this text. LINEAR (IN-LINE) ACTUATORS Linear actuators are sometimes called hydraulic "cylinders" or "rams". The basic design of these actuators consists of a long tube or cylinder with a close-fitting piston. See figure 46. A piston rod will extend from the piston on one (or both) end(s). The cylinder will be closed on each end and will contain fluid ports in which the hydraulic fluid will enter and exit.
FIGURE 46 - LINEAR ACTUATOR TYPES OF LINEAR ACTUATORS SINGLE ACTING - Single acting linear actuators will have one fluid power stroke (ability to do work in a single direction; "up" or "down"). These types of actuators are generally installed vertically so the weight of the load will return the piston once it has been extended. If this type is mounted horizontally, it will normally use a spring to do the same job. Figure47 illustrates a single acting type As well as the symbol for the component.
FIGURE 47 SINGLE ACTING LINEAR ACTUATOR

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DOUBLE ACTING - Double acting linear actuators will have two fluid power strokes, and will perform work in both directions, "extending" or "retracting". (Both of these terms are made in reference to the rod in relation to the cylinder). This type of actuator will have a fluid port at each end of the cylinder. There are two styles of double acting linear actuators; they are outlined below. 1. DIFFERENTIAL - This type of double acting linear actuator will have unequal areas on either side of the piston. This is due to the area taken up by the piston rod on one side. It will also have proportionally different volumes on either side of the cylinder. Figure48 illustrates this type as well as its symbol.
FIGURE 48 - DOUBLE ACTING - DIFFERENTIAL LINEAR ACTUATOR 1. NON-DIFFERENTIAL - This type of double acting linear actuator will have an equal area on either side of the piston due to the placement of a second piston rod of equal size on the opposite side of the piston. Sometimes these are called "double ended rod" type cylinders. Figure49 illustrates the actuator and its symbol
FIGURE 49 - DOUBLE ACTING NON-DIFFERENTIAL LINEAR ACTUATOR ROTARY ACTUATORS - Rotary actuators are more commonly called hydraulic motors. Like the linear actuators, the rotary type will also convert hydraulic energy into mechanical. Rotary actuators will convert the hydraulic energy into a rotary or turning mechanical energy. They are not much different in operation than an electric motor, but they use hydraulic fluid that is flowing to them to rotate the motor instead of electricity. There are many styles, and basically and hydraulic pump can be modified to become a hydraulic motor. See the vane motor illustrated in Figure50.
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11/3/200638
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FIGURE 50 - VANE MOTOR OTHER STYLES OF HYDRAULIC MOTORS ARE: 1. Gear Motors 2. Radial Piston Motors 3. Axial Piston Motors TORQUE - A rotary thrust or turning force of a motor, engine, or wrench. Torque = Length X Force Torque = 10 x 50 Torque = 500 The length is measured from the center of rotation to the point where the force is applied. See Figure51.
FIGURE 51 - CALCULATING TORQUE Hydraulic motors can be of the variable displacement type. Using a constant speed prime mover with hydraulic pump, these have the capability of varying their speed by some external mechanical means.
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11/3/200639
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Hydraulic motors may also be of the bi-directional type. The fluid supplied to the motor can be ported to either side and a resulting direction of rotation change will occur. These type of hydraulic motors will normally be equipped with an external case drain due - to the presence of fluid pressure on both sides of the motor. The symbols for these hydraulic components are shown on the next page.
FIGURE 52
FIGURE 53
FIGURE 54
FIGURE 55
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FIGURE 56 - HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT USING A ROTARY ACTUATOR
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11/3/200641
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13. HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC ACCESSORIES

HEAT EXCHANGERS - There are two types of heat exchangers, shell and tube heat exchanger and an air cooler. Water cooling is most common in the shell and tube heat exchanger which is fitted in the return line to the tank. Note that the cooling water flows in the opposite direction to the oil. Air cooling is also common, with fans blowing air through a radiator matrix similar to those in cars. Air cooling is noisy and occupies more space than a water cooler, but does not have the danger of contamination from leaks inside a water cooler. RESERVOIRS - Reservoirs are sometimes called the "tank" or "sump". It is actually a component with a number of purposes. The first is to provide a place of storage for the hydraulic fluid. Because of its fairly large volume capacity, it will also help dissipate heat through the walls to be cooled by surrounding air (or water). The reservoir's third function is to allow for the settling of sediment that may be suspended in the oil. It does this by slowing the rate of oil flow through the reservoir giving the (heavier) contaminant particles a chance to fall to the bottom of the oil, and to allow entrapped air to bubble to the surface. THERE ARE TWO BASIC TYPES OF RESERVOIRS 1. Pressurized: This type of reservoir is used where atmospheric pressure is not present. It is commonly used in aircraft applications and is not usually found in shipboard use.
FIGURE 57 2. Non-pressurized: Sometimes this type is called a "vented" reservoir. This type is open to the atmosphere, and allows atmospheric pressure in to push the hydraulic fluid into the inlet side of the pump. See Figure58.
FIGURE 58
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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - Atmospheric pressure is the pressure that is exerted by the weight of the earth' s atmosphere. This pressure will decrease at higher elevations and increase at surfaces below sea level. Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 PSI at sea level. Atmospheric pressure is the force responsible for charging the inlet side of a pump. Atmospheric pressure will act on each square inch of oil in the reservoir and virtually push that oil up into the pump inlet (charging). RESERVOIR COMPONENTS VENT CAP This is a cap, normally located on top of the reservoir, and will sometimes act as a filler cap to provide a place to add oil to the system. It will normally contain a filtering screen and must be large enough to allow air to maintain atmospheric pressure. BAFFLE PLATE This is a flat plate which extends lengthwise through the center of the tank, and is used to separate the pump inlet line from the return' line so that the same fluid cannot reciprocate continuously, but must slowly travel through the tank. This slowing action of the fluid also allows heavier contaminant particles to f all to the reservoirs bottom. The baffle plate also allows for a greater dissipation of heat by adding an extra surface for heat to transfer onto. SIGHT GLASS This is a device that is used to indicate oil level inside the reservoir. There are a number of different styles that may be seen. They are preferable to dipsticks, because the system does not have to be opened, and exposed to impurities in the atmosphere in order to check the fluid level. INSPECTION COVER Sometimes this is called an "access cover" and is used to allow the operator a means of getting into the reservoir for inspection and cleaning of the tank. DRAIN PLUG This is a plug that is normally located at the lowest point in the bottom of the reservoir to allow for the draining of the fluid. Sometimes a magnet is mounted to the inside of the drain plug to help collect metal particles that may be suspended in the oil. Figure 59 illustrates a basic hydraulic system reservoir featuring the components listed above. It should be stated that not all hydraulic reservoirs are of this style, but this design is very popular for industrial use. Many times shipboard applications of reservoirs are merely holding tanks built into the hull of the ship between frames.
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11/3/200643
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FIGURE 59 ACCUMULATORS - Accumulators are used to store pressure, develop flow, and absorb shock in a hydraulic system. Three types of accumulator used are: Weight Loaded, Spring Loaded, and Gas Charged WEIGHT-LOADED ACCUMULATORS - Weight-Loaded accumulators use weights positioned on a vertical piston or cylinder. Adding weights will vary the pressure. Pressure is constant as long as there is fluid in the chamber. SPRING LOADED ACCUMULATORS - Spring-Loaded accumulators applies pressure to a fluid by the use of a spring acting on a piston. Pressure is not constant since the spring force increases as the fluids enters the chamber and decreases as it is discharged. GAS CHARGED ACCUMULATORS - The most common accumulator used is one in which the chamber is pre-charged with an inert gas such as dry nitrogen. A gas charged accumulator should be pre-charged then it is empty. There are three type of gas charged accumulators no separator, diaphragm or bladder, and piston. A no-separator type has no-separator between the gas charge and fluid. A bladder or diaphragm accumulator uses a synthetic rubber diaphragm or bladder to contain the gas charge, and separate from the hydraulic fluid. A metal button or poppet is used to prevent the bladder or diaphragm from extruding into the system. Piston types use a free piston with the gas on one side and the hydraulic fluid on the other, with seals between the two chambers.
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When working on a system that has an accumulator, the accumulator must be drained or blocked before disconnecting lines. Never try to disassemble an accumulator without releasing the precharge whether it be weighted, gas charged, spring loaded HOSES PNEUMATIC PIPING, HOSES AND CONNECTIONS - The various end devices in a pneumatic system are linked to the air receiver by pipes, tubes or hoses. Pneumatic systems are vulnerable to moisture and, to provide drainage, the piping should be installed with a slope of about 1% down from the reservoir. A water trap fitted at the lowest point of the system allows condensate to be run off, and all tap-offs are taken from the top of the pipe to prevent water collecting in branch lines. Connections can be made by welding, threaded connections, flanges or compression tube connectors. Hoses are used where flexibility is needed at higher pressure. Pneumatic hoses are constructed with three concentric layers; an inner tube made of synthetic rubber surrounded by a reinforcement material such as metal braiding. A plastic outer layer is then used to protect the hosing from abrasion. Hose fittings need care in use, as they must clamp tightly onto the hose, but not so tightly as to cut through the reinforcement. Quick-disconnect couplings are used where hoses are to be attached and disconnected without the need of shut off valves. These contain a spring loaded poppet which closes the outlet when the hose is removed. There is always a brief blast of air as the connection is made or broken, which can eject any dirt around the connector at high speed. Extreme care must therefore be taken when using quick disconnect couplings. HYDRAULIC PIPING, HOSING AND CONNECTIONS - The differences between hydraulic and pneumatic piping primarily arise from the far higher operating pressure in a hydraulic system. Particular care has to be taken to check the pressure rating of pipes, tubing, hosing and fittings, specified as the bursting pressure. The choice of piping or tubing is usually a direct consequence of pressure rating. Hydraulic piping is specified by wall thickness and outside diameters. Like pneumatic piping, joints can be made by welding with compression fittings or threaded connections and flanges. Flexible hosing is constructed in several concentric layers, with the inner tubing being chosen to be compatible with the hydraulic fluid and its temperature. One or more braided reinforcing layers are used. At higher pressure the braiding will be wire. The outer layer is designed to resist abrasion and protect the inner layers. Hoses are generally manufactured complete with fittings. Hydraulic hoses, like pneumatic hoses, must be installed without twists. Quick disconnect hydraulic connections are available, but the higher pressure, risk of spillage and danger of introducing dust into the system restricts their usage.
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11/3/200645
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14. TROUBLESHOOTING INCLUDING LOGIC CHART

To effectively carry out a systematic check for system problems, the technician should keep a number of things in mind. It is always advantageous if you have a thorough knowledge of the hydraulic system. How will you ever be able to tell if the system has a problem if you don't know how the system is supposed to work? Two important rules to follow are: 1. Find out as much as possible about the malfunction. If you are not the operator of the equipment , then question the operator to gather as much information he/she is able to supply. if operating logs are kept on the machinery, they may be of value in the collecting of information. The operating logs may even indicate a potential problem in the pressure readings. Check them for a pattern. 2. Never disassemble any component unless you are sure it is a fault. This is a needless waste of time and you are exposing the system to outside impurities any time the system is opened. This in itself could lead to problems . With an understanding of the principles of hydraulics you now understand that in the event of decreased pressure capability of the system, the experienced technician would not immediately replace the pump. A look in other areas could reveal a possible malfunction/maladjustment at the relief valve. PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE - The preventative maintenance schedules should be followed diligently. The changing or replacing of filters and strainers should be performed as required. The frequency of use may dictate a variance from the schedule, in that they may need to be changed even more frequently.
DIRT IS THE NO.1 ENEMY OF A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM.

Contamination control can be the best guard against system troubles. If work is to be performed on a component of the system care must be taken to keep the environment around the open system as clean as possible. Always filter the hydraulic fluid before adding into the system's reservoir. Use a filter of recommended micron size. Avoid the use of chamois, cheesecloth and coffee filters whereas they are unacceptable for filtering particles and often leave lint or other particles in the fluid. Fluid tests are in most cases helpful. They can determine the need for an oil change , as well as give the technician some valuable information on the particles that may be suspended in the oil. Visual inspections can also be performed, and the trained eye can determine the presence of water , sludge or sediment. Visgauge readings are also sometimes helpful for a comparison to new oil they can indicate a thinning of the oil. The hydraulic system can be divided up in to three major groups to help simplify the troubleshooting process. They are listed below. ENERGY GROUP - Check the pump's prime mover. The electrical supply to an electric motor could be checked with a volt/ohm meter. It could also be checked for proper direction of rotation. If the prime mover is an internal combustion engine, check and record various readings that may be of help.
QMED
HYDRAULICS
MECHANICAL GROUP - Check the mechanical fittings, linkages, guide arms brackets, pulleys, sprockets and anything that may be in between the actuator and the component that is doing the actual work. Ensure that no binding exists and that all connections move freely. If resistance is fe1t in the mechanical group it may show up in the system in the form of a higher than normal fluid pressure. FLUID GROUP - Check the hydraulics portion of the system the pump, valves, fittings, piping, reservoirs, and the fluid itself. The most common source of trouble in the hydraulics portion of the system is leaks. Fluid leaks could be internal or external, and are seldom indicated by any change in pressure. Only a leak large enough to divert full pump flow will be indicated by a reduced pressure. External leaks are not as hard to notice as internal ones. Sometimes these may only be noticeable by a difference in the system's operation. Pump problems can commonly be two conditions outlined below: CAVITATION Cavitation is the formation and collapse of gaseous cavities in a liquid. Indications of cavitation are: Noisy Pump Operation System Operation Abnormal High Pump Inlet Vacuum POSSIBLE CAUSES Low Fluid Level High Pump Inlet Lift Clogged Vent Cap On Reservoir Clogged Inlet Strainer Too High Prime Mover RPM AERATION - This is the pump condition where air is entering at the inlet side of the pump. Indications of aeration are: Noisy Pump Operation System Operation Abnormal Low Pump Inlet Vacuum POSSIBLE CAUSES Low Fluid Level Broken Or Loose Fitting On Pump Inlet NOTE: Cavitation and aeration sound very similar; so further troubleshooting is necessary to determine the problem. PROBABLY THE GREATEST AID TO TROUBLESHOOTING IS THE CONFIDENCE OF KNOWING THE SYSTEM. - Every component has a purpose in the system. The construction and operating characteristics of each one should be understood. For example, knowing that a solenoid controlled directional valve can be manually actuated will save considerable time in isolating a defective solenoid. Some additional practices, which will increase your ability and also the useful life of the system, follow:
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200647
QMED
HYDRAULICS
1. Know the capabilities of the system. Each component in the system has a maximum rated speed, torque or pressure. Loading the system beyond the specifications simply increases the possibility of failure. 2. Know the correct operating pressures. Always set and check pressures with a gauge how else can you know if the operating pressure is above the maximum rating of the components? The question may arise as to what the correct operating pressure is. If it isn't correctly specified on the hydraulic schematic, the following rule should be applied. The correct operating pressure is the lowest pressure that will allow adequate performance of the system function and still remain below the maximum rating of the components and machine. Once the correct pressures have been established, note them on the hydraulic schematic for future reference. DEVELOPING SYSTEMATIC PROCEDURES - Analyze the system and develop a logical sequence for setting valves, mechanical stops, interlocks and electrical controls. Tracing of flow paths can often be accomplished by listening for flow in the lines or feeling them for warmth. Develop a cause and effect-troubleshooting guide similar to the charts appearing on the following pages. The initial time spent on such a project could save hours of system down time. RECOGNIZING TROUBLE INDICATIONS - The ability to recognize trouble indications in a specific system is usually acquired with experience. However, a few general trouble indications can be discussed. 1. Excessive heat means trouble. A mis-aligned coupling places an excessive load on bearings and can be readily identified by the heat generated. A warmer than normal tank return line on a relief valve indicates operation at relief valve setting. Hydraulic fluids, which have a low viscosity, will increase the internal leakage of components resulting in a heat rise. Cavitation and slippage in a pump will also cause a heat rise. 2. Excessive noise means wear, mis-alignment, cavitation or air in the fluid. Contaminated fluid can cause a relief valve to stick and chatter. These noises may be the result of dirty filters , or fluid , high fluid viscosity, excessive drive speed , low reservoir level , loose intake lines or worn couplings. MAINTENANCE - Three simple maintenance procedures have the greatest effect on hydraulic system performance, efficiency and life. Yet the very simplicity of them may be the reason they are so often overlooked. What are they? Simply these: 1. Maintaining a clean, sufficient quantity of hydraulic fluid of the proper type and viscosity. 2. Changing filters and cleaning strainers. 3. Keeping all connections tight, but not to the point of distortion so that air is excluded
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200648
QMED
HYDRAULICS
CONVERSION FACTORS
CONVERSION FACTORS
TO CONVERT INTO MULTIPLY BY TO CONVERT Btu/min Btu/sq ft/min Bucket (Br. dry) bushels bushels bushels bushels bushels bushels bushels INTO watts watts/sq in. Cubic Cm. Cut ft cu ft cu meter liters pecks pints (dry) quarts (dry) A abampere abcoulomb abcoufomb abfarad abhenry abohm abohm abvolt Acre Acre Acre ampere (A) coulomb (C) Statcoulombs farad (F) henry (H) siemens (S) Ohm ( ) Volt (V) Sq. chain (Gunters) Rods Square links(Gunters) 1 x 105 Hectar or square hectometer sq feet sq meters Sq miles Sq yards Cu feet Metre3 (m3) Metre2 (m2) Gallons amps/sq in. amps/sq meters amps/sq cm. Amps/sq meter Amps/sq cm Amps/sq in. Coulombs Faradays Gilborts amp-turns/in. Amp-turns/meter Gilberts/cm amp-turns/cm Amp-turns/meter Gilberts/cm 10 10 2.998 x 1010 109 10-9 109 10-9 10-8 10 160 Calories,grams (mean) B.T.U.(mean 3.9685 x10-3 MULTIPLY BY 17.57 0.1221 1,818 x 1 1.2445 2,150.4 0.03524 35.24 4.0 64.0 32.0
acres acres acres acres acres Acre-feet Acre-foot(U.S. survey) Acre (U.S.survey) Acre-feet amperes/sq cm amperes/sq cm amperes/sq in Amperes/sq in. Amperes/sq meter Amperes/sq meter ampere-hours ampere-hours ampere-turns ampere-turns/cm ampere-turns/cm ampere-turns/cm ampere-turns/in. ampere-turns/in. Ampere-turns/in.
.4047 43,560.0 4,047 1.562 x 10-3 4,840 43,560.0 1.233 x 103 4.47 x 103 3.259 x 105 6.452 104 0.1550 1,550.0 10-4 6.452 x 10-4 3,600.0 0.03731 1.257 2.540 100.0 1.257 0.3937 39.37 0.4950
Candle/sq.inch Candle/sq.inch Centares(centiares) Centigrade 9/5) +32 centigrams Centiliter centiliter centiliters centiliters centimeters centimeters centimeters centimeters centimeters centimeters centimeters centimeters centimeter-dynes Centimeters-dynes centimeter-dynes Centimeters-grams Centimeter-grams Centimeter-grams
Lamberts Lamberts Sq.meters Fahrenheit grams Ounce fluid (US) Cubic inch drams liters feet inches kilometers meters miles millimeters mils yards cm-grams meter-kgs pound-feet cm-dynes Meter-kgs Pound-feet
.4870 .4870 1.0 C x 9/5)+32 0.01 .3282 .6103 2.705 0.01 3.281 x 10-2 0.3937 10-5 0.01 6.214 x 10-6 10.0 393.7 1.094 x 10-2 1.020 x 10-3 1.020 x 10-8 7.233 x 10-8 980.7 10-5 7.233 x 10-5
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200649
QMED
HYDRAULICS
Ampereturns/meter Ampereturns/meter Ampereturns/meter Angstrom unit Angstrom unit Angstrom unit Are Ares ares ares Astronomical Unit atmospheres atmospheres atmospheres atmospheres atmospheres atmospheres atmospheres atmospheres atmospheres
amp-turns/cm
0.01
amp-turns/in. Gilberts/cm Inch meter Micron or (Mu) Acre (US) Sq. yards acres Sq meters Kilometers Bars Ton/sq. inch Cms of mercury Ft of water(at 4C) In. of mercury (at 0C) Kgs/sq cm Kgs/sq meter Pounds/sq in. Tons/sq ft
0.0254 0.01257 3937 x 10-9 1 x 10-10 1 x 10-4 .02471 119.60 0.02471 100.0 1.495 x 108 1.013 .007348 76.0 33.90 29.92 1.0333 10,332. 14.70 1.058
Centimeter of mercury atmospheres Centimeter of mercury Centimeter of mercury centimetre of mercury(0C) Centimeters of mercury Centimeters of mercury Centimeter of water(4C) centimeters/sec centimeters/sec centimeters/sec/sec centimeters/sec/sec centimeters/sec/sec centimeters/sec/sec centipoise centistokes Chain Chain Chains(surveyors Or Gunters) Corci,ar mils Circular mils Circumference Circular mils Cords Cord feet Coulomb coulombs Coulombs/sq cm Coulombs/sq cm Coulombs/sq in. Coulombs/sq in. Coulombs/sq meter Coulombs/sq meter cubic centimeters cubic centimeters cubic centimeters cubic centimeters cubic centimeters
0.01316
Feet of water Kgs/sq meter pascal(Pa) Pounds/sq ft Pounds/sq in. Pascal (Pa) Miles/hr Miles/min Feet/sec/sec Kms/hr/sec Meters/sec/sec Miles/hr/sec Pascal-second(Pa s) Metre2/second(m2/ s) Inches meters yards Sq cms Sq mils Radians Sq inches Cord feet Cu. feet Statcoulombs faradays coulombs/sq in. coulombs/sq meter Coulombs/sq cm coulombs/sq meter Coulombs/sq cm Coulombs/sq in Cu feet Cu inches Cu meter Cu yards Gallons(U.S. liq.)
0.4461 136.0 1.333 x 103 27.85 0.1934 98.06 0.02237 3.728 x 10-4 0.03281 0.036 0.01 0.02237 10-3 10-6 792.00 20.12 22.00 5.067 x 10-6 0.7854 6.283 7.854 x 10-7 8 16 2.998 x 109 1.036 x 10-5 64.52 104 0.1550 1,550. 10-4 6.452 x 10-4 3.531 x 10-5 0.06102 10-6 1.308 x 10-6 2.642 x 10-4
Barrels(U.S.,dry) Barrels(U.S.,dry) Barrels(U.S.,liquid ) Barrels (oil) bars bars bars bars bars Baryl Bolt (US Cloth) BTU Btu Btu Btu
Cu. Inches Quarts (dry) Gallons Gallons (oil) atmospheres Dynes/sq cm Kgs/sq meter Pounds/sq ft Pounds/sq in. Dyne/sq. cm. Meters Liter-Atmosphere ergs Foot-lbs gram-calories
7056. 105.0 31.5 42.0 0.9869 10.6 1.020 x 104 2,089. 14.50 1.000 36.576 10.409 1.0550 x 1010 778.3 252.0
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200650
QMED
Btu Btu Btu Btu Btu Btu/hr Btu/hr Btu/hr Btu/hr Btu/min Btu/min Btu/min Cubic feet/min Cubic feet/min Cubic feet/min Cubic feet/min Cubic feet/sec Cubic feet/sec cubic inches cubic inches cubic inches cubic inches cubic inches cubic inches cubic inches cubic inches cubic inches cubic meters cubic meters cubic meters Cubic meters cubic meters Cubic meters cubic meters cubic meters cubic meters cubic yards cubic yards cubic yards cubic yards cubic yards cubic yards cubic yards cubic yards/min cubic yards/min cubic yards/min cubic yards/min Horsepower-hrs joules Kilogram-calories Kilogram-meters Kilowatt-hrs Foot-pounds/sec Gram-cal/sec Horsepower-hrs watts Foot-lbs/sec horsepower kilowatts cu cms/sec Gallons/sec Liters/sec Pounds of water/min Millions gals/day Gallons/min Cu cms Cu feet Cu meters cu yards gallons liters Mil-feet Pints(U.S.liq) Quarts(U.S.liq) Bushels(dry) Cu cms cu feet cu inches cu yards Gallons(U.S. liq.) liters Pints(U.S.liq.) quarts (U.S. liq.) Cu cms Cu feet Cu inches Cu meter Gallons(u.s. liq.) liters Pints(U.S. liq.) Quarts(U.S. liq) Cubic ft/sec Gallons/sec Liters/sec 3.931 x 10-4 1.054.8 0.2520 107.5 2.928 x 10-4 0.2162 0.0700 3.929 x 10-4 0.2931 12.96 0.02356 0.01757 472.0 0.1247 0.4720 62.43 0.646317 448.831 16.39 5.787 x 10-4 1.639 x 10-5 2.143 x 10-5 4.329 x 10-3 0.01639 1.061 x 105 0.03463 0.01732 28.38 106 35.31 61,023.0 1.308 264.2 1,000.0 2,113.0 1,057 7.646 x 105 27.0 46,656.0 0.7646 202.0 764.6 1,615.9 807.9 0.45 3.367 12.74 cubic centimeters cubic centimeters cubic centimeters Cubic feet Cubic feet Cubic feet Cubic feet Cubic feet Cubic feet Cubic feet Cubic feet Cubic feet ergs ergs ergs ergs ergs Ergs/sec Ergs-sec Ergs/sec Ergs/sec Ergs/sec Ergs/sec liters Pints(U.S.liq.) QuartsU.S.liq) Bushes (dry) Cu cms Cu inches Cu meters Cu yards Gallons(U.S.liq.) liters Pints(U.S.liq.) Quarts(U.S.liq) joules Kg-calories kg-meters Kilowatt-hrs Watt-hours Btu/min Ft-lbs/min Ft-lbs/sec horsepower Kg-calories/min kilowatts
HYDRAULICS
0.001 2.113 x 10-3 1.057 x 10-3 0.8036 28,320.0 1,728.0 0.02832 0.03704 7.48052 28.32 59.84 29.92 10-7 2.389 x 10-11 1.020 x 10-8 0.2778 x 10 0.2778 x 10 5.688 x 10-9 4.427 x 10-6 7.3756 x 10-8 1.341 x 10-10 1.433 x 10-9 10-10
Dalton
Grams
1.650 x 10-24
farads Faraday/sec fardays fardays Fathom fathoms feet feet feet feet feet feet feet Feet of water Feet of water Feet of water Feet of water feet of water Feet of water feet/min feet/min feet/min feet/min feet/min feet/sec
microfarads Ampere(absolute Ampere-hours coulombs Meter feet centimeters kilometers meters Miles(naut.) Miles (stat.) millimeters mils atmospheres In. of mercury Kgs/sq cm Kgs/sq meter Pounds/sq ft. Pounds/sq in. Cms/sec Feet/sec Kms/hr Miters/min Miles/hr Cms/sec
106 9.6500 x 104 26.80 9.649 x 104 1.828804 6.0 30.48 3.048 x 10-4 0.3048 1.645 x 10-4 1.894 x 10-4 304.8 1.2 x 104 0.02950 0.8826 0.03048 304.8 62.43 0.4335 0.5080 0.01667 0.01829 0.3048 0.01136 30.48
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200651
QMED
HYDRAULICS
Days(mean solar) Day(sidereal) decibar Degree (angle) Degrees (angle) Degrees (angle) Degrees (angle) Degrees/sec Degrees/sec Degrees/sec Degree Celsius Degree centigrade Degree Fahrenheit Degree Fahrenheit Drams(apothecaries Or troy) Drams(apothecaries Or troy) Drams (U.S., Fluid or apoth.) drams drams drams Dyne/cm Dyne/sq. cm. Dyne/sq cm dyne/sq cm dynes dynes dynes dynes dynes dynes Dyne/sq cm ell ell Em, Pica Em, Pica Erg/sec ergs ergs ergs ergs ergs ergs gausses gausses gausses gausses gilberts
seconds Second (s) Pascal Pa) Radian (rad) quadrants radians seconds Radians/sec Revolutions/min Revolutions/sec Kelvin (K) Same as celsius Degree Celsius Kelvin (K)
feet/sec Feet/sec feet/sec feet/sec feet/sec Feet/sec/sec Feet/sec/sec Feet/sec/sec Feet/sec/sec Feet/100 feet Foot-candle foot-pounds tc =( tf 32)/1.8 foot-pounds Tk=(tf +459.67)/1.8 foot-pounds foot-pounds Ounces(avoirdupois) 0.1371429 foot-pounds foot-pounds Ounces (troy) 0.125 foot-pounds foot-pounds Cubic cm 3.6967 foot-pounds/min grams 1.7718 foot-pounds/min grains 27.3437 foot-pounds/min ounces 0.0625 foot-pounds/min Erg/sq. millimeter .01 foot-pounds/sec atmospheres 9.869 x 10-7 foot-pounds/sec Inch of mercury at 0 2.953 x 10-5 foot-pounds/sec C Inch of Water at 4 C 4.015 x 10-4 foot-pounds/sec grams 1.020 x 10-3 foot-pounds/sec Joules/cm 10-7 foot-pounds/sec Joules/meter 10-5 furlongs (newtons) kilograms 1.020 x 10-6 furlongs poundals 7.233 x 10-5 furlongs pounds 2.248 x 10-6 bars 10-6 gallons cm. 114.30 gallons inches 45 gallons inches .167 gallons cm. .4233 gallons Dyne-cm/sec 1.000 gallons btu 9.480 x 10-11 Gallons (liq.Br.Imp.) Dyne-centimeters 1.0 Gallona (U.S.) Foot-pounds 7.367 x 10-8 Gallons of water Gram-calories 0.2389 x 10-7 Gallons/min Grams-cms 1.020 x 10-3 Gallons/min Horsepower-hrs 3.7250 x 10-14 Gallons/min Lines/sq in. 6.452 Hundredweighths( short) Webers/sq cm 10-8 Hundredweighths( short) Webers/sq in 6.542 x 10-8 Webers/sq meter 10-4 Ampere-turns 0.7958
86,400.0 86116.0 104 1.745 x 10-2 0.01111 0.01745 3,600.0 0.01745 0.1667 2.778 x 10-3 Tk=tc +273.15
Kms/hr knots Meters/min Miles/hr Miles/min Cms/sec/sec Kms/hr/sec Meters/sec/sec Miles/hr/sec Per cent grade Lumen-sq.meter Btu ergs Gram-calories Hp-hrs joules Kg-calories Kg-meter Kilowatt-hrs Btu/min Foot-pounds/sec horsepower Kg-calories/min kilowatts Btu/hr Btu/min horsepower Kg-calories/min kilowatts Miles (U.S.) rods feet
1.097 0.5921 18.29 0.6818 0.01136 30.48 1.097 0.3048 0.6818 1.0 10.764 1.286 x 10-3 1.356 x 107 0.3238 5.050 x 10-7 1.356 3.24 x 10-4 0.1383 3.766 x 10-7 1.286 x 10-3 0.01667 3.030 x 10-5 3.24 x 10-4 2.260 x 10-5 4.6263 0.07717 1.818 x 10-3 0.01945 1.356 x 10-3 0.125 40.0 660.0
Cu cms Cu feet Cu inches Cu meter Cu yards liters Gallons(U.S. liq.) Gallons(Imp.) Pounds of water Cu ft/sec Liters/sec Cu ft/hr Tons(metric) Tons(long)
3,785.0 0.1337 231.0 3.785 x 103 4.951 x 10-3 3.785 1.20095 0.83267 8.3453 2.228 x 10-3 0.06308 8.0208 0.0453592 0.0446429
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200652
QMED
Gilberts/cm Gilberts/cm Gilberts/cm Gills(British) gills gills grade grains Grains(troy) Grains(troy) Grains(troy) Grains(troy) Grains/U.S. gal Grains/U.S. gal Grains/Imp.gal grams grams grams grams grams grams grams grams grams grams Grams/cm grams/cu cm grams/cu cm grams/cu cm Gram/liter Gram/liter Gram/liter Gram/liter Gram/sq cm gram-calories gram- calories gram- calories gram- calories Amp-turns/cm Amp-turns/in Amp-turns/meter Cubic cm. liters Pints(liq.) radian Drams(avoirdupois ) Grains(avdp) grams Ounces (avdp) Pennyweight(troy) Parts/million Pounds/million gal Parts/million dynes grains Joules/cm Joules/meter(newt ons) kilograms milligrams Ounces(avdp) Ounce (troy) poundals pounds Pounds/inch Pounds/cu ft pounds/cu in Pounds/mil-foot Grains/gal Pounds/1,000 gal Pounds/cu ft Parts/million Pounds/sq ft btu ergs Foot-pounds Horsepower-hrs 0.7958 2.021 79.58 142.07 0.1183 0.25 .01571 0.03657143 1.0 0.06480 2.0833 x 10-3 0.04167 17.118 142.86 14.286 980.7 15.43 9.807 x 10-5 9.807 x 10-3 0.001 1,000. 0.03527 0.03215 0.07093 2.205 x 10-3 5.600 x 10-3 62.43 0.03613 3.405 x 10-7 58.417 8.345 0.062427 1,000.0 2.0481 3.9683 x 10-3 4.1868 x 107 3.0880 1.5596 x 10-6 inches inches inches inches inches inches inches of mercury inches of mercury inches of mercury inches of mercury inches of mercury(32F) inches of mercury(60F) inches of mercury inches of mercury Inches of water (at 4C) Inches of water (at 4C) Inches of water (at 4C) Inches of water (at 4F) Inches of water (39.2F) Inches of water (60F) Inches of water (at 4C) Inches of water (at 4C) International Ampere International Volt International Volt 19 International Volt centimeters meters miles millimeters mils yards atmospheres Feet of water Kgs/sq cm Kgs/sq meter Pascal (Pa) Pascal (Pa) Pounds/sq ft Pounds/sq in. atmospheres
HYDRAULICS
2.540 2.540 x 10-2 1.578 x 10-5 25.40 1,000.0 2.778 x 10-2 0.00342 1.133 0.03453 345.3 3.39 x 103 3.38 x 103 70.73 0.4912 2.458 x 10-3 0.07355 2.540 x 10-3 0.5781 2.491 x 102 2.488 x 102 5.204 0.03613 .9998 1.0003 1.59 x 10-19 9.654 x 104
Inches of mercury Kgs/sq cm Ounces/sq in. Pascal (Pa) Pascal (Pa) Pounds/sq ft Pounds/sq in. Ampere (absolute) Volts(absolute) Joules (absolute) joules
joules joules Joules Joules Joules Joules Joules/cm Joules/cm
btu ergs Foot-pounds Kg-calories Kg-meter Watt-hrs grams dynes
9.480 x 10-4 107 0.7376 2.389 x 104 0.1020 2.778 x 10-4 1.020 x 104 107
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200653
QMED
HYDRAULICS
ram- calories gram- calories gram- calories/sec Gram-centimeter Gram-centimeter Gram-centimeter Gram-centimeter Gram-centimeter
Kilowatt-hrs Watt-hrs Btu/hr btu ergs joules Kg-cal Kg-meters
1.1630 x 10-6 1.1630 x 10-3 14.286 9.297 x 10-8 980.7 9.807 x 10-5 2.343 x 10-8 10-5
Joules/cm Joules/cm Joules/cm
Joules/meter(newt ons) poundals pounds
100.0 723.3 22.48
kelvin kilograms kilograms kilograms kilograms kilograms kilograms kilograms kilograms Kilograms/cu meter kilograms/sq cm meter kilograms/sq cm meter kilograms/sq cm meter kilograms/meter kilograms/sq cm. kilograms/sq cm. kilograms/sq cm kilograms/sq cm kilograms/sq cm kilograms/sq cm kilograms/sq meter kilograms/sq meter kilograms/sq meter kilograms/sq meter kilograms/sq meter kilograms/sq meter kilograms/sq meter kilograms/sq mm Kilograms-calories Kilograms-calories Kilograms-calories Kilograms-calories Kilograms-calories Kilograms-calories
Hand hectares hectares Hogsheads(british) Hogsheads (U.S.) Hogsheads (U.S.) horsepower horsepower horsepower horsepower (metric) (542.5 ft lb/sec) horsepower (550 ft lb/sec) horsepower Horsepower(550 ft lbf/s) Horsepower (boiler) Horsepower (electric) Horsepower (metric) Horsepower (water) Horsepower (U.K.) Horsepower-hrs Horsepower-hrs Horsepower-hrs Horsepower-hrs Horsepower-hrs Horsepower-hrs Horsepower-hrs Horsepower-hrs hours
Cm. acres Sq feet Cubic ft. Cubic ft. Gallons (U.S.A.) Btu/min Foot-lbs/min Foot-lbs/sec horsepower (550 ft lb/sec) horsepower (metric) (542.5 ft lb/sec) Kg-calories/min Watt (W) Watt (W) Watt (W) Watt (W) Watt (W) Watt (W) btu ergs Foot-lbs Gram-calories joules Kg-calories Kg-meter Kilowatt-hrs days
10.16 2.471 1.076 x 105 10.114 8.42184 63 42.44 33.000. 550.0 0.9863 1.014
Degree Celsius dynes grams Joules/cm Joules/meter(newt ons) poundals pounds Tons (long) Tons(shorts) Grams/cu cm Grams/cu ft Grams/cu in. pounds/mil-foot pounds/ft dynes atmospheres Feet of water inches of mercury pounds/sq ft pounds/sq in. atmospheres bars Feet of water inches of mercury Pounds/sq ft Pascal (Pa) Pounds/sq in. Kgs/sq meter btu Foot-pounds Hp-hrs joules Kg-meters kilojoules
Tc = tk 273.15 980,665. 1,000.0 0.09807 9.807 70.93 2.205 9.842 x 10-4 1.102 x 10-3 0.001 0.06243 3.613 x 10-5 3.405 x 10-10 0.6720 980,665 0.9678 32.81 28.96 2,048 14.22 9.678 x 10-5 98.07 x 10-6 3.281 x 10-3 2.896 x 10-3 0.2048 9.807 1.422 x 10-3 106 3.968 3,088. 1.560 x 10-3 4,186. 426.9 4.186
10.68 745.6 9809.5 746.0 735.5 746.04 745.7 2,547 2.6845 x 1013 1.98 x 106 641,190. 2.684 x 106 641.1 2.737 x 105 0.7457 4.167 x 10-2
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200654
QMED
HYDRAULICS
hours Hundredweights(lon g) Hundredweights(lon g) Hundredweights(sho rt) Hundredweights(sho rt) Kilogram meter Kilogram meter kilolines kiloliters kilometers kilometers kilometers kilometers kilometers kilometers kilometers Kilometers/hr kilometers/hr kilometers/hr kilometers/hr kilometers/hr kilometers/hr kilometers/hr/sec kilometers/hr/sec kilometers/hr/sec kilometers/hr/sec kilowatts kilowatts kilowatts kilowatts kilowatt kilowatt kilowatt-hrs kilowatt-hrs kilowatt-hrs kilowatt-hrs kilowatt-hrs kilowatt-hrs kilowatt-hrs kilowatt-hrs kilowatt-hrs
weeks pounds Tons (long)
5.952 x 10-3 112 0.05
Kilograms-calories Kilogram meter Kilogram meter Kilogram meter Kilogram meter meters meters Meters/min Meters/min Meters/min Meters/min Meters/min Meters/min Meters/sec Meters/sec Meters/sec Meters/sec Meters/sec Meters/sec Meters/sec/sec Meters/sec/sec Meters/sec/sec Meters/sec/sec Meter-kilograms Meter-kilograms Meter-kilograms microns microns Miles (naut) Miles (naut) Miles (naut) Miles (naut) Miles (naut) Miles (statute) Miles (statute) Miles (statute) Miles (statute) Miles (statute) Miles (statute) Miles (statute) Miles/hr Miles/hr Miles/hr miles/hr
Kilowatt-hrs btu ergs Foot pounds joules yards varas Cms/sec Feet/min Feet/sec Kms/hr knot Miles/hr Feet/min Feet/sec Kilometers/hr Kilometers/min Miles/hr Miles/min Cms/sec/sec Ft/sec/sec Kms/hr/sec Miles/hr/sec cm-dynes cm-grams Pound-feet inches meters feet kilometers meters miles (statute) yards centimeters feet inches kilometers meters Miles (naut.) yards Cms/sec Feet/min Feet/sec kms/hr
1.163 x 10-3 9.294 x 10-3 9.804 x 107 7.233 9.804 1.094 1.179 1.667 3.281 0.05468 0.06 0.03238 0.03728 196.8 3.281 3.6 0.06 2.237 0.03728 100.0 3.281 3.6 2.237 9.807 x 107 105 7.233 39 x 10-6 1 x 10-6 6,080.27 1.583 1,853. 1.1516 2,027 1.609 x 105 5,280 6.336 x 104 1.609 1,609. 0.8684 1,760. 44.70 88. 1.467 1.609
Ounces(avoirdupois) 1600.0 pounds Kg-calories Kilowatt-hrs maxwells liter centimeters feet inches meters miles millimeters yards Cms/sec Feet/min Feet/sec knots Meters/min Miles/hr Cms/sec/sec Ft/sec/sec Meters/sec/sec Miles/hr/sec Btu/min Foot-lbs/min Foot-lbs/sec horsepower Kg-calories/min watts btu ergs Foot-lbs Gram-calories Horsepower-hrs joules Kg-calories Kg-meters Pounds of water Evaporated from and At 212F. Pounds of water raised 100.0 2.342 x 10-3 2.723 x 10-6 1,000.0 1,000.0 105 3,281. 3.937 x 104 1,000.0 0.6214 106 1,094 27.78 54.68 0.9113 0.5396 16.67 0.6214 27.78 0.9113 0.2778 0.6214 56.92 4.426 x 104 737.6 1.341 14.34 1,000.0 3,413 3.600 x 1013 2.655 x 106 859,850. 1.341 3.6 x 106 860.5 3.671 x 105
3.53
Kilowatt-hrs
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200655
QMED
HYDRAULICS
knots knots knots knots knots knots
From 62 to 212F Feet/hr Kilometers/hr Nautical miles/hr Statute miles/hr Yards/hr Feet/sec
22.75 6,080. 1.8532 1.0 1.151 2,027 1.689
league Light year Light year Light year Lines/sq cm Lines/sq in. Lines/sq in. Lines/sq in. Lines/sq in. links Links (surveyors) liters liters liters liters liters liters liters liters liters Liters/min Liters/min
Miles (approx.) miles meters kilometers gausses gausses Webers/sq cm Webers/sq in. Webers/sq meter inches inches Bushels (U.S. dry) Cu cm Cu feet Cu inches Cu meter Cu yards Gallons(U.S. liq.) Pints (U.S. liq.) Quarts (U.S. liq.) Cu ft/sec Gals/sec
3.0 5.9 x 1012 9.46 x 1015 9.46091 x 1012 1.0 0.1550 1.550 x 10-9 10-8 1.550 x 10-5 12.0 7.92 0.02838 1,000.0 0.03531 61.02 0.001 1.308 x 10-3 0.2642 2.113 1.057 5.886 x 10-4 4.403 x 10-3
Maxwells Maxwells megalines megohms megohms meter meter meter meter meter meter meter
kilolines webers Maxwells microhms ohms centimeters feet inches kilometers Miles(naut.) Miles (stat.) millimeters
0.001 10-8 106 1012 106 100.0 3.281 39.37 0.001 5.396 x 10-4 6.214 x 10-4 1,000.0
miles/hr miles/hr miles/hr miles/hr miles/hr/sec miles/hr/sec miles/hr/sec miles/hr/sec Miles/min Miles/min Miles/min Miles/min Miles/min Mil-feet milliers millibar Millimeter of mercury(0C) millimicrons milligrams milligrams Milligrams/liter millihenries milliliters millimeters millimeters millimeters millimeters millimeters millimeters millimeters millimeters Millions gals/day mils mils mils mils mils Miners inches Minims (British) Minims (U.S., fluid) Minutes (angles) Minutes (angles) Minutes (angles) Minutes (angles) myriagrams myriameters myriawatts
Kms/min knots Meters/min Miles/min Cms/sec/sec Feet/sec/sec Kms/hr/sec Meters/sec/sec Cms/sec Feet/sec Kms/min Knots/min Miles/hr Cu inches kilograms Pascal (Pa) Pascal (Pa) meters grains grams Parts/million henries liters centimeters feet inches kilometers meters miles mils yards Cu ft/sec centimeters feet inches kilometers yards Cu ft/min Cubic cm. Cubic cm. degrees quadrants radians seconds kilograms kilometers kilowatts
0.02682 0.8684 26.82 0.1667 44.70 1.467 1.609 0.4470 2.682. 88. 1.609 0.8684 60.0 9.425 x 10-6 1,000. 100. 133.3 1 x 10-9 0.01543236 0.001 1.0 0.001 0.001 0.1 3.281 x 10-3 0.03937 10-6 0.001 6.214 x 10-7 39.37 1.094 x 10-3 1.54723 2.540 x 10-3 8.333 x 10-5 0.001 2.540 x 10-8 2.778 x 10-5 1.5 0.059192 0.061612 0.01667 1.852 x 10-4 2.909 x 10-4 60.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200656
QMED
HYDRAULICS
nepers
decibels
8.686
neper newton
decibels dynes
8.686 105
OHM (international) ohms ohms ounce ounce ounce ounce ounces ounces ounces ounces force (avoirdupois) ounces force-inch Ounces (fluid) Ounces (fluid) Ounces (troy) Ounces (troy) Ounces (troy) Ounces (troy) Ounces (troy) Ounces/sq. inch Ounces/sq in.
OHM (absolute) megohms microhms drams grains grams pounds Ounces (troy) Tons (long) Tons (metric) Newton (N) Newton-metre (N m) Cu inches liters grains grams Ounces (avdp) Pennyweights (troy) Pounds troy Dynes/sq.cm. Pounds/sq in.
1.0005 10-6 106 16.0 437.5 28.349527 0.0625 0.9115 2.790 x 10-5 2.835 x 10-5 2.78 x 10-1 7.06 x 10-3 1.805 0.02957 480.0 32.103481 1.09714 20.0 0.08333 4309 0.0625
pounds Pounds pounds pounds pounds (troy) pounds (troy) pounds (troy) pounds (troy) pounds (troy) pounds (troy) pounds (troy) pounds (troy) pounds (troy) Pounds of water Pounds of water Pounds of water Pounds of water /min Pound-feet Pound-feet Pound-feet Pounds/cu ft Pounds/cu ft Pounds/cu ft Pounds/cu ft Pounds/cu in. Pounds/cu in. Pounds/cu in. Pounds/cu in. Pounds/ft Pounds/in. pounds/mil-foot pounds/sq ft pounds/sq ft pounds/sq ft pounds/sq ft pounds/sq ft pounds/sq in. pounds/sq in. pounds/sq in. pounds/sq in. pounds/sq in. pounds/sq in.
poundals Grains tons (long) Tons (short){ Grains) grams Ounces (avdp.) Ounces (troy) Pennyweights (troy) Pounds (avdp.) Tons (long) Tons (metric) Tons (short) Cu feet Cu inches gallons Cu ft/sec cm-dynes cm-grams Meter-kgs Grams/cu cm Kgs/cu meter Pounds/cu in. Pounds/mil-foot Gms/cu cm Kgs/cu meter Pounds/cu ft Pounds/mil-foot Kgs/meter Gms/cm Gms/cu cm atmospheres Feet of water Inches of mercury Kgs/sq meter Pounds/sq in. atmospheres Feet of water Inches of mercury Kgs/sq meter Pascal (Pa) Pounds.sq ft
32.17 1.21528 3.6735 x 1( 0.0005 5,760 373.24177 13.1657 12.0 240.0 0.822857 3.6735 x 10-4 3.7324 x 10-4 4.1143 x 10-4 0.01602 27.68 0.1198 2.670 x 10-4 1.356 x 107 13,825. 0.1383 0.01602 16.02 5.787 x 10-4 5.456 x 10-9 27.68 2.768 x 104 1,728. 9.425 x 10-6 1.488 178.6 2.306 x 106 4.725 x 10-4 0.01602 0.01414 4.882 6.944 x 10-3 0.06804 2.307 2.036 703.1 6.895 x 103 144.0
parsec Parsec Parts/million Parts/mill Parts/million Pascal (Pa)
Miles 19 x 1012 kilometers Grain/U.S. gal Grains/Imp. gal Pounds/million gal Atmosphere(normal =760torr) bar Centimeter of mercury(0C) Centimeter of water (4C) Dyne/centimetre2 Foot of water(39.2F)
3.084 x 1013 0.0584 0.07016 8.345 9.87 x 10-7
Pascal (Pa) Pascal (Pa) Pascal (Pa) Pascal (Pa) Pascal (Pa)
10-5 7.5 x 10-4 1.02 x 10-2 10 3.35 x 10-4
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200657
QMED
HYDRAULICS
Pascal (Pa)
Gramforce/centimetre2 Pascal (Pa) Inch of mercury(60F) Pascal (Pa) Inch of water(60F) Pascal (Pa) Kilogram/metre2 Pascal (Pa) millibar Pascal (Pa) Pound/foot2 Pascal (Pa) Pound/inch2 Pecks (british) Cubic inches Pecks (british) liters Pecks (U.S.) bushels Pecks (U.S.) Cubic inches Pecks (U.S.) liters Pecks (U.S.) Quarts (dry) Pennyweights(troy) grains Pennyweights(troy) Ounces (troy) Pennyweights(troy) grams Pennyweights(troy) Pounds(troy) pints Cu inches Pints (liq.) Cu cms. Pints (liq.) Cu feet Pints (liq.) Cu inches Pints (liq.) Cu meters Pints (liq.) Cu yards Pints (liq.) gallons Pints (liq.) liters Pints (liq.) Quarts (liq.) Plancks quatum Erg - second Poise Gram/cm. Sec. Pounds (avoirdupois) Ounces (troy) poundals dynes poundals grams poundals joules/cm poundals joules/meter (newtons) poundals kilograms poundals pounds pounds drams pounds dynes pounds grains pounds grams pounds Joules/cm pounds Joules/meter (newtons) pounds kilograms pounds ounces pounds Ounces (troy)
1.02 x 10-2 2.96 x 10-4 4.02 x 10-3 1.02 x 10-1 10-2 2.09 x 10-2 1.45 x 10-4 554.6 9.091901 0.25 537.605 8.809582 8 24.0 0.05 1.55517 4.1667 x 10-3 33.60 473.2 0.01671 28.87 4.732 x 10-4 6.189 x 10-4 0.125 0.4732 0.5 6.624 x 10-27 1.00 14.5833 13,826. 14.10 1.383 x 10-3 0.1383 0.01410 0.03108 256. 44.4823 X 104 7,000. 453.5924 0.04448 4.448 0.4536 16.0 14.5833
Quandrants(angle) Quandrants(angle) Quandrants(angle) Quandrants(angle) Quarts (dry) Quarts (liq.) Quarts (liq.) Quarts (liq.) Quarts (liq.) Quarts (liq.) Quarts (liq.) Quarts (liq.)
degrees minutes radians seconds Cu inches Cu cms Cu feet Cu inches Cu meters Cu yards gallons liters
90.0 5,400.0 1.571 3.24 x 105 67.20 946.4 0.03342 57.75 9.464 x 10-4 1.238 x 10-3 0.255 0.9463
radians radians radians radians Radians/sec Radians/sec Radians/sec Radians/sec/sec Radians/sec/sec Radians/sec/sec revolutions revolutions revolutions revolutions/min revolutions/min revolutions/min revolutions/min/min revolutions/min/min
degrees minutes quadrants seconds Degrees/sec Revolutions/min Revolutions/sec Revs/min/min Revs/min/sec Revs/sec/sec degrees quadrants radians Degrees/sec radians/sec revs/sec Radians/sec/sec Revs/min/sec
57.30 3,438. 0.6366 2.063 x 105 57.30 9.549 0.1592 573.0 9.549 0.1592 360.0 4.0 6.283 6.0 0.1047 0.01667 1.745 x 10-3 0.01667 2.778 x 10-4 360.0 6.283 60.0 6.283 3,600.0 60.0 .25 5.029 5.5 16.5 9,765.
revolutions/min/min Revs/sec/sec revolutions/sec Degrees/sec revolutions/sec Radians/sec revolutions/sec REVS/MIN revolutions/sec/sec Rasdians/sec/sec revolutions/sec/sec Revs/min/min revolutions/sec/sec Revs/min/sec Rod Chain (Gunters) Rod Rod(Surveyors meas.) rods Tons(short)/sq ft Meters yards feet Kgs/sq meter
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200658
QMED
HYDRAULICS
scruples Seconds (angles) Seconds (angles) Seconds (angles) Seconds (angles) slug slug sphere Square centimeters square centimeters square centimeters square centimeters square centimeters square centimeters square centimeters square feet square feet square feet square feet square feet square feet square feet square feet square inches square inches square inches square inches square inches square inches square kilometers square kilometers square kilometers square kilometers square kilometers square kilometers square kilometers square meters square meters square meters square meters square meters square meters square meters square miles square miles square miles
grains degrees minutes quadrants radians kilogram pounds steradians Circular mils Sq feet Sq inches Sq meter Sq miles Sq millimeters Sq yards acres Circular mils Sq cms Sq inches Sq meter Sq miles Sq millimeters Sq yards Circular mils Sq cms Sq feet Sq millimeters Sq miles Sq yards acres Sq cms Sq ft Sq inches Sq meter Sq miles sq yards acres sq cms sq feet sq inches Sq miles sq millimeters sq yards acres sq feet sq kms
20 2.778 x 10-4 0.01667 3.087 x 10-6 4.848 x 10-6 14.59 32.17 12.57 1.973 x 105 1.076 x 10-3 0.1550 0.0001 3.861 x 10-11 100.0 1.196 x 10-4 2.296 x 10-5 1.833 x 108 929.0 144.0 0.09290 3.587 x 10-8 9.929 x 104 0.1111 1.273 x 106 6.452 6.944 x 10-3 645.2 106 7.716 x 10-4 247.1 1010 10.76 x 106 1.550 x 109 106 0.3861 1.196 x 106 2.471 x 10-4 104 10.76 1,550. 3.861 x 10-7 106 1.196 640.0 27.88 x 106 2.590
Tons(short)/sq ft Tons of water/24 hrs Tons of water/24 hrs Tons of water/24 hrs
Pounds/sq in. Pounds of water/hr Gallons/min Cu ft/hr
2,000. 83.333 0.16643 1.3349
Volt/inch Volt (absolute)
Volt/cm. statvolts
.39370 .003336
watts watts watts watts watts watts watts watts watts Watts (abs) Watts (abs) Watt-hours Watt-hours Watt-hours Watt-hours Watt-hours Watt-hours Watt-hours Watt-hours Watt(international) weber weber Weber/sq in. Weber/sq in. Weber/sq in. Weber/sq in. Weber/sq meter Weber/sq meter Weber/sq meter Weber/sq meter
Btu/hr Btu/min Ergs/sec Foot-lbs/min Foot-lbs/sec horsepower Horsepower (metric) Kg-calories/min kilowatts B.T.U.(mean)/min Joules/sec btu ergs Foot-pounds Gram-calories Horsepower-hrs Kilogram-calories Kilogram-meter Kilowatt-hrs Watt (absolute) maxwells kilolines gausses Lines/sq in. Weber/sq cm Weber/sq meter gausses Lines/sq in. Weber/sq cm Weber/sq in.
3.4129 0.05688 107. 44.27 0.7378 1.341 x 10-3 1.360 x 10-3 0.01433 0.001 0.056884 1 3.413 3.60 x 1010 2,656. 859.85 1.341 x 10-3 0.8605 367.2 0.001 1.0002 108 105 1.550 x 107 108 0.1550 1,550. 104 6.452 x 104 10-4 6.542 x 10-4
yards yards yards
centimeters kilometers meters
91.44 9.144 x 10-4 0.9144
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200659
QMED
HYDRAULICS
square miles square miles square millimeters square millimeters Square millimeters Square millimeters Square mils Square mils Square mils Square yards Square yards Square yards Square yards Square yards Square yards Square yards temperature (C) + 273 temperature (C) +17.78 (F) + 460 Temperature (F) Tons (long) Tons (long) Tons (long) Tons (metric)
Sq meter sq yards circularmils Sq cms Sq feet Sq inches Circular mils Sq cms Sq inches acres Sq cms Sq feet Sq inches Sq meter Sq miles Sq millimeters Absolute temperature (C) Temperature (F) Absolute temperature (F) Temperature (C) Kilograms pounds Tons (short) Kilograms
2.590 x 106 3.098 x 106 1,973 0.01 1.076 x 10-5 1.550 x 10-3 1.273 6.452 x 10-6 106 2.066 x 10-4 8,361. 9.0 1,296. 0.8361 3.228 x 10-7 8.361 x 105 1.0
yards yards yards
Miles (naut.) Miles (stat) millimeters
4.934 x 10-4 5.682 x 10-4 914.4
1.8 1.0
5/9 1,016. 2,240. 1.120 1,000.
(Taken from Graphics Symbols for Fluid Power Diagrams by American National Standard)
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200660
QMED
HYDRAULICS
16. ADVANTAGES OF HYDRAULICS

There are a number of characteristics common to most hydraulic systems that make them favorable to use compared to applications using mechanical or electrical power sources. 1) Hydraulic systems can take on a variety of shapes and sizes. Hydraulic actuators, (the component of the system that does the work) can be fabricated into a number of designs from a simple round cylinder with a rod, to a specially shaped apparatus that fits inside the hub of a ship's propeller, to perform the same job. Hydraulic systems can be designed to do applications in the controllable pitch propellers. 2) With a small input force applied to a fluid, we can obtain a large output force. This is called force multiplication. With the example of the simple hydraulic automobile Jack: A small input force is used in the way of the force the operator must exert on the handle to operate the Jack. Because of the different piston areas the fluid inside the Jack is acting upon, the output force is increased to allow the lifting of perhaps a ton or more. 3) Power can be transmitted in a linear or rotary motion. The hydraulic system's actuators can be linear (in a straight line) such as a standard cylinder, or in a rotary motion such as in a hydraulic motor. 4) With the use of hydraulics, virtually no time lag exists. Motions can be transmitted without the hesitation that is sometimes common in the use of solid machine parts. In mechanical applications this becomes more noticeable with wear in the linkages or chainpulley setups. With hydraulic systems, when the oil in the pipe or hose is moved - that movement is sensed instantly at the opposite end of the pipe or hose. 5) Hydraulic components are not subjected to great internal wear. The oil that is used to transmit power in the hydraulic system will also act as a lubricant for most of the components in the system. 6) Power can be transmitted over a considerable distance with only small losses in efficiency. The different parts of a hydraulic system can be conveniently located at widely separated points, and the forces generated are rapidly transmitted over distances with only a small loss. These forces can be conveyed up and down or around corners with also only small losses in efficiency and no complicated mechanisms. 7) Hydraulic systems can provide smooth operation. If the system is well adapted to the work it has to perform and it is not misused, it can provide smooth, f1exible, uniform action without vibration and is unaffected by variations of load. 8) Hydraulics can be used where variable speeds of actuators are desired. Simply by changing how fast the fluid flows within the system, the speed of actuator are also proportionally changed. 9) Hydraulic pumps and motors can provide instant reversibility without damage to the system or components. This advantage is seen when comparing reversibility to an electric motor.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200661
QMED
HYDRAULICS
17. DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRAULICS

The extreme flexibility of hydraulic systems gives rise to a number of problems. 1) The hydraulic fluids must be confined. The fluids have no shape of their own and they must be positively confined throughout the entire system in order for the energy carried to be value. This disadvantage can only be noticed when hydraulics as a power transmission medium is compared to other power transmission mediums. A good example would be certain chemical masses used in nuclear power generation and transmission. Some chemicals used maintain their own shape and do not need containers for them to work. 2) The hydraulic system must use strong pipes and containers. Leaks must be controlled. This is sometimes a problem with the pressure obtained in hydraulic applications. The cost of stronger materials such as pipe, hoses, or valves is usually higher as well. 3) The pressure required in hydraulic systems must be controlled and also the movement of the fluid within the lines and components. This movement causes friction within the fluid itself and against the containing surfaces, generation can be calculated into losses in efficiency. 4) Safety is always a very large concern when dealing with hydraulics. Petroleum fluids are flammable and with flammability we must at all times be aware of possible hazards.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200662
QMED
HYDRAULICS
18. HYDRAULIC WINCHES

INTRODUCTION - Winches are used on ships for many different purposes and there are a large variety of types. Among these can be mentioned: Anchor winches, Warping winches, Cargo winches, Topping winches and Guy Winches The winches are constructed on different principles, depending on the means used for driving them. In the following, only those types driven by steam and oil pressure are described. STEAM-DRIVEN ANCHOR WINCH - The steam winch shown in figure 60 is the type often used aboard tankers. The winch consists of the following main parts.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200663
QMED
HYDRAULICS
Figure 60
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200664
QMED
HYDRAULICS
1. Reversing lever 2. Slide valve casing 3. Chain wheel coupling handle 4. Steam cylinder 5. Brake lever 6. Piston rod stuffing box 7. Piston rod 8. Chain wheel (cable lifter) 9. Brake band 10. Warping end 11. Countershaft bearing 12. Countershaft 13. Gear on main shaft 14. Pinion on countershaft 15. Connecting rod 16. Crank journal
17. Crankpin bearing 18. Crankshaft 19. Main bearing 20. Coupling handle 21. Claw coupling sleeve 22. Pinion 23. Gear on countershaft 24. Eccentric with strap 25. Eccentric rod 26. Countershaft bearing 27. Turning pawl 28. Turning lever 29. Main shaft bearing 30. Main shaft (drive shaft) 31. Hawse hole to chain locker
This winch is double-geared and can be coupled to and disengaged from the steam engine by means of a handle (20). Before the winch can be used, it must be lubricated and warmed up slowly by means of steam that is applied by slightly opening the valve in the power steam pipe. During the warming-up period, the drain valves or cocks on the slide valve casing and cylinders must be opened to drain away the condensate. When the winch has been warmed up, the crankshaft is decoupled from the winch by means of a handle (20), and by slightly opening the valve in the steam supply pipe and then moving another lever (1) into one of its outer positions, the crankshaft is made to rotate slowly. When there is no sign of any further condensate leaving the drain valves, they are closed. The steam is then cut off, and after having been coupled by means of handle (20), the winch is ready for operation. If the winch is to be used for heaving the anchors, the gear wheels (13) can be shifted by means of handles (3), engaging the gear wheel claws with claws on the chain-wheels (8). If both claw clutches are disengaged, the winch can be used as a warping winch. After final use, the winch is disengaged by means of a handle (20) and allowed to run idle. The steam for the winch is then shut off by the watch-keeping engineer. This procedure reduces the amount of condensate in the steam pipes and cylinders, thus reducing the risk of corrosion and bursts due to frost. OIL PRESSURE WINCHES (HYDRAULIC WINCHES) - Item 1, Figure 61, is a schematic illustration of a hydraulic motor of the type used for winches. The parts are as follows:
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200665
QMED
HYDRAULICS
Figure 61
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200666
QMED
HYDRAULICS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Valve housing Check valve Hydraulic motor housing Rotor Rotor vanes
6. 7. 8. 9.
Winch shaft Oil inlet Maneuvering slide Oil outlet
An oil pump, which can be coupled to a diesel engine or an electric motor, delivers oil to the inlet (7). The oil first passes an operating valve through which a greater or smaller amount of oil can be fed to the hydraulic motor, the rotor (4) of which rotates at a speed proportional to the flow of oil. The oil is led from the operating valve through a pipe (9) back to the suction side of the pump, the amount of oil circulating through the system being constant. Compensation for changes in volume, for example as a result of changing temperature, is made by connecting the suction side of the pump to an expansion tank placed above the pump. A safety valve is provided in the pressure line. This safeguards the system in the event of excess pressure by opening and connecting the pressure and suction lines. The rotor (4) has vanes (5) that are capable of moving radially and follow the inside of the housing (3). The housing is oval-shaped with the result that the vanes are not under any load during their radial movement. On the housing (1) is a handle for moving the operating valve. The position of the valve determines both the amount of oil and the direction of flow of the oil that is fed into the hydraulic motor, thus enabling the speed and the direction of rotation to be changed as required. The slide valve (8) has a built-in check valve (2). This ensures that the load being lifted cannot fall if the oil pressure in the system fails, for example as a result of an electrical fault. When the oil flow ceases, the load on the winch tries to turn the rotor in the direction opposite to that of the hoisting direction, but this is not possible because of the oil pressure that exists between the rotor (4) and the check valve (2). For this reason, the winch is not provided with a mechanical brake. In the figure the slide valve (8) is shown in its center position, the oil being able to pass freely from the inlet (7) to the outlet (9). The check valve (2) is closed, by which lowering is prevented. If the valve is lifted, the direct connection between the inlet (7) and the outlet (9) is blocked. The oil is then forced through the lower part of the motor from where it passes through the upper part which has become connected with the outlet (9), and is led back to the suction side of the pump. The result is that the rotor (4) turns in the counterclockwise direction, corresponding to lowering. When the slide valve is moved to its bottom position, the check valve (2) is opened by the oil pressure and the inlet (7) is connected with the upper part. At the same time, the lower part is connected with the outlet (9), causing the rotor to rotate in the clockwise direction corresponding to hoisting. Another type of hydraulic motor is shown schematically in item. 2, figure 61.The component parts are as follows:
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200667
QMED
HYDRAULICS
1. 2. 3. 4.
Housing of hydraulic motor Winch shaft Rotor Rotor vanes
5. 6. 7. 8.
Speed regulating handle Reversing handle Reversing valve Speed regulating valve
The shaded areas in figure 61 2a and 2b are in connection with the suction side of the oil pump, whereas the white areas are connected to the pressure side. Item 2a the slide valve (8) has been placed in its bottom position by means of a handle (5), enabling the oil to flow through two channels with diametric connection to the rotor (3). In item 2b the slide valve is in its top position, leaving only one channel open through which the oil can flow to the rotor. By this arrangement the rotor in item 2b turns at approximately double the speed of that in figure 61, item 2a, but the torque is only half of that developed in item 2b, ie the position shown in item 2a is used for heavy loads, and that shown in figure 61 item 2b for lighter loads. This system is shown schematically in figure 62 item 2, the position numbers indicating the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Vent pipe Surface of oil Expansion tank Hydraulic motor Wire Filter 7. Charging valve 8. Suction side of pump 9. Oil pump 10. Pressure side of pump 11. Shut-off valve.
Photographs of the corresponding hydraulic motor and oil pump are provided on Item 1, figure 62. The installation shown schematically in item 1, figure 63, the position numbers indicating the following.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200668
QMED
HYDRAULICS
FIGURE 62
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200669
QMED
HYDRAULICS
1. Double-action controlled safety valve 2. Hydraulic motor housing 3. Rotor vanes 4. Rotor vane pressure shoe 5. Pressure chamber 6. Rotor 7. Speed regulation handle 8. Reversing handle 17.
9. Reversing valve 10. Speed regulation valve 11. Hosting direction 12. Lowering direction 13. Pump housing 14. Pressure chamber 15. Rotor vanes 16. Rotor
In figure 63, item 1 the operating handles are shown in the positions corresponding to hoisting at low speed but with high torque. Item 1a, figure 63 shows the Stop position and item 1b the position for lowering at high speed but with low torque. The various combinations of operating handle positions are shown on figure 61. 1. 3. Stop position 2. 4. Lowering position 3. 5. Hoisting at low speed 4. 6. Hoisting at high speed 5. 7. Lowering at high speed
The winch can be provided with a mechanical brake of the bad or block type, this being operated from a pedal through a system of levers. The winch can also be arranged so that the brake blocks are activated automatically from a brake cylinder, in which case the cylinder is connected to an oil pressure accumulator when the winch reversing handle is moved to the Stop position. When the reversing handle is moved from the Stop position, the oil is drained from the brake cylinder and the brake blocks are drawn away from the brake drum by a built-in spring. Photograph 2 in figure 63 show an oil-operated winch in the form of a capstan. Item1, figure 64 anchor winch, and the winch shown in item 2, figure 64 is a combined cargo and topping winch. OPERATION - To reduce the number of operational problems and increase the lifetime of a winch installation, it is necessary to carry out regular checks and preventive maintenance that, among other things, should include the following. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Checking the oil and cleaning the filters at regular intervals Venting the oil pressure system Checking the level of the oil in the expansion tank Lubricating the winch and cable blocks Checking the operating cocks and valves before oil pressure is applied to the system 6. Starting the winches before they are taken into use, particularly during the winter Air in the system can be recognized by the following: 1. Abnormal noise
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200670
QMED
HYDRAULICS
2. Reduced cable speed 3. Reduced tractive force 4. Overspill from the expansion tank
FIGURE 63
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200671
QMED
HYDRAULICS
FIGURE 64
USMMA GMATS
11/3/200672
QMED
STEERING GEARS
STEERING GEAR
The steering engine provides the force necessary to position and hold the rudder against the fluid forces of the sea. In general, the forces acting on a rudder are proportional to the rudder angle, the velocity of the vessel squared, and the density of the water. The rudder forces are transferred to the rudder post as a torque which is transmitted to the tiller, a part of the steering engine. STEERING OF THE SHIP - To give a ship its steering ability, it must be provided with a means of creating the torque necessary for course control of the ship. The means used by most types of ships is a rudder, but for vessels requiring unusually great maneuvering ability, for instance cable laying ships, salvage vessels, etc., a so-called "active rudder" may be used. This type of rudder is provided with a small, electrically driven propeller which, when the rudder is turned from the middle line plane, increases the torque applied to the ship. As a rule, the size of the rudder is determined as a fraction of the lateral plane of the hull, and possibly by the flow conditions created by the hull. Since it is desirable to reduce the rudder torque as much as possible out of regard for the rudderstock and steering gear, the question of rudder design has been a subject of great interest. The torque necessary for turning a rudder can be applied manually only in the case of smaller ships. In modern practice, there are three types of steering engines available: (1) The electrohydraulic ram type, (2) The rotary vane type, and (3) The direct current high torque electric motor type,
ELECTROHYDRAULIC STEERING ENGINE Description - A typical arrangement for a four-cylinder Rapson slide steering engine is shown in Figures 1 and 2. Two-cylinder arrangements are used on smaller vessels while the four-cylinder arrangement is typical for large vessels. The hydraulic fluid is delivered by a variable delivery pump. (The Hele-Shaw variable delivery pump will be described later.) The fluid under high pressure passes through a valve chest, to either of the opposed cylinders. Each of the two pumps is continuously driven in one direction by an electric motor which runs at a light power load, except when the steering gear is actually driving the rudder. A floating lever control or a differential feedback connected to the pump stroke control causes the rudder to move in direct relationship to the steering wheel or other proportionate control and stops the pump delivery when the position of the rudder is at the required angle. Normally, only one pump or motor would be running; the second unit is a backup. The procedure for shifting from one pump to another will vary with the details of a particular design. The shipboard engineering officers must become familiar with the changeover procedure, so that it can be accomplished quickly under emergency circumstances.
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FIGURE 1 - FACTORY TEST VIEW OF TYPICAL FOUR-RAM RAPSON SLIDE STEERING ENGINE
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FIGURE 2 - STEERING ENGINE ISOMETRIC ASSEMBLY DRAWING OF FOUR-RAM RAPSON SLIDE GEAR
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The tiller crosshead is made of forged or cast steel with a boss bored and keyed to fit the rudderstock. It is usually a single piece shrunk onto the rudderstock. In some installations, the tiller is made in two pieces which are bolted together on the rudderstock as shown in Figure 2. A cylindrical pin is formed on each side of the tiller boss to connect to the hydraulic cylinder crossheads. The four single-acting hydraulic rams act in pairs to provide the force on the tiller. Two cylinders are in line and carry rams bolted together at the juncture which forms upper and lower bearings for the trunnion arms of the swivel block. The swivel block has gunmetal bushing contact with the tiller pin. The ram translation movement is transmitted to the tiller through the swivel block, which moves longitudinally with the rams, turns in the bearings located at the rams juncture, and slides on the tiller arm to compensate the angular motion of the tiller. This arrangement is called a Rapson slide and is schematically illustrated in Figure 3. The Rapson slide has the desirable characteristic of increasing the torque available to move the rudder with increasing rudder angle. The torque available at large rudder angles is about 30 percent greater than at mid-rudder position. The hydraulic cylinders are manufactured from cast steel and the parallel sets are connected by beams which restrain cylinder movement due to side loading of the Rapson slide mechanisms. This side loading force, Fb, is illustrated in Figure 3. The hydraulic fluid is delivered by a variable delivery (i.e., stroke) pump through a valve chest to either of the opposed cylinders. Each pump is continuously driven in one direction by an electric motor which runs on essentially no load, except when the stroke of the pump is increased to provide fluid to move the rams in either direction. A welded steel tank, required by classification agencies, is installed to carry a reserve supply of oil for use in an emergency. A normally closed valve may be opened to permit the operating variable speed pump to deliver the reserve oil supply to the system. The hydraulic system pressure pipes are made of drawn steel with steel flanges. Valve chests are formed from forged steel blocks, machined externally, and bored out to form the required flow passages. Emergency rudder-locking valves are fitted in the supply line to each cylinder at the point of pipe connection. The system is fitted with pressure relief valves which relieve excessive pressure in the cylinders due to abnormal rudder forces, thus protecting the rudderstock and other parts from damage. The valve chest is arranged so that the rudder may be operated with two cylinders and reduced torque if a casualty puts one of the four cylinders out of service. Pumping system for electrohydraulic steering - Operation of the electrohydraulic steering system requires a constant speed variable stroke pump to supply hydraulic fluid to the rams. The Hele-Shaw pump is typical of the designs selected for this application. Figure 4 shows a sectional view of the Hele-Shaw pump construction. The following description of the pump operation refers to the parts identified in Figure 4.
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FIGURE 3 RAPSON SLIDE MECHANISM Oil is drawn into and discharged from the pump through the flanges A and B mounted on the pipe connection cover D, in which is located a stationary central cylindrical valve E. The central valve is equipped with ports C which serve to transmit the fluid to and from the rotating cylinder body F. The cylinder body, mounted and free to turn on the cylindrical valve E, is supported by ball bearings P, and is rotated through the spindle G by the electric motor. In the periphery of the cylinder body, steel plungers H, usually 7 in number, are mounted. The end of each plunger carries a pair of slippers K, the outer faces of which are shaped to ride in the floating ring L. This floating ring is in turn mounted on two large ball bearings M situated on each side of the cylinder body, the outer races of these bearings being fitted in the guide blocks N. Guide rods 0 connect to the guide blocks and extend out through the case of the pump, and serve as the means to change the position of the floating ring with respect to the axis X-X of the pump. Therefore, by moving the guide rods in either direction, the stroke of the plungers H is altered, which changes the rate of discharge of the pump. Figure 5 shows a descriptive view of the Hele-Shaw pump with all parts in approximate relation to each other. Figure 6 also shows a cutaway section of the assembled pump. To illustrate the principle of the Hele-Shaw pump, a series of line drawings appear in Figure 7. It should be noted, for the purpose of simplicity, that only one plunger is shown in these diagrams, although there are usually 7 equally spaced about the periphery of the floating ring, Diagram A shows the floating ring in the neutral position; i.e., the axis of the floating ring coincides with the
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axis of the pump. In this position, as the cylinder body rotates, no pumping action occurs, since the plunger remains at a constant distance from the stationary central valve during the rotation.
FIGURE 4 SECTIONAL VIEW OF HELE-SHAW PUMP In diagram B, the floating ring has been moved to the right, causing the plunger, as it rotates toward the right side, to move toward the center or axis of the pump; and as it rotates to the right side, it is moving away from the axis of the pump. Accordingly, during the upper half of the rotation from X to Y, the piston is moving away from the central valve and produces the suction stroke, moving oil into the cylinder body. During the other half of the revolution, or from Y to X, as shown in diagram C, the plunger is being forced in toward the central valve, thereby discharging the oil. The pump suction occurs in the upper port of the central valve, and discharge occurs through the lower port of the central valve. Diagram D shows the action that would take place when the pump is stroked in the opposite direction, or to the left. Of course, when this occurs, the suction and discharge ports are reversed, and suction from the bottom port and discharge from the upper port of the valve are obtained.
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FIGURE 5 EXPLODED VIEW OF HELE-SHAW PUMP
FIGURE 6 - CUTAWAY VIEW OF HELE-SHAW PUMP
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FIGURE 7 HELE-SHAW PUMP OPERATION PRINCIPLE Moving the crosshead indicated in Figure 4 toward or away from the axis of the pump effects a change in the relationship of the floating ring with respect to the pumps axis X-X, causing a corresponding change in the discharge as well as the direction of flow of the fluid. The crosshead in Figure 4 connects to, and is actuated by, the differential follow-up control mechanism of the steering gear. Maintenance of electrohydraulic steering system - Maintenance between overhauls is normally limited to adjustment of packing glands on valves and the hydraulic rams. The classification agency will usually require periodic inspection of the variable stroke pumps. The bearings of these pumps and the motors are excellent subjects for vibration signature analysis as a means to detect change and potential for failure. The following inspections of the steering gear should be made on a daily basis: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Check piping for leaks. Check that ram pressures are normal with gear in operation. Check all oil levels. Check pump temperature. Check motor temperature. Check hydraulic oil tank level. Check glands for leakage.
On a weekly basis, the following routine should be observed for an operating hydraulic steering gear. 1. Check communication system to bridge and engine central control station.
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2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Check air release valves. Check local control handwheel operation. Change over to alternative system of remote control and check operation.. Check grease supply in fitting. Check filters. Change over power units. Log condition of steering gear.
The following inspections should be made before leaving port: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Be sure machinery guards are in place. Switch on electric supply. Start one of the power units. Follow daily and weekly routines described above. Check sea gland.
ROTARY VANE STEERING GEAR SYSTEM - The rotary vane type steering gear is a compact yet powerful steering gear available in a wide range of torque capability. Figure 8 illustrates the operating principle. The rotary vane steering gear has only two basic parts: the rotor and the stator. The stator is bolted to the ships foundation through preloaded synthetic rubber shock absorbers. The hydraulic chamber which imparts the torque to the rotor is formed by vanes on the rotor and stator components. The fixed vanes are secured to the stator by high tensile steel dowel pins and cap screws. The moving vanes are secured to the rotor by cap screws and keys. The vanes are designed with adequate mechanical strength to permit them to act as rudder stops at the extremes of travel. Steel sealing strips backed by synthetic rubber are fitted in grooves along the sealing faces of the fixed and moving vanes to prevent leakage and provide high volumetric efficiency at the highest operating pressure. The single moving part, i.e., the rotor, is lubricated by the hydraulic fluid. Since the vanes impart only torque to the stator casing and rotor, wear is minimal. Furthermore, the rudderhead, bearing, and carrier are not subjected to any radial loading as a result of the steering gear action. A unit assembled for factory test is shown in figure 9. The duplicate servo-controlled variable delivery pumps driven by the electric motors shown in this figure provide the hydraulic power for the unit.
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FIGURE 8 CUTAWAY VIEW OF ROTARY VANE STEERING GEAR
FIGURE 9 FACTORY TEST VIEW OF TYPICAL ROTARY VANE STEERING GEAR
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SVENDBORG STEERING GEARS - The Svendborg steering gears are so arranged that if there is a failure in the electricity supply, and the system changes to manual control, the rudder can be operated from the wheel without any changeover whatsoever. Even large ships can be steered in this way with reduced speeds. The steering gear consists of the following components, see Figure 10b 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Rudder angle indicator Steering post with steering wheel pump and steering wheel Autopilot unit or pushbutton steering Pump for automatic pilot Pump units(s) Rudder stock unit
FIGURE 10b MANUAL STEERING - During manual control, the steering gear works only as a transmission unit, the result being that it requires considerable strength to turn the steering wheel and several turns of the wheel to move the rudder. The principle of manual steering can be seen in Figure 11. If the wheel is turned to the left, the wheel pump delivers oil to the main pump through the left pipe. Since the rotor of the main pump is not moving, the small pump pistons S1 do not take oil, the result being that all the oil
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flows to the outside of the left hand side piston SS, causing it to move to the right. When the side piston has moved completely to the right, the oil pressure opens the left hand check valve, thus establishing a direct connection to the left cylinder of the rudderstock unit. When the left hand side piston is forced to the right, the guide ring SR and thus the right hand side piston is also forced to the right, thus opening the right hand check valve to create passage for the return oil and completing the circuit.
FIGURE 11
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AEG STEERING GEAR - This steering gear consists of three main sections. 1. The primary part consisting of two main pumps, each driven by an electric motor. 2. The secondary part coupled direct to the rudderstock. 3. Lastly, telesteering from the wheelhouse. This tele-system can either work with oil pressure or with electric pulses, possibly combined with an autopilot. Figure 12 is a schematic illustration of the principle used by an AEG steering gear, but with the telemotor system from the bridge excluded. A and C are two electric motors that drive two main pumps B and D. One of these two pump units serves as standby and is disconnected from both the electrical and the pressure oil side. The other unit is in constant use while the ship is moving, the pump effect first arising when the steering wheel is turned. The impulses from the wheel to the main pump can be produced either by oil pressure or electrically.
FIGURE 12
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The two main pumps have pipelines (1) and (2), which alternately serve as suction and pressure lines for the oil. To the rudder stock E is fastened a hub G, which has an impeller with three wings. The impeller is enclosed in an oil-filled F that is secured to a bedplate in the ship. The cylinder is divided equally into three chambers by three internal, radial ribs. In each of the three chambers, one of the wings of the impeller on the hub G can move approximately 2 x 35 degrees. The impeller and the ribs are provided with sealing strips, dividing the volume enclosed within the cylinder F into six oil-tight compartments, which three and three, are connected through pipelines (1) and (2). If the upper pipe (1) is the pressure line for the pump, the pipe (2) is the suction line. The results is that hub G and thus the rudder are turned in a clockwise direction. The system is provided with a hunting gear that ensures that the rudder stops turning when the steering wheel comes to a standstill. The valves at K are low-pressure valves that open for oil filling from a gravity tank H if low pressure occurs in the system. Valve J is a bypass valve from the pressure suction side. The valves L are excess pressure valves from the pressure in the system from exceeding the maximum working pressure of approximately 40 bar. The pipelines (3) are air exhaust lines.
FIGURE 13
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FIGURE 14
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FIGURE 15
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STEERING GEAR LABORATORY Title: Objective: Operation, Analysis, and Testing of a Hydraulic Steering Gear. Understand the concepts affecting the design and selection of a hydraulic steering gear. Understand the procedures for operating a steering gear including startup, securing, pump changeover, loc4l'and bridge control. Become familiar with-the standard symbols used on fluid power logic diagrams.
Tools and Equipment Required: 1. Laboratory Double Ram Hydraulic Steering Gear 2. Yardstick and large calipers 3. TV Kings Pointer Steering Engine
Procedure: 1. Examine and trace out the laboratory steering engine. Prepare a draft piping schematic of the main piping system, showing all pumps, valves, etc. 2. Determine proper procedures, include valve positions and pin locations, for operation (local and bridge, port and starboard pumps, hand pump) 3. After being cleared by the instructor, operate systems in all modes of operation. 4. Repeat the above steps for the steering gear on the TV Kings Pointer Discussion 1. Compare the mechanical advantage of the rapson slide mechanism versus the link-type mechanism. 2. Using the lab steering gear -dimensions and hydraulic pump nameplate data, estimate the following: a. Maximum available rudder torque at rudders angles of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 degrees. b. Time from hard over to hard over c. Maximum pump liquid horsepower and compare the installed motor horsepower. Safety Notes: 1. Observe proper precautions around operating machinery 2. DO NOT start any equipment without first getting permission from the instructor.
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STEERING APPARATUS 58.25-1 Existing Installations a. All existing vessels subject to Inspection by the Coast Guard shall be provided with suitable steering apparatus. Extra steering apparatus consisting of relieving cables or of auxiliary power or hand-steering gear attached to the rudderstock independent of the regular steering gear shall be provided. b. Replacements of steering apparatus on existing vessels shall be in accordance with this subpart for new installations. 58.25-5 New Installations a. All new vessels subject to inspection by the Coast Guard, except towed barges shall be provided with main and auxiliary steering apparatus in accordance with 1 56.25-10 through 58.25-70. b. The main steering gear shall be of adequate strength and of sufficient capacity to steer the vessel at maximum service speed. The main steering gear and rudderstock shall be so designed that they are not damaged at maximum astern speed. c. The auxiliary steering gear shall be independent of the main steering gear and shall be of adequate strength and of sufficient capacity to steer the vessel at navigable speed and capable of being brought speedily into action in an emergency. d. When the steering gear is power operated the exact position of the rudder shall be indicated at the main steering station. 58.28-10 Rudder Movement a. The main steering gear shall be capable of putting the rudder over from 35 on one side to 35 on the other side with the vessel running ahead at the maximum continuous rated shaft rpm. (revolutions per minute). The timing shall be conducted from 35 on one side through 30 on the other side and the average rate of the rudder shall be not less than 2% per second. b. The auxiliary steering gear where power-driven shall be capable of putting the rudder over from 15 on one side to 15 on the other side in 60 seconds with the vessel running head at half speed, or 7 knots whichever is greater. 58.25-15 Plan Approval a. General arrangement plans of the main and auxiliary steering arrangements and piping systems shall be submitted for approval in accordance with subpart 50.20 of this subchapter. 59.25-20 Power-Driven Steering Star a) The main steering gear shall be power driven for vessels over 250 feet in length or when the required upper rudderstock diameter is over 9 inches. However, power-driven main steering gear shall be required for any vessel where the hand steering gear is not considered capable of effectively complying with the requirements of 58.25-10. b) The auxiliary steering gear shall be power driven when the required upper rudderstock diameter is over 9 inches for passenger vessels and over 14 inches for cargo vessels.
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58.25-25 Auxiliary Means of Steering a. An auxiliary means of steering will not be required where the main gear is of the dualpower hydraulic type having two independent pumps and connections and separate leads to the pump prime movers from the source of power and each independent steering gear power unit has the required capacity for a main steering gear in order to meet the requirements of 58.25-10(a). In such cases the attachment to the rudderstock shall be designed for strength in excess of that of the rudderstock. b. A suitable arrangement of block and tackle will be acceptable as an auxiliary steering means and when arranged for operation by means of power-driven winches or similar machinery will be considered an auxiliary power steering gear. c. An auxiliary means of steering will not be required on double-ended ferryboats where independent steering gears are fitted at each end of the vessel and two sources of power are provided where the gear is power driven. 58.25-30 Steadying The Rudder a) All oceangoing vessels requiring power gears shall be provided with arrangements for steadying the rudder in the event of an emergency and when a change of gear is required. On hydraulic type steering gears a suitable arrangement of stop valves in the main piping may be considered as a means of steadying the rudder. 58.25-35 Rudder Stops. a. Main power steering gear shall be provided with positive arrangements for stopping the gear before the rudder stops are reached. These arrangements shall be synchronized with the rudderstock or the position of the gear itself rather than with the steering gear control system. b. Strong and effective rudder stops are to be fitted where adequate positive stops are provided within the gear structural stops will not be required. 58.26-40 Buffers. a. On vessels in ocean coastwise and Great Lakes service steering gear, other than the hydraulic type, shall be designed with suitable buffer arrangements to relieve the gear from shocks to the rudder. 58.15-45 Pilothouse Steering Gear Controls a) Control of the main steering gear shall be provided from the pilothouse by mechanical, hydraulic, electrical or other approved means. The arrangement of the control system and steering gear components shall provide full follow-up control of the rudder. Supplementary steering control not employing full follow-up may also be provided from the pilothouse. b) Any power required for the pilothouse steering control systems shall be supplied from the steering gear room. Means shall be provided in the steering gear room to disconnect the steering control system from the power source. 58.25-50 Alternative Steering Station Steering Gear Controls a. An Alternative steering station shall be provided from which control of the main steering gear can be affected by mechanical, hydraulic, electrical, or other approved means. The
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b. c.
d.
e.
alternative steering station shall be located on the after weather deck unless duplicate pilothouse control means are provided in accordance with 58.25-55. The arrangement of the alternative steering control system and the steering gear components shall provide full follow up control of the rudder unless a suitable rudder angle indicator is provided at the alternative steering station. Means shall be provided to enable orders to be transmitted from the pilothouse to the alternative steering station. Components of the alternative steering station control system shall be completely separate and independent of the pilothouse steering control system. The shafting, piping, or electrical cable associated with the control means at the alternative steering stations shall be run as widely separated as practicable from the shafting, piping, or electrical cable of the pilot-house steering control systems. Any power required for the alternative steering control means shall be supplied from the steering gear room. Means shall be provided in the steering gear room to disconnect the alternative steering means from the source of power and if necessary from the associated steering gear. Where it is not practicable to comply with the requirements of this section because of the arrangement of the vessel or the type of steering gear installed other types of steering gear control systems may be considered. Such systems shall provide steering gear control equivalent to that required by this section. Ease of maintenance, accessibility, and location and arrangement of components, as well as the type of control system, will be among the factors evaluated when determining equivalency.
58.25-55 Duplicate Pilothouse Steering Gear Control Systems a. Two separate and independent steering control systems shall be provided for controlling the steering gear from the pilothouse when the alternative steering means is not located on the after weather deck. b. Duplicate pilothouse steering gear controls when installed shall comply with the following requirements: 1. Where the steering gear is power-driven the arrangements of the equipment shall be such that full follow up control of the rudder is provided with either of the control systems in use. Supplementary steering control not employing follow up may be incorporated. 2. Means shall be provided in the pilothouse to select either of the two control systems to be in control of the rudder. An "off- position which will disconnect power to both systems may be provided in the pilothouse. Interlocks shall be provided for this control system selector so that only one may be in use at a time. 3. Any power required for the pilothouse steering control systems shall be supplied from the steering gear room. Means shall be provided in the steering gear room to disconnect remote steering gear control systems from the source of power. 4. The shafting, piping, or electric cables of the two pilothouse steering control systems shall be run as widely separated as practicable throughout their length between the pilothouse and the steering gear room. c. Where only the main steering gear is power-driven arrangements shall be such that either steering control system may be connected to control the main steering gear. Where both
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the main and auxiliary steering gears are power-driven one steering control system shall control the main steering gear and the other shall control the auxiliary steering gear. d. For dual-power hydraulic type steering gears of such a type that an auxiliary means of steering is not required one control system shall control only one hydraulic unit and the other control system shall control only the other hydraulic unit. (CGFR 68-82.13 FR 18878. Dec. 18. 1968 as amended by COFR 69-121. 35 FR 9980, June 17. 1970) 58.25-60 Arrangement Of Steering Wheels a. Steering wheels,including -trick wheels- which are used as the alternative steering means shall turn In a clockwise direction for "right rudder" and counterclockwise for -left rudder." When running ahead the ship's heading shall be to the right following clockwise movement of the wheel. b. The arrangement of steering stations shall be such that the helmsman is abaft the wheel. However, if a wheel is fitted in the steering sear room and is intended solely for warming up and testing the gear, the helmsman need not stand abaft the wheel. The rims of the wheels shall be plainly marked with arrows and lettering for right and for left rudder or-a suitable notice indicating these directions shall be posted directly in the helmsman's line of vision. 58.25-65 Special Steering Apparatus. a. Where no regular rudder is fitted and steering action is obtained by a change of setting of the propelling unit auxiliary steering is not required, nor will the requirements of this subpart be generally applicable. Special consideration will be given by the Commandant for such installations. b. When a lever type control is provided instead of a wheel type. It shall be installed and marked so that the lever movement clearly indicates the direction and amount of the rudder movement. 58.25-70 Steering Gear Piping a. The arrangement of piping for hydraulic steering gears shall be such that a change from the maintained the auxiliary gear can be readily effected. b. A relief valve shall be provided for the protection of the hydraulic system. c. Pressure piping shall meet the requirements of Subpart 58.30.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
BEARINGS 1. Definitions and uses for roller bearings 2. Bearing materials and characteristics 3. How a bearing is manufactured 4. Bearing types-radial and thrust ball bearings, radial and thrust roller bearings, pillow block bearings 5. Mitchell thrust bearings/Kingsbury thrust bearings 6. Bearing seals 7. Shafting and tolerances for roller bearings including housings 8. Mounting roller bearings 9. Bearing Monitoring including causes of vibration 10. Analyzing roller bearing failure-going forward successfully 11. Proper greasing techniques 12. Journal bearing construction and uses 13. How to determine if bearing is still good 14. Installation procedures of journal bearings
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1.. DEFINITION AND USES FOR ROLLER BEARINGS 1 DEFINITION AND USES FOR ROLLER BEARINGS
If this were a perfect world where everything would slide without wearing, or roll without wearing or building up heat, we would have no need of roller bearings. However, it is not a perfect world and we all know how difficult it is to slide a 500 pound piece across a floor. We also know how easy it is to move that 500 piece if it is mounted on wheels that have ball bearings. All of us have grown-up using and appreciating roller bearings. Now we want to put a little more time in and truly understand the roller bearing. Friction is the resistance that is the result of one object sliding against another object. We know, from the previous section, that we can vastly reduce friction by keeping a film of oil between the two objects. We also know that friction is reduced by having the faces of the objects be smooth rather than rough. Another way we can deal with sliding objects is to put rollers between the surfaces. You may have used this technique at some time by putting steel pipe underneath a skid and rolling the skid across the floor. Therefore, by using balls or rollers we replace the sliding friction with rolling motion. Even though we are now using rolling motion we still will have metal-to-metal contact. As we do not have full face-to-face contact the load on the balls that are in contact have to equal what the load on the face-to-face contact would be. This means that there is considerable loading on each ball. The good news is that the circle configuration is very strong. And, while one ball may be good, more surface area reduces the load and makes for a longer life. Most roller bearings have four basic components. They are: 1. Inner ring 2. Outer ring 3. Retainer 4. Rolling elements (balls or rollers)
FIGURE 1 - BALL BEARING WITH COMPONENTS LISTED. The outer ring, rolling elements and inner ring all support the load. The retainer allows for positive separation between rolling elements. Without the retainer the rolling elements would
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rub each other, there would be direct contact between the rollers and there would be pounding of the rolling elements, Because of the job we are asking the bearing to do the bearing steel must be of high quality. The steel must possess high strength, be wear resistant, have dimensional stability, be tough, have excellent fatigue resistance, and have freedom from internal defects.
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2.. BEARING MATERIALS AND CHARACTERISTICS 2 BEARING MATERIALS AND CHARACTERISTICS

The search for better bearings has involved use of many bearing metals and alloys, several of which have proven very satisfactory. Tin base babbitt is good for corrosion resistance and seizure resistance but is poor in fatigue strength. Lead base babbitt has better fatigue strength but is worse with respect to corrosion resistance. Copper lead also has good fatigue strength and is lacking with corrosion resistance. Leaded bronze has good fatigue strength and can carry heavy loads except on high-speed shafts. It will hold up without distorting better than copper lead and is used for main and connecting rod bearings with a babbitt overlay. Aluminum alloys has a good fatigue strength and good corrosion resistance and are being used more and more. Steel backed aluminum alloy bearings are the most widely used, because they require less clearance, they cost less; they have the highest fatigue strength and are good with corrosion resistance. For standard applications the ball bearings and rings are usually made from through hardened steel AISI 52100. This gives a standard maximum operating range (for conventional applications) for the bearing from 2250 F to 3000 F. Higher temperatures (up to 4000 F) can be achieved if heat stabilized 51200 steel is used. The retainers can be made from many types of materials. Bronze, brass, steel, polymers and composites have all been used. Because the retainer is not load bearing the temperature limitations are usually higher for the retainers with a few exceptions. Certain brass, bronze and polymer retainers may be limited to around 2250 F. Other parts that are sometimes included with the bearing are the seals and the shields. Shields are normally made of either low carbon steel or stainless steel and, for the most part, are not a consideration for temperature limitations. The seals, on the other hand, are very important to retain the grease inside the bearing and do impose temperature limitation. Seal materials can range from felt (temperature limitation of about 2120 F) to glass reinforced TFE Fluorocarbon (with a temperature limit of about 5000 F).
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BEARINGS
3.. HOW A BEARING IS MANUFACTURED 3 HOW A BEARING IS MANUFACTURED

The rings, inner and outer, and the rolling elements are heat-treated. This is done by very exact control of temperature, pressure, and by controlling the rates of heating and cooling. If the metal is to be through hardened the parts are held above the austenizing temperature for a period of time. This is the temperature at which ferric carbide is formed. The parts are then quenched (quickly cooled). This results in the formation of martensite. Martensite is a solid solution of iron with up to one percent carbon. To reach the final product the parts must then be tempered. The goal of this treatment is to obtain a hardness of 58-62 Rockwell C throughout a cross section of the material. A second method of hardening involves treating the parts with carbon. The carbon is added in a carbon rich atmosphere within the furnace. The parts are then quenched and tempered and the end product has an exterior that is equivalent to through-hardened (58-62 Rockwell C) while the core has a lower carbon content. The core is a 40-45 Rockwell C. The casehardened bearings can be used where high shock loads are expected or where there can be rapid fluctuation in temperature. After the hardening process the parts are ground to very fine accuracies. The balls are made of chrome steel. For applications up to 1 in diameter wire is used. For applications over 1 in diameter bar stock is used. To make the precision balls there are eight steps taken: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Pressing-cold or hot to get form of ball Rill Filing to achieve roundness Tumbling- polishing and made uniform Heat treating- to harden the balls uniformly through-out the cross section Precision Grinding-to get round with 1/10,000 of an inch Lapping- puts a very fine finish on the balls, done twice for very precision machines Gauging done electronically Inspection- both visual and electronically
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
FIGURE 2 CLASSIFYING BEARINGS - Bearings can be generally classified either being sliding surface (friction) bearings or rolling contact (antifriction) bearings. Sliding surface bearings may be generally defined as bearings, which have sliding contact between their surfaces. These are lubricated bearings such as journal bearings or thrust bearings as used in engines, compressors and some low horsepower motors. Journal bearings can be subdivided into different types such as solid bearings, half bearings, two part or split bearings. A typical solid type bearing is also known as bushing. The genre of friction bearings will be discussed a little later. Antifriction, or rolling contact bearings are so named because their design takes advantage of the fact that less energy is required to overcome rolling friction than is required to overcome sliding friction. Antifriction bearings can be generally defined as bearings that have rolling contact between their surfaces. These can be subdivided as either ball or roller bearings (based on the rolling element). We can further subdivide these two groups into those bearings that are designed for radial loads, thrust (axial) loads and a combination of the two.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
In a ball bearing the load is carried on two tiny spots that are diametrically opposed. In a roller bearing the load is carried on two narrow lines. As we have previously discussed the construction for this type of bearing is very exacting because of the loads that can be present in operation. The criteria for design, and for successful operation, of a bearing consists of the following: Available space Loads magnitude of load, direction of load, radial load, axial load, combined load Allowable misalignment Speed of rotation Precision required Need for quiet running Stiffness Axial displacement Mounting and dismounting There are several different types and applications for antifriction bearings. The mechanic should be able to recognize the various types and know the application for which they are best suited. The most commonly used ball bearing is the single row or Conrad ball bearing. These bearings are capable of carrying high loads in both the axial and radial directions. The next type bearing is the single row, filling slot bearing. This type has a filling slot cut axially through the shoulder, which allows as many balls as possible to fill the area between the inner and outer rings. The inclusion of more balls allows a greater radial loading as there is more surface area. These bearing do not respond well to thrust and, if put into this situation, will be noisy and not perform well. Single row angular contact bearings manufactured with a contact angle of between either 100 to 220 or 220 to 400. The degree of contact angle depends on the use for the bearing. These bearings can carry thrust in only one direction. Though nominally classified as a radial bearing they cannot, in a stand-alone position, carry radial loads. There has to be thrust in the direction of the wide face for the bearing to work. If you were to take two single row angular contact bearings and place them either in the face-toface or back-to-back position you would have a bearing capable of carrying radial load, thrust load, or a combination of the loads. A tandem mounting of two or more single row angular contact bearings can be used to increase the thrust capacity. However, if used in this manner it must be remembered that the arrangement cannot handle pure radial load; there must be thrust load. Radial loads are best handled by double row ball bearings. The effect of double row is not twice that of a single row but rather 1.55 times the effect of the single row bearing. This type of bearing can also carry a large amount of thrust in either direction. In these bearings the grooves that the balls ride in can be located in relation to each other such that the direction of load through the balls forms angles with the radial plane of the bearing. Depending on the angle the
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
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BEARINGS
load directions intersect either outside of the bearing (good for tilting loads) or inside the bearing (not as much sensitivity to misalignment). This is a good place to discuss the need to check the original equipment manufacturers (OEM) book with regards to the bearings. Each bearing will be stamped by the bearing manufacturer. This stamping (a series of numbers and/or letters) will designate what the bearing is capable of accomplishing. There is also a Master Bearing Book that allows the mechanic to compare one bearing manufacturer with another bearing manufacturer. All too often a mechanic will take a bearing of the same size and install that bearing without understanding what the bearing is designed to do. The installation and spare parts book provided by the equipment manufacturer should have the part number for the bearing. If you do not have the exact part number you can cross-reference with the Master Bearing Book. In the real world it is often the case that there is a selection of bearings available but not with OEM part numbers; if you will, a pool of bearings. The mechanic must read the book (RTB) and understand the function of the bearing. If you end up putting in a bearing that fits into the bearing housing, but is not suited to the job, its life will be short, the experience a waste of time, and you may possibly damaged a perfectly good piece of machinery. Preventative maintenance is all about staying ahead of the curve and knowing that the machinery can accomplish the job it was built to do. If the wrong parts are used the reliability goes down fast, the workload and costs go up, and frustration sets in. Particularly in the realm of bearings, think of the loads, the speed, the reliability, and the potential costs before sticking a bearing in a place where it is doomed to fail. To read and understand a bearing the following is offered as a guide. The first number identifies the type of ball bearing. This serial number changes for each bearing manufacturer. The second number identifies the bearing by section height within the series. The next two numbers indicate the bore size in millimeters when multiplied by 5. This is not true for tapered roller bearings and needle roller bearings. The designators after this point are for seals (one or two), snap ring or no snap ring, cage construction and lastly, clearance rating. Clearance rating is a guide to let the used know what standard was used during the construction of the rolling bearing. If a bearing is going to be used in a high temperature environment the internal clearances should be greater than normal. They are rated as follows: C1 has clearances less than C2 C2 has clearances less than normal C3 has clearances greater than normal C4 has clearances greater than C3 C5 has clearances greater than C4 In double row self-aligning ball bearings there is a common spherical raceway in the outer ring of the bearing. The inner raceway has separate tracks for the balls. This configuration allows the bearing to self align. This type of bearing is very useful when there is the problem or potential (of) for misalignment. This design, because the potential non-conformity in the location of the balls, does not lend itself to high load carry capacity.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
4.. BEARING TYPES 4 BEARING TYPES

There are a large number of different types of bearings used and the variety of names seems quite complex, yet there are only three systems of classification in naming a bearing. 1. If the primary type of motion occurring between shaft and bearing is sliding, such as a conventional journal bearing, then the bearing belongs to the major class, called sliding surface bearings. 2. If the primary type of motion is rolling, such as in roller or ball bearings, then the bearing belongs to the other major class, called rolling contact bearings. a. A bearing required to carry a radial load is called a radial, sleeve or journal bearing depending on whether it is a rolling contact, engine, motor or machinery bearings. b. A bearing required to carry a thrust load is called a thrust bearing. c. One, which carries both a radial and thrust load, is called a radial-thrust or a journal thrust bearing. 3. Lastly it is based on bearing geometry. Bearings may be cylindrical, elliptical, lobed, tapers and lands, pivoted pads or pressure pockets. Thrust ball bearings are used when the thrust load is beyond the capacity of radial bearings. Uni-directional thrust bearings cannot carry any radial load and, by definition, only carry the thrust in one direction. These bearings consist of one row of balls positioned between two grooved washers. The smaller washer is a press fit on the shaft, which makes the bearing centered on the shaft. The larger washer has a spherical supporting surface which seats against a matching surface. The matching surface should be at right angles to the bearing housing which would give a uniform loading on the balls. If the single direction thrust ball bearing is used in the horizontal position it must be mounted in combination with another bearing which will 1) make sure the thrust washers do not separate in the absence of thrust load and 2) take up any radial load. Cylindrical roller bearings are a type of radial roller bearing. As the name implies these bearings consist of cylindrical type rollers. This type of bearing can sustain a much higher radial load than ball bearings of the same size. A subset of the cylindrical roller bearing is the needle roller bearing. These bearings cannot carry any thrust and they have limitation with regards to speed. The benefit is that they carry relatively high radial load for the small radial space they require. Tapered roller bearings have, by definition, rollers, which are tapered. This results in friction that is higher than in ball bearings or cylindrical roller bearings. However this type of bearing can be constructed with different fixed contact angles. As the contact angle becomes steeper the amount of thrust load the bearing can handle increases. This type of bearing is constructed with a strength member, called a rib, to keep the rollers from being displaced under a radial load. For the most part the housings are fixed and the shafts float free axially. Again, most of the time these bearings are used in pairs.
USMMA GMATS
10
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
FIGURE 3 Spherical roller bearings can assume considerable thrust loads and can support a radial load. These bearings consist of two rows of roller, shaped like drums. The number of rollers and their size are critical to the load carry capacity of the bearing. Tapered roller bearings can be constructed with either the small bore washer tapered only or with both the small bore and the large bore washer tapered. With both washers tapered the bearings are alignment sensitive but can carry high thrust loads. The bearings with the small bore and tapered only on that bore will permit displacement in the radial directions without strain on the bearing. Pillow blocks are housings for bearings that are made to be bolted down. There are many different types of pillow blocks and they can be made for either ball or roller bearing.
USMMA GMATS
11
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
FIGURE 4 TILTING PAD BEARING
USMMA GMATS
12
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
FIGURE 5 MULTISHOE TYPE THRUSET BEARING
USMMA GMATS
13
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
5.. MITCHELL THRUST BEARINGS//KINGSBURY THRUST 5 MITCHELL THRUST BEARINGS KINGSBURY THRUST BEARINGS BEARINGS
In the late 1880s an Englishman, Professor Osborne Reynolds, did a lot of work with the load carrying capacity of oil layers. In the early 1900s and Australian, A.G.M. Mitchell, used Professor Reynolds work as a basis for developing a thrust bearing. Mitchells work involved a square block sliding over a flat surface that was well lubricated. What Mitchell found was that as the square block was slid over the surface the oil built up under the leading edge of the block causing the block to tilt. At this angle the block was subjected to less friction and had greater load capacity than if it were parallel to the flat surface. These developments led to the Mitchell Thrust Bearing. The same wedge shape film of oil is the basis for the Kingsbury Thrust Bearing. It is comprised of a plate (flat surface) with segmented shoes, which can tilt under the pressure of the wedge shape film of oil. Both of these bearings are very common as the axial thrust bearings used for main propulsion and generator prime movers. KINGSBURY THRUST BEARING The principle of a Kingsbury Thrust Bearing is shown in the simple sketch below. A single shaft collar pushes against several pivoted shoes, which are held in place by a stationary seat fastened to the hull of the ship. When the shaft is revolved, the shoes pivot to allow the film of oil between the collar and the shoes to take the form of a wedge. The wedge of oil can withstand tremendous pressure without breaking down, making it possible to operate a single collar. The entire bearing is encased in a housing, lubrication is supplied by the rotating collar dipping in the oil sump. Kingsbury thrust bearings require much less space than horseshoe and are more efficient.
FIGURE 6 KINGSBURY THRUST BEARING
USMMA GMATS
14
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
FIGURE 7 - KINGSBURY PIVOTED-SHOE THRUST BEARING
USMMA GMATS
15
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
6.. BEARING SEALS 6 BEARING SEALS

There are several key elements for long bearing life; proper design, proper installation, keeping the bearing well lubricated and keeping contaminants out of the bearing. Seals are very important for the last two elements. The considerations for seal design are as follows: Cost Environment (temperature and probable contaminants) Speed (ft/min) Qualities of lubricant Shaft surface Space available Permissible leakage Permissible shaft misalignment A shield can be considered a type of seal. It acts to keep the lubricant in the bearing and can easily be used when the temperature rise makes the use of elastomer contact seals not practical. The seal acts as a labyrinth. They are commonly used on electric motor bearings when they are in a dry and dust free environment. Contact seals can be either of the outside diameter riding type (also known as O.D. riding or land type) or the chamfer contact type. Seal design and efficiency of the design can often be improved by the use of channels or the use of one or more washers. The lubricant would fill in the channels and be beneficial in keeping contaminants out. Washers use the labyrinth/drop in pressure to minimize leakage of the lubricant out of the bearing. Felt Seals are commonly used in applications where the operating temperature does not exceed 2120 F and the operating speed stays below 800 ft/min. Other types of seal include V-Ring seals, Taconite seals, and Radial Lip Ring seals. When using radial lip ring seals it is important to consider the shaft. It should be very smooth and possibly hardened, as the seal will ride, lightly, on the shaft. It is always a good practice to closely examine the shaft prior to the installation of the bearing and seal to make sure there is high probability of success. If the surface is pock marked and/or worn the shaft should be clean and re-metaled or the shaft can be undercut and a sleeve installed. We talked earlier about the quantity of bearings and how they made our lives, in the mechanical world, a lot easier. We have discussed many different types of bearings that can take different loading. We have also used the words bearing life. What we need to address next is the concept of bearing fit. The bearing has to have a good fit between the outer ring and the housing and have a good fit between the inner ring and the shaft. This means that the fit cannot be too tight or too loose. We went through the checks that are made as a bearing is being fabricated. All the bearing manufacturers make their bearing to standard tolerances the American Bearing Manufacturers Association and the International Standards Organization set the standard tolerances. The machinery designer takes into account the type, direction and amount of load, the operating temperature, the required accuracy of the particular machine and the expansion from heat of the
QMED
BEARINGS
metal to come up with the type of bearing and standards which have to govern the fit to make this bearing successful. The part of the bearing that rotates, either the inner or outer ring, will have a press fit. This will eliminate creep or differential rolling. This means from a maintenance standpoint it is not good practice to glue a bearing, knurl the area where the bearing is going to be placed on a shaft, or to pin punch a shaft to get a fit that someone deems acceptable. By the same token, the area where the bearing is going to have a fit must be dimensionally round (round not oval) and not have metal missing so there is enough gripping power (decayed metal or corrosion effects that leave either a surface or housing suspect). In addition to possible creep, which only gets worse from wear, the installer also sets up the very real possibility of vibration as the alignment will not be correct. This all leads to a short bearing life, possible collateral damage, and possibly severe damage to the machine. Both the ABMA and ISO publish the standards. For the normal mechanic there is no real need to learn the standards. It is, however, extremely important to know that they exist and how to get them. Many bearing houses will supply their clients with a Master Bearing Book, which allows the client to substitute one manufacturers bearing for another manufacturers bearing. Many of the standards and individual bearing manufacturers designators are listed in the book. For this reason this book is handy to have around as a reference. As noted just above, proper mounting of a bearing is critical to long life for the bearing. This is also a good point to refresh everyones mind as to the purpose of doing preventative maintenance. Preventative maintenance should mean life extension or diagnosis, without killing the patient, so corrective surgery can be done to improve the machine. In easy terms, if you separated you shoulder and went to the doctor you would be less than impressed if the doctor was pounding your arm to get it back into the socket. Yet most people have seen mechanics being slightly abusive to a machine and not think anything about it. You would also not be happy if the doctor had to cut off your arm, or leg, just to accomplish a diagnosis. The idea is that something is worn out or broken and it needs to be fixed. There are also proper and improper ways to carry out maintenance. We know that improper fit, improper alignment and/or a brand new damaged bearing will not help any machine. We also know that contaminants (dirt and dust) in the bearing will greatly shorten the life expectancy. Yet we will see mechanics take an old piece of pipe, dirty and rusty, out of the scrap box, and use it, with a hammer, to drive on a new bearing. We have all probably also seen the mechanic, with dirty hands, go over to the grease pail (left out in the shop to collect whatever) and fill a bearing with grease. Why then are we surprised when the bearing does not last as long as it should?
USMMA GMATS
17
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
7.. SHAFTING AND TOLERANCES FOR ROLLER BEARINGS INCLUDING HOUSINGS 7 SHAFTING AND TOLERANCES FOR ROLLER BEARINGS INCLUDING HOUSINGS
SHAFT TOLERANCES FOR STANDARD INCH SIZE TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS 1,2 SIZES (VALUES IN INCHES)
Cone Bore
Shaft Seal Deviation from Minimum Cone Bore and the Resultant Fit Rotating Cone
Moderate loads3 Heavy loads, or high speed or shock Resultant fit 0.0005T 0.0015T 0.0005T 0.0025T 0.0010T 0.0050T 0.0015T 0.0075T Shaft seal Resultant deviation fit +0.0025 0.0010T +0.0015 0.0025T 0.0005/Inch Bearing bore Avg. Tight Fit +0.0150 0.0090T +0.0120 0.0150T Heavy loads4, or high speed or shock Shaft seal Resultant deviation fit +0.0025 0.0010T +0.0015 0.0025T 0.0005/Inch Bearing bore Avg. Tight Fit +0.0150 0.0090T +0.0120 0.0150T consult your SKF representative. Stationary Cone Moderate loads3, no shock Shaft seal Resultant deviation fit 0 0.0010L -0.0005 0 0 0.0020L -0.0010 0 0 0.0040L -0.0020 0 -0.0030 0 -0.0030 0 Wheel spindles Shaft seal deviation -0.0002 0.0007 -0.0002 -0.0012 Resultant fit 0.0012L 0.0002L 0.0022L 0.0002L -
D Over
0 3 12 24
No shock
Incl. 3 12 24 36 Tolerance +0.0005 0 +0.0010 0 +0.0020 0 +0.0030 0 Shaft seal deviation +0.0015 +0.0010 +0.0025 +0.0015 +0.0050 +0.0030 +0.0075 +0.0045
1 For fitting practice for metric and J-prefix part number tapered roller bearing. 2 These recommendations not applicable to tapered bore cones. For recommendations, 3 C >8.3 P 4 C<8.3
P C is the basic load rating P is the equivalent load. T indicates tight fit L indicates loose fit.
USMMA GMATS
18
11/3/2006
QMED HOUSING TOLERANCE FOR STANDARD INCH SIZE TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS
BEARINGS (SIZES AND VALUES IN INCHES)
Cup O.D
Housing Seat Deviation from Minimum Cup O.D. and the Resultant Fit Floating or non-adjustable Non-adjustable Clamped Adjustable or in carriers or in carriers,
Sheaves-clamped sheavesHousing seat deviation -0.0005 -0.0015 -0.0010 -0.0020 -0.0010 -0.0020 -0.0010 -0.0030 -0.0010 -0.0040 Resultant fit 0.0005T 0.0025T 0.0010T 0.0030T 0.0010T 0.0030T 0.0010T 0.0050T 0.0010T 0.0070T Housing seat deviation -0.0020 -0.0030 -0.0020 -0.0030 -0.0020 -0.0030 -0.0020 -0.0040 Resultant fit 0.0020T 0.0040T 0.0020T 0.0040T 0.0020T 0.0040T 0.0020T 0.0060T Resultant fit 0.0030L 0.0010L 0.0030L 0.0010L 0.0030L 0.0010L 0.0060L 0.0020L 0.0090L +0.0030L Housing seat deviation +0.0010 0 +0.0010 0 +0.0020 0 +0.0030 +0.0010 +0.0050 +0.0020 Resultant fit 0.0010L 0.0010T 0.0010L 0.0010T 0.0020L 0.0010T 0.0030L 0.0010T 0.0050L 0.0010T Housing seat deviation -0.0005 -0.0015 -0.0010 -0.0020 -0.0010 -0.0020 -0.0010 -0.0030 -0.0010 -0.0040 Resultant fit 0.0005T 0.0025T 0.0010T 0.0030T 0.0010T 0.0030T 0.0010T 0.0050T 0.0010T 0.0070T
Over Incl. Tolerance Housing seat

0 3 5 12 24 3 5 12 24 36 +0.0010 0 +0.0010 0 +0.0010 0 +0.0020 0 +0.0030 0 deviation +0.0030 +0.0020 +0.0030 +0.0020 +0.0030 +0.0020 +0.0060 +0.0040 +0.0090 +0.0060
Recommended fits above are for cast iron or steel housing. For housings of light metal, tolerances are generally selected which give a slightly tighter fit than those in the table. 1 For fitting practice for metric and J-prefix part number tapered roller bearings. T indicates tight fit. L indicates loose fit.
USMMA GMATS
19
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
HOUSING TOLERANCES FOR METRIC AND J-PREFIX INCH SERIES TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS ISO CLASS NORMAL AND AFBMA CLASS K AND N (VALUES IN INCHES)
Cup O.D. D Housing Seat Deviation from Maximum Cup O.D. and the Resultant Fit Adjustable Non-adjustable Or in carriers Toleranc e symbol Housing seat Deviation +0.0005 -0.0003 +0.0006 -0.0004 +0.0008 -0.0004 +0.0009 -0.0005 +0.0010 -0.0006 +0.0010 -0.0006 +0.0011 -0.0007 +0.0013 G7 -0.0007 +0.0015 G7 -0.0007 +0.0016 G7 -0.0009 Resultant fit Tolerance symbol Housing seat deviation -0.0005 -0.0013 -0.0006 -0.0016 -0.0009 -0.0021 -0.0011 -0.0025 -0.0012 -0.0028 -0.0012 -0.0028 -0.0014 -0.0032 -0.0014 J7 -0.0034 -0.0017 J7 -0.0039 -0.0019 J7 -0.0044 Resultant fit Toleranc e symbol Housing seat deviation -0.0009 -0.0017 -0.0010 -0.0020 -0.0011 -0.0023 -0.0015 -0.0029 -0.0019 -0.0035 -0.0019 -0.0035 -0.0024 -0.0042 -0.0027 P7 -0.0047 -0.0037 P7 -0.0059 -0.0041 P7 -0.0066
Floating or Clamped Housing Seat deviation +0.0008 0 +0.0010 0 +0.0012 Resultant Fit
Sheaves Unclamped Resultant Fit Tolerance symbol
Over In mm 0.7087 18 1.1811 30 1.9685 50 3.1496 80 4.7244 120 5.9055 150 7.0866 180 9.8425 250 12.401 6 315 15.748 0 400
Incl. In mm 1.1811 30 1.9685 50 3.1496 80 4.7244 120 5.9055 150 7.0866 180 9.8424 250 12.401 6 315 15.748 0 400 19.685 0 500
Tolerance (in)
0 -0.0005 0 -0.0006 0 -0.0006 0 -0.0007 0 -0.0008 0 -0.0010 0 -0.0012 0 -0.0014 0 -0.0016 0 -0.0018
0.0013L 0 0.0016L 0 0.0018L 0 0.0021L 0 0.0024L 0 0.0026L 0 0.0030L 0 0.0041L 0.0007L 0.0045L 0.0007L 0.0051L 0.0008L
H7
0.0010L 0.0003T 0.0012L 0.0004T 0.0014L 0.0004T 0.0016L 0.0005T 0.0018L 0.0006T 0.0020L 0.0006T 0.0023L 0.0007T 0.0027L 0.0007T 0.0031L 0.0007T 0.0034L 0.0009T
J7
0 0.0013T 0 0.0016T 0.0003T 0.0021T 0.0004T 0.0025T 0.0004T 0.0028T 0.0002T 0.0028T 0.0002T 0.0032T 0 0.0034T 0.0001T 0.0039T 0.0001T 0.0044T
0.0004T 0.0017T 0.004T 0.0020T 0.0005T 0.0023T 0.0008T 0.0029T 0.0011T 0.0035T 0.0009T 0.0035T 0.0012T 0.0042T 0.0013T 0.0047T 0.0021T 0.0059T 0.0023T 0.0066T
R7
H7
J7
P7
R7
H7
J7
P7
R7
+0.0014 0 +0.0016 0 +0.0016 0 +0.0018 0 +0.0027 +0.0007 +0.0029 +0.0007 +0.0033 +0.0008
H7
J7
P7
R7
H7
J7
P7
R7
H7
J7
P7
R7
H7
J7
P7
R7
R7
R7
R7
USMMA GMATS
20
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
8.. MOUNTING ROLLER BEARINGS 8 MOUNTING ROLLER BEARINGS

Bearings come wrapped in a heavy-duty waterproof paper. Until you are ready to mount the bearing it should stay wrapped up. If the bearing is going to be used with synthetic greases or oils it may be necessary to flush the slushing compound out of the bearing. Do not open the package and leave it on the shop bench for a few hours or few days while the job is progressing. Make sure the shaft and the housing meet all the criteria for re-use. Be particular! Double-check the designators on the bearing that it is an exact replacement for the bearing called for in the parts manual or from the bearing that was taken out. It is always a great idea, particularly on older machines, to double check the book to make sure that the right part is being installed. There are then three methods of mounting bearings. They are: 1) cold mounting, 2) hot mounting (temperature mounting), and 3) hydraulic mounting. Cold Mounting-This method can be used with bearings up to a 4 outside diameter. A sleeve, which fits perfectly on the inner ring or perfectly on both rings (if the press fit is required both on the inside and the outside), can be used with either a hammer or a press. The sleeve should be clean, parallel and flat and the hammer should be in good shape and of solid material. Soft metal hammers (heads) are unacceptable as the metal may fly off and lodge in the bearing. If the shaft is put in a vice, and it probably will, the shaft must be protected to prevent damage. With the hammer or the press the bearing can be driven into place. When using a hammer do not hit one side and then the other side to drive the bearing into place. The force should be put in the middle. If there is a direction to the bearing make sure it is correct. When finished make sure that the bearing is properly seated and everything is clean. Hot (temperature) Mounting This method can be done one of three ways; 1. Heat one part (most commonly done) 2. Cool one part (least common) 3. A combination of the two heat one part while cooling the other part. Methods for heating the bearings include hot oil bath, induction heaters, ovens and hot plates. A hot oil bath can never be used with bearings that have seals as the seals may become damaged. Maximum temperature for heating is 2500 F. Thirty years ago the oil bath was a very common procedure. As induction heaters have dropped in price, and shown how easy they are to use, they are much more prevalent today. If you use a hot oil bath you must use clean oil that will not carbonize. Also make sure the bearing is not on the bottom of the container. If you use a torch as the heat source do not go for the quick, high temperature, big flame solution. The bearing must be heated up uniformly. Just prior to installation make sure the bearing is wiped clean. Note: if heat is used make sure the bearing is locked in place until it cools to prevent the bearing from creeping away from the shoulder. Hydraulic Mounting- This method is not normally used except in some shops that do a lot of mounting and have the equipment and can make it pay for itself. This method is also known as oil-injection mounting. This is a form of cold mounting as no heat is applied. A lightweight oil, 20-30 SAE, is pumped under pressure of up to 10,000 psi through a hole in the shaft that goes into the inner diameter of the bearing. This pressure forces the bearing to spread and the bearing can be brought into proper position with minimal force.
USMMA GMATS
21
11/3/2006
QMED
BEARINGS
When an operator or mechanic is making his rounds he will be looking for leaks, unusual smells and unusual noises. Most good mechanics/operators will put their hands on rotating machinery to feel for vibrations. Over time they will develop an appreciation for the normal vibration of that machine. If there is a change in the characteristics of the vibration they will stop and spend a little more time by that machine to understand what is causing the change in vibration. As people spend more time around machinery they come to learn that a slight change is not, by itself, catastrophic. It means that there is a change and that something is causing that change. Vibration can be defined as rapid periodic oscillation of an elastic body. The oscillations are brought about by a force being put upon the elastic body. When this force is applied the body changes its position to compensate for the force. However, the body stores the energy that comes with the change and uses this energy to restore itself to the original position when the force is removed. However, the energy pushes the elastic body beyond the normal position. Until the energy is consumed the body continues to oscillate. To picture this imagine a rubber band secured in two locations which you then pull slightly in one direction and then you let it go. The band swings back and forth until the inputted energy is dissipated. We all have a hard time thinking about a steel shaft as being elastic. Think in terms of a very long shaft. Now it is easier to think of the shaft bending. The frequency is defined as the rate at which the vibrations occur and this is normally done in vibrations per second. Even though the bearings are made very well we know that there is a practical limit to precision grinding and lapping because of cost considerations. Therefore, all machines will have some small vibration built in to the machine. This is known as the natural vibration of the machine. When an outside (read not normal) force acts on the machine this is known as a forced vibration. This outside force could be loose windings on a generator, a worn bearing, or an impeller that is worn. If the forced vibration and the natural vibrations occur at the same frequency, or they occur at a multiple of the natural vibrations the vibrations will be reinforced. As an example, if the frequency is 30 cps a multiple or harmonic would be 60 cps or 90 cps. When the natural vibrations are reinforced the condition is known as resonance. Under this condition the end vibrations will be magnified and can possibly produce stresses that the piece was not built to withstand. It is the reason that soldiers never march in cadence over a bridge. With respect to bearings, the vibrations will increase when there is wear on any of the rolling elements. This is because the support is no longer uniform and that allows the body to distort. Different vibrations can also be caused by creep. So, the mechanic, by placing his hand on the machine will build a history of how the machine should feel. When that feel changes the mechanic needs to know what has changed. As there may be two or more mechanics involved with any machine it may pay to have a vibration monitoring system in place. By having the system there would be a record of the vibrations. The placement of the probe and how the readings are taken will affect the readings. Therefore, just having the machinery to accomplish the job is not enough. There needs to be training on each system until all the people who can take readings are competent. There are three types of vibration probes. They measure the following:
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22
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QMED
BEARINGS Acceleration measures the rate of change in velocity Displacement the distance of an object relative to its reference point (eddy probe) Velocity the rate at which the displacement changes
Each of these types has advantages and disadvantage. Large motors and machines would probably do better with displacement monitoring. Additionally, this type of measurement is recommended to track for imbalance, misalignment, bowed shafts, and fluid film bearing instability. If the rotor-to housing weight ratios are close the velocity probe or acceleration probe is more than sufficient to detect an aberrant condition. Once the readings are recorded someone has to study the results. Questions should be asked to make sure that other conditions have not changed that will be reflected on the machine being tested. What you are looking for are trends in the vibrations. For pumps an unbalance should be in the range of 5 to 90 cps. When a failure is just beginning to manifest itself there will be a change in the signature of the machine. The next reading will reflect another change. As the readings get worse the machine is accelerating toward failure. At this point the machine should be scheduled for an overhaul. When taking the machine apart the mechanic should be looking to verify the vibration information. Great care should be taken in disassembly. In essence, you know the answer; now you have to verify the parameters that gave you that answer. After careful re-assembly with new parts a vibration signature should again be taken and recorded. On the preventative maintenance sheets vibration reading should be consistent with historical data. If something was not done correctly the vibration reading should point this out right away. If the overhaul was done correctly the vibration signature should reflect what was found in the past. Part of the machinery history should include the expected bearing life. If the expected bearing life was shorter than expected there should be an examination to determine the reason why. This is an autopsy of a shaft and a bearing. The lubricant, condition of lubricant, condition of shaft, condition of bearing, ambient temperature, ambient conditions and temperature should all be looked at. In technical terms this is called a root cause analysis. If something has changed in the baseline conditions this should be noted and the bearing may have to be up-graded. Part of condition monitoring is completing the work and having a record of the conditions found. Life expectancy for a bearing is calculated from the following formula:
p
C Where: P L10 - number of millions of revolutions that 90% of a group of bearings will equal or exceed before the first sign of fatigue on any part C - Dynamic capacity of a bearing (load in pounds given by manufacturer that will give 1,000,000 revolutions of service) P - Equivalent dynamic load on a rotating radial bearing if applied to a bearing with a rotating inner ring and stationary outer ring which would give the same life as that which under constant or variable conditions of load and rotation p - 3 for ball bearings, 10/3 for roller bearings
L10 =
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BEARINGS
There are also nomograms available to determine the service life. Both the nomogram and the formula are based on the bearing being new and undamaged, being properly installed with component parts made to correct specifications, that there are no inherent defects in the bearing and that the bearing was properly lubricated. From a common sense perspective most premature bearing failures are the result of dirt and contaminants in the lubrication medium, improper installation, vibration, the wrong kind of lubrication (ineffective or wrong viscosity), the wrong bearing installed or corrosion. There are many more specific types of failures but most of them fall in to these categories. As previously noted, great care must be taken when the machine is taken apart as well as when the machine goes together. Valuable information can be lost if the work is not done systematically. Pictures and notes are easy to take at the time the work is done. Look closely at the condition of the shaft. Check for spalling and cracks. Carefully measure the shaft and double check that the bearing being installed is the correct bearing for the job.
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24
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QMED
BEARINGS
9.. BEARING MONITORING INCLUDING CAUSES OF 9 BEARING MONITORING INCLUDING CAUSES OF VIBRATION VIBRATION
Machinery Maintenance personnel regularly make visual and hands-on inspections of machinery, looking for conditions such as leaking or dirty oil, excessive vibration, and unusual noises. These inspections provide some assistance in monitoring machinery operation. However, there is no precise way to determine exactly when to make a repair in order to prevent equipment breakdown. PREVENTIVE STEPS - Bearing monitoring or predictive maintenance is the process of determining the condition of machinery as it operates. If a problem is indicated, bearing monitoring provides information useful in determining what the problem is and, more importantly, what caused the problem. Bearing monitoring is beneficial because it: 1. Minimizes machine downtime and production loss through improved scheduling of spare parts procurement and repair activities. 2. Minimizes repair costs by prevention of catastrophic failures that may result in extensive machine damage. 3. Prevents product quality deterioration in cases where the precision of a production machine affects product quality. It is not sufficient just to replace components such as bearings and gears that are beginning to fail. It is also necessary to ensure that the manner in which they are installed does not contribute to early failure. Vibration monitoring of machinery after repair or rebuild may expose the need for improved design and manufacture of machine components or more careful control of assembly procedures. For example, vibration measurement after component replacement or machine rebuild may provide indications of misalignment (bearing housing to housing or shaft coupling shaft), faulty housing or shaft geometry (taper, out-of-round, or excessively loose or tight fits), imbalance or eccentricity of rotating components, brinell damage of bearings, dirt in bearings or lubricant, or a weak machine assembly (loose mounting bolts or structural defects). CAUSES OF VIBRATION - Any machine, regardless of how meticulously it has been designed and built, will vibrate to some degree because there are loads and resulting motions (deflection, velocity, acceleration) that vary cyclically within rolling bearings and on gears, fan blades, pump impellers, and motor stators and rotors. The cyclic (dynamic) forces are a result of the fact that loads and forces are not uniformly supported but are carried by a discrete number of moving components. In addition, there are imperfections or abnormalities, however slight, which contribute to vibration. The task of vibration monitoring is to determine if imperfections and abnormalities are so large or numerous that machine failure is imminent. IMBALANCE - If the mass of a rotating member is not symmetrically distributed about the axis of rotation, then it is said to be imbalanced. The more something is imbalanced the more vibration will occur.
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25
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QMED
BEARINGS
10.. ANALYZING ROLLER BEARING FAILURE GOING 10 ANALYZING ROLLER BEARING FAILURE GOING FORWARD SUCCESSFULLY FORWARD SUCCESSFULLY
In order to be able to fix why a roller bearing had a failure so that it will not happen again. You will need to understand how bearings fail and why. This will be explained more in class. Below is a general list of reason why bearings fail: Excessive load thrust occurs when there is an axial overload from the machine or the bearing has been improperly mounted. Internally preloaded occurs when there is not internal clearance in a mounted bearing because the rolling elements are pressing tightly on the raceways. Pinched outer ring an outer ring that has been forced out of round during installation. Outer ring misaligned this happens when it is not perpendicular to the centerline of the shaft. Inner ring misaligned this happens when the outer ring is misaligned and not perpendicular to the centerline of the shaft. Defective bearing seat on shaft when the inner ring does not have a sufficient press on a shaft (when there is inner ring rotation), the inner ring will turn. Defective bearing seat in housing when the inner ring does not have a sufficient press fit on the shaft (when there is inner ring rotation), creeping of the inner ring around the shaft will occur. The end face of the inner ring will show rub marks. Misalignment self-explanatory Improper mounting self-explanatory False brinelling - when there is vibration without rotation, false brinelling will occur. Vibration when the mass of a rotating member is not symmetrically distributed about the axis of rotation. Brinelling the bearing was press mounted on a shaft by pressing on the end face of the outer ring. Electric arcing occurs when a current passes through a bearing to ground. Contamination ineffective seals allowed hard contaminants to enter the bearing. Ineffective lubrication occurs when the viscosity of the oil or the viscosity of the oil in the grease is not adequate to separate the rolling elements from the raceway.
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26
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BEARINGS
Corrosion occurs when there is an ineffective seal that allows water/corrosive chemicals to enter a bearing where there is no corrosion inhibitor on the bearing. Excessive thrust load occurs if the shaft was not allowed to expand or the machine was overloaded. Spalling occurs when the metal reaches its fatigue limit. Ineffective seals occurs when shaft alignment is wrong. Manufacturing defects self-explanatory The mechanism of action, the cause and the solution will be explained in class with some physical examples.
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27
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BEARINGS
11.. PROPER GREASING TECHNIQUES 11 PROPER GREASING TECHNIQUES

Bearing housings equipped with pressure fittings and relief plugs may be cleaned and relubricated without ever removing the bearings from the housings. When this method of cleaning is used, both the bearing and housing are simultaneously purged of old grease. The cleaning agent may be either a light mineral oil heated to about 75C or an approved safety solvent. If the latter is used, the bearing should be rinsed with a light mineral oil to remove all traces of solvent before re-greasing. Figure 1 a, b, c, and d illustrate the recommended method for cleaning horizontal motors that are equipped with pressure fittings and relief plugs. The bearing housings and relief fittings should be wiped clean to prevent the entry of dirt. The grease fittings and pressure relief plugs, located respectively at the top and bottom of the bearing housings, should be removed, and a screwdriver should be used to free the openings of hardened grease. Then with the motor running, an approved type of grease solvent should be injected into the bearing housing. This is easily done with a syringe, injecting the solvent into the bearing through the top hole. As the solvent thins the grease, it drains out through the relief hole. Solvent should be added in small quantities until it drains out reasonably clear. The relief plug should then be replaced, and a small amount of solvent should be added and allowed to churn for a few minutes. The relief plug may then be removed, and the solvent allowed to drain. If the drainage is not clear, replace the relief plug, add more solvent, and allow it to churn a few minutes more. This should be repeated until the solvent drains clear. The bearing must then be flushed out with light mineral oil to remove all traces of solvent. The cleaning of vertical machines or machines not equipped with pressure-relief systems must be done by disassembling the bearing housing or completely disassembling the machine.
FIGURE 8 CLEANING A BALL-BEARING MOTOR

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BEARINGS
The recommended procedure for re-greasing machines that are equipped with pressure fittings and relief plugs is illustrated in Fig. 2 e, f, g, and h. The bearing housings, pressure plugs, relief fittings, and grease gun should be wiped clean. The relief plugs should be removed, and the openings cleaned of hardened grease with a small screwdriver. This permits the expulsion of old grease and prevents the buildup of excessive pressure in the bearing housing that might rupture the bearing seals. Then with the motor running, grease should be added with a hand-operated grease gun until it begins to flow from the relief hole. The motor should be allowed to run long enough to permit the bearing to expel all excess grease from the housing. The machine should then be stopped, the relief plug replaced, and the housing wiped clean. If it proves dangerous to lubricate the motor while it is running, follow the same procedure with the motor at standstill. Then start the machine, and allow it to run until all excess grease is expelled. Only grease recommended for electric motors should be used.
FIGURE 9 - LUBRICATING A BALL-BEARING MOTOR The greasing of vertical machines or machines that are not equipped with pressure-relief systems may be done by disassembling the bearing housings. The bearing and housing should be washed with an approved safety solvent, rinsed with light mineral oil, and then packed with grease. Only the lower half of the bearing housing and the space between the balls should be packed with grease. Do not fill the entire housing with grease; it may overheat and build up excessive pressure, thus forcing the grease into the motor housing. A recommended re-greasing schedule for electric motors is given in Table 1.
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29
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BEARINGS
Ball bearings are precision made and are adversely affected by dirt. Hence ball bearings should not be unnecessarily removed from the shaft and housing. New bearings should not be removed from their original wrapper until ready for immediate installation. A defective bearing should be replaced with the same size and type as the original. The defective bearing should be removed from the shaft with a bearing puller or arbor press by applying pressure against the inner race. The replacement bearing should be pressed on or tapped on, using a hammer and a clean metal tube or pipe that fits evenly against the inner race. Do not tap the outer race, because it may damage the bearing. If preheated to 200F, the bearing will expand sufficiently to slip on the shaft with little or no driving. Heating of bearings is done best in a temperature-controlled oven. If an oven is not available, bearings may be heated in a hot oil bath. However, heating in hot oil may cause contamination and deterioration of the grease TABLE 1 RECOMMENDED RE-GREASING SCHEDULE Horsepower Type of service Typical examples - 7 10-40 50-200 Easy Motor operating infrequently (1 hr/day) 10 yr. 7 yr. 5 yr. Standard Machine tools, fans, pumps, textile machinery 7 yr. 5 yr. 3 yr. Motors for continuous operations in key locations subject to severe vibration; steelmill service - coal and, mining machinery
Severe
4 yr.
2 yr.
1 yr.
Very severe
Dirty and vibrating applications where end of shaft is hot; high ambient
9 mo.
4 mo.
4 mo.
SOURCE: GENERAL ELECTRIC CO Note: Tapping or pressing on the outer race is done only when the bearing is being pressed into a housing.
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30
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QMED
BEARINGS
12.. JOURNAL BEARING CONSTRUCTION AND USES 12 JOURNAL BEARING CONSTRUCTION AND USES
JOURNAL BEARINGS can be divided into two major groups: bearings that handle a variable load such as a crankpin bearing, and bearings that handle a steady load such as a bearing on an electric motor. For the most part, in todays world, journal bearings are precision bearings. This means that they are manufactured to a specification to be a certain size and to handle a certain load. Bearings used in high output diesel engines are usually made with a steel backing. They can also be made from bronze or cast iron. Bronze, because of problem with being brittle is rarely used any more as a backing material. The second layer is a type of bronze (here it is very good because of its bonding capability) and the top layer is normally a white metal (babbitt) that is sometimes referred to as a running-in metal. Another top layer metal would be aluminum. Precision bearings do not require fitting to the journal-they are ready to install. There are still a few older style bearings around that need to be scraped. These bearings had a heavier layer of babbitt and they were hand fitted to the journals. The mechanic would blue the shaft and find the high spots on the bearing. The scrapers looked like long, heavy duty knives with a twist in them. After a little babbitt was scraped off the mechanic would again blue the shaft to determine fit. This would continue until a good fit was found. Precision bearings can come as bushings, which mean that they are circular and one piece or split. Some smaller precision bearings, such as those found in air compressors can be made of only bronze. For journal bearing to work properly they must be properly lubricated. When the bearing is removed, for inspection, you should expect to see some wear on the top layer. A list of causes for failures of journal bearings in diesel engines is as follows: Dirt 44 % Incorrect assembly 14 % Lack of lubrication 13 % Incorrect alignment 12 % Overload 9% Corrosion and miscellaneous 8 % We can see from this list that dirt is the overwhelming problem with these bearings. You will see this problem by the rings formed on the bearing surface. You will also find out that a lot of the dirt is introduced when the bearing is installed by people with either dirty hands or using oil that has been exposed to grit in a machine shop. Clearly, if the dirt can be eliminated the potential for problems drops drastically. We come back to installation. Make sure everything is spotlessly clean. Make sure the oil being put on the bearings is very clean and contaminate free. Once the machine is run make sure that the lube oil filters are meticulously clean and well operated. As a rule of thumb, the micron size (filter size) for the lube oil filter will be smaller than any particle that could do any damage or will pass though the engine. If a bearing is extracted from an engine and the wear metal is only slightly worn and there are no deep scratches the bearing can possibly be reused. Depending on the location of the bearing within the engine you have to check the location of any wear. If the sides are showing wear but the center of the bearing is not showing wear it indicates that the shaft has a bow in it. By the same token if all the wear is only in the center of the bearing then the shaft has a sag. The
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BEARINGS
location of the wear is as important as the amount of wear. There should be no problem for a bearing to last 40,000 hours in a diesel engine. As noted above great care needs to be exercised when installing bearings. The journal should be extremely clean. The back of the journal bearing should be dry and clean. The bearing housing should also be clean and dry. The hands of the installer should also be clean. The oil, put on the bearing for use during the overhaul, should also be clean and unused. When the bearing is installed the locating tabs should line up with the slots. Once the bearing is assembled clearances should be taken to insure that the journal is free to spin. After the overhaul is complete the engine should be run for 5 minutes and then the bearing should be checked for hot running by placing your hand on the bearing. A heat detection gun can also be used. If all is well the engine is again run for a period of up to 15 minutes and again the bearing is checked. The last run-in may be for up to one hour. At each step of the way the bearing is checked for hot running. If imbedded RTDs (resistance temperature device) are located in the bearing halves the readouts should be monitored closely for several days. If there is a problem it will usually present itself quite quickly.
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32
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BEARINGS
13.. HOW TO DETERMINE IF A BEARING IS STILL GOOD 13 HOW TO DETERMINE IF A BEARING IS STILL GOOD
If a bearings vibration falls within proper operating parameters along with the temperature, then everything should work fine. Baring any failures a bearing should last until the metal just fatigues due to old age. Below is a chart that shows how many hours of service you can expect to get. Class of Machine Domestic machines, agricultural machines, instruments, technical apparatus for medical use. Machines used for short periods or intermittently: electric hand tools, lifting tackle in workshops, construction machines Machines working intermittently with high reliability: hoists, workshop cranes, auxiliary machinery in power stations, domestic heating and refrigerating appliances, machine tools infrequently used Machines for use 8 hours per day and not always fully utilized: generalpurpose gear drives, electric motors. Machines used for 8 hours per day and fully utilized: machine tools, wood processing machinery, machines for he engineering industry, cranes for bulk materials, ventilating fans, conveyors, printing equipment, centrifuges Machines for continuous use 24 hours per day: rolling mil gear drives, compressors, pumps, mine hoists, stationary electric machines, textile machinery Water works machinery, rotary furnaces, cable stranding machines, propulsion machinery for ocean going vessels Pulp and papermaking industry, large electric motors, power station plant, mine pumps, mine ventilating fans, tunnel shaft bearings. Hours of Service 300 to 3,000 3,000 to 8,000 8,000 to 12,000
10,000 to 25,000 20,000 to 30,000
40,000 to 50,000
60,000 to 100,000 >100,000
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BEARINGS
14.. INSTALLATION PROCEDURES OF JOURNAL BEARINGS 14 INSTALLATION PROCEDURES OF JOURNAL BEARINGS

The primary cause of bearing failure is dirt. The next leading cause of failure only amounts to less than one third of the failures due to dirt. Therefore, it would seem to be obvious that someone installing a bearing be it a journal bearing or a rolling bearing, would be concerned about the implications of dirt or contamination in the vicinity of the bearing. For many mechanics an overhaul is a dirty job. Also, among mechanics there are a lot of jokes about the pictures in the maintenance books showing the person in a white suit handling a bearing insert. The bottom line is that when the mechanic is going to install a bearing the area and the mechanic should be spotless. Dirt, or contamination, can be introduced in many ways. The mechanics hands can be dirty, the bearing shell (also known as an insert) may have been left lying around the work area and had some particulates land on it, the oil to be used to lubricate the bearing may not be clean, and the bearing housing or cap may also not have been properly cleaned. In order to accomplish the job correctly the oil lines, the bearing, the cap and saddle and the area around the bearing should all be cleaned. The mechanic should wash his hands and the oil that is to be used should come from a known clean source. Just prior to installing the bearing it should be wiped by a clean rag. The mechanic should then run his clean hands over the outside and inside of the bearing shell. The outside should be clean and dry! Oil should not be placed on the outside of the shell. It will prevent the bearing from being installed properly and the oil will eventually burn off leaving a residue that can lead to failure of the bearing from the outside. Readings of the shell should have been taken with a special micrometer, with rollers on the ends, to verify the thickness. Other readings which should be taken are the outside diameter of the bearing shell and the inside diameter of the housing. This is done to confirm that the bearing will seat properly. Too much clearance and the bearing will be able to vibrate or move while it is in the seat causing damage and ultimate failure. Too little clearance and the bearing will run hot and also may suffer ultimate failure. Most precision bearings today have tangs that align the bearing shell in the housings. A new bearing should snap into place when you press it into the housing. The precision bearings are manufactured to a little more than one half of the circumference to each half. This amount, known as crush, is there to stress the bearing backs into the housings and caps when the bearing is properly torqued. This seats the bearing and prevents circumferential motion of the bearing while it is in service. If the crush is not present the bearing can begin to rotate, causing fretting and potentially failure. The mechanic also has to be very aware of the location of the oil hole. The bearing must line up with this hole in order to have proper lubrication. Finally, the bearing cap has to be torqued properly. When all of this is done a check on the bearing for fit and motion should be performed.
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BEARINGS
After an overhaul the bearing should be checked for temperature during running. On engines, and some air compressors, it is a very good idea to run the machine for a few minutes and to check the temperature of the bearing. Several runs should be accomplished and the bearing constantly checked to make sure it is not running hot. If the bearing is running hot the cause should be ascertained and corrected. One thing a good mechanic should do is to be very observant. When the old bearing is coming out of a machine the mechanic should clean the bearing and check out the wear pattern. The wear pattern will tell the mechanic is the machine is running true or has some alignment issues that need to be resolved. In todays world it is very possible to take pictures of the bearings. This can be done either electronically or with film. Line all the bearings up and indicate direction. Make sure the photos come out clearly before the bearings are discarded. This will give a good historical record. Also, if there is a problem, do not just replace the bearings and expect the machine to run properly. Use the old bearings as a way to diagnose the problem so it can be taken care of to ensure that the bearings will run for their expected life.
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SHIP CONSTRUCTION
HULL MEMBERS - The principal strength members of the ship girder are at the top and bottom, where the greatest stresses occur. The top flange includes the main deck plating, the deck stringers, and the sheer strakes of the side plating. The bottom flange includes the keel, the outer bottom plating, the inner bottom plating, and any continuous longitudinals in way of the bottom. The side webs of the ship girder are composed of the side plating, aided to some extent by any long, continuous fore-and-aft bulkheads. Some of the strength members of a destroyer hull girder are indicated in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1 - DESTROYER HULL GIRDER, SHOWING SOME STRENGTH MEMBERS. Keel - The keel is a very important structural member of the ship. The keel, shown in Figure 2, is built up of plates and angles into an I-beam shape. The lower flange of this I-beam structure is the flat keel plate, which forms the center strake of the bottom plating1 The web of the I-beam is a solid plate which is called the vertical keel. The upper flange is called the rider plate; this forms the center, strake of the inner bottom plating. An inner: vertical keel of two or more sections, consisting of I-beams arranged one on top of other, is found on many large combatant ship
On large ships, an additional member is attached this flange to serve as the center strake.
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SHIP CONSTRUCTION
FIGURE 2 - ONE TYPE OF KEEL STRUCTURE Framing - Frames used in ship construction may be various shapes. Figure 3 illustrates frame of the angle, I-beam, tee, bulb angle, and channel shapes. Figure 4 shows two types built-up frames, one of welded construction and the other of riveted construction.
FIGURE 3 - ANGLE, I-BEAM, TEE, BULB ANGLE AND CHANNEL FRAMES
FIGURE 4 - BUILT-UP FRAMES
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SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Frames are strength members. They act as integral parts, of the ship girder when the ship is exposed to longitudinal or transverse stresses. Frames stiffen the plating and keep it from bulging or buckling. They act as girders between bulkheads, decks, and double bottoms, and transmit forces exerted by load weights and water pressures. The frames also support the inner and outer shell locally and protect against unusual forces such as those caused by underwater explosions. As may be inferred, frames are called upon to perform a variety of functions, depending upon the location of the frames in the ship. Figure 5 shows a web frame used in wing tank construction.
FIGURE 5 - WEB FRAME USED IN WING TANK CONSTRUCTION. There are two important systems of framing in current use: the transverse system and the longitudinal system. The transverse system provides for continuous transverse frames with the longitudinals intercostal between them. Transverse frames are closely spaced and a small number of longitudinals are used. The longitudinal system of framing consists of closely spaced longitudinals which are continuous along the length of the ship, with transverse frames intercostal between the longitudinals. Transverse frames are attached to the keel and extend from the keel outward around the turn of the bilge and up to the edge of the main deck. They are closely spaced along the length of the ship, and they define the form of the ship. Longitudinals (Figure 6) run parallel to the keel along the bottom, bilge, and side plating. The longitudinals provide longitudinal strength, stiffen the shell plating, and tie the transverse frames and the bulkheads together. The longitudinals in the bottom (called side keelsons) are of the built-up type.
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SHIP CONSTRUCTION
FIGURE 6 - BASIC FRAME SECTION (LONGITUDINAL FRAMING)
ISOMETRIC SKETCH SHOWING TRAVERSE FRAMING SYSTEM
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SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Where two sets of frames intersect, one set must be cut to allow for the other set. The frames which are cut, and thereby weakened I are known as intercostal frames; those which continue through are called continuous frames. Both intercostal and continuous frames are shown in Figure 7.
FIGURE 7 - INTERCOSTAL AND CONTINUOUS FRAMES A cellular form of framing results from a combination of longitudinal and transverse framing systems utilizing closely spaced deep framing. Cellular framing is used on most naval ships. In the bottom framing, which is probably the strongest part of a ships structure, the floors and keelsons are integrated into a rigid cellular construction (Figure 8). Heavy loads such as the ships propulsion machinery are bolted to foundations which are built directly on top of the bottom framing (Figure 9).
FIGURE 8 - BOTTOM STRUCTURE
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SHIP CONSTRUCTION
FIGURE 9 - DEEP FLOOR ASSEMBLY FOR MACHINERY FOUNDATIONS
SOLID FLOOR AS USED ON C-3 TYPE VESSEL
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SHIP CONSTRUCTION
AN OPEN FLOOR. THIS TYPE OF FLOOR IS APPROXIMATELY 25% LIGHTER THAN A SOLID FLOOR. IN COLLIERS OR ORE CARRIERS THAT ARE UNLOADED BY BUCKETS WEIGHING AS MUCH AS 5 TONS, THIS TYPE OF FLOOR SHOULD NEVER BE USED, AS THE POUNDING QUICKLY DESTROYS THE STRUCTURE. Double Bottom - In many naval ships, the inner bottom plating is a watertight covering laid on top of tile bottom framing. The shellplating, framing, and inner bottom plating form the space known as the double bottom. This space may be used for stowage of fresh water or fuel oil or it may be used for ballasting. The inner bottom plating is a second skin inside the bottom of the ship. It prevents flooding in the event of damage to the outer bottom, and it also acts as a strength member.
MODERN CELLULAR DOUBLE-BOTTOM STRUCTURE
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SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Stem and Bow Structure - The stem assembly, which is the forward member of the ships structure, varies in form from one type of ship to another. The external shape shown in Figure 10 is commonly used on combatant ships. This form is essentially bulbous at the forefoot, tapering to a sharp entrance near the waterline and again widening above the waterline. Figure 11 shows the relationship between the stem assembly and the keel. Internally, the stem assembly has a heavy centerline member which is called the stem post (not illustrated). The stem post is recessed2 along its after edge to receive the shellplating, so that the outside presents a smooth surface to cut through the water. The keel structure is securely fastened to the lower end of the stem by welding. The stem maintains the continuity of the keel strength up to the main deck. The decks support the stem at various intermediate points along the stem structure between the keel and the decks.
FIGURE 10 - BULBOUS-BOW CONFIGURATION. Triangular plates known as breast hooks are fitted parallel to and between the decks or side stringers in the bow for the purpose of rigidly fastening together the peak frames, the stem, and the outside plating.
This recess is called a rabbet.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
FIGURE 11 - RELATIONSHIP OF STEM ASSEMBLY TO KEEL
THREE TYPES OF BILGE KEELS - IN THE CENTER SKETCH ABOVE, IF THE SECTION IS WELDED, THE FILLER IS USUALLY OMITTED. IF THE TYPE AT THE RIGHT IS USED, THE BILGE KEEL SHOULD BE CUT WHERE IT CROSSES A BUTT IN THE PLATING. THIS IS KNOWN AS SERRATING AND IS A USCG REQUIREMENT
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Stern Structure - The aftermost section of the ships structure, is the stern post, which is rigidly secured to keel, shellplating, and decks. On single- ere ships, the stern post is constructed to accommodate the propeller shaft and rudder stock bosses. Because of its intricate form, the stern post is usually either a steel casting or a combination of castings and forgings. In modern warships having transom sterns, multiple screws, and twin rudders, the stern post as such is difficult to define, since it has been replaced by equivalent structure of deep framing. This structure (Figure 12) consists of both longitudinal transverse framing that extends throughout the width of the bottom in the vicinity of the stern in order to withstand the static and dynamic loads imposed by the rudders, the stern structure strengthened in the vicinity of the rudder post by a structure known as the rudder post weldment
FIGURE 12 - STERN STRUCTURE. Plating - The outer bottom and side plating forms a strong, watertight shell. Shellplating consists of approximately rectangular steel plates arranged longitudinally in rows or courses called strakes. The strakes are lettered, beginning with the A strake (also called the garboard strake) which is just outboard of the keel and working up to the uppermost side strake (called the sheer strake). The end joint formed by adjoining plates in a strake is called a butt. The joint between the edges of adjoining strakes is called a sea.. Butts and seams in side Plating are illustrated in Figure 13. Since the hull structure is composed of a great many individual pieces, the strength and tightness of the ship as a whole depend very much upon the strength and tightness of the connections
USMMA GMATS
10
11/3/2006
QMED
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
between the individual pieces In modern naval ships, welded joints are used to a very great extent. However, riveted joints are still used for some applications.
FIGURE 13 - SECTION OF SHIP, SHOWING PLATING AND FRAMING Bilge Keels - Bilge keels, which may be seen in Figures 6, 8, and 9, are fitted in practically all ships at the turn of the bilge. The bilge keels extend fifty to seventy-five percent of the length of the hull. A bilge keel usually consists of a plate about 12 inches deep, standing at right angles to the shellplating and secured to the shellplating by double angles. On more recent ships, bilge keels consist of two plates forming a Vee shape welded to the hull and on large ships may extend out from the hull nearly three feet. Bilge keels serve to reduce the extent of the, ships rolling. Decks - Decks provide both longitudinal and transverse strength to the ship. Deck plates, which are, similar to the plates used in side and bottom shellplating, are supported by deck beams and, deck longitudinals. The term strength deck is generally applied to the deck which acts as the top flange of the hull girder. R is the highest continuous deck. usually the main or weather deck. However, the; term strength deck, may be applied to any continuous deck which carries some of the longitudinal load. On destroyers and similar ships in which the main deck is the only continuous high deck, the main deck is the strength deck. The flight deck is the strength deck on recent large aircraft carriers (CVAs) and helicopter support ships (LPH), but the main or hangar deck is the strength deck on older types of carriers.
USMMA GMATS
11
11/3/2006
QMED
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
The main deck is supported by deck beams and deck longitudinals. Deck beam are the transverse members of the framing structure. The beams are attached to and supported by the frames at the sides, as shown in Figure 14. In most naval construction, light deck beams are interspaced at regular intervals with deep deck beams. Deck longitudinals are used to provide longitudinal strength. When possible, the heaviest longitudinals are located at the center and near the outboard edges. The outboard strake of deck plating which connects with the shellplating is called the deck stringer. The deck stringer, which is heavier than the other deck strakes, serves as a continuous longitudinal stringer, providing longitudinal strength to the ships structure. Upper Decks and Superstructure - The decks above the main deck are not strength decks on most ships other than CVAs. The upper decks are usually interrupted at intervals by expansion joints. The expansion joints keep the upper decks from acting as strength decks (which they are not designed to be) and thus prevent cracking and buckling of deck houses and superstructure.
FIGURE 14 DECK, BEAM AND FRAME
FIGURE 15.-PIPE STANCHION.
Stanchions - In order to reinforce the deck beams and to keep the deck beam brackets and side frames from carrying the total load, vertical stanchions or columns are fitted between decks.
USMMA GMATS
12
11/3/2006
QMED
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Stanchions are constructed in various ways of various materials. Some are made of pipe or rods; others are built up of various plates and shapes, welded or riveted together. The stanchion shown in Figure 15 is in fairly common use; this pipe stanchion consists of a steel tube which is fitted with special pieces for securing it at the upper end (head) and at the lower end (heel). Bulkheads - Bulkheads are the vertical partitions which, extending athwartships and fore and aft, provide compartmentation to the interior of the ship. Bulkheads may be either structural or nonstructural. Structural bulkheads, which tie the shellplating, framing, and decks together, are capable of withstanding fluid pressure; these bulkheads usually provide watertight compartmentation. Nonstructural bulkheads are lighter; they are used chiefly for separating activities aboard ship. Bulkheads consist of plating and reinforcing beams. The reinforcing beams are known as bulkhead stiffeners. Two types of bulkhead stiffeners are shown in Figure 16. Bulkhead stiffeners are usually placed in the vertical plane and aligned with deck longitudinals; the stiffeners are secured at top and bottom to any intermediate deck by brackets attached to deck plating. The size of the stiffeners depends upon their spacing, the height of the bulkhead, and the hydrostatic pressure which the bulkhead is designed to withstand. Bulkheads and. bulkhead stiffeners must be strong enough to resist excessive bending or bulging in case of flooding in the compartments which they bound. If too much deflection takes place, some of the seams might fail. In order to form watertight boundaries, structural bulkheads must be joined to all decks, shellplating, bulkheads, and other structural members with which they come in contact. Main transverse bulkheads extend continuously through the watertight volume of the ship, from the keel to the main deck,, and serve as flooding boundaries in the event of damage below the waterline. In general, naval ships are divided into as many watertight compartments, both above and below the waterline P as are compatible with the missions and functions of the ships. The compartmentation provided by transverse and longitudinal bulkheads is illustrated in the bow section shown in Figure 17. SHIP COMPARTMENTATION - Every space in a naval ship (except for minor spaces such as pea coat lockers, linen lockers, cleaning gear lockers, etc.) is considered as a compartment and is assigned an identifying letter-number symbol. This symbol is marked on a label plate secured to the door, hatch, or bulkhead of the compartment. There are two systems of numbering compartments, one for ships built prior to March 1949 and the other for ships built after March 1949. In both of these systems, compartments on the port side end in an even number and those on the starboard side end in an odd number. In both systems, a zero precedes the deck number for all levels above the main deck. Figure 18 illustrates both systems of numbering decks. The older system identifies decks by the numbers 1009 2002 300, etc., with the number 900 always being used for the double bottoms. In the newer system, decks are identified as 1, 2, 3, 4. etc., and the double bottoms are given whatever number falls to them.
QMED
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
FIGURE 16 - BULKHEAD STIFFENERS
FIGURE 17 - COMPARTMENTATION PROVIDED BY TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL BULKHEADS
FIGURE 18 - DECK SYMBOLS FOR NAVAL SHIPS SHIPS BUILT BEFORE MARCH 1949 - For ships built prior to March 1949, the first letter of the identifying symbol is A, B, or C, and indicates the section of the ship in which the compartment is located. The A section extends from the bow of the ship aft to the forward bulkhead of the engineering spaces. The B section includes the engineering spaces, while the C section extends from the after bulkhead of the engineering spaces aft to the stern. The divisions of the ship are indicated in Figure 19. The lower half of the diagram shows the numbering of compartments, beginning at the forward end of each section. The even numbers are on the port side and the odd numbers are on the starboard side.
USMMA GMATS
14
11/3/2006
QMED
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
After the division letter the deck designation comes next in the symbol. Main deck compartments are indicated by numbers from 101 to 199. Second deck compartments run from 201 through 299, third deck compartments form a 300 series, etc. A zero preceding the number indicates a location above the main deck. The double bottoms always form the 900 series on any ship built before March 1949, regardless of the number of decks above. The use of the compartments is indicated by the following letters: A- Supply and storage C- Control E- Machinery F- Fuel L- Living quarters M- Ammunition T- Trunks and passages V- Voids W- Water
FIGURE 19 - DIVISIONS OF A SHIP BUILT PRIOR TO MARCH 1949
FIGURE 20 - EXAMPLE OF COMPARTMENT SYMBOL ON SHIP BUILT PRIOR TO MARCH 1949
USMMA GMATS
15
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
FIRE PREVENTION AND FIREFIGHTING FIRE PREVENTION AND FIREFIGHTING
CHEMISTRY OF FIRE MAIN SOURCES OF FIRE SPREAD OF FIRE HAZARDOUS PRODUCTS OF FIRE CLASSIFICATION AND EXTINGUISHMENT EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS REGULATIONS USE OF PORTABLE SYSTEM
FIRE TRIANGLE
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
MAIN SOURCES OF FIRE
Careless Smoking Disposal of butts and matches Smoking and alcohol Smoking in prohibited areas Faulty Electrical Circuits and Equipment Use of non-approved electrical equipment Wiring and fuses Jury rigging Exposed light bulbs Vaportight fixtures Electric motors Changing storage batteries Engine rooms Galley Operations Energy sources Ranges Deep fryers Poor housekeeping Unauthorized Construction Poor construction of shelves, etc, where the collapse of such would cause a spark or fracture of a line carrying hot oil. Welding and Burning Operations Unsafe burning and welding practices Failure to maintain competent fire watches and to observe proper procedures Shipyard Operations Shoreside workers aboard Careless safety precautions during repairs and maintenance
Fuel Oil Transfers and Service Operations Overflows on to hot surfaces Leaks in transfer system Oil burner maintenance Accumulation of oil in bilges Spontaneous Combustion Ships materials and/or cargos Improper Handling and Stowage of Cargo and Stores Loading leaking drums and packages Spontaneous combustion Stowing flammable items against hot bulkheads Inadequate segregation Unsafe stowage Loading and discharging Operations of Dangerous Liquids Improper fendering Lack of coordination during transfers Cargo expansion Collection of vapors in pump rooms and wells Static electricity Naked flames or sparks Improper use of cargo hoses Vessel to vessel transfer Cargo heating system Collision Ignition of flammable vapors through sparks caused by collision
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
SPREAD OF FIRE Conduction Transfer of heat through a solid body Radiation - Transfer of heat from a source across and intervening space Convection - Transfer of heat through the motion of heated matter such as smoke, hot air, heated gases, etc. HAZARDOUS PRODUCTS OF FIRE Flames Avoid contact with flames Maintain safe distance Wear protective clothing Heat Temperatures above 122F are hazardous to humans Avoid direct exposure even if wearing protective clothing Gases Hazardous gases are Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide Inhalation of Carbon Monoxide can lead to death in a few minutes Inhalation of Carbon Dioxide leads to unconsciousness Wear appropriate breathing apparatus Smoke Smoke carries carbon and vapors of the burning substance Poisonous or irritating when inhaled Wear appropriate breathing apparatus
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
CLASSES OF FIRE
CLASS A B MATERIAL Ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper or furnishings Flammable or combustible liquids, flammable gases, greases and similar products. Live electrical equipment EXTINGUISHING METHOD / AGENT Cool with water or water fog. Foam, Halon, CO2 can be used but less effective Smothering with foam CO2 or inert gas. Dry chemicals and Halon also effective against small fires Extinguishing agent must be non-conducting. CO2, Halons and dry chemicals. Water and foam must not be used. Heat absorbing extinguishing agents such as certain dry powders that do not react with burning metals.
C Combustible metals, e.g. magnesium, titanium and aluminum
METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING FIRES
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
EXTINGUISHING AGENTS
Water Primarily provides cooling When turned to steam, provides smothering Can be used as straight steam or fog Can capsize a vessel if allowed to accumulate aboard Main extinguishing agent for Class A fires Is a good conductor of electricity. Must not be used on electrical fires Must not be used on combustible metal fires Foam Primarily extinguished by blanketing (smothering) the fire Best application is to liquid fires Must be spread over the surface of the liquid in order to be effective Is a good conductor of electricity. Must not be used on electrical fires Must not be used on combustible metal fires. Carbon Dioxide Does not support combustion. Is not a conductor of electricity Extinguishes by smothering Best on fires in confined spaces where it can displace oxygen Does not leave any residues. Also smothers, cools, and shields radiant heat Can therefore be used on Class A and C fires Little cooling effect so fires extinguished by CO2 can re-flash Does not support life. Wear breathing apparatus in confined spaces Dry Chemical Various types Extinguishing fires mainly by breaking chain reaction. Also smothers, cools and shields radiant heat. Beat Application is to flammable oil and gasses, electrical equipment, cooking ranges and galley flues Dry Powder For use only on combustible metal fires. Halon Two main types Halon 1301 and Halon 1211 Both extinguish fires by breaking the chain reaction Best application is to electrical fires, fires in engine rooms Does not damage goods. Therefore also good on fires on high value articles If inhaled, may cause dizziness and impaired coordination Is damaging to the environment and is being phased out. Sand Useful in smothering small shallow oil fires Can be used to dam or cover a small oil spill Makes a mess and damages goods
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS Fixed Systems - Systems designed and installed in a ship as part of its original construction. Than barges do not require and fixed systems but can carry a fire main system if required. Semi-Portable System Semi-portable fire extinguishers are those, which a hose can run out to attack the fire. Usually set up to protect the same areas as fixed system. Portable Systems Portable extinguishers (extinguishers weighing less than 55 lbs when fully charged), which can be carried to the fire area for fast attack PORTABLE EXTINGUISHERS CLASSIFICATION Every portable extinguisher is classified in two ways with one or more letters and with a numeral. The letters (A, B, C, and D) indicate the classes of fire on which the extinguisher may be used. The numeral indicates either the relative efficiency of the extinguisher or its size. The National Fire Protection Association rates extinguisher efficiency with numbers, for example, 2A or 4A. An extinguisher with a 4A rating will extinguish twice as much Class A fire as a 2A rating. The US Coast Guard uses Roman numerals to indicate the sizes of portable extinguishers. The numeral I indicates the smallest size, and V the largest. Therefore, a BIII Coast Guard rating indicates a medium sized extinguisher suitable for fires involving flammable liquids and gases. WATER-SODA ACID Use on Class A fires only. 2.5 gallons each Reach of 30-40 feet. Discharge time less than 1 minute Direct at seat of fire Recharged annually and immediately after use. If cartridge operated, pressure cartridge inspected and weighed annually Tag Take precautions against contents freezing in cold weather Read and understand directions for use. CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) Use on class B and C fires only 4 35 lbs each Reach 3 8 feet. Discharge tine 8 to 30 seconds Class B fires first direct at base of fire then back and forth. Class C aim at seat of fire. Inspect annually for damage and weight. Must be recharged after use and if weight less than 10% of label weight. Must only be recharged by manufacturer Tag Does not freeze. Stow in temperatures below 130F Read and understand directions for use
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
FOAM Use on Class B fires only unless AB rates 2.5 gallons size produces 18-20 gallons of foam Reach 30-40 feet. Discharge time slightly less than 1 minute Apply gently on burning liquids allowing the foam to flow over the surface of the liquid and smother fire Inspect and discharge annually then clean and recharge Tag Protect contents from freezing. Some foams will freeze at 40F Read and understand the directions for use DRY CHEMICAL Use mainly on Class B and C fires 2-30 lbs Reach 10-30 feet. Discharge time 8-10 seconds. Larger semi-portables 30 seconds Approach from windward side of fire. Direct discharge at seat of fire starting near the edge. Then moving from side to side, to sweep fire off the fuel. Can be applied in short bursts Unaffected by temperature. Does not deteriorate or evaporate. Cartridges should be weighed and inspected every six months and replaced if necessary Tag Read and understand directions for use HALON Use on Class B and C fires 2 12 lbs. Reach of 9 15 feet. Discharge time 9 15 seconds Direct at seat of Class B fire Inspect and recharge as per instructions Tag Read and understand direction for use
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
FIXED FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS - Operating a fixed fire fighting system (C02 or Halon) is quite simple. Specific instructions should appear in instruction manuals and diagrams onboard each vessel equipped with this type of system. Fixed systems have controls located outside the space they protect, are painted red and labeled. An alarm sounds once a system is activated and provides for a 20 second delay before the gas is released. This is to provide time for anyone in the compartment to escape. Hatches, doors, or scuttles leading to the protected area as well as forced ventilation need to be secured for this. type of system to be effective. Fixed fire fighting systems are used only after portable systems have failed. These systems, once activated. will discharge all the gas contained in the storage bottles, so the system should not be released until you are ready for it. You do not have a second chance if the system is released prematurely. The mariner must remember that C02 while not toxic, can cause suffocation.
FIXED FIREFIGHTING SYSTEM FIRE MAIN FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEM - The fire main system aboard merchant vessels is a system of permanent piping that receives water pumped directly from the sea and delivers it to fire hydrants strategically located throughout the vessel. Regulations require that all part of the accommodation spaces, weather decks, machinery spaces, stores and working spaces and any part of cargo decks accessible to the crew at sea must be able to be reached and protected by two streams of water. One of these streams must come from a single 50-ft. length of fire hose. In addition, all areas in the main machinery spaces must be accessible by at least two effective spray patterns of water, each delivered from a single 50ft. length of hose from different outlets.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
Types of fire mains: - Fire main systems installed on merchant vessels are one of two types: The single fire main The looped fire main system The single fire-main system consists of a single main pipeline extending fore and aft above or below the main deck. This main is near the centerline of the vessel and extends as far forward or aft as necessary to supply the various services. Branch lines run horizontally off the fire main to individual stations.
SINGLE MAIN SUPPLY The looped fire-main system consists of two cross-connected mains extending fore and aft above the main deck. At their ends the two mains are connected to form a loop. The advantage of the looped fire main system is its increased versatility in any emergency. This type of system is more expensive to install because of the extra materials and pipefitting required. The big advantage with this type of system is that damaged sections can be isolated and the rest of the system remain operational.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
LOOPED MAIN SUPPLY Regardless of the type of system onboard, these systems need regular inspection and maintenance. The interior of the fire-main piping is likely to collect rust and incrustation as it lies idle and empty. The best way to prevent this condition is to flush out the entire system regularly by holding fire drills at different locations each week. Periodically flushing the system with fresh water will help minimize marine growth in the system.
USMMA GMATS
10
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS Smoke Detection - There are a variety of different smoke detectors used on board modern ships. They can be photoelectric, air sampling, or the ionization type. While the different types may operate differently, they all trigger an alarm to alert ship personnel to the presence of smoke.
PHOTO ELECTRIC SENSOR Heat Detection - Heat detectors also come in a variety of different types for shipboard use. Some respond or are activated when a predetermined temperature is reached, while others react to a rate-of-rise. In other words, the speed at which the temperature changes triggers the alarm.
BI-METALLIC HEAT DETECTION Flame Detection Systems - These detectors like all other systems have advantages and disadvantages. They are extremely sensitive and react quickly, however they have been known to trigger by such nonfire conditions such as welding, or any source of bright light.
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
Other Methods of Fire Detection - There are other, less technical methods of fire detection systems that are used aboard ships. A Watch System, uses a crewmember to monitor a specific portion or area of the ship. The Supervised Patrol, is one that can be employed by every crewmember. Basically, this system makes every crewmember responsible for watching signs of fire or other dangerous conditions along a predetermined route, or during their general movements about the ship. Patrols check in with the office of the watch at regular intervals during the specified time. Automatic System Operations - Modern fire alarm systems can be configured to operate certain functions automatically. This increases speed with which certain activities, normally done manually, can take place. For instance, shutting down forced ventilation, closing watertight doors, disabling elevators, or returning them to the main deck and so on. Additional Fire System Components Fire Hydrants - Each fire hydrant is equipped with a valve so that the fire hose may be removed while there is pressure on the fire main. The fire hose must remain connected to the hydrant at all times. The protective screw cover should be installed when the hose is disconnected for any reason.
A TYPICAL NUMBERED FIRE STATION SHOWING HYDRANT, HOSE, HOESE RACK, AND FIRE HOSE CONNECTION Fire hose - Fire hose in standard use aboard merchant vessels is usually single or double cotton jacketed, rubber lined hose. It is usually found in 50 ft. lengths, and either 1.5 or 2.5 inch diameter. Couplings are made of bronze, brass or other non-corroding metal with male and female threads. The couplings, thread, and gasket should be kept in good condition so that the hose may be coupled tight enough by hand to make a watertight connection.
12 11/3/2006
USMMA GMATS
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
Nozzles - Two types of nozzles are primarily used for onboard fire fighting. The all purpose nozzle, and the vari-nozzle. - The all purpose nozzle has two outlets and a single valve. It has three positions on the handle, off, fog, and straight stream. The fog setting results in high-velocity fog. A low-velocity fog applicator can be attached if needed.
ALL PURPOSE NOZZLE Vari-nozzles have just two positions on the control handle, on or off. The pattern of spray is controlled by a ring on the nozzle that alters the pattern between straight stream and fog with various degrees of coverage. Fire hose attachments - Additional equipment may be included at each fire station, such as high/low velocity fog applicators, spanner wrenches, hydrant caps, wyegate connections, and additional hose, and fire axe.
ADDITIONAL FIRE HOSE ATTACHMENTS
USMMA GMATS
13
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
COMBUSTION TERMINOLOGY Ignition Temperature - The ignition temperature of a substance is defined as the lowest temperature at which the vapor from that substance ignites without any outside source of ignition. Flash Point - The flash point of a substance is the lowest temperature at which it gives off enough vapor to form a flammable mixture of vapor and air immediately above its surface. At this temperature the vapor/air mixture will break into flames or flash across its surface if you apply any source of ignition, but it will not continue to burn. Fire Point - The fire point is defined as the lowest temperature at which a substance that is giving off vapors which, when ignited, will continue to burn. Explosive Or Flammable Range - The temperature at which a flammable substance begins to burn is not necessarily the point at which it will explode. In the case of gasoline, a vapor-and-air mixture containing more than 6% vapor is too rich to explode; and a mixture containing less than 1.4% vapor is too lean to explode. Therefore, the range between 1.4% and 6% is known as gasolines explosive range. Spontaneous Ignition / Combustion - When heat is generated by a chemical action within a substance and the process continues to the point of ignition, the phenomenon is known as spontaneous ignition or spontaneous combustion. STATION BILL L MUSTER LISTS - Each vessel carries a crew list identifying the personnel aboard. The vessel also carries the following documents. Station Bill - Assigns each crew member to a particular location for emergency situations, such as MOB, fire, abandon ship. Muster List - Contains the names of the crew members assigned to each station for each normal and emergency situation..
USMMA GMATS
14
11/3/2006
QMED
O.S.V. STATION BILL
___________________________________ [NAME OF VESSEL)
FIREFIGHTING
________________________________ (MASTERS SIGNATURE)
SIGNALS Fire and Emergency: A continuous sounding of the ships whistle supplemented by a continuous ringing of the General Alarm bells for not less than 10 seconds Dismissal Alarm Fire and Emergency Stations: 3 short blasts on the whistle and 3 short rings on the General Alarm bells. Abandon Ship: 7 short blasts and 1 long blast on the ships whistle and the same signal on the General Alarm bells. Dismissal Alarm Boat Stations: 3 short blasts on the whistle. Man Overboard: Immediately throw a ring life buoy. Hall, and pass the word MAN OVERBOARD - PORT (OR STARBOARD) SIDE to the pilothouse, which sounds the international signal O (- - -) at least four times on the ships whistle followed by the same signal on the General Alarm bells. FIRE AND EMERGENCY INSTRUCTIONS 1. If you discover a fire, immediately notify the pilothouse and fight the fire with suitable available equipment. 2. Immediately upon hearing the Fire and Emergency signal, start all fire pumps, close all watertight doors, hatches and air ports, stop all fans, blowers and heating, air conditioning or ventilating equipment. Lead fire hose out in the affected area as directed. 3. When you hear the bell or signal for a Man Overboard throw a ring buoy overboard; stop the engines and keep the man or ring buoy in sight. ABANDON SHIP INSTRUCTIONS 1. When handling signals are sounded on the ships whistle they shall mean: (-) One short blast means to launch the inflatable liferafts and/or rescue boat. (- -) Two short blasts means to stop launching the inflatable liferafts and/or rescue boat. 2. The Master may alter assignments in emergencies to fit actual conditions. RESPONSIBILITIES 1. These instructions apply to each and every person aboard this vessel. 2. You must learn the location of your assigned fire and emergency station and become thoroughly familiar with your duties immediately upon boarding this vessel. Passengers must be notified of their liferaft station before sailing. 3. You must take part in all emergency drills and be properly dressed including a properly donned life preserver and/or exposure suit. 4. In all vessels carrying passengers, the cook (#6) is responsible for 1) warning passengers; 2) seeing they are properly dressed and have correctly donned their life preserver and/or exposure suit; 3) assembling and directing passengers to appointed emergency stations; 4) keeping order in passageways and stairways; 5) controlling passenger movements; 6) gathering and moving a supply of blankets to the inflatable liferafts . 5. The proper chain of command is indicated in the # a key person becomes disabled, the next senior member must take his/her place and assume his duties. 6. The Mate is responsible for the maintenance and readiness of all lifesaving and firefighting appliances and equipment on and above the main deck. The Chief Engineer is responsible for the readiness of all lifesaving and firefighting appliances and equipment below the main deck. 7. During periods of restricted visibility, you must keep all watertight doors and ports below or leading to the main deck closed and dogged except those specifically exempted by the Master. # RATING MASTER FIRE & EMERGENCY STATIONS Commands the vessel from the pilothouse area; operates all controls, radios and public address system; directs and supervises all operations. Instructs crew on specific duties according to circumstances. Assigns two crewman to man the rescue boat and orders ring life buoys for man overboard drills. At the scene of the emergency. Provides fire extinguishing or emergency equipment as needed. Closes ports, watertight doors and air ducts for fire and all drills. ABANDON SHIP BOAT STATIONS Stationed on deck at liferaft #1 musters crew. Directs all operations. Ensures that all passengers carried are on their assigned liferafts. Takes command at literaft #1.
1.
MATE 2.
Stationed in command of liferaft #2. Removes, checks and activates EPIRB when ordered or when conditions warrant.
3. 4.
CHIEF Stands by in engineroom at or near telephone or escape hatch. Starts Stationed on deck at liferaft #1 - assists in launching; is second ENGINEER pumps; shuts all blowers. Closes all watertight doors and other closures. in command. AB SEAMAN Leads out fire hose #1, opens valve, tends the nozzle. On Masters orders, he reports to the scene of the emergency. Opens valve and leads out fire hose #2 and tends the nozzle. On the Masters orders he reports to the scene of the emergency. COOK (or seaman) Stops ventilation system in galley and accommodation spaces. Arouses all passengers; sees that they are properly dressed and don life jackets. Evacuates and secures all quarters; reports to his abandon ship station and stands by awaiting the Masters orders. Stationed on deck at liferaft #2. On orders, he assists in launching the liferaft and the assigned passengers to board liferaft #2 before boarding it himself. Is second in command, Stationed on deck at liferaft #1: On orders, he assists in launching liferaft # 1. Assists assigned passengers to board this liferaft before boarding it himself. Stationed on deck at liferaft #2, on Masters orders assists in launching liferaft #2. Assists assigned passengers to board this liferaft and then boards it himself.
SEAMAN #2 5.
6.
USMMA GMATS
15
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
CARGO MANIFESTS The cargo manifests lists all the cargo on board and its stowage location. DANGEROUS GOODS MANIFEST Page ___ of ___ Vessel Name:________________ IMO No.__________________ Flag State ________________ Masters Name _______________ Voyage No._________________ Port of Loading ____________ Port of Discharge __________ Shipping Agent _______________
Booking Ref. Number Marks & Numbers Container ID No. Vehicle Reg. No. Number and Kind of Packages Proper Shipping Name Class UN No. Packing Group Subsidiar y Risks Flashpoin t in C Marine Pollutant Mass kg Gross/Ne t EmS Stowage Position on Board
Agents Signature _________________________________
Masters Signature _______________________________________
Place and Date __________________________________
Place and Date _________________________________________
USMMA GMATS
16
11/3/2006
QMED
FIREFIGHTING
DANGEROUS CARGO / GOODS MANIFESTS - Each vessel carrying hazardous materials is required by national and international regulations to have a means of identifying the dangerous goods/cargo on board. National regulations usually require that the DCM / DGM is located away from the dangerous cargo and is usually located in the bridge. MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS - Material safety data sheets are documents that are included with the shipping papers for hazardous materials. These documents give information about the hazardous material concerning: Shipping name as well as trade name used for the product Physical data for the product such as melting and boiling points Fire and explosion hazard data Health hazard data Spill clean up procedures Personal protective clothing and equipment requirements Emergency action guide These documents can give critical information to crew in a fire emergency.
MATERIAL DATA SAFETY SHEET
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STABILITY - Fighting a shipboard fire has another major danger that needs to be considered, that being vessel stability. Water entering a vessel due to firefighting activities must be continuously removed to maintain vessel stability. The use of overboard drains, or portable pumps may be necessary to eliminate water from firefighting activities. POLLUTION - Firefighting on board ships, especially those in port or tied to a dock may require additional consideration to contain pollutants. These pollutants may originate as part of the cargo of the vessel or as a result of firefighting activities. Either way, containment of any flow that goes overboard is a high priority. Use of containment booms or special arrangements to pump contaminated water into tanks may need to be arranged to minimize environmental impact. FIGHTING A SHIPBOARD FIRE - The first action in the event of a fire is to sound the alarm. Begin to isolate the fire by shutting doors, hatches, portholes and securing ventilation. Early detection of fire is crucial for successful fire fighting. Serious fires often result from small fires that have not been detected or acted upon quickly. Speed is the essence of a fire and is also the most important requisite of fighting it. You can remember the basic steps in successful fire fighting if you recall the acronym FIRE. F-find the fire I-inform others, sound the alarm R-restrict the fire and bring it under control E-extinguish the fire and overhaul it so it will not re-ignite After finding out where the fire is, you must determine what is burning and how extensive the fire is. At this point, you must establish boundaries for the fire. Within these boundaries, you must close all tanks, hatches, and ports. Furthermore, forced ventilation and electrical circuits near the fire need to be secured. All other vessel activities such as cargo loading, cleaning or maintenance must stop. You should attack a fire from its windward side. This carries poisonous smoke and heat away from you, and the fire fighting agent towards the fire. Bringing the fire under control means slowing its acceleration and its increase in intensity. This prevents the fire from developing any further. At this time you are now working to extinguish it. Even after the fire is out, a re-flash watch should be set to ensure that should the fire re-ignite, prompt action can be taken to once again extinguish it. It may be necessary to overhaul a compartment, that is go in and break up debris to ensure there are no deep seated embers that can restart another fire. Bedding and furniture often can harbor these deep seated smoldering fires. PREVENTION & DRILLS - Fires that never start are the ones that do the least damage and hurt the fewest people. Prevention is every bodys job. Good housekeeping, care and alertness can prevent most fires. The fire you prevent may save your life! It is essential for the safety of all hands and the vessel itself that all firefighting equipment be
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properly maintained and stored in its proper place, ready for use. Regular inspection of the equipment, proper maintenance is important to every member of the crew. All tests and drills using firefighting equipment should be conducted in a spirit of cooperation and with a critical eye toward constantly improving performance. Familiarization with the equipment, its location and proper use is the best insurance a seaman has against this dreaded hazard.
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LIFESAVING LIFESAVING
In a disaster, the primary responsibility of the captain is to the passengers. He must render assistance to another vessel, if he can do so without serious danger to his vessel. The abandon ship signal is more than 6 short blast and a long blast of the ships whistle. If you abandon ship, everyone must stay together. This creates a larger, more visible target for rescue operations All life preservers, lifefloats, oars and paddles carried on board are required to be marked with the vessels name. A lifefloat or buoyant apparatus is an orange rectangular rigid lifesaving device designed for survivors to hold on to while in the water. The painter on a lifefloat must be at least 30 meters long. A lifefloat must have 2 paddles, a waterlight and a painter. PERSONAL FLOATATION DEVICE - PFDs must be replaced when severely damaged. They are designed to turn an unconscious persons face clear of the water. Storage should be in convenient, protected, topside locations and be readily accessible. They may not be stored in the shipping plastic. One PFD must be carried for each person on board. On inspected vessels, 10% of the PFDs must be child size. If you must jump from a vessel, the correct posture includes holding down the PFD against the chest with one arm crossing the other and covering the mouth and nose. Work vests may not be substituted for PFDs, and must be stored separately from PFDs. Immersion Suits - Immersion suits reduce the rate of cooling. They provide limited body movement, and should be put on out on open decks. The zipper can be lubricated with paraffin wax. They provide sufficient flotation so that you do not need to wear a life preserver. The suit should be stowed in the storage bag in which it was received. These are specialized, full body suits designed primarily for military and commercial use, and fit over normal clothing. There are several different types available, but in general increase survival time anywhere from 3 to 10 times that of an unprotected person. HYPOTHERMIA - Hypothermia means lowered deep body temperature. In cold water, the skin and peripheral tissues cool very rapidly. Core temperature cooling takes 10-15 minutes before affecting the heart and brain. Intense shivering occurs in a futile attempt to increase the bodys heat production and counteract the large heat loss. Unconsciousness can occur when the deep body temperature falls from the normal 37C (98.6F), to approximately 32C (89.6F). Heart failure is the usual cause of death when deep body temperature cools below 30C (86F). Water can conduct heat more than 25 times faster than air. The graph below shows average
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predicted survival times of normal, adult humans in water of different temperatures. The figures are based on experimental cooling of average men and women who were holding still in ocean water and wearing a standard PFD and light clothing. Predicted survival time is increased by extra body fat and decreased by small body size. Children, because of even smaller body mass and relatively little fat cool much faster than adults.
WATER TEMPERATURE The areas that are especially prone to high heat loss, the head, sides of the chest, and groin region can be protected by using the HELP position while in the water. This stands for the Heat Escape Lessening Posture. This technique involves holding the inner side of your arms tightly against the side of your chest, the thighs are pressed together and raised to close off the groin region. The use of this position can significantly help reduce heat loss and can result in a nearly 50% increase in survival time. Some life jackets offer more thermal protection than others. Float coats and similar devices can significantly decrease cooling, and increase survival times.
HELP POSITION
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GROUP POSITION Hypothermia Treatment - Prompt medical attention should be given to someone suffering from hypothermia. It is too complex a subject to give extensive advice here. It is sufficient to indicate the wide range of rewarming methods that have been used in different situations. Body to body contact Hot wet towels and water bottles Electric and chemical heating pads Heated blankets Warm drinks Warm showers/baths In general, it is best to donate heat to the core of the body leaving arms and legs alone. Do not rub the surface of the body. If the person is severely hypothermic handle the body gently to avoid jolts that may adversely affect the hearts function. In the unfortunate event of cold water immersion, your rate of progress into hypothermia depends on water temperature, who you are, (body build) how you behave in the water and what you were wearing when you went in. ABANDON SHIP - You should plan ahead and prepare for any possible situation you might encounter afloat and be prepared to follow these practical suggestions before abandoning your vessel. Put on warm clothes and a lifejacket Bring or don an immersion suit Take a long drink of water enroute to the survival craft Take other useful items with you, ex., water, blankets, personal medicine, etc.
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If you must enter the water: Secure the lifejacket properly, pull all ties tight (a lifejacket not worn properly can cause injury) If possible get down to a height of 15 feet or less (4.5 meters) before jumping (the higher the jump the better the chance for injury) Remove eyeglasses, contact lens and sharp objects Before jumping: Cover the nose and mouth with left hand Cross-over left hand with right hand and hold lifejacket securely Look down to ensure nothing is in the way With toes over the edge, step off, looking forward, feet together Remain in this position until bobbing to the surface Board survival craft as soon as possible NOTE: Jump into the water only as a last resort. Use any means available, rope ladder, fir hose, etc., to get from the ship to the survival craft. Board directly if possible. In the water: Get away from danger Swim slowly towards safety Do not swim or thrash around any more than necessary because it Hastens the onset of fatigue and hypothermia Save your strength, it will be required to pull yourself into the survival craft Allow lifejacket to provide support in the face up position DITCH BAG - Preparing a ditch bag, ahead of time will ensure that you have at least the basic items to help in your survival. While the contents of the bag should be configured to your specific situation, some items should be included in every ditch bag. To start with, the container you select should be waterproof. The following list are items you may wish to include, based on the type of voyage you are on, as well as weather conditions, and the area you will be traveling: Extra clothing for warmth/space blanket Waterproof flashlight and extra batteries Flares & dye markers Container of water &/or a water maker Emergency food rations Fishing kit First aid kit A sharp knife Portable hand held radio & gps Signal mirror Survival handbook
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MEDICAL PROBLEMS - A properly outfitted medical kit should be part of every vessels abandon ship supplies. Minor injuries under lifeboat conditions can quickly become life threatening if left untreated. Specifics on treating a variety of medical problems will be discussed in the section on First Aid. MORALE - Do not under-value morale. It is the state of mind which backs you with courage and confidence. The lack of it has proved fatal far more often than the lack of water. Morale is frequently the total of little things. Do not slight the trivialities which contribute to it.
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1. Station Bill list emergency signals and crew responsibilities 2. Righting Straps used to right a liferaft that inflates upside down 3. MOB throw life ring, bail MOB, pass word to the bridge 4. Main objective after abandon ship stay at scene of disaster 5. Repair above waterline damage using pillows, blankets, and mattress 6. Fire spread conduction, convection, radiation 7. Cool bulkheads to prevent fire spread by conduction 8. Good housekeeping removes fuel for fires 9. paints and solvents should always be returned to paint locker after use 10. Flame screen prevents fire from entering a tank 11. Fusible links close dampers to prevent fire spread by convection 12. Prevent fire spread by cooling, removing O2, removing combustibles 13. Electrical fire class c 14. Paint locker fire class b 15. Least hazardous firefighting agent water 16. Fire hoses must always be connected to station hydrant 17. To use a CO2 extinguisher pull the pin 18. AFFF good for oil fires 19. First action in event of a fire sound the alarm 20. COI (certificate of inspection) lists fire and safety equipment
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EMERGENCY SIGNALS
EMERGENCY SIGNALS
Standard Emergency signals are as follows: Fire Alarm Signal A continuous blast of the ships whistle supplemented by a continuous ringing of the general alarm bells for not less than 10 seconds. Dismissal from Fire Alarm Stations Sounding the general alarm bells 3 times supplemented by 3 short blasts of the whistle. Abandon Ship 7 short blasts and 1 long blast on the whistle and the same signal on the general alarm bells. Man Overboard Immediately through a life preserver (use one with a waterlight attached to it at night!) and notify the bridge by reporting: Man Overboard Port (or Starboard) Side. In all cases keep the man in sight. Whistle signals to lower lifeboats: Lower Boats 1 short blast on the whistle. Stop Lowering Boats 2 short blasts on the whistle. Dismissal from Boat Stations 3 short blasts on the whistle (Note: On river vessels, the ships bell may be used instead of the whistle).
Other Emergency Signals The Master of any vessel may establish any other emergency signals in addition to those above to give all officers and crew and passengers notice of an existing emergency. The Master must conduct drills and give such instructions as are necessary to insure that all hands are familiar with their duties as specified in the Station Bill. (Refer to 46 CFR 97.13-15 & 20 and 78.13-10 & 20) All emergency signals and any special signals used aboard a vessel and a list of the emergency duties and stations of each officer and crewmember are printed on a Station Bill, a large postersized document posted in one or more prominent locations aboard the ship.
General Alarm General Alarm Bells are electronically operated gongs with an independent power source. They are activated by a unique circular switch found in the pilothouse, the engineroom and possible in other well marked locations aboard ship. A spring-loaded lever-type handle springs back to the Off position when released. You must use the General Alarm only in emergencies. Never as a wake-up call or to ring down to the galley for a cup of coffee!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SAFETY SYSTEMS 1. Overview 2. Fire Detection Equipment 3. Firefighting Equipment a. Fixed b. Portable / Semi-portable 4. Breathing Apparatus equipment 5. LifeBoats 6. Man Overboard Equipment
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1.. OVERVIIEW 1 OVERV EW

The upkeep of safety equipment is the responsibility of both the marine and engineering departments. It involves among other things, periodically running lifeboat engines, testing fire pumps, water sprinklers and deluge systems, halon and CO2 gas extinguishing systems. The lifesaving equipment on a ship is a lot like the equipment of a large ship. Lifeboats are large enough for double the capacity of the crew. They are totally enclosed and self-propelled and self-righting. The firefighting equipment usually consists of a high-pressure fire main with hydrants and hoses. Seawater is pumped by a powerful fire pump that can be backed up if need be by the ballast pumps. There are gas, flame and smoke detectors in all appropriate places. Living accommodations spaces are fitted with water sprinklers while machinery spaces are covered by halon and carbon-dioxide systems. Every working and living spaces on the ship have suitable portable fire extinguishers near by. PERIODIC INSPECTIONS - Inspection is one of the most important parts of the fire prevention program. Its purpose is to find and eliminate fuels and ignition sources that could cause fires. The elimination of these sources is not a technical matter, but mainly common sense and "good housekeeping." Every crew member should be an informal inspector, checking for fire hazards at all times, on and off duty, wherever he may be on the ship. This is a matter of attitude, and an extension of the idea of "one second for safety." ELEMENTS OF A PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE PROGRAM - The four basic, elements of a preventive maintenance program are 1. Lubrication and care, 2. Testing and inspection, 3. Repair or replacement, and 4. Record keeping. The first three should be performed according to definite schedules that depend on the equipment in question. For example, some equipment might be serviced at various intervals during each watch. Other equipment might require maintenance once daily or weekly, on up to annually or at even longer intervals. The manufacturers manual is the best guide for establishing the schedules for periodic maintenance procedures. This is by no means a new approach to preventive maintenance. However, it does imply that maintenance schedules must provide the answers to such questions as: What controls have been established to ensure that the schedule is being followed? Have provisions been made for turnover in both supervisory and other personnel? Many existing schedules have left such questions unanswered. Standardized maintenance schedules are absolutely necessary, but they are effective only when they are implemented.
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TESTING AND INSPECTION - At each annual inspection, all fire detection (and extinguishing) systems, piping controls; valves and alarms must be checked to ensure that they are in operating condition. Smoke detection systems must be checked by introducing smoke into the accumulators. Fire detection and manual alarm systems must be checked by means of test stations or by actuating detectors or pull boxes. Sprinkler systems must be checked by means of test stations or by opening heads. All fixed systems and portable extinguishers are usable and in their proper places. The crew is familiar with the operation of all emergency equipment. The crew is the ships firefighting team, but they cant be any more effective than the tools they are given. The crew should therefore share the concern of the maintenance of this equipment. REPAIR OR REPLACEMENT - It is important that competent and knowledgeable people perform repairs. Whether these are ships personnel or contractors, controls should be established to ensure that repairs are done properly. An improper repair to an electric range in the galley, to a leaky joint in a fuel line or to a defective boiler can have the same results-fire at sea. Replacements should be only approved types of machinery and equipment. Approval is based on past performance, and safety is an important criterion.
SAMPLE INSPECTIION FORM SAMPLE INSPECT ON FORM

System Inspection Form
Firemain System
1. Hose in place and free of cuts and abrasions 2. Nozzle in place, and applicator provided (if required) 3. Valves unobstructed and easily operated 4. Hose spanner in place 5. Station properly marked
Yes
No
CO2 System
1. CO2 room clear of debris and improper stowage 2. Operating control valves unobstructed 3. Alarms and indicators in good order 4. Operating controls set for proper operation 5. Required number Of CO2 cylinders on hand and connected 6. Pipes and fittings in good condition 7. Discharge outlets in good condition 8. Operating instructions posted 9. Signs posted at all CO2 alarms -
Foam System
Hose in place and free of cuts and abrasions Nozzles and equipment ready for use Sufficient supplies of solution and/or powder Foam containers free of leaks No leaking pipes or fittings Valves in operating condition Valves and controls properly marked Operating instructions posted Monitor stations properly marked
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Steam Smothering System

Pipes and fittings in good condition Operating controls properly set Operating instructions properly posted Valves marked to indicate the protected compartments Discharge outlets in good condition
Water Spray System

Apparatus marked Control valves marked to indicate the protected compartments Spray heads in place and unobstructed
Emergency Equipment
Storage space properly marked Gas mask or self-contained breathing apparatus properly located outside refrigeration equipment space Self-contained breathing apparatus in good condition Firefighters outfits in good condition and stored in widely separated, accessible locations a. Self-contained breathing apparatus in good condition b. Lifeline free of tangles and ready for immediate use c. Explosion-proof flashlight with spare batteries d. Flame safety lamp (except tank vessels) e. Helmet f. Boots-electrically non-conducting material g. Gloves-electrically non-conducting material h. Protective clothing i. Fire axe
NOTE: A no answer to any of the above items requires immediate attention Submitted by Signature Title Date
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2.. FIRE DETECTION EQUIPMENT 2 FIRE DETECTION EQUIPMENT

TESTING At each annual inspection smoke detection equipment is be checked by introducing smoke into the accumulators. Fire detection and manual alarm systems are checked by means of test stations or actuating detectors or pull boxes. In addition to the annual inspection fire detection systems should be tested at regular intervals. These systems should be checked every 3 months. The date of the tests and the condition of the systems must be recorded. Heat thermostats are to be tested at regular intervals also. The operating instructions from the manufacturer usually contain instruction for the testing of the detection system components. GAS DETECTION SYSTEMS MAINTENANCE Proper maintenance includes: Periodic calibration as stated in the manufacturers operating manual. Replacement of calibration-gas cylinders when the pressure drops below the minimum. Periodic checks of equipment operation, including light bulbs Lubrication and cleaning of pumps Periodic replacement of steam filters General cleaning of cabinets and other equipment and the areas occupied by this equipment.
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3.. FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 3 FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

FIXED SYSTEM MAINTENANCE - The firefighting system is centered on a ship main that is pressurized by at least two fire pumps as shown in figure 01. This system is normally maintained at a constant pressure of approximately 150 psi by a seawater service pump and pressure tank. The fire pumps may be manually activated from the control room, heildeck, process areas and other strategic locations. A significant drop in ship main pressure, which would occur when a hydrant is opened will automatically activate it or a deluge system is activated.
FIGURE 01 FIRE MAIN TESTING AND INSPECTION - Frequent testing and inspection are the only means of detecting the need for repairs to fixed systems. As is true for other equipment, these preventive maintenance procedures must be scheduled at definite intervals. The following checks are suggested; any problems that are found should be corrected immediately.
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1. Check the capacity of the pumps by charging and utilizing a sufficient number of hoses. Check for proper volume and pressure and the integrity of the piping and fittings. 2. Inspect the hoses for cuts and abrasions, proper stowage and marking. Test them at 45 kg (100 lb) or the highest pressure to which each hose will be subjected in service, whichever is greater. 3. Inspect all threads and clean them with a wire brush if necessary. Keep the threads lubricated; replace gaskets when necessary. 4. Operate the all purpose nozzle, and clean it when necessary. Check the holes for clogging and corrosion. 5. Operate the hydrant valves to ensure that they are ready for use. 6. Lubricate the threads and make sure the applicator fits the nozzle. Do not use lubricant on the heads. 7. Ensure that nothing is connected to the system that shouldnt be. 8. Check for proper operation of the relief valve, remote control pump starting and the pressure alarm where these controls are required. 9. In foam systems, check the quantity and quality of the foam; operate the foam proportioners and driving equipment. 10. Visually check all CO2 lines and discharge outlet heads. Rig management should require a careful check, and the master should ensure that it is performed. The results of this testing and inspection should be the subject of a formal report to management. FIRE HOSES Maintenance Fire hoses should be inspected visually each week. Every hose on theship should be tested monthly, through actual use under the amount of pressure needed to provide a steady stream. Fire hoses must be free of dirt, grease and other foreign debris; failure to keep the hose clean can caused it to fail under pressure. They should be cleaned, as necessary, with fresh water and a mild detergent, using a soft brush DO NOT use an abrasive cleaner as it will weaken the hose. Failure to drain the hoses causes trapped water to mildew and weaken the hose. In addition extreme heat and clod and seawater tend to weaken the hose. The hoses should be taken from the rack periodically and inspected for dry rot and other damage if the hose is sound it should be replaced on the rack with the bight folds at different locations. This will prevent cracking of the hose liner. Any damaged hoses must be replaced. Racking And Restowing Procedures The procedure should include the following: 1. Check the hose to make sure that it is completely drained. DO NOT rack a wet hose. 2. Check to make sure the female coupling gasket is in tact. 3. Hook the female coupling to the male outlet of the hydrant. The fire hose should always be hooked up to the hydrant 4. Fake (fold) the hose so that the nozzle end can be run out to the fire (see figure 02).
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5. Attach the nozzle to the male end of the hose, make sure gasket is in place. 6. Place the nozzle in its holder or lay it on the hose, so that it will not come adrift.
FIGURE 02 PROPERLY FAKED HOSE Rolling Hose After a spare hose has been used, it is rolled and replaced. The hose must be completely drained and dried. It is then placed flat with the female end against the floor. The hose is then folded back on it self, so that the male end if about 1.2m (4 feet) from the female end. The exposed thread of the male end should be layered between the hose when the roll is completed. The roll should be tied with small stuff to keep it from losing its shape. NOZZLES AND APPLICATORS Maintenance Even though nozzles are very rugged they can be damaged. Periodic testing and maintenance will help detect and correct deficiencies. During inspection and drills the combination nozzle (figure 03) has a spring latch that often freezes into position, the tip should be released and the applicator inserted into position for proper operation. The threads and couplings must be kept free of dirt and corrosion. They should be cleaned with a wire brush, DO NOT use brightwork polish on the applicator head or nozzle tips it will harden and cause the orifices to clog Applicators are strong but if misused can be crimped or bent along its length. If the bayonet end is damages it will not fit into the nozzle. Applicators should be stored in the proper clips at the fire station and used for firefighting or training only. When stowed the applicator should be enclosed in a sock-type cover to keep foreign matter out.
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FIGURE 03 THE OUTLET END OF A COMBINATION NOZZLE Replacing Damaged Discharge Nozzles If a discharge nozzle in a total-flooding system must be replaced, it should be replaced with a nozzle of the same size and discharge rate. Each discharge nozzle is installed to achieve a set discharge rate, and to ensure saturation of the space it protects in a certain length of time. The wrong nozzle can destroy the effectiveness of the system in the affected space. WATER SPRINKLER SYSTEMS Inspection and Maintenance Sprinkler heads may be color coded to indicate the temperature at which the fusible metal (solder) will melt. The color is painted on the frame arms of the sprinkler head. No other part of the sprinkler should be painted. The paint could insulate the solder and keep it from operating correctly. When a sprinkler head is replaced it must always be replace with the correct type of head a Pendant head should not be used as a replacement for an upright head and vice versa. Improper installation will destroy the firefighting capability of the sprinkler head. Because seawater is used in the sprinkler system, which can have solid matter big enough to clog the system the sprinkler heads should be tested periodically to ensure the reliability of the system. FOAM SYSTEMS Foam Concentrate Supplies Inspection and Maintenance Depending on the manufacturer most foam concentrates have a shelf life of 5 20 years. The foam must be stored on sturdy racks, where the containers will not become damaged. The storage space should be well ventilated and dry with the temperature not to exceed 38C (100F). Excessive temperature will deteriorate the concentrate and reduce the foam-making capability. Foam Concentrate Tanks Inspection and Maintenance After operation the tank is drained an refilled with the correct amount and type of foam concentrate. The tanks must be kept filled with liquid halfway into the expansion dome to ensure storage life. The tank is kept closed to
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the atmosphere, with the exception of a pressure vacuum vent. If the tank is partially empty there is a larger liquid surface area to interact with air. This causes excessive evaporation and condensation, which will degrade the foam concentrate and cause corrosion of the tank. CARBON DIOXIDE SYSTEMS Inspection And Maintenance - Carbon dioxide systems are reliable when they are maintained properly. Almost all malfunctions are due to neglect. When CO2 systems have failed to control or extinguish fire, it was usually because they were used incorrectly, owing to a lack of knowledge. These fire-extinguishing systems require only normal care to ensure proper operation when they are needed. However, they should be inspected on a regular basis, to combat the tendency to neglect emergency equipment of this kind. Monthly Inspection - At least once a month, each fixed CO2 system should be checked to ensure that nothing has been stowed so as to interfere with the operation of the equipment or with access to its controls. All nozzles and piping should be checked for obstruction by paint, oil or other substances. The semi-portable hose-reel horn valve should be operated several times. Any damaged equipment must be replaced immediately. Annual Inspection - It is recommended that a qualified fire protection technician or engineer make the annual inspection. Each year all the cylinders should be weighed, and the weights recorded on the record sheet. If a weigh bar is not installed above any cylinder, the cylinder must be placed on a scale for weighing. The full and empty weights of each cylinder are stamped on the cylinder valve. A cylinder is considered satisfactory if its weight is within 10% of the stamped full weight of the charge. Removing Charged Cylinders - When charged cylinders are to be removed from service, the discharge must be disconnected first. This eliminates the possibility of accidentally discharging the cylinders. Here is the recommended procedure for a typical system: 1. Remove the discharge heads from all cylinder valves by loosening the mounting nuts, which have right-hand threads. On installations of more than one cylinder, allow the discharge heads to hang on the loops. 2. Remove all the control heads from the cylinder valves by loosening the right-hand threaded mounting nuts. 3. Screw a large top protection cap onto the threads on top of the cylinder valve. Screw a side protection cap onto the cylinder valve control-head outlet. 4. Remove the cylinder rack. 5. Remove the cylinder. It is recommended that the cylinder cap be screwed on to prevent damage to the cylinder valve during removal. Installing Charged Cylinders - When charged cylinders are placed in service, the discharge heads are replaced last. Here is the recommended procedure for a typical system: 1. Place the fully charged cylinder in the cylinder rack before removing the cylinder cap. 2. Install the cylinder rack, and hand-tighten the bolts so that the cylinder may be rotated in place. 3. Remove the cylinder cap and the top and side protection caps.
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4. 5.
Turn the cylinder so that the control-head outlet points in the proper direction. Tighten the cylinder rack bolts securely. Make certain that all control heads have been reset as follows; (a) Cable-Operated Control Head (i) Remove the cover from, the control head. (ii) Make sure the plunger is retracted below the surface of the control-head body. Then engage a few threads of the mounting nut onto the cylinder valve. (iii) Retract the actuating roller as far as possible from the direction of pull (iv) Replace the cover and locking pin, and install a new seal wire. (Note when two control heads are connected in tandem, make certain both are completely reset before assembling them to the cylinder valves.) (b) Lever-Operated Control Head (i) Return the lever to the set position, with the plunger fully retracted into the control-head body. (ii) Replace the locking pin, and install a new seal wire. (c) Pneumatic Control Head (i) Insert a screwdriver into the rest stem. Turn it clockwise until the stem locks in position with the arrow on the reset stem lined up with the set arrow on the nameplate. The plunger should be fully retracted into the control head body. (ii) Replace the locking pin, and install a new seal wire. (iii) Reinstall the control head on the cylinder valve, tightening the mounting nut securely. (iv) Connect the discharge head to the cylinder valve, tightening the mounting nut with a wrench that is at least 457 mm (18 inches) long.
HALON SYSTEMS Inspection And Maintenance - Halon 1301 systems should be checked as follows: 1. The cylinders should be weighed periodically. A weight loss of 5 % or more indicates that the affected cylinder should be replaced or recharged. 2. The cylinder pressures should also be checked periodically. Table 9.2 gives normal pressures for a range of ambient temperatures. A pressure loss of 10 % or more (for a given temperature) indicates that the affected cylinder must be recharged or replaced. 3. Remote release levers, cables and pulleys should be checked to ensure smooth operation. 4. Automatic switches and warning alarms should be checked to verify that they are operating properly. 5. Halon 1301 cylinders should be hydrostatically tested every 12 years. DRY CHEMICAL SYSTEMS Blowdown And Recharging - After the fire is completely extinguished and the master has declared the area safe, the skid units should be restored to "standby" condition. Dry chemical should be blown out of all band lines and piping. Otherwise, it will cake up within the lines and restrict the flow of agent during the next use. The dry chemical tank should be refilled with the
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proper agent. The nitrogen cylinders should be replaced, and the remote and pneumatic actuators reset. It is very important that this blow-down and recharging procedure be performed exactly as described by the manufacturer. Some parts of the procedure can be dangerous if the operating manual is not followed carefully. Inspection And Maintenance - Every skid-mounted unit should be checked each week to ensure that it is in operation condition. The weekly inspection should include the following: 1. Check the dry chemical tank and all components subjected to the weather for mechanical damage and corrosion. 2. Check the readability of the plates that give operating instructions. 3. Ensure that the cylinder gauges register properly, according to the operating manual. 4. Check the dry chemical level to ensure that the tank is filled properly. The fill cap, if provided, should be hand-tightened only when it is replaced. 5. Check that all reels are in the unlocked position. Pull several feet of hose off each reel, to ensure that the reel moves freely. 6. Check the hand line nozzles for obstructions, and operate their levers to check for free movement. In replacing a hose on the reel, make sure the nozzle is secured and the lever is in the closed position. 7. Make sure all tank valve handles have their ring pins and are sealed in the operating position. Other inspection and maintenance steps may be detailed in the operating manual. Replacement parts should be installed in strict compliance with the manufacturers instructions. AQUEOUS FILM FORMING FOAM (AFFF) SYSTEM Inspection And Maintenance Also know as AFFF or light water, is a fluorocarbon surfactant that acts as an effective vapor-securing agent due to its effect on the surface tension of the water. Its physical properties enable it to float and spread across surfaces of hydrocarbon fuel with more density than protein foam. When then need for foam is over the foam pump should always be flushed by running the proportioner for 2 to 3 minutes in the off position. AFFF is very good for helicopter fires. A good standard procedure is to station personnel with portable dry chemical or AFFF extinguishers at the ready for all landings and takeoffs. An immediate attack on a fire resulting form a crash could save lives and keep the fire from increasing in size and intensity. PORTABLE / SEMI-PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS - Portable extinguishers can be carried to the fire area for a fast attack. However, they contain a limited supply of extinguishing agent. The agent is quickly expelled from the extinguisher; in most cases, continuous application can be sustained for only a minute or less. For this reason, it is extremely important to back up the extinguisher with a hose line. Then, if the extinguisher does not have the capacity to put the
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fire out completely, the hose line can be used to finish the job. Semi-portable systems provide a way of getting a sizeable amount of extinguishing agent to the fire rapidly. Semi-portable systems usually protect the same areas as fixed systems. The semi-portable system is used first. If it does not control or extinguish the fire then the fixed system is used. TEST AND INSPECTION - Portable and semi portable fire extinguishers should be tested "at least once in every twelve months." Upon completion of the required tests a tag is placed on each extinguisher showing the date and name of the person who completed the test. Soda-Activated Extinguisher Maintenance Soda activated extinguisher should be kept stowed at temperatures above 0 C (32 F) to keep the water from freezing. They should be recharged annually and immediately after each use. During annual recharging, all parts must be carefully inspected and washed in fresh water. The hose and nozzle should be checked for deterioration and clogging. The proper chemicals must be used in recharging. The sodium bicarbonate solution should be prepared outside the extinguisher, preferably with lukewarm fresh water. The recharging date and the signature of the person who supervised the recharging must be placed on a tag and attached to the extinguisher. Several times a year, each extinguisher should be inspected for damage and to ensure that the extinguisher is full and the nozzle is not clogged. Cartridge-Operated Water Extinguisher Maintenance The pressure cartridge should be weighed annually. It should be replaced if it is punctured or if its weight is 14gm ( oz) or less than the indicated weight. The hose and nozzle should be inspected to ensure that they are clear. The container should be inspected for damage. Water should be added, if necessary, to bring the contents up to the fill mark. Stored-Pressure Water Extinguisher Maintenance - Inspect gauge for loss of pressure, check for leaks and check condition of hose and overall condition of the tank. Pump-Tank Extinguisher Maintenance - The pump-tank hose should be inspected periodically to ensure that it is clear. Throwing a stream should check the efficiency of the pump. The tank should be checked for corrosion and refilled to the fill mark. Foam Extinguisher Maintenance Foam extinguishers are subjected to freezing and cannot be stored in temperatures below 4.4C (4oF). Once activated foam extinguishers will expel their entire contents. As with other pressurized extinguishers, they will rupture when their contents are mixed. Maintenance consists of annual discharging cleaning and recharging. CO2 Extinguishers Maintenance - CO2 extinguishers need not be protected against freezing. However, they should be stowed at temperatures below 54 C (130 F) to keep their internal pressure at a safe level. At about 57 C (135 F) the safety valves built into CO2 extinguishers are activated at approximately 18.62 x 10(6) Pascals (2700 psi), to release excess pressure.
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Several times a year these extinguishers should be examined for damage and to ensure that they are not empty. At annual inspection, these extinguishers should be weighed. The manufacturer should recharge any extinguisher that has lost more than 10% of its weight. A C02 extinguisher should also be recharged after every use, even if it is only partially discharged. Dry Chemical Extinguisher Maintenance- Dry chemicals and their propellants are unaffected by temperature extremes and may be stowed anywhere. They do not deteriorate or evaporate; so periodic recharging is not necessary. However, the cartridges in cartridge-operated extinguishers should be inspected and weighed every 6 months. Cartridges that are punctured or weigh 14.2 gm ( oz) less than indicated weight should be replaced. At the same time, the hose and nozzle should be checked out to ensure that they are not clogged. Stored-pressure extinguishers manufactured after June 1, 1965, have pressure gauges that indicate whether the internal pressure is within the operating range. These should be checked visually at intervals. The gauge is located on the bottom of some extinguishers.
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4.. BREATHIING APPARATUS EQUIIPMENT 4 BREATH NG APPARATUS EQU PMENT

STANDARD FACEPIECE Maintenance To ensure safe operation when the face piece is needed, it must be maintained properly after each use. Cleanliness is also important. A dirty facepiece can spread colds and other respiratory diseases from one wearer to the next; at the very least, it could be unpleasant to wear. The equipment required for maintenance is: A pail of warm water, not exceeding 38 C (100 F) in temperature, containing come mild disinfectant (such as those advertised for household or hospital use). A pail of clean water, not to exceed 38 C (100 F) in temperature, for rinsing. A sponge for washing and a soft, lint free cloth for drying.
The following maintenance procedure is illustrated in figure 04: 1. Rinse the faceplate with plain water, in a bucket, under a spigot or with a hose, to remove any loose dirt, salt particles and foreign material. This initial rinse keeps the disinfection solution clean and up to strength longer, so that several units may be cleaned with the same solution. 2. Scrub the mask, inside and out with a sponge that is well saturated with disinfection solution. Clean the lens a soft cloth or sponge; never user abrasive materials on the lens. 3. Hold the facepiece by the harness, and submerge the inhalation tube and the exhalation valve in the disinfection solution. After a few moments, remove them from the pail. Allow the excess solution to drain. 4. Remove the protective cap from the exhalation valve. With a corner of the sponge, gently lift and clean under the edge of the rubber valve. This will remove any foreign particles, which could cause a leak when the mask is next used. 5. Replace the protective cap on the exhalation valve. Completely submerge the facepiece in clear water to rinse it. Allow the excess water to drain off the facepiece. 6. Dry the entire facepiece with a clean, lint free cloth. During the drying, check each part for damage and wear. Carefully inspect the harness and lens for tears and cracks. Inspect the inhalation tube by gently stretching the tube and looking for cracks. Restowing Proper restowing of the facepiece in its carrying case ensures that it is ready for its next use. The restowing procedure, shown in figure 05 is as follows: 1. Check that all harness straps are extended to the tab at the buckle. 2. Pull the harness over the front of the mask, so the facepiece is ready for donning. 3. Place the facepiece in the carrying case as shown in step 3 of figure 05. Make sure the inhalation tube is curled correctly and is not pinched or kinked. Also make sure that the lid will not touch the inhalation tube when the container is closed.
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FIGURE 04 MAINTENANCE OF FACEPIECE
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FIGURE 05 RESTOWING A FACEPIECE Recharging The Oxygen Unit To recharge the unit, a fully charged oxygen cylinder is first installed in its metal strap. It is ten connected to the line leading to the pressure-reducing valve. Then the connection to the bypass line (to the breathing bag) must be made. A special wrench is provided for this purpose. The hex head plug on the regenerator is ten removed with the same wrench. The unit is then turned over, and the old cardoxide is shaken out of the unit if not already empty. Finally, the regenerator is filled with fresh cardoxide, and the hex-head plug is reinstalled. The oxygen cylinder must be charged whenever the cardoxide is changed, and vice versa. They are sized to operate for the same length of time. The 0.45-kg (1 lb.) cardoxide charge and its oxygen cylinder will provide protection for about 30 minutes; the 0.91-kg (2-lb.) charge and its cylinder, for about an hour. SELF-GENERATING (CANISTER) TYPE OBA
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The self-generating, or canister, type OBA is also a self-contained breathing apparatus. In this unit, the wearers exhaled breath reacts with chemicals in a canister to provide oxygen. This oxygen is used for breathing by the wearer. Disposal Of The Canister The disposal of an extended canister is a very hazardous operation that must be performed to avoid injury. The procedure (an its required precautions) are as follows; (figure 06); 1. Puncture the expended canister several times, front and back, with the pike end of a fire axe. 2. Fill a pail with clean water, deep enough to completely submerge the canister. Gently drop the canister into the water. A violent chemical reaction will take place. However, the pressure cannot build up if the canister has been properly punctured, so there is no danger of an explosion. 3. After the boiling has stopped, dispose of the water (which is now caustic) according to the companys guidelines for disposal of hazardous material. Rinse the pail thoroughly and discard the canister.
FIGURE 06 DISPOSAL OF THE CANISTER Maintenance - The oxygen-generating apparatus must be maintained carefully. The manufacturer must replace worn or damaged parts. Those who use the equipment, according to the following procedure, should perform periodic inspection and after-use maintenance faithfully. 1. Clean the facepiece as described in figure 04. Be especially careful to dry all the equipment thoroughly. 2. Check the inhalation and exhalation valves periodically for corrosion; have them replaced if necessary. 3. Test the alarm bell to ensure proper operation. 4. Inspect the breathing bag for signs of damage and wear. 5. Inspect the canister holder and retaining bail and screw for damage, wear and proper operation. Check the central casting plunger that breaks the seal and seals the canister
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into the system. This plunger operates by moving in and out about 0.64 cm (1/4 in.). A spring holds the plunger out. When the canister is inserted and tightened down by the bail screw, the plunger is depressed against the spring. This action ensures a tight seal. If the plunger does not work properly, it must be repaired or replaced; it should never be lubricated. Safety Precautions - Certain precautions must be taken when the oxygen-generating apparatus is used. The user must be careful not to damage the breathing bag on nails, broken glass or other sharp objects. When it is necessary to operate the relief valve, he must do so carefully, so as not to deflate the breathing bag too far. The instructions on the canister must be followed to the letter. Foreign material, especially petroleum products, must be kept from entering an opened canister. The chemical in the canister is caustic; it must not come in contact with the skin. The apparatus must not be stowed with a canister already inserted. After one use, regardless of how short, the canister must be discarded as described. For older units without the self-start action, three fresh canisters should always be kept in readiness, with their caps intact, in the storage case. For newer units with the self-start action, two fresh canisters may be kept in the case. Advantages and Disadvantages - The greatest advantage of the oxygen-generating apparatus is its staying time. The canister produces sufficient oxygen for comfortable breathing up to 45 minutes. In addition, this unit is much lighter than other self-contained units. Thus, it is advantageous for use in large contaminated spaces where ventilation may be difficult; where it is difficult to locate the fire or the source of contamination; and wherever an uninterrupted operating time of up to 45 minutes is required. Among the disadvantages of the canister-type apparatus are these: Approximately 2 minutes is required to start a manual-start canister and get the equipment into operation. If the relief valve is not operated properly, the breathing bag may lose its oxygen. The wearer must then return to an uncontaminated area to restart the unit. The bulkiness of the unit and its location on the wearers chest may reduce maneuverability and the ability to work freely. The heat produced by the canister, the possibility of explosion if the canister is not disposed of properly and the explosive reaction if petroleum products are introduced into the canister opening make the unit hazardous if not used properly. The unit is not easily used for buddy breathing in rescue work. The apparatus cannot be used in an atmosphere that has contained or is suspected of containing flammable or combustible liquids or gases. When the alarm bell sounds, it rings once and stops. Owing to noise or some other distraction, the wearer may not hear the alarm.
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BACKPACK UNIT Removal and restowing The backpack unit should be removed as follows: 1. Disconnect the inhalation tube from the regulator 2. With the tips of your fingers, release the self-locking buckles on the facepiece harness. Remove the facepiece as described earlier. 3. Make sure the facepiece harness straps are fully extended. Pull the harness over the front of the facepiece, and place in the facepiece carrying case. 4. Unbuckle the backpack waist belt, and extend the belt fully. 5. With your thumb and index finger, release and hold the underarm strap buckles, and extend them fully. 6. Disconnect the chest buckle. 7. Get a firm grip on the body harness and the regulator with your left hand, at the point where they are attached. Slip yourshipht arm out of the harness as is you were removing a vest. 8. Grasp the harness with yourshipht hand, above and as close as possible to the regulator. Then remove the equipment from your left shoulder and arm. By removing this equipment this way, you will keep the regulator form striking nearby objects that could damage it. 9. Close the valve on the air cylinder. Remove the air pressure from the regulator by cracking the bypass valve open momentarily. The unit should be thoroughly cleaned and the air cylinder should be replaced immediately with a full cylinder See Changing the Air Cylinders below. However, it may be necessary to restow the equipment before it is cleaned its cylinder is replaced. It should then be stowed in its case as described above. The case should be marked and tagged Empty Cylinder. SLING-PACK UNIT The sling pack is stowed in its case. MINIPACK UNIT- This unit is a small cylinder supplied, demand-type breathing apparatus. It is mostly used with aluminum and asbestos firefighting and proximity suits. Changing Air Cylinders - When the alarm bell on a demand-type breathing apparatus sounds, a 4-5-minute supply of air (approximately 3450 kilopascals (500 psi)) remains in the cylinder. If several crewmen equipped with breathing apparatus are working together, it may be difficult to tell whose alarm bell is sounding. A crewman who believes his bell is sounding should put his hand on the bell. If it is his alarm bell, the sound will be deadened, and he will feel the vibration of the bell. He should immediately leave the contaminated area to replace his air cylinder. A second crewman should help change the air cylinder on a backpack or sling-pack unit while the equipment is being worn. The exchange of cylinders should be performed carefully. 1. When you are outside the contaminated area, remove your facepiece and locate a full air cylinder. Spare cylinders are usually stowed with the apparatus. It is important that you locate a full cylinder. To avoid confusion with used cylinders, hold onto the full cylinder until it is placed into your unit.
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2.
3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
9.
Someone should be available to assist you in changing the cylinder. Take advantage of the cylinder change time to rest. Kneel on one knee, with your back to your helper, while he makes the change. Hold the full cylinder on the ground in front of you. The helper closes the cylinder valve and disconnects the high-pressure hose coupling from the used cylinder. If a wrench is required, it should be kept in the cylinder storage compartment, on a length of light chain. The helper must support the used cylinder with his left hand while he releases the cylinder clamp. The helper next removes the empty cylinder from your pack and places it on the ground by his feet. Now place the full cylinder on your shoulder. The helper then-and only then takes the full cylinder and places it directly into your pack. When the cylinder is in the proper position, the helper locks it in place with the locking device. The helper now checks the opening of the cylinder valve to ensure that it is free of foreign material. If it is dirty, he releases a short burst of air to clear it. When he is certain the valve opening is clear, he attaches the high-pressure hose to the cylinder outlet. Again, a wrench may be required. You or the helper may now open the cylinder valve. Then check the pressure gauge on your regulator, while the helper checks the pressure gauge on the cylinder. Owing to the age of the equipment or its design, the two gauges may not register exactly the same. A difference of 1380 kilopascals (200 psi) is acceptable.
Maintenance - Self-contained, demand-type breathing apparatus must be carefully maintained. Any part of the unit that fails should be replaced or repaired by the manufacturer or his authorized representative. The equipment should be inspected periodically as recommended by the manufacturer. After each use, the wearer should clean the apparatus and replace the used air cylinder with a full one. If the unit must be stowed with an empty or used cylinder, the carrying case must be so tagged or marked. Cleaning the Apparatus 1. Clean the facepiece as described earlier. 2. Wipe down the entire unit, including the harness straps, with a sponge soaked in a mild disinfectant solution or a mild soap and water solution. This will remove any loose particles and help deodorize the equipment. 3. Turn the carrying case upside down, to shake out loose particles. Wipe down the entire case, inside and out, with a sponge and disinfectant solution. 4. The following check should be made of the regulator parts: 5. Inspect the threaded fittings for damaged threads and obstructions. 6. Inspect the gauge for visible damage, such as dents or a cracked lens. 7. Inspect the main-line valve (yellow knob) to be sure it is fully open and locked (if a locking device is provided). 8. Inspect the bypass valve (red knob) to be sure it is closed tightly. 9. Inspect the alarm bell by first opening the cylinder valve to put air pressure on the regulator. Then close the cylinder valve, and breathe the air pressure off the regulator
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slowly. The alarm should sound when you have reduced the pressure in the regulator to approximately 3450 kilopascals (500 psi). 10. Inspect the harness for signs of wear and damage. A worn or damaged harness or buckle could break the next time the equipment is used, endangering the wearer. 11. Wipe the case and the unit, dry with a lint free cloth. Re-stow a backpack unit as described earlier in this chapter. Refilling Air Cylinders Everyship that is required to carry the demand-type breathing apparatus must also carry a spare air cylinder. Some rings have a recharge system of air tanks called a manifold or cascade system. Each tank should be numbered. A chart should be hung near the tanks, recording the air pressure in each tank, each date on which the cascade system was used and the number of cylinders refilled. (A sample chart is shown in Table 1.) This is very important for the proper use of the cascade system.
Table 1 Cascade System Air-Pressure id Usage Chart8 Cascade Tanks Pack Cylinders Charged 5 2400 2400 2400 2400 2400 1975 1975 1825 1450 900 X 2400 5 6 6 8 6 3 7 6 -
Date 4/20 4/22 4/29 5/1 5/8 5/20 Charged 5/21 5/23 5/30 6/4 Charged 6/5
1 2400 1700 1500 1200 800 300 X 2400 2400 1700 1150 X 2400
2 2400 2250 1925 1675 1250 825 X 2400 2400 2275 1775 1775
3 2400 2400 2400 2100 1600 1000 X 2400 2400 2400 2275 2275
4 2400 2400 2400 2400 1950 1450 1450 1025 700 275 X 2400
The pack cylinders for the breathing apparatus are filled from the large tanks in the following manner. 1. Check the cascade system record chart to find the air pressure in each tank. 2. Connect the charging hose to the cylinder to be charged. 3. Check the pressure of the cylinder to be charged. Open the valve on this cylinder. Then open the valve on the cascade tank with the least air pressure that is greater than the pressure in the cylinder to be filled. 4. Release air into the pack cylinder slowly, to keep from heating it excessively. Placing the cylinder in a container of cold or water helps keep the cylinder cool. When the cylinder and tank pressures have equalized, close the valve on the cascade tank. Open the valve on the tank with the next highest pressure. Continue this procedure until the pack cylinder is filled to the desired pressure. 5. Repeat steps 2-4 for any other pack cylinders that are to be filled.
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6.
After all the pack cylinders have been filled, record the pressures remaining in the cascade tanks on the chart. If the cascade system is equipped with a compressor, refill all the cascade tanks to their maximum pressure. Mark the chart "full" or "recharged."
Safety Precautions As with all emergency equipment, the most effective safety procedure for demand-type breathing apparatus is training, followed by constant practice. However, crewmen should take certain precautions when using this breathing equipment. When used properly, a demand-type unit will protect the wearer in any situation requiring respiratory protection equipment except underwater search. Demand-type equipment should not be used after running or strenuous work. The air will be used up rapidly, and the wearer may feel that the unit is not giving him all the air he needs. Before donning the equipment, the user should check the pressure gauges on the air cylinder and the regulator. As noted above, they should register within 1380 kilopascals (200 psi) of each other. The backpack or sling-pack harness should be tight; owing to the weight of the unit, a loose pack can cause injury. Before entering a contaminated area, the wearer should check the facepiece for the proper seal. He should also check to see if his unit has an alarm bell. If it does not, he must check the regulator gauge frequently while he is in the contaminated area. When the gauge reads 3450 kilopascals (500 psi), he must leave the area immediately. Whenever possible, crewmen wearing breathing apparatus should work in pairs. In all cases, a lifeline must be tied to the firefighter using the demand-type breathing apparatus, especially in a compartment with large open areas. When a lifeline is used, someone should monitor the line, using prearranged signals. The weight of the unit changes the wearers center of gravity, making it easier to become unbalanced and fall (especially backward). Wearers must be aware of this possibility when climbing ladders, working near the edge of a deck opening and in other precarious positions. If it is necessary to operate the bypass valve (red knob), it should be opened slowly and only enough so the wearer may breathe comfortably. If it is opened quickly and too far, the rush of air could shift the facepiece; cause a leak and waste valuable air. The main-line valve (yellow knob) should be closed when the bypass valve is opened. If a unit runs out of air in a smoke-filled compartment, the wearer should disconnect the breathing tube from the regulator, push its end into his shirt or coat through a front opening, and continue to breathe through the mask. The fabric may filter the air somewhat, and the facepiece will protect his face from the extreme heat. He should, of course, retreat to safety immediately. Self-contained, demand-type breathing apparatus should never be stowed with pressure on the regulator. To relieve this pressure, the person stowing the unit should hold the threaded connection of the regulator between his thumb and index finger. He should then place his mouth over his thumb and finger, and breathe the pressure off the regulator.
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Advantages and Disadvantages - The major advantage of the self-contained, demand-type breathing apparatus is the speed with which it can be donned and put into operation. When the equipment is properly stowed in its carrying case, a well-trained seaman can be ready for work in 45 seconds. The unit can be donned and started in smoke, and, the facepiece can be cleared afterward. However, it is far safer to don the equipment in an uncontaminated atmosphere and check it according to prescribed procedures, before assuming that it will function properly in a hostile atmosphere. Since the bulk of the equipment is on the wearers back, it does not limit his arm movements. The wearer can use all hand tools, handle hose and operate nozzles without interference from his breathing equipment. Some regulators have a place where a second facepiece may be connected, for use in rescue work. There are two major disadvantages to self-contained, demand-type breathing equipment: the operating time limitation and problems due to its size and weight. The operating times for air cylinders are based on the normal breathing rate of an average person. However, during firefighting and rescue operations, air is used up more quickly than usual, because of the exertion, the psychological effect of wearing the breathing apparatus and the extreme heat. For this reason, more severe guidelines should be used: Backpack units rated by the manufacture for 30 or 45-minute duration should not be expected to last more than 1 minute for each 690 kilopascals (100 psi) of pressure registered on the cylinder gauge. Sling-pack units rated by the manufacture for 15-minute duration should not be expected to last more than I minute for each 1380 kilopascals (200 psi) of pressure registered on the cylinder gauge. Minipack units rated by the manufacturer: for 6-8-minute duration should not be expected to last longer than 1 minute for each 2760 kilspascals (400 psi) of pressure registered on the tank gauge These figures are, of course, averages. Some wearers may exceed these times by several minutes. However, to maintain a margin of safety, crewmen should not expect more than the average from their breathing equipment. The second disadvantage results from the size and weight of the apparatus. The backpack equipment, which is most popular, is quite bulky and weighs over 13.6 kg (30 lbs.). The bulkiness of makes it difficult for the wearer to work in confined spaces. The weight adds to the physical strain on the wearer. AIR MODULE-SUPPLIED DEMAND-TYPE BREATHING APPARATUS Recharging The air modules can be recharged with a booster charging station (available from the manufacturer). The booster station must be coupled to a compressor or cascade system. FRESH AIR HOSE MASK
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Maintenance - Whether or not it is used regularly, the fresh-air hose mask must be checked periodically for proper operation and signs of wear. Most important, after each use and before the equipment is stowed, the following maintenance procedures should be performed. The disinfectant solution used to clean the hose mask is also used for the case. 1. Clean and dry the facepiece, head harness, inhalation tubes and exhalation valve. Check these components for damage and wear as described in the section on face pieces. 2. Thoroughly inspect the air hose for damage. Wash and dry it before restowing. 3. Inspect all threaded connectors for damaged threads and for missing or damaged washers or gaskets. 4. Clean and lubricate the air pump according to the manufacturers instructions. 5. Clean the case, inside and out. This helps keep the equipment clean after it is stowed in the case. 6. Inspect the hand crank for damage and wear. Stow the crank in its proper place. A misplaced crank makes the apparatus useless. Safety Precautions - If at all possible, at least two crewmen should enter the contaminated area together, wearing similar breathing equipment. This will allow one to support the other if a problem arises. A lifeline that is the same length as the air hose should be attached to each wearer of a hose mask. This is especially important if a crewman must work alone in the contaminated area. The wearer should never remove his fresh-air hose mask in the contaminated area. He must remember to leave the area by the route he used to enter it to keep his hose and lifeline untangled. The pump or blower must be operated in an area that is well away from the contaminated air. Advantages and Disadvantages -The major advantages of the fresh-air hose mask are its lightweight and the unlimited air supply it provides. The wearer may work as long as necessary to complete his assigned tasks. Among the disadvantages of the hose mask are the need for personnel to operate the blower and the restrictions due to the long length of hose. The hose limits the wearers movements and may make breathing difficult. In certain compartments, it could become jammed or tangled on doors, cargo or machinery. In addition, the wearer must leave a compartment by the route through which he entered. This could be a problem if the wearer had to retreat quickly from a space that was involved with fire. Finally, the blower or pump must be located as close as possible to the contaminated area yet in an area that is itself free of contaminants. The filter mask consists basically of four parts: a facepiece with an inhalation tube, exhalation valve, and speaking diaphragm; an external check valve; a canister; and a harness (in which the canister is held) with adjustable neck and body straps. An in-line timer is provided on carbon monoxide masks and "all-service" masks
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5.. LIIFE BOATS 5 L FE BOATS

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS Every normally manned installation must be provided with a totally enclosed motor propelled survival craft (TEMPSC), capable of containing all persons on board (POB). Clear instructions are to be provided that will enable one person to launch and operate the lifeboat. The lifeboat must be self-righting, constructed of fire retarding materials and protected against heat by an external sprinkler system. There must be sufficient fuel on board to propel the boat for 12 hours and a compressed air supply, which will enable the occupants to breath, and the engine to run for at least ten minutes. A radio that can transmit distress signals must also be included in the survival equipment. Testing and Commissioning Lifeboats and davits are to be tested in accordance with IMO Assembly Resolution A.689 (17), Testing of Life-Saving Appliances. The requirements are quite onerous, particularly for new lifeboats and davits. The lifeboat is to be load tested by installing test weights that represents 1.1 x SWL (safe working load). The brakes should be capable of holding this load and they should be tested at some point while the load is lowered to the water. It is to be confirmed that the lifeboat can be released from the falls when fully waterborne in the 110% overload condition, and in the light condition. While in the water, the action of the hydrostatic release mechanism can be confirmed (if fitted) and that there are 3 turns of wire remaining on the winch drums, allowances being made for the lowest expected tide. On completion of load testing, the speed of lowering of the lifeboat should be confirmed as being not less than 0.45 meters per second (90 feet per minute). Davits: Winches And Loose Gear - Lifeboat davits and winch structural members are to be designed with a safety factor of 4.5 and on completion of manufacture should be subjected to a static proof load test of 2.2 x SWL, the SWL for each davit being, half the weight of the lifeboat, fully loaded with equipment and weights representing the maximum number of people, based on the weight of 75 kilograms per person. Each winch should be capable of lowering and holding a test load of 1.5 x SWL. Attachments that support the sheave blocks, the blocks themselves and the attachments of the rope terminations are to be tested to 2.5 x SWL. The breaking tensile strength of the wire rope falls, chains, and links should be at least 6 x SWL. Each lifeboat release mechanism must be statically proof tested to 2.5 x SWL by an approved test house and be permanently marked with: Manufacturers name Type and serial number Date of maintenance SWL Test certificate number
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Once in service, the wire rope falls should be changed end for end at intervals of 30 months and should be replaced every five years unless they are made of stainless steel wire, in which case a longer interval may be agreed with the authorities. In-service examination Once installed the lifeboats should be examined on a regular basis and this should include an in water test, preferably every three months but at least once a year. It is only by maneuvering the lifeboat that the equipment can be fully tested and particular attention should be given to the lifeboat release mechanism. Some are designed to release the boat from the wire rope falls only when it is off-load, that is when the boat is fully waterborne. Other systems are designed to release on-load that is before the boat if fully waterborne. Some deigns are launched from a cradle and free-fall into the sea. Only personnel fully trained in the operation of the release mechanism should carry out these tests because there have been numerous fatalities over the years associated with the routine testing of lifeboats. Lifeboats must be highly visible and bear the name of the installation. LIFE RAFTS The requirements for life rafts depend on the capacity of the lifeboats. If one lifeboat can accommodate the entire POB then additional capacity equal to the POB must be provided by life rafts. That is to say that the combined capacity of lifeboats and life rafts equals 2 x POB. The alternative is to provide two lifeboats whose combined capacity equals 1.5 x POB in which case no life rafts need be fitted. In practice inflatable life rafts are positioned at strategic locations regardless of lifeboat capacity. These inflatable life rafts should be serviced annually. Life rafts are often referred to generally as RFDs, a trade name of one of the many manufacturers. The lanyard lengths should be checked on life rafts and the drop length of knotted ropes and scramble nets ensure that they are adequate and will indeed reach the water. All survive craft must contain a first aid kit, and adequate supply of drinking water and a waterproof electric hand lamp suitable for signaling purposes. MAINTENANCE The maintenance of life-saving devices is frequently delegated to specialist companies that are authorized y the equipment manufacturers to service their products.
USMMA GMATS
27
11/3/2006
QMED
SAFETY SYSTEMS
6.. MAN OVERBOARD EQUIIPMENT 6 MAN OVERBOARD EQU PMENT

LIFEJACKETS AND PERSONAL SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT - There must be located on each installation a quantity of lifejackets equal to 1.5 x the POB. One must be stored at each bed with the remainder being located at embarkation or muster points. Donning instructions must be provided wherever the jackets are stored. Each jacket should be capable of turning the wearer so that they float, face up within 5 seconds of entering the water, and subsequently keeping them afloat for a period of 24 hours. The jackets are to be manufactured from low flammability, rot proof, high visibility materials and should be provided with a non-metallic whistle, and preferably a light. A suitable ring or loop should also be fitted to the jacket to facilitate the rescue. IMMERSION SUITS - A typical immersion suit is made from the same 6/16 foam rubber as skin divers suits. The rubber material, rather that any air trapped in the suit serves as the suits flotation device. So even if the suet is filled with water is torn it will not sink. The thermal qualities of the material will keep the wearer warm whether they are wet or dry. The garment consists of a waterproof zipper. Hood, boots and gloves are attached so that when you are in the suit the only portion of you body exposed to the sea is your eyes and nose. The entire exterior of the suit is an international orange nylon fabric that is highly visible. Immersion suits are made so that one size fits anyone up to six feet 8 inches tall and weighing up to 280 pounds. In an emergency situation there is no time to look for the right size. With practice a suit-up time of 20 seconds is not uncommon. Inspection And Stowage Each immersion suit must be kept in the stowage container provided. The bag is tested to provide significant protection to the suit and should be clearly marked. The bag should be inspected for punctures, broken handles, deteriorated snaps and fasteners, and seam tears. Store the immersion suit in dry accessible places such as living quarters and at workstations if those stations are distant from the living quarters. Each member must know the location of all survival equipment. 1. Lay suit out on flat, clean surface with arms out. 2. Make sure zipper is fully open and the lock screw on the inflatable oral tube is in the open position. 3. Roll suit, feet first, up to the chin area making sure not to crease the head support/ buoyancy ring or inflatable tubes. 4. Fold arms over rolled up legs and across chest. 5. Tuck hood into the roll and place in storage bag ... and secure the bag closures. 6. Be sure suit is stowed in clean dry area and is immediately accessible in case of emergency. Do not compress the suit in stowage as it may result in loss of buoyancy
USMMA GMATS
28
11/3/2006
QMED
SAFETY SYSTEMS
Maintenance The suit comes in a storage bag about the size of a sleeping bag. The immersion suits life expectancy is indefinite with a minimum of maintenance as long as it is not exposed to temperature above 150F. It is advisable to remove the suit from its bag and test in the water if possible. The more familiar the wearer is with the suit the more likely they will survive if it is ever needed. This is also a good opportunity to check it conditions. Always treat the immersion suit with reasonable care Washing - In no case should the suit be dry-cleaned or exposed to any chemical solvents or cleaners. The suit should be hand washed with mild detergents and rinsed thoroughly with plenty of fresh water. Stains Stains can be cleaned by gently rubbing with a soft bristle brush. Drying - Hang suit inside out on large wooden hanger in a cool (65 - 75 F), dry and wellventilated area. Do not expose to sunlight or direct heat. Following the drying of the interior of the suit, it should be reversed to completely dry the outside. When the suit has thoroughly dried, it can be returned to the bag by following steps I to 5 for Storage Instructions. After use the suit is rinsed in fresh water and allowed to dry in temperatures below 150 F. Hang or spread the immersion suit out to dry. When the outside is dry turn it inside out to dry again. Water usually does manage to find its way inside and cause mildew and an odor if you skip this step. Leaks or tears in the suit can render it ineffective. You can repair a torn suit by gluing it together with wet suit cement (a neoprene cement). If the damage cannot be repaired or if the fabric is worn through and is exposing the foam underneath the suit must be replaced. The zipper of the suit must be waxed periodically to lubricate it. Any type of paraffin or beeswax can be used. Rub the wax over the zipper teeth; the open and close the zipper several times to spread the wax. Store the suit with the zipper open. Inspection - Immersion suit must be carefully checked and maintenance must be done at least once a year, preferable more often. SEVEN STEP INSPECTION PROCESS 1. Check closures on storage bag as well as general condition of bag for ease of removal of suit. Ensure Donning Instructions are legible. Be sure bag, size, and manufacturer of suit labeling are correct. 2. Lay suit on flat clean surface. Make sure suit is dry inside and out. Visually check for damage. An authorized repair station can repair rips, tears, or small punctures. Major tears, rips, punctures and chemical or heat bums must be inspected and repaired by the suit manufacturer. 3. Check zipper by sliding up and down to check for ease of operation. Using lubricant recommended by the manufacturer, lubricate the front and back of the zipper and the
USMMA GMATS
29
11/3/2006
QMED
SAFETY SYSTEMS
4.
5. 6. 7.
slide fastener. (If the zipper is not functional the suit must be removed from service and returned to the manufacturer for repair.) Check head support buoyancy ring for obvious damage and ensure that it is properly attached. Check inflation hose for deterioration or leaks. See that the lock screw is in open position. Head support /buoyancy ring should be inflated and tested for leaks using one of the following two methods: a. Inflate the bladder then immerse it in water, looking for bubbles, or b. Inflate, let stand for 24 hours and check for firmness. An authorized repair station can repair minor leaks. The manufacturer must repair major leaks. Check reflective tape. Replace if necessary. For best adhesion, a factory authorized repair station should complete repair. Check whistle and PFD light for proper operation. Check PFD battery/light for expiration date.
LIFEBUOYS - The number of lifebuoys required will depend on the number of persons onboard but at least eight must be positioned at locations readily available to assist a person who has fallen into the sea. The lifebuoy must be equipped with a light that will operate automatically when immersed for a period of at least 45 minutes. The light should have the luminosity of 2 candles. Lights need not be fitted to lifebuoys that are installed in addition to the minimum requirement of eight. Lifebuoys must be highly visible and bear the name of the installation. MAINTENANCE - The maintenance of life-saving devices is frequently delegated to specialist companies that are authorized y the equipment manufacturers to service their products.
USMMA GMATS
30
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
LIIFE BOATS L FE BOATS

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS - Every normally manned installation must be provided with a totally enclosed motor propelled survival craft (TEMPSC), capable of containing all persons on board (POB). Clear instructions are to be provided that will enable one person to launch and operate the lifeboat. The lifeboat must be self-righting, constructed of fire retarding materials and protected against heat by an external sprinkler system. There must be sufficient fuel on board to propel the boat for 12 hours and a compressed air supply, which will enable the occupants to breath, and the engine to run for at least ten minutes. A radio that can transmit distress signals must also be included in the survival equipment. Testing and Commissioning Lifeboats and davits are to be tested in accordance with IMO Assembly Resolution A.689 (17), Testing of Life-Saving Appliances. The requirements are quite onerous, particularly for new lifeboats and davits. The lifeboat is to be load tested by installing test weights that represents 1.1 x SWL (safe working load). The brakes should be capable of holding this load and they should be tested at some point while the load is lowered to the water. It is to be confirmed that the lifeboat can be released from the falls when fully waterborne in the 110% overload condition, and in the light condition. While in the water, the action of the hydrostatic release mechanism can be confirmed (if fitted) and that there are 3 turns of wire remaining on the winch drums, allowances being made for the lowest expected tide. On completion of load testing, the speed of lowering of the lifeboat should be confirmed as being not less than 0.45 meters per second (90 feet per minute).
FUNCTION OF DAVITS, WINCHES, BLOCKS AND FALLS - Davits are stationary items of lifesaving equipment permanently installed aboard ships. Their purpose is to swing survival craft outboard and lower them to the water from their stowed positions during drills and shipboard emergencies. Davits also retrieve the same survival craft from the water following drills and after some emergencies. Although not required on some small vessels, the Coast Guard does require approved davits on larger merchant vessels and mobile offshore drilling units to launch all types of survival craft. Davits generally consist of one or two mechanical arms which extend from the side of a ship outwards and over the water. The davits, therefore, provide the means to hold a survival craft far enough away from the ship even under conditions of adverse list* and to lower it safely to the water. The outboard ends of the davit arms (i.e., the davit heads) support the blocks and fiber or wire rope falls that lower and hoist a lifeboat, survival capsule, inflatable liferaft or rescue boat. Winches perform the tasks of lowering or hoisting. [*Vocabulary. Adverse list = when the ship lists and makes it hard to swing out the davits.]
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
There are four major types of lifeboat davits in common use aboard merchant vessels today: radial, mechanical, gravity and Miranda types. We will be discussing the Gravity and Miranda davits. Gravity davits - (Figure 01) are the most commonly used davits aboard merchant vessels today. After releasing the gripes and locking bars, these davits slide to a fully outboard position by gravity alone. There is no need to apply any external mechanical, electrical or hydraulic force except to lift the winch brake handle. The most common gravity davit arrangement consists of two davit arms which ride down fixed trackways on rollers from their secured position to the outboard position. Another gravity type davit pivots at the lower ends of both davit arms which move outboard through a system of mechanical linkages. One advantage of gravity davits over mechanical davits is that one man can lower a lifeboat from its stowed position to the water whereas two or more men must remain on the boat deck to operate mechanical davits. Launching a lifeboat with mechanical davits is time consuming work. Unfortunately, time is not always available in an emergency. Large lifeboats now require gravity davits for this reason and for simplicity of operation.
FIGURE 01 GRAVITY DAVIT Miranda davits - (Figure 02). In October 1975, leading manufacturers of lifesaving equipment performed extensive and successful sea trials of a prototype launch and recovery system aboard the fishery support ship MIRANDA.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
The MIRANDA davit is the result of considerable experience in developing davit systems. This system comprises fixed ramp arms, winch, motor, and a survival craft in its own launch-andrecovery cradle.
FIGURE 02 MIRANDA DAVIT EMBARKATION AND LAUNCHING FROM A MIRANDA DAVIT - All three diagrams illustrate a lifeboat in its stowed position (which is the same as its embarkation positions) and also as it is being launched. A illustrates launching against an inboard list. B shows launching against an outboard list. C shows launching against extremely heavy outboard list. The survival craft stows at the embarkation deck in its cradle. In an emergency, the entire cradle lowers down the face of fixed ramp arms. When it reaches the bottom, the coxswain releases the survival craft. The cradle with its rollers protects the boat when it is being lowered and makes it unnecessary to turn the craft out clear of the ships side. This arrangement eliminates the need for a davit which turns or rolls from an inboard to an outboard position along with the constant maintenance associated with that type of equipment. One feature of the Miranda davit is that it does not require any crew members to remain on deck and descend later to the boat by ladder or manrope. Such a descent only adds to the peril of an evacuation. In an emergency, all personnel can leave the ship in the lifeboat together. To date, the U.S., Norwegian and German navies, the Japanese Coast Guard, hydrographic and research vessels, chemical carriers, and tankers have used the Miranda davit system. Falls - Radial and mechanical davits may use either fiber or wire rope falls. However, gravity and Miranda type davits require wire rope falls. Fiber rope falls are rove (i.e., rigged) through blocks at the heads of the davits and at the ends of the lifeboat. They gain a mechanical advantage and increased strength by using multiple parts.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
In its simplest arrangement, you can lower a lifeboat by paying out the fiber rope over cruciform bitts or cleats provided for this purpose. Retrieving the same boat by this method involves considerably more work and effort. You must stow fiber rope on reels or coil it in boxes to protect it against water, ice, snow, and prolonged exposure to sunlight and weathering in general. A good operating practice with manila falls is to end-for-end them after one year and to renew them after two years. Since you cannot control or handle wire rope falls with bare hands, you must handle them with a winch as is done on gravity davits. An automatic winch brake limits the lowering speed of the lifeboat to a safe, predetermined rate while a hand brake gives manual control of lowering. While you must be able to lower a lifeboat using only the force of gravity, you may use motor or hand power to hoist it back to its stowed position. You must keep wire rope falls coated with grease to provide lubrication for the internal working of the wire as well as protection against external corrosion. You also must keep the blocks for both wire and fiber rope well lubricated and working easily. One of the important duties of the crew at every lifeboat drill is to see that each sheave in each block and all fairleads work freely. One jammed block can jeopardize the entire drill or evacuation and risk a number of lives. You must keep the deck where survival craft are mounted clear of freight, debris, spilled oil or anything that could possibly interfere with the immediate launching of this equipment. The use of gravity type davits with electric motor driven winches has simplified rapid survival craft retrieval. However, these modern davits demand increased care, skillful maintenance and periodic inspection. You should note these special points: Limit switches. Before hoisting the lifeboat into its stowed position on gravity davits, check the operation of the limit switch by pushing down the lever arm as if the boat had actually reached that position. The position of the limit switch is the uppermost limit of the survival crafts motorized movement. It is the point where the electric winch motor should stop! If it does not stop, pull the emergency disconnect switch. Then replace the limit switch. The limit switch is part of the control circuit while the emergency disconnect switch controls the main power to the winch. You should man both the emergency disconnect switch and the limit switch whenever you hoist a survival craft. If the limit switch doesnt work, immediately shut off the main power. This will prevent the lifeboat from being hoisted so far that it two-blocks (i.e., jams). The electric or airactuated motors on lifeboat winches are powerful enough to snap the wire rope falls easily. If this happens, the lifeboat will launch itself after a dramatic, uncontrolled descent. Consequently, shipmasters must, by law, inspect each limit switch and each emergency disconnect switch every three months. For the same reason, you must always hand-crank a lifeboat for the last 12 inches or more of travel to its final stowed position when using gravity davits.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
Winches. Unless you follow the winch lubrication schedule faithfully, moisture may accumulate in the winch enclosures. This moisture can damage the wiring. In cold weather, water can freeze in the gears and prevent the lifeboat from lowering. Therefore, you must fit covers over winches to keep ice and snow from freezing on the wire falls. Hand cranks. Winch hand cranks have couplings which should automatically disengage the crank if the electric motor starts to turn the winch. They do not always work properly. To reduce the chance of injury, turn the emergency disconnect switch off while the lifeboat crew hand-cranks the survival craft back to its stowed position.
LAUNCHING A LIFEBOAT - The hardest part of using a lifeboat is launching it. Launching includes everything from removing the boat cover to embarking passengers and crew. You must take part in regular drills to learn your duties and the proper sequence in which to perform them. Practice makes launching safe, efficient and almost second nature to those who participate fully. Lifeboat training must be so thorough that the crew performs correctly in spite of the confusion or excitement that always accompanies an emergency. For these reasons, U.S. law requires weekly drills. Future emphasis will assure that these drills provide thorough, realistic training sessions. Although lifesaving gear on most vessels is as we describe it, handling this equipment involves active, heavy labor and is not always as easy as it seems. Do not assume that, because you know how any given piece of equipment should work, it will work that way when you most need it. Thats Murphys Law! Each lifeboat installation has its own quirks that you may discover the hard way if you do not actively participate in the required drills completely and diligently. Naval architects design merchant vessels to resist damage in an accident. Consequently, the Master may deem it best for all hands to stay aboard for their own safety and that of the ship. Consequently, you must never abandon ship before the Master or properly designated ships officer gives the order. Launching a lifeboat with mechanical davits. This list is a typical sequence of events in launching a lifeboat using mechanical davits although it may not fit every possible lifeboat installation: Remove the lifeboat cover and its supporting ridgepole and framework to give access to the interior of the lifeboat. Put the cap on the automatic drain plug(s) to be certain that water cannot flow back past the ball valve and enter the lifeboat. Lead the sea painter forward and inside the fall and make it fast outboard and clear of all obstructions. A rhyme to remember on how to lead the sea painter is: lead the sea painter inside the falls and outboard of all. All refers to all other lines. Release the outboard gripes first. If the lifeboat swings, the person assigned this task may be knocked overboard if he releases the inboard gripes first. With the falls taut and secured to the appropriate cleats (or cruciform bitts, or winches), release the inboard gripes and the keel locking bar (or the chocks). Since the locking bar no longer clamps the lifeboat keel in place, it is free to move. When the ship rolls, the lifeboat will swing out from the davit heads! Be sure to keep any swinging under control. You may now crank out the davits, with the boat suspended from them. The chocks supporting the lifeboat are sufficiently high above the deck. When the falls are taut, you need not hoist the boat to clear the edge of the deck. In an emergency, you must count on hoisting
USMMA GMATS
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QMED
LIFEBOAT
by hand and without the benefit of power. This could be an insurmountable problem if they are too few people to overcome it when time has run out. After you crank the lifeboat davits outboard, lower the lifeboat to the embarkation deck so passengers and crew can board. With mechanical davits, it is often desirable to crank the davits back inboard slightly. Then the lifeboat can be frapped snugly (i.e., held against the side of the ship). This allows persons to enter the boat without jumping across a space between the boat and ships deck. You may have to crank out davit arms afterwards to keep the lifeboat farther off the ships side as you lower it. If the ship is pitching as well as rolling, lead frapping lines fore and aft as well as athwartships. This prevents the loaded lifeboat from surging excessively. With all persons aboard, crank the davits as far out as necessary so the lifeboat can descend directly to the water. Tend the frapping lines, and lower the boat. In heavy weather, the boat crew may have to fend off the ships side if the ship rolls. Use fenders made of mattresses, tires or other available material to cushion impacts and protect the lifeboats hull from crushing, tearing and abrasion. Although a survival craft is sturdy, it is as delicate as an egg shell compared to the forces the sea may array against it. Sometimes, you will have to rig skates to allow the lifeboat to roll down the ships listing hull. When the boat touches the water, the coxswain will order the 180 rotation of the releasing gear lever at the right moment. This releases both ends of the lifeboat from the falls at the same time. After releasing the falls, the lifeboat can hold along side a moving ship with her sea painter. Persons who remained aboard ship to lower the lifeboat can climb down a Jacobs ladder or use the manropes into the lifeboat and abandon ship. Beware of the falls which are now swinging freely. A wildly swinging block can bash your brains in or knock you overboard. Falls are heavy and gather momentum as the ship rolls. They are a lethal hazard to everybody in a launched lifeboat! Wearing a hard hat is a rare but common sense precaution a safer alternative than relying on a hard head! Heavy seas may prevent the lifeboat from staying alongside the ship. Hopefully, under such circumstances, each crewmen, who may have remained on deck, can throw a heaving line to the lifeboat. After securing himself to one end of the heaving line, he can enter the water and be pulled aboard the lifeboat. This is a very risky proposition and much easier said than done!
Launching a lifeboat with gravity davits - For lifeboats handled by gravity davits, certain different steps are necessary: Remove the boat cover and its supporting ridgepole and framework. Cap the automatic drain to prevent the lifeboat from taking water when launched. Lead the sea painter forward and inboard of the falls; but, make it fast outboard and clear of all other obstructions. Remove the Harbor Pin (a stopper bar) if the vessel is in port. Release the outboard gripes first! Raise the winch brake handle. The two davits arms holding the suspended lifeboat should roll down the trackway together to their outboard positions.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
Lower the lifeboat to the embarkation deck where two tricing pendants will pull the lifeboat to the ships side and hold it there safely during embarkation. However, apply the brake before the tricing pendants assume all of the weight. Before passengers and crew enter the boat at the embarkation deck, pass and tighten frapping lines around the falls to control swinging that may result from pitching, rolling and embarking passengers. When all persons enter the lifeboat and take their seats, release the hooks on the tricing pendants and ease the lifeboat outboard by slacking the frapping lines. If you release the tricing pendants without observing these precautions, the lifeboat may swing out violently. This risks spilling its occupants into the sea. Launching and recovering a lifeboat with the Miranda system - In addition to the protection it affords a survival craft during launch and recovery, the Miranda system offers other advantages: You can launch a survival craft with the parent vessel in a 30 high or low side list accompanied by 15 trim either fore or aft. This exceeds SOLAS regulation III/48 that requires davits to function at a 20 list and 10 trim in either direction. (U.S. regulations only specify 15 list and 10 trim.) The cradle allows personnel to board the survival craft in its fully stowed position. The helmsman controls launching from within the survival craft and not on the ships deck. Passengers do not have to wait for the lifeboat to descend to a different embarkation deck before they can climb aboard. Other than the rubber-tired wheels on the cradle, the Miranda system has very few moving parts. The wheels enable the cradle, with the survival craft mounted in it, to move down trackways, over the side of the ship, and into the water. The survival craft gripes automatically disengage as the boat moves down the trackways. They do not have to be removed manually. The coxswain releases the survival craft from the cradle by actuating a lever inside the craft that operates release hooks at each end at the same time. Because of few moving parts, the maintenance needed to keep a Miranda-type system working well is less than that for mechanical or gravity davit systems. Launching does not require the vessel to be dead in the water. Since the cradle protects the survival craft, launching while the parent vessel still has some way on is possible. Recovery of the lifeboat is simple and quick and can take 3 minutes or less, depending on sea conditions. To hook-up, engage the lightweight snap hook on the recovery pendant to the falls above the cradle and place the other end of the pendant into the release hooks. On hoisting, the snap hooks slide down the falls and become fixed on the head of the cradle. They guide the survival craft back into the cradle. Winches hoist the cradle and the survival craft back to the embarkation deck. A quick and simple procedure transfers the boat to the launching pendant in the cradle and takes place at the davit head. The launch and recovery winch has a centrifugal brake that maintains a constant lowering speed of 120 feet per minute with the survival craft fully loaded. You can adjust this speed to accommodate any necessary changes. The helmsman operates the main fail-safe holding brake from within the craft. This brake can stop the crafts descent at any point by simply
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QMED
LIFEBOAT
releasing the brake control wire. Lowering resumes when the helmsman again pulls the wire. This feature enables the helmsman to release his craft by himself at the most opportune moment in the prevailing sea conditions and immediately steer away from the danger area at maximum speed. For shipyards, the big advantage is the ease of installing the simple Miranda davit.
Operating A Lifeboat After Launching - After a lifeboat loads its full complement and descends to the water, it must get clear of the ship. If the ship is making way, use the sea painter to sheer away from the ships side. Drills will remind you that, to work properly, you must secure one end of the sea painter a considerable distance forward on the ship. Run the sea painter outboard of all possible obstructions yet inside the forward lifeboat falls so it will not foul them since the falls remain suspended from the ship at launching. Loop but do not tie the sea painter around the forward thwart. Hold it in place with a large wooden toggle pin about one inch in diameter. Run the toggle pin through the large eye splice at the end of the line. Do not use a knot to secure the sea painter to the lifeboat as it could be hard, dangerous or impossible to untie under tension. Fortunately, a hatchet is nearby to help you if you insist on learning this lesson the hard way! Secure the toggle pin to the lifeboat with a small line or lanyard so it does not fly off and injure someone when released under tension. If the ship is making way through the water, the sea painter acts to sheer (i.e., steer) the bow of the lifeboat away from the ship. At the most opportune moment, you must release the sea painter from the lifeboat by pulling out the toggle pin. If the ship is dead in the water, you must use your two boat hooks to fend off the ship and then row, hand propel or motor the survival craft away from the ship. Lifeboatman Skills - Some of the skills that you, as a lifeboatman, must develop and demonstrate are the ability to handle a lifeboat under oars. This includes a knowledge of the oar commands described below. You must learn them and give them in a manner that inspires the confidence of your boat crew. You must be able to row using one of the 10 foot pulling oars. You must know how to steer the lifeboat with a 12 foot sweep oar as well as with the tiller. As a lifeboatman you must be able to: Prepare the lifeboat for launching; Supervise the embarkation of passengers; Supervise launching or take part in launching the lifeboat; Be able to maintain and operate all winches, davits, falls, releasing gear and other emergency gear; Serve as the coxswain; Know when (and how) to release the falls; Be able to handle the boat hook at the bow or stern safely and secure the falls when coming alongside; Know how to handle oars and row a lifeboat; Know the oar commands for lifeboats under oars as listed and described in Table 1. Count cadence during rowing to keep the crew rowing together; Abandon ship using the manropes;
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11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
Retrieve the lifeboat; Retrieve a man overboard; And start, operate and troubleshoot a small diesel engine.
If you use the engine or hand-propelling gear, you must not foul the propeller by running over the sea painter. Beware of all other lines hanging over the side or floating in the water. In such an emergency a sharp knife is an indispensable tool. However, it cannot possibly make up for the stupidity of putting the engine in gear before first checking for floating lines! If you foul a line with your propeller, you will probably have to swim under the lifeboat to cut it free. Since clearing a fouled propeller is not always possible under adverse sea conditions, you risk your own survival and the survival of your shipmates by allowing such a thing to happen. Once your lifeboat is clear of the ships side, remain in the general vicinity and rescue other survivors. Quite possibly someone sent a distress signal by radio or gave your present position to other vessels. Rescue vessels have a better chance of locating you if all survival craft stay at their last reported position. Stay together, particularly when you have an EPIRB in operation. Before starting a long voyage in your survival craft from your abandon ship position consider all the facts and circumstances. First of all, the attempt might be totally unnecessary for the reasons stated and could expose the survivors to unnecessary risks and waste their energy needlessly. Lifeboat engines only have fuel to operate for 24 hours. You may need that fuel to maneuver in heavy weather to keep from being swamped rather than start a voyage you cannot finish. Some open lifeboats have a mast and sail. However, they do not have a deep keel or centerboard and have only a small sail area. As a result, you will find it difficult to sail in certain directions and most particularly in a direction from which prevailing winds blow. Rowing a lifeboat for a long distance is a tough job and consumes a great deal of energy. Except under wartime emergencies most great lifeboat passages in history, such as the voyage of Captain Bligh of BOUNTY fame, occurred in warm weather and with the help of steady trade winds. Their craft was constructed for sailing, unlike your unwieldy floating bathtub, and their feat took place in an era when radio, aircraft, and speedy rescue vessels were unknown. As person in charge of a survival craft, you should try to keep morale high and to make survivors as comfortable as possible. Try to overcome the fact that the survival craft was not designed for comfort, just to save your life! Signaling equipment should be ready, and used only when you sight a rescue vessel or aircraft or believe one is in the vicinity. Hoist metal objects as high as possible to serve as radar reflectors to assist radar-equipped rescue ships locate your lifeboat.
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QMED
LIFEBOAT
TABLE 1 - OAR COMMANDS FOR LIFEBOATS UNDER OARS

COMMAND Stand by the oars Up oars Let fall ACTION Lift oars off thwarts; place blades flat on the forward gunwales; push oars forward until handles are over respective thwart Lift oars to vertical position. Trim blades fore and aft with the handles resting on the footings Let oars fall into the oarlocks, (i.e., rowlocks), using the crook of your outboard arm to control the oars descent. Trim the oars horizontally with the blades trimmed fore and aft. Move the blades of the oars forward; dip about halfway into the water and start the stroke. At end of stroke, feather* the blades fore and aft; push forward, and take another stroke. Continue rowing. [Vocabulary: Feather = Bring the blade of your oar parallel to the waters surface to reduce wind resistance.] Complete the stroke; stop rowing; bring oars horizontal at right angles to the keel; hold blades flat, trimmed fore and aft. (Port, Row in astern motion.
Give way
Oars Back Water Starboard or All) Hold Water
Complete the stroke; stop rowing; dip the blade about halfway into the water. Hold the oar in that position to stop the way on the boat. Stern All When rowing in ahead motion, complete the stroke; then commence to backwater, gradually dipping the blades deeper in the water. Way Enough When pulling ahead, complete the stroke; raise the oars with the crook of your elbow to about 30 degrees above the horizontal; swing the blades forward; and place the oars in the boat. In Bows The bowmen complete the stroke, swing their oars forward and boat their oars; then stand by with boathooks to pickup the sea painter or boat painter. Boat the oars From oars or from toss oars positions, place the oars in the boat with blades forward. Out oars Place oars in the oarlocks directly from boat the oars or from the stand by oars position. Stand by to give way This term is used in racing. Push the blades to the forward position, slightly dipped and ready for an instant start. Trail oars Bring the blades of the oars alongside the boat but leave them trailing in the water in single-banked boats fitted with swivel rowlocks. Toss Oars Complete the stroke; come to oars position; raise the oars smartly to the vertical, resting the handles on the footings and trimming the blades fore and aft. Give way port, back water These commands will allow you to turn the boat without making give starboard; way port, hold water starboard way ahead or astern. Give way port, hold water starboard
RETRIEVING A LIFEBOAT Picking up a survival craft at sea can present as many problems as launching it. The best way is to maneuver the survival craft ahead and to leeward of the ship. Keep the wind broad on the ships bow. Next, have the ship overtake the lifeboat with both making way through the water on parallel courses. Then, pass a sea painter from the ship to the survival craft. After securing the painter, stop the lifeboats propeller or boat the oars. Bring the lifeboat alongside the ship using the rudder or steering oar. The ship can continue to
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make way slowly. Secure the sea painter around the forward thwart. You can overcome the lifeboats tendency to sheer off by using a strap from the stem around the painter and hove close. After you hook the falls (with due regard for your crewmens fingers) hoist the survival craft clear of the water. Most of the crew can climb the ladder and board the ship. Those remaining in the boat should grip the manropes for safety during hoisting. If you are hoisting a lifeboat with gravity davits, lift the boat to a position where you can attach the two tricing pendants. Next, lower the boat to the embarkation deck where the passengers and crew still in the boat can get out. Then winch the lifeboat up to its stowed position. Be sure to use the hand cranks to move the lifeboat for the last 12 inches. After it is in the stowed position, the crew can get back in the boat to pass gripes, replace the ridgepole and framework, secure the cover, etc. EMERGENCY POSITION-INDICATING RADIO BEACONS (EPIRB) - Summoning assistance at sea. Although an EPIRB is an excellent high-tech tool for summoning assistance at sea, you should use it to call for help only after all other methods fail or when an emergency denies you the use of a more conventional method. Although there are many other ways to call for assistance at sea, most require some degree of pre-planning. Often Coast Guard inspected vessels are in a more favorable position than uninspected vessels because most of the equipment to signal a distress situation is required by law to be on the vessel and its condition is checked regularly. Required equipment on inspected vessels includes VHF and/or SSB radios that use international distress frequencies, the latest EPIRBs, and pyrotechnics (i.e., flares) that display smoke during the day or a distinctive flame at night. Pyrotechnics have expiration dates that a Coast Guard inspector checks to determine serviceability during an annual equipment inspection. Not only must all lifesaving equipment on an inspected vessel be in place, properly stowed, and serviceable, but it must be Coast Guard approved equipment. This means, in effect, that there is an excellent likelihood the equipment will work properly in an emergency. Many of these safeguards are lacking on uninspected and recreational vessels where the dollar is king and safety may be only a passing consideration. In 1990, the Coast Guard took a significant step in establishing meaningful safety equipment rules for documented fishing vessels and now plans to license their operators. If you are a commercial vessel operator on a Great Lakes, ocean or coastwise route, statistics strongly indicate that you need an EPIRB and that it is worth every penny you pay for it! Besides, federal regulations now make carrying an EPIRB a requirement on many commercial vessels. How far offshore you operate will, statistically speaking, determine how badly you need this piece of equipment. Obviously, the farther offshore you go, the more you need it. For commercial fishermen, the fishing area you work in makes a big difference. Background. EPIRBs are small, low-power radio transmitting devices designed to activate only when a vessel is in distress. All EPIRBs operate by using independent batteries and depend upon maintaining these batteries within their expiration dates and in top condition. When activated, an
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EPIRB transmits a radio signal from the vessels location. When rescue comes, the signal allows the Coast Guard to home-in on your position using radio direction finder (RDF) equipment. EPIRBs were originally designed for the aviation industry as Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT) to help in locate downed aircraft. Because they worked, they were adapted to and have proven to be very successful in the marine field. In the mid-1960s, EPIRBs were first marketed for commercial and offshore recreational boating use. They have evolved into required lifesaving equipment aboard almost all manned inspected and uninspected commercial vessels which operate more than 20 miles offshore. One of the shortcomings of the first generation EPIRBs is that an aircraft, ship or shore station must be within range and must be listening when your Class X or Class B EPIRB activates in an emergency. However, Coast Guard stations do not routinely monitor the frequencies used by these EPIRBs. Because of their low transmitting power and the line-of-sight nature of EPIRB signal propagation, it would not be worthwhile to equip shore installations to continuously monitor these frequency bands since each receiving station could only provide 20 to 30 miles of coverage. Class A and Class B EPIRB transmitters are advertised to have a range of up to 200 miles. Since the power output is low, usually limited to several tenths of a watt, this range is directly related to the altitude of the receiving antenna. To obtain the maximum advertised range, the receiving aircraft would have to be above 35,000 feet. At this altitude, these figures translate into 125,000 square miles of ocean coverage. These figures sound very impressive but, remember that the system only works if someone is listening. This brings up another major problem with first generation EPIRBs. There are many aircraft flying, even on international flights, which simply may not be listening. The regulations that pertain to monitoring the 121.5 mHz frequency are written by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Annex 10 entitled Aeronautical Telecommunications states that aircraft on long over-water flights shall continuously guard 121.5 mHz except for periods of carrying out other VHF communications, or when equipment limitations or cockpit duties do not permit guarding. This certainly leaves a lot of leeway! Furthermore, as long-range aircraft approach more crowded airspace in coastal areas, they simply may not have time to tune in. Should an emergency occur, it is nice to know that this last-resort device will increase your chances of rescue. Unfortunately, as tests revealed in the late 1980s, FCC minimum performance standards were not sufficient to assure users that existing first-generation EPIRBs could perform their intended functions under all conditions normally encountered in offshore search and rescue operations. Serious flaws resided in existing equipment, design and manufacturing procedures that required immediate correction. Although emergency recalls and corrections were made, these discoveries accelerated the replacement of the first generation EPIRBs. In fact, you should not even consider purchasing a Class A or Class B EPIRB manufactured before October 1, 1988. Each unit manufactured after that date should carry a label stating that it meets new FCC requirements. If in doubt, dont buy it at any price. THE EPIRR PACKAGE - As illustrated in Figure 03, a typical Class A EPIRB consists of 90 percent battery and flotation material since the electronic circuit is very simple and takes up
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very little space. All EPIRBs are supposed to be designed and manufactured to withstand temperature extremes, shock loads, and a hostile environment. They are designed to be selfbuoyant and to operate for a minimum of 48 hours. Many units will transmit for considerably longer periods, even up to a week, in moderate climates where the battery operates at its peak performance.
FIGURE 03 - A TYPICAL CLASS A7 EPME. THIS FIRST-GENERATION EPIRB WILL SOON BE REPLACED BY A SECOND-GENERATION CATEGORY 1 406 MHZ EPIRB. ALL EPIRBS REQUIRE PERIODIC INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE TO ASSURE PROPER FUNCTIONING IN AN EMERGENCY. YOUR LIFE MAY DEPEND UPON A PROMPT RESCUE AIDED BY A PROPERLY FUNCTIONING EPIRB. READ THE BEACONS INSTRUCTION BOOK CAREFULLY BECAUSE UNSUPERVISED, CARELESS OR NEGLIGENT OPERATION MAY RESULT IN FALSELY ALERTING SEARCH AND RESCUE FORCES.
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Note: The unit shown in phantom (ie. by dotted lines) demonstrates the EPIRBs float-off characteristics if a vessel sinks. However, it must be mounted so that there is no obstruction above it to prevent it from floating free.)
FIGURE 04 - A TYPICAL CATEGORY 1 EPIRB - ALTHOUGH THESE BEACONS COME IN A VARIETY OF SHAPES AND SIZES, IMPORTANT ELECTRONIC CIRCUITRY CHANGES DISTINGUISH THEM FROM EARLIER CLASS A7 EPIRBS. If an emergency occurs and other means of communications are still available, by all means use your radio-telephone first! If you do use a first generation EPIRB, turn it on, leave it on, and hope someone flies within range. If you turn the unit on and off in a mistaken attempt to try to save the battery, you are not allowing the system to work properly. Once detected, it may take many hours or even days for help to arrive. Since SAR forces will use RDF equipment to homein on the transmitters location, its signal must broadcast continuously. Satellites replace aircraft. In the late-1970s a number of countries became interested in the concept of using satellites equipped with suitable receivers to detect and locate emergency transmissions from aircraft and ships in distress. This mutual interest led to the formation of the COSPAS-SARSAT* Project, an international joint venture in satellite-aided search and rescue. The original partners in this joint venture were Canada, France, the United States and the Soviet Union. These countries currently operate the COSPAS-SARSAT system. [*Vocabulary: COSPAS is a Russian acronym meaning Space System for the Search of Vessels in Distress. SARSAT is an American acronym meaning Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking.] At the time of this writing, 23 countries are actively participating in the COSPAS-SARSAT system and became parties to an international agreement signed in Paris in 1988. The signatories
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agreed that the system was fully operational and had great potential to serve all mankind on a non-discriminatory basis free of charge. Simply stated, the concept involves the use of multiple satellites in low, near-polar orbits that constantly listen for distress transmissions. Any distress signals the satellites receive are relayed to a network of dedicated ground stations where the location of the emergency can be determined by measuring the Doppler shift between the satellite, with its precisely known orbit, and the distress signal. This information is then relayed to a national Mission Control Center (MCC) which assigns the mission to the appropriate regional Rescue Coordination Center (RCC). The selected RCC then begins the actual search and rescue operation in accordance with conventional practice. This is illustrated by Figure 05. Within this general concept of using satellites for search and rescue purposes, two experiments were conducted. The first experiment was designed to serve aircraft and vessels already equipped with Class A and Class B EPIRBs and ELT operating on 121.5 and 243.0 mHz. This service was limited, however, by the unsuitable characteristics of many of these transmitters. Unfortunately, signals from existing aircraft emergency locator transmitters (ELI) and EPIRB transmitters operating at 121.5 and 243.0 mHz cannot be processed on board the satellite. They must be immediately rebeamed to a ground station. For this to occur, the satellite must be in simultaneous line-of-sight contact of both the ELT or EPIRB and the ground station. Consequently, regional coverage is necessary for first generation beacons that operate only on the traditional 121.5 and 243 mHz. The satellites, using repional coverage with existing EPIRBs transmitting on 121.5 and 243.0 mHz, can provide a location accuracy of 10-20 kilometers (i.e., 6-12 miles). The second experiment tested a new system operating on 406.025 mHz (hereinafter called simply 406 mHz). The 406 mHz transmissions have an advantage in that they can be received, processed and stored on board the satellite itself. The stored data can then be transmitted to the ground on command as soon as a ground station is in view in a time frame of between a minimum of 16 and a maximum of 112 minutes! The system thus provides fullorbit or global coverage by satellites that are continuously listening for distress traffic. The new 406 mHz system can pinpoint the site of the distress within two to five kilometers (i.e., 1-3 miles) - a great improvement over the first generation. The second experiment using transmitters operating on 406 mHz was designed specifically for satellite detection and provides greatly improved capabilities. Consequently, this experiment served as the technical basis for the gradual evolution of a highly-effective globally-accessible system, in effect the second generation of rescue beacons. The first two spacecraft in the series were launched in 1983 on a 15-month demonstration and evaluation phase to determine how effective the new system was. In only 5 years from that date, an operational COSPASSARSAT system became a reality. Hopefully, this will lead to almost instantaneous response to an emergency, regardless of location. However, it will require mariners to make an expensive investment in new equipment and replace the entire first generation of EPIRBs.
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An early report* indicated that COSPAS-SARSAT really works. On November 2,1982 at 0300 hours five Americans in a small sailing vessel struck a reef in the Caribbean Sea north of Puerto Rico. A Soviet satellite detected the vessels EPIRB signal on one of its passes and relayed it to a ground station. The ground station, in turn, notified the Coast Guard. A helicopter was sent to the area, picked up the EPIRB signal, and at 1400 hours, lifted the five sailors to safety. They were found within 10 miles of the position indicated by the satellite. The Coast Guard confirmed that the satellite alert and location provided the only data used in this rescue. There were almost no overflyine aircraft in this very remote area, and it is likely that without the satellite data the EPIRB batteries would have been exhausted before the survivors were detected. [*Refer to LCDR JL Millsaps, Rescues from Outer Space Proceedings of the Marine Safety Council July 1983, pgs. 151-155.1 According to a report furnished by NOAA, over 3000 people have been rescued by the COSPAS-SARSAT system since the first save in 1982.
FIGURE 05 - AN OVERVIEW OF THE COSPAS-SARSAT SYSTEM. A 406 MHZ DISTRESS SIGNAL IS TRANSMITTED BY A CATEGORY 1 OR CATEGORY 2 EPIRB OR AN AIRCRAFT ELECTRONIC LOCATOR TRANSMITTER (ELI) TO AN ORBITING SARSAT OR COSPAS SATELLITE. THE SIGNAL IS BRIEFLY STORED AND RE-BROADCAST TO A LOCAL USER TERMINAL (LUT) ANTENNA SITE ON THE GROUND WHEN IT COMES IN VIEW OF THE SATELLITE. THE SIGNAL IS PASSED ALONG TO A NATIONAL MISSION CONTROL CENTER (MCC) WHERE IT IS ASSIGNED TO THE APPROPRIATE REGIONAL RESCUE COORDINATION CENTER (RCC). IBE RCC THEN DISPATCHES SEARCH AND RESCUE (SAR) FORCES. THE SAR FORCES HOME IN ON THE 121.5 OR 243.0 ML-LZ SIGNAL THAT IS ALSO BEING BROADCAST BY THE SATELLITE EPIRB OR ELT.
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FIGURE 06 - THE UNITED STATES MISSION CONTROL CENTER (USMCC). THE NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION HAS NOW BECOME THE LEAD AGENCY FOR THE SEARCH AND RESCUE, SATELLITE AIDED TRACKING (SARSAT) PROGRAM AND CURRENTLY OPERATES THE USMCC AT SUITLAND, MD. THEY WILL ALSO ACQUIRE ALL NEW LOCAL USER TERMINALS (LUT). EACH COAST GUARD DISTRICT (CGD) AND CERTAIN AIR FORCE UNITS OPERATE THE RESCUE COORDINATION CENTERS AS ILLUSTRATED. The bottom line. [Edited front an article by LCDR Jonathan Embler, USCG as published in On Scene a U.S. Coast Guard publication.] An EPIRB is certainly not a cure-all for emergency rescue. However, it is, without question, an important addition to any vessels survival equipment.
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GENERAL TYPES OF LIFEBOATS a. Type Lifeboats are usually or double-ended construction 1. Boats of this type are best suited for general use: they are most seaworthy, less apt to broach to, easier to steer, etc. 2. Boats may be constructed of steel, aluminum, fibrous glass reinforced plastic (FRP) or other approved material. All lifeboats are required to be of an approved type in accordance with USCG specifications 3. Propulsion a. They are propelled by oars and no sails required b. Many are propelled by hand-propelling gear (reciprocating hand levers which operate a propeller) no sails required c. Some are motor-propelled no sails required 4. Boats are fitted with sufficient air tanks or buoyancy units to keep the boat afloat if swamped or capsized b. Size and Capacity of Lifeboats for Ships in Ocean Service 1. All lifeboats certified to carry 60 or more but not over 100 persons shall be either motor lifeboats or shall be fitted with an approved type of hand propelling gear. Lifeboats carrying more than 100 persons shall be motor lifeboats. 2. Boats with a capacity of 59 persons or less may be propelled by motor, handpropelling gear or by oars and sail 3. Lifeboats are at least 24 feet in length except in special cases when approved by the Commandant, USCG. In no case, however, is a lifeboat less than 16 feet in length. c. Emergency Boats 1. One lifeboat on each side of passenger ships is of suitable size and design for performing emergency and rescue work at sea. 2. Normally, such lifeboats are not over 28 feet in length LIFESAVING EQUIPMENT a. USCG Requirements for Passenger Ships Lifesaving equipment varies with the type of ship and is specified in USCG regulations. In general, passenger ships are required to be equipped with: 1. Lifeboats Sufficient to accommodate all persons aboard 100 percent 2. Liferafts Sufficient liferafts to accommodate 25 percent of the persons onboard and buoyant apparatus for 3% of the persons onboard 3. Life preservers For all persons aboard plus 10% for children 4. Ring life buoys in accordance with a table based upon length of ship. A specified number have waterlights attached. Ships 400 to 600 feet long have 18 ring buoys, 9 with waterlights. 5. Line-throwing equipment 6. Distress signals 7. Lifesaving equipment carried; refer to Certificate of Inspection for general data. b. Cargo Ships, Tank Vessel and Oceanographic Vessels 1. Cargo Ships International voyage and over 1,600 gross tons shall carry lifeboats on each side to accommodate all persons onboard, on of which shall be motor propelled. (46 CFR 94.10-10)
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c.
d.
e. f.
g. h.
i.
Tank Vessels International voyage and over 1,600 gross tons/350 shall carry lifeboats on each side to accommodate all persons onboard provided that tankships having superstructure amidships and propelling machinery aft shall be provided with at least four lifeboats, one on each side aft and one on each side amidships. On each side at least one lifeboat shall be a class one motor lifeboat. (46 CFR 33.02-1) 3. Oceanographic Vessels International voyage/over 1,600 gross tons shall carry lifeboats on each side to accommodate all persons onboard, one of which shall be motor-propelled. (46 CFR 192.10-10) 4. Each vessel on an international voyage must carry liferafts of sufficient aggregate capacity to accommodate at least 50 percent of the persons onboard. Those vessels that have widely separated accommodations or working spaces must have at least one liferaft in each such location. The SOLAS changes effective in 1986 require new ships begun after July 1, 1986 to carry liferafts for 100% of the persons onboard. Ships constructed before July 1, 1986 will be required to carry liferafts for 100% of the persons on board effective July 1, 1991. 5. Vessels not on an international voyage may substitute inflatable liferafts for lifeboats as specified in the regulation for each vessel type. Exposure Suits One must be carried for each person aboard plus one suit for each person normally working the watch or workstation away from their quarters and not readily accessible. The suits are not required to be carried on ships operating only in warm climates. Enclosed Lifeboats Required on most ships constructed after July 1, 1986. Enclosed lifeboats must be capable of being loaded while still in the stowed position and then launched from within the lifeboat requiring any crewmember to be left on the ship. Lifejackets USCG required that all ships have an approved lifejacket for each person carried plus two lifejackets in each lifeboat. Work-type Lifejackets Work-type lifejackets are of unicellular plastic foam, much less bulky and cumbersome than regular lifejackets. They are used by ships force in work where there is danger of falling overboard. Work-type lifejackets are not at present USCG required but are permitted to be carried aboard. Work jackets are not authorized for use during UNREP operations. Standard Navy lifejackets will be used in accordance with NWP-14. Other Lifesaving Equipment Other lifesaving equipment is in conformance with USCG requirements Types of Lifeboats 1. Only USCG approved types may be carried in USCG-inspected ships. The doubleended whaleboat with fibrous glass reinforced plastic (FRP) hull is the usual type. All lifeboats aboard MSC ships are USCG-approved, of double-ended construction and subject to annual USCG inspection. 2. Emergency boats are generally motor-propelled, 26 foot whaleboats Numbering and Marking of Boats 1. Boats are designated by numbers, from forward to aft. a. Odd-numbered boats are on the starboard side; even numbered boats are on the port side
2.
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2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
b. Large, older ships may have 2 lifeboats stowed in the same davit. These are nested boats. The lifeboat under number 1 is 1-A. the lifeboat under number 2 is 2-A The ships name , port of registry and the boats number are stenciled on the bow of each in letters and number not less than 3 high The cubic capacity and number of persons allowed is marked on each bow in letters and numbers not less than 1 high. The number of persons allowed also appears on at least two thwarts in letters and numbers at least 3 high. The builders plate shows measurements, cubic and passenger capacity and other information Oars are conspicuously marked (stenciled) with the ships name. Where releasing gear is used, USCG requires that the release lever be painted bright red on white background and have marked on it, in raised letters, DANGERLEVER RELEASES HOOKS. This warning is made even more pointed on the release lever in new boats, with marking DANGER-LEVER DROPS BOATS. In order to make the release lever stand out more sharply against the international orange interior of the lifeboat, the area in way of red release lever, from the keel to the side bench is painted white, to provide a contrasting background for the lever. The band is approximately 12 wide. Failure to know the location, function and operation of this release lever has caused many a lifeboat casualty. Make sure you dont drop a lifeboat through ignorance of the release levers location and function! Remember, the release levers sole purpose is to release (and drop) the boat. Dont touch it except on order of the boat commander. It is operated only when the boat is waterborne; at any other time its operation will drop the boat and you with it!
TYPES OF DAVITS AND MANROPES Demonstrate on actual equipment or use visual aid charts. USCG requires all davits to have two lifeboats (manropes) fitted to a davit span. These manropes are long enough to reach the water at the lightest seagoing draft even with a 15 list. The davits for the emergency boats on passenger ships shall have four such manropes. MSC policy is to provide four manropes on all boats. Davits are arranged so that boats do not require lifting before being swung out. a. Gravity Davit 1. Lowers lifeboat by gravity when the gripes and stopper bars are removed and the brake handle is raised. 2. One man can handle the lowering operation after the boat is cleared away. 3. Tricing pendants bring the boat into the embarkation deck. 4. Frapping lines hold the boat in position for embarkation of passengers after the tricing pendants are cast off. b. Sheath-Screw Davit 1. May be boom-type or crescent type (show appearance of each). 2. Requires cranking boat out over the side prior to lowering. c. Quadrantal Davit. Requires cranking boat out over the side prior to lowering. d. Radial or Round Bar Davit 1. Fitted only in small ships operating in sheltered waters.
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2. The boats bow and forward davit are swung out first, then the stern and the after davit and the davits are guyed in outbound position. e. MIRANDA Gravity Davits 1. Capable of being fully loaded from the stowed position. 2. Capable of being lowered from within the lifeboat without the need to leave a crewmember behind to lower the boat. 3. These davits are not normally fitted with tricing pendants since these pendants would interfere with the continuous launch of the boat from the stowed position. LIFEBOAT CONSTRUCTION a. Lifeboats may be constructed of steel, aluminum, fibrous glass reinforced plastic (FRP), or other approved material. Boats shall be readily maneuverable, have ample stability, sufficient freeboard when fully loaded, maintain positive stability when open to the sea and loaded, and have internal buoyancy. Enclosed lifeboats must be readily opened from both inside and outside and these openings must not impede rapid embarkation, disembarkation or the launching and handling of the boat. b. Metal Construction 1. Most lifeboats in MSC ships are of metal construction. Newer boats are of plastic construction. 2. Plating consists of steel sheets riveted to keel and gunwale, and to each other. PARTS OF A LIFEBOAT a. The parts of a lifeboat are best taught with visual aids. Study the appropriate visual aids with the instructor explaining and leading a discussion of the function of each part. 1. Point out on the visual-aid charts the keel, stem, sternpost, frames, gunwale, thwarts, thwart knees or braces, rowlocks, side benches, stanchions, footings, floor, limberholes, drain hole, lifelines, seine floats, rudder, tiller, pintle, gudgeon, mast clamp, releasing hooks, steering-oar rowlock, etc., and explain the use of each. 2. Use Figure 01 to locate and identify lifeboat nomenclature. FUNCTIONS OF AIR TANKS AND FLOTATION - A sufficient number of suitable capacity are required to keep the boat afloat when filled with water. a. Show on visual-aid charts how located and secured. b. Annual inspection - test for airtightness of tanks. c. Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) lifeboats have built-in foamed-in place flotation, making stripping and inspection of individual buoyancy units unnecessary.
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FIGURE 01 LIFEBOAT NOMENCLATURE
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USCG REGULATIONS AND GENERAL INFORMATION a. Conduct discussion of USCG regulations, where found, and general information, using appropriate visual aids. 1. The USCG regulations used to be found in the CG publications which were printed by the Coast Guard. Due to funding cutbacks, the USCG no longer prints the old familiar publications such as CG-256-Rules and Regs for Passenger Vessels, CG-257 Rules and Regs for Cargo and Misc Vessels, etc. 2. Introduce the student to the Code of Federal Regulations as follows: (a) 46 CFR Parts 70 to 89 Passenger Vessels Regulations (b) 46 CFR Parts 30 to 40 Tank Vessels Regulations (c) 46 CFR Parts 90 to 106 Cargo and Misc Vessels Regulations (d) 46 CFR Parts 188 to 196 Oceanographic Vessels Regulations 3. Explain to the student that even though each class of vessel has its own section within the Code of Federal Regulations, the regulations for lifesaving equipment between one class of vessel and the other are similar and in some cases identical. For the most part, passenger vessel regulations are more severe than for the other classes of vessels, the one exception being that, due to the stringent stability and subdivision requirements, fewer lifeboats are actually required on a passenger vessel for the total persons carried than would be required on other classes of vessels. b. Take up points of general information not previously covered. 1. Lifeline (or grab line) shall be festooned along lifeboat sides in bights not longer than 3 feet, with a seine float in each bight, hanging to within 12 inches of the water when boat is floating light. The float may be on-fitted if the lifeline is of buoyant material which absorbs little or no water. 2. Boats shall be fitted with approved releasing gear, all to be of identical type in any particular ship. Most MSC lifeboats have Rottmer type releasing gear. Warn of the danger of dropping the boat through operation of the release lever before the boat is waterborne. The area in way of the red release lever from the keel to the side bench is painted white, to provide a contrasting background for the lever. c. One lifeboat on each side of passenger ships shall be designated as emergency boat, and shall: 1. Be rigged for immediate use while at sea. 2. Have painters led out and passed forward along the ship. 3. Be provided with at least four knotted lifelines or manropes secured to a span between davit heads. Note that MSC boats all have four manropes. 4. Repairs or alterations shall not be made, except in emergency, to boat, rafts, releasing gear or any other appliance subject to inspection, without advance notice to the Officer in Charge Marine Inspection (OCMI) USCG. 5. A USCG regulation requires the inside of lifeboats to be international orange for better visibility. 6. Each lifeboat shall be in the charge of a licensed deck officer or a certificated lifeboatman; a second in command shall be designated. 7. Boats shall be stowed to provide: (a) Suitable access to prepare them for launching without impeding handling of other lifesaving equipment. (b) Rapid and orderly embarkation.
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(c) Safe and rapid launching in the shortest possible time, far enough aft of the bow and forward of the stern to avoid bow or propeller wash, even under unfavorable conditions of list and trim. (d) Swinging out without lifting boats from their chocks. (e) Use of skates in some cases to facilitate launching against a 15 degrees list. (f) Means outside the machinery space to prevent the overboard discharge of water into the boats while they are being lowered. This is accomplished by baffles to deflect the water down the ships side, or by reach rods or other means to close the discharge openings. 8. All lifesaving equipment is inspected or tested by the USCG at each annual inspection- to ensure its good condition. (a) Each lifeboat is lowered near to the water, loaded to its allowed capacity, and then lowered into the water and released. (b) All lifeboat winch electrical controls are opened up and inspected. (c) Gravity davits are tested to ensure that each boat can be swung out and lowered from any stopped position by merely releasing the brake on the boat winch. The use of force to start the davits or boats is not permitted. 9. Storage covers serve to protect the boats and equipment and ensure their readiness for use, particularly during snow or freezing weather when the boat drains would otherwise become frozen shut and the boats iced up. Because of their size, covers on nested boats are cumbersome to handle and hamper crew maintenance in the lower boat. Storage covers may be taken off and left off in fair weather to facilitate handling of boats during drills, to permit proper maintenance and to ensure readiness for immediate use. Storage covers are not required by the USCG. Therefore, MSC policy limits the use of boat covers to ships operating in regions where freezing weather predominates, and boat covers are necessary to ensure the readiness of lifeboats for immediate use. This is not the same protecting cover required by USCG for each boat.
ABANDON SHIP (Reprinted from Proceedings of the Merchant Marine Council, U.S. Coast Guard.) The master of the SS MYTHICAL gave the order, Abandon ship, and put lifeboat No. 1 in the water! Accordingly, No. 1 was put in the water and loaded with her assigned crew. There was a gurgle and it sank. The order rang out, Put No. 2 in the water! This was done. There was another gurgle and it also sank, leaving its crew floating. Once again the order was given, Put No. 3 in the water! Once again, the familiar gurgle. By this time, the ship had sunk and No. 4 had floated clear with the steward in command. Now, said the steward to his boat crew, we will row slowly among those bobbing heads and rescue only those who had no responsibility for lifeboat maintenance. RADIAL LIFEBOAT DAVITS -
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a.
Explain construction and operation, Figure 02. Radial davits are the oldest type of davit; new ships are fitted with gravity or mechanical davits. 1. The boat is carried on chocks resting on deck under the davits. A guy line is attached to each davit head and a span wire is attached between davit heads to properly space them over the boat, whether rigged inboard or outboard, when the guys are set up and secured. 2. The boats bow and forward davit is swung out first, then the stern and after davit, and the davits are secured in the outboard position by fore-and-aft guys, the davit head span wire providing proper spacing. 3. The boat also may be carried swung outboard, suspended from the davits and griped into a boom, strongback, or the rail. One of the lifeboats on each side of ships fitted with radial davits is required to be carried in this manner while at sea, ready for immediate use. b. Explain duties of boat crew with this type davit. 1. Describe use of gripes to hold the boat in place as the ship rolls or pitches. 2. Go through the steps in the operation of the davits. (a) Clear the boat gripes. (b) Remove the chocks. (c) Slack and tend the guys. Point out that guys should be tended until secured with boat ready to lower. (d) Swing boat aft. (e) Swing bow and forward davit outboard. (f) Swing both davits forward and the stem and after davit outboard. (g) Swing davits aft until boat is in position for lowering. (h) Haul the guys taut and secure them. (i) Lower away boat by slacking the falls evenly. c. It is more difficult to prepare a boat under radial davits for launching than it is with gravity or quadrantal davits. Therefore, at sea the emergency boats with this type are swung outboard and gripped into a boom, strongback or the rail, weather permitting, to ensure their readiness for immediate use. d. Demonstrate with actual davits, if available.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
FIGURE 02 RADIAL OR ROUND BAR DAVIT QUADRANTAL DAVITS a. Explain construction and operation, Figure 03. 1. Boats do not require lifting before being swung out. 2. Lifeboat is carried in chocks on deck between the pair of davits. 3. Davit arms, pivoted near their base, can be cranked outboard by turning cranks which operate a worm gear, thus swinging the boat out over the side to lowering position. 4. Davits for boats of over 5000 lbs. weight fully equipped (without persons) must be of the gravity type. b. Explain duties of crew with this type davit. c. Demonstrate if this type davit is available.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
FIGURE 03 QUADRANTAL DAVIT SHEATH-SCREW DAVITS a. Boom Type. Explain construction and operation Figure 03. 1. Boat is carried on chocks on deck under the davits. 2. Davits are pivoted near their foot and are cranked to the outboard position by a hand crank and sheath-screw gear. b. Crescent Type. Explain construction and operation from Figure 02 1. Boat cradled between the davits. 2. Davit arms are pivoted near their foot, and are cranked to the outboard position by turning cranks which operate the sheath-screw gear. c. Explain and demonstrate duties of crew.
FIGURE 04 SHEATH-SCREW DAVIT
USMMA GMATS
10
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
GRAVITY DAVITS a. General. Explain nomenclature, construction and operation, using Figure 05. 1. Required for boats weighing over 5000 lbs., equipped and without persons. 2. Permits launching, by gravity and without power, by one man after boats are cleared away. 3. Lifeboats are carried cradled between two heavily constructed davit arms. 4. The davit arms are each on two sets of rollers, mounted on tracks set at right angles to the ships side. When released, the rollers permit the davits to roll down the trackways, carrying the boat, outboard to the lowering position. During each boats lowering and recovery, the davit rollers will be checked to ensure that they roll free. 5. Tricing pendants pull the boat in to the embarkation deck as it is lowered. 6. Frapping lines hold the boat in position for embarkation of passengers after the tricing pendants are cast off. They also restrict the boats swinging during lowering. 7. Boat falls are led from winch drums through fairleads to the davit heads and blocks, with chain links for hooking onto the boats release hooks. 8. When hoisted inboard and secured, the weight of the boat is taken by the gripes, the stopper bars and the winch brake and by the floating-block locking hook, which is an integral part of the davit arm near the tip on its under side. 9. Gripes prevent boats swinging in a seaway. b. Discuss operation of the gravity davit, Figure 05. 1. To clear boats away and free davits to roll down the trackways: (a) Remove gripes and stopper bars. (b) Caution: See that power is off the winch and that the trackways are clear. Gently lift the winch-brake lever and the boat and davit-arm assembly will roll down the trackways to the outboard lowering position. (c) Ease the davits down to the outboard stoppers. (d) Raise the brake lever to continue lowering. (e) The tricing pendants will pull the boat in to the embarkation deck. Dont slack the falls entirely as this would put the boats full weight on the tricing pendants. 2. Describe the operation and nomenclature at the davits themselves.
USMMA GMATS
11
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
FIGURE 05 GRAVITY DAVIT Nested Boats 1. When sufficient boats cannot be carried for passenger capacity, boats are nested, a smaller lifeboat being carried above the larger and resting on chocks or broken hinged thwarts in the lower boat. 2. This permits an extra boat with each pair of davits. The one set of falls serves both boats. This arrangement is usually found on large, older ships. 3. The upper boat is held in place by the top boat gripes when secured for sea. 4. Boats shall be stowed in such manner that they are capable of being launched in the shortest possible time. Ten minutes is allowed by the USCG for launching all nested boats on either side of the ship. 5. The top boat remains hung off on its suspension pendants while the bottom boat is being lowered. 6. The falls recovered and used to lower the top boat. 7. In recovering boats, the top boat is hove up and hung off on its suspension pendants. The falls are then overhauled to bring the bottom boat up to nest the top boat. The davits and boats are then hove up together and secured. d. Gripes and Gripe Lever 1. The lower main-boat gripe and the davit-stopper bar are held in place by a lever on each davit arm. 2. To operate, lift the lever keeper, pull the lever out slightly and then down. (a) This action drops the davit-stopper bar and also frees the outboard end of the main gripe at that davit. (b) Lower the main gripes carefully to the deck with a lanyard. c.
USMMA GMATS
12
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
3. Gripes on enclosed lifeboats may be of a self-tending design. The gripes are designed in such a manner that they self release as the boat rides down the davit. This design is necessary to meet the USCG requirement that these boats be capable of being lowered from within the lifeboat without leaving anyone behind on the vessel. e. Winch Controls 1. Lifeboat winches and wire falls are required with gravity davits and when the boat deck is over 20 feet from the lightest seagoing draft. The winches are located near the rail so the winchman can observe the movement of the boat while lowering. 2. Boat winches for gravity davits have grooved drums large enough so there is only one layer of wire on the drums. Winches for mechanical davits need not have grooved drums and may have more than one layer of wire. 3. Winches for nested boats have a quick-return handwheel for rapidly recovering the falls by hand power in event of a power failure. 4. Fabric covers must be provided for lifeboat winches where ice conditions are likely to be encountered. 5. A winch hoists the boat onboard. Demonstrate the winch controls at the winch (a) It is fitted with a brake drum and brake to control the speed of lowering. Raising the brake lever lowers away by gravity without requiring power. A governor brake is installed in the winch to control the speed of lowering boats to not over 40 feet per minute (light) and not more than 120 feet per minute (loaded) even though the hand brake lever is released completely. However, the boats lowering must be slowed by means of the hand-brake lever just before the davit arms reach the outboard stoppers and just before the boat reaches the water. (b) Power to the winch (for hoisting) passes through and is controlled by an operating control. A spring returns the operating control to off position when the control is released (see Figure 07). (c) Before current reaches the operating control, it is led through an emergency disconnect switch. This is kept in the off position at all times except when actually hoisting the boat or recovering the falls. (d) A quick-return handwheel can be placed on the winch shaft to recover the falls by hand in event of a power failure. (e) A hand crank can be placed on the geared winch shaft. This hand crank used to hoist the davits the last foot to their full stowed position. It is constructed so that, if power is accidentally applied while the crank is engaged, the crank will not turn. (f) A small handwheel is used to pay out the falls to provide more slack, if necessary, when hooking on the falls to recover the boat. (g) The purpose of the emergency disconnect switch is to prevent power being inadvertently applied when the quick-return handwheel or the hand crank is being used. This is an important safety precaution. It also serves as a secondary means of cutting power off the winch when hoisting in event of jamming of the operating control and limit switch. 6. Describe the operation and nomenclature of the winch and its controls. Stress the importance of observing all safety precautions. (a) Operate the winch only on orders of the boat commander. (b) Keep the emergency disconnect switch off except when hoisting.
USMMA GMATS
13
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
(c) Never apply power to the winch when using the handwheel or crank. (d) Do not raise the brake lever while cranking the boat up with the geared hand crank. (e) The winch for an enclosed lifeboat installation is designed in such a manner that a small drum is attached to the same shaft as the main winch drum. A stainless steel control cable is wound on this small drum and fairleaded to the winch brake handle and then up to the lifeboat. By pulling on this stainless steel control cable, the winch brake handle can be raised while the crewmember is in the lifeboat. f. Limit Switch 1. Explain the purpose and demonstrate the use of the limit switch using Figure 06 and by practical demonstration at the davits. (a) A limit switch is located under each trackway about a foot from the upper stopper bar bracket. Two are installed on each set of davits, one on each trackway so that either switch will cut off the power even if the davits should come up unevenly. (b) The purpose of the limit switch is to automatically shut off power to the winch before the davits are hoisted up too far. Failure to stop the davits in time will damage the davits and their hoisting equipment. Heaving the davits up hard against the stops may part the falls, allow the davits to run free down the trackways, and drop the boat into the water. (c) The limit switch is a safeguard against mechanical and human failure. If not properly maintained, it may fail to serve this purpose. It must not be used as an automatic stopper. (d) White witness marks are painted or placed on the davit trackways and davit arms as outlined in COMSC painting instructions. One excellent method of marking these witness marks is by plexiglass lettered vertically from the back with ST on the davit arm and OP on the trackway so that they form STOP when lined up (see Figure 06). White luminous tape placed on the back of the plexiglass improves its visibility at night. (e) When the witness marks line up, stop power hoisting. Then turn the emergency disconnect switch off before inserting the hand crank. The davits must be handcranked up the last foot until the davit stopper bar is up against the upper stopper bar bracket. Hoisting by hand is hard. However, there is no easy safe way. 2. Operation of limit switch. (a) The davit-arm striker rides up on the contact breaker. This is a wheel which is held up by a weight or by spring tension. (b) The davit striker depresses the wheel. This throws the limit switch and shuts off power to the winch. (c) Adjustment of the limit switch must not be changed. (d) Repairs are made by authorized personnel only. (e) Limit switches should be tested each time the boats are hoisted. This can be done by momentarily pulling down on each contact-breaker wheel while hoisting the boat (while the boat is well clear of its stowed position) to see that the power cuts off.
USMMA GMATS
14
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
FIGURE 06 GRAVITY DAVIT LIMIT SWITCH
FIGURE 07 LIFEBOAT WINCH CONTROLS
USMMA GMATS
15
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
g.
Tricing Pendants 1. Explain use of the tricing pendants to trice boats in to the embarkation or boat decks, using Figure 08 and demonstrate its use on a lifeboat. (a) They consist of wire pendants shackled to each davit arm and secured to each fall block by a trip hook called a tricing-pendant trip hook (formerly called MacCluney hook). (b) The tricing pendants must be kept secured to the boats fall block, so that the boat is ready for immediate use. As the boat is swung out and lowered, the tricing pendants will automatically trice the boat in to the embarkation or boat deck, ready to be frapped in so that passengers can board. (c) Tricing pendant trip hooks are fitted with a short tripping line, so arranged that the hook may be tripped from within the boat. 2. Purpose of tricing pendants. Boats under gravity davits, when swung outboard, are suspended too far from the ships side for safe embarkation of passengers. Therefore, gravity davits are equipped with tricing pendants to pull the boats in alongside. Frapping lines hold the boats in after the tricing pendants are tripped and while the rest of the boat crew and passengers embark. (a) When lowering a boat, the tricing pendants automatically pull the boat in alongside the embarkation deck to facilitate embarkation of passengers. USCG requires the davits and equipment to be capable of launching the boats even under a 15 degrees list. Ships constructed after July 1, 1986 require launching gear operation at up to a 20 degree list. Under such conditions, tricing pendants are particularly important since boats on the low side could not otherwise be snubbed in to the embarkation deck. The falls must not be slackened too much as this would put the boats full weight on tricing pendants. (b) Before embarking passengers, the frapping lines are passed and secured to hold the boat in to the ships side during embarkation. (c) The tricing pendants are let go by a pull on the short lanyard attached to each tricing pendant trip hook. A sharp downward pull on the trip line by a man in the boat will trip the hook and let go the tricing pendant. Tricing pendants must not be let go until the frapping lines have been passed and secured to hold the boat in. (d) The tricing pendant trip hooks are tripped separately since the boat will swing when this is done. The bow and stern tenders must therefore be seated at the time. The only function of the tricing pendants is to bring the boats in to the embarkation deck so that the frapping lines can be secured to hold them there. The tricing pendants must be cast off before the boats can be lowered further. They are tripped before the embarkation of passengers to avoid frightening passengers when the boat jerks and also to avoid excessive swinging of the loaded boat. (e) Enclosed lifeboat installations typically do not have a tricing pendant. These boats are not designed to be loaded at the embarkation deck and therefore there is no need to swing these boats into this deck after the davit arm has swung out. The enclosed lifeboats are designed to be lowered directly to the water from the stowed position. h. Frapping Lines. Show frapping lines and explain their use and purpose from Figure 08 and at the davits.
USMMA GMATS
16
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
1. Manila frapping lines nave been superseded in MSC ships by improved wire-strap frapping lines. Manila frapping lines had an eye splice in one end and were long enough to permit their use doubled. Even so, they would become badly frayed after use in one or two launchings. Therefore wire-strap frapping lines have been adopted for use in MSC ships. 2. Frapping lines authorized for MSC ships will consist of wire strap secured to the falls by shackles, snap hooks or sister hooks (twin hooks) of adequate size and strength and with a manila hauling line spliced to the bight of the strap. Shackles will be used to secure the wire strap to the falls where the shackles can be left in place with the falls two-blocked and the boats stowed (see Figure 08). Snap hooks or sister hooks will be used instead of shackles where the shackles cannot be left in place on the falls. Frapping lines will be kept in the boat ready for use. Where sister hooks are used, they will be moused after they have been hooked onto the falls. 3. After the boat has been lowered to the embarkation deck and brought into position alongside by the tricing pendants, the bow and stern tenders will assure that the wirestrap frapping lines are either shackled on or hooked on above the fall blocks, depending upon whether fitted with shackles or hooks. Sister hooks will be moused after being hooked onto the falls. Bow and stern tenders then pass the manila ends of the frapping lines to the frapping line tenders who heave taut and secure the frapping lines. 4. The purpose of the frapping lines is to hold the boat in position at the rail for passengers to embark after the tricing pendants have been let go. While the boat is being lowered, the frapping lines keep it from swinging in a seaway. 5. Enclosed lifeboat installations do not have provisions for frapping lines since these boats do not have to be swung into the embarkation deck.
USMMA GMATS
17
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
FIGURE 08 TRICING PENDANT AND WIRE STRAP FRAPPING LINE (WITH SISTER HOOKS) i. Boat Falls 1. Boat falls are of sufficient length to lower boats to the water at the ships lightest draft, even while listed 15 degrees to either side. 2. Blocks, falls and all fittings are designed for a minimum safety factor of six. 3. When lifeboat winches are used, falls must be of wire rope. (a) Not more than 2-part wire falls may be used, except in special cases. 4. When lifeboat winches are not used, falls must be of manila rope or equivalent; wire rope may not be used (a) Ships over 1000 gross tons must have covered tubs, boxes or reels for stowage and protection of the falls, and cruciform bits for proper lowering of boats. 5. Boats, davits, falls and gear are tested by lowering with a deadweight load equal to the number of persons allowed (165 lbs. per person) together with weight of equipment, plus 10 percent of the total weight of the boat. j. Manropes. USCG requires that all davit installations have two lifelines (manropes) fitted to a davit span, except that emergency lifeboats have four manropes. 1. Manropes are at least three inches in circumference, knotted every two feet, and must be long enough to reach the water at the ships lightest seagoing draft, even with a 15 degrees list to either side. 2. MSC policy is to provide four manropes on all boats. OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS a. Operating Instructions and Safety Precautions for Lifeboat Winch-Gravity Type- Single
QMED
LIFEBOAT
1. Safety precautions - before launching boat, lifeboat commander will make sure: (a) Boat drains are closed. (b) Sea painter must be led inboard of the falls and outboard of the ship and clear of all obstruction. (c) Release hooks are in normal closed and locked position, fall block links engaged and release lever is secured BEFORE gripes and stopper bars are let go and cleared. (d) Disconnect switch is OFF and hand crank is disengaged. (e) All persons are clear of falls and davits. 2. Operating instructions - (winchman takes orders from lifeboat commander only). (a) To lower boat, raise weighted brake lever. (b) To stop lowering, release brake lever. (c) To hoist boat: 1. Turn disconnect switch to ON. 2. Move operating control to HOIST position. (d) To stop hoisting: 1. Release operating control - spring will return it to OFF. 2. STOP HOISTING when white witness marks on davit and trackway line up. 3. Turn disconnect switch to OFF. 4. Engage hand crank and hoist remaining distance by hand. 3. Safety precautions - general. (a) Never engage hand crank or quick return handwheel while power is turned on. (b) Boat commander assures himself that release hooks are closed, fall block links engaged and release lever is closed and safety toggle pin is in place before permitting the release of the main gripes. (c) Do not allow davits to hit outboard stops hard when lowering. (d) When hooking on boats to retrieve, always keep brake lever in raised (released) position until both falls have been hooked on. (e) Operate only on orders from, and as directed by, the BOAT COMMANDER. (f) Never use limit switch as an automatic stop; it is an emergency safety device only. b. Operating Instructions and Safety Precautions for Lifeboat Winch-Gravity Type Twin Winch (Victory Ships) 1. Safety precautions - before launching boat, lifeboat commander will make sure: (a) Boat drains are closed. (b) Sea painter is led forward and tended. (c) Release hooks are in normal closed and locked position, all block links engaged, and release lever is secured BEFORE gripes and stopper bars are let go and cleared. (d) Disconnect switch is OFF and hand crank is disengaged. (e) Clutch is disengaged. (f) All persons are clear of falls and davits 2. Operating instructions - (winchman takes orders from lifeboat commander only). (a) To lower boat, raise weighted brake lever. (b) To stop lowering, release brake lever.
USMMA GMATS
19
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
(c) To hoist boat: 1. Engage clutch and turn disconnect switch to ON. 3. Move operating control to HOIST position. (a) To stop hoisting. 1 Release operating control - spring will return it to OFF. 2 STOP HOISTING when white witness marks on davit and trackway line up. 3 Turn disconnect switch to OFF and disengage clutch. 4 Engage hand crank and hoist remaining distance by hand. 4. Safety precautions - general. (a) Never engage hand crank while power is turned on. (b) Boat commander assures himself that release hooks are closed, fall block links engaged and release , lever is closed and safety toggle pin is in place before permitting the release of the main gripes. (c) Do not allow davits to hit outboard stops hard when lowering. (d) When hooking on boats to retrieve, always keep brake lever in raised (released) position until both falls have been hooked on. (e) Operate only on orders from, and as directed by, the Boat Commander. (f) Never use limit switch as an automatic stop; it is an emergency device only. c. Operating Instructions and Safety Precautions for Lifeboat Winch-Sheath Screw Type 1. Safety precautions - before launching boat, lifeboat commander will make sure: (a) Boat drains are closed. (b) Sea painter is lead forward and tended. (c) Release hooks are in normal closed and locked position, fall block links engaged and release lever is secured BEFORE gripes are let go and cleared. (d) Disconnect switch is OFF and hand crank is disengaged. (e) All persons are clear of falls and davits. 2. Operating Instructions - winchman takes orders from lifeboat commander only. (a) To lower boat: 1. Crank davits by hand to extreme outboard position. 2. Raise weighted brake lever. (b) To stop lowering, release brake lever. (c) To hoist boat: 1. Turn disconnect switch to ON. 2. Move operating control to HOIST position. (d) To stop hoisting: 1. Release operating control - spring will return it to OFF. 2. When boat is up, stop hoisting and turn disconnect switch to OFF. 3. Crank davits by hand to inboard position. 3. Safety precaution - general. (a) Never engage hand crank while power is turned on. (b) Boat commander assures himself that release hooks are closed, fall block links engaged and release lever is closed and safety toggle pin is in place before permitting the release of the main gripes. (c) When hoisting, approach upper position of travel slowly and carefully. (d) When hooking on boat to retrieve, always keep brake lever in the raised, or released, position until both falls have been hooked on.
USMMA GMATS
20
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
(e) Operate only on orders from, and as directed by, the Boat Commander.
USMMA GMATS
21
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
RELEASING GEAR
GENERAL a. All lifeboats must be fitted with suitable approved disengaging apparatus consisting of fixed hooks in the boat or mechanical disengaging apparatus. b. All lifeboats in ships over 3,000 gross tons must be fitted with mechanical disengaging apparatus arranged to permit the boats to be launched with their full complement of persons and equipment while the ship is underway or stopped, and for both ends of the boat to be released simultaneously, under tension or not, by one person. This is accomplished by a release lever which rotates a shaft extending to the release hooks. c. All boats in any particular ship must be fitted with the same type of releasing gear. d. The Rottmer hook-releasing gear is the type most prevalent in MSC ships. It releases both falls simultaneously when the release lever in the bottom of the boat is operated. It can be released under tension even though the boat is not waterborne. e. Other types do not meet USCG requirements because they utilize a chain-pull instead of a continuous shaft for operation, because with some types the boats must be waterborne before the releasing gear will work, or because some types may not release both hooks simultaneously. CONSTRUCTION - The Rottmer hook and releasing gear consists of releasing hooks at bow and stern connected by a rod or shaft along the boat bottom, through universal joints, to the release lever. (See Figures 09 and 10) a. The release lever in the bottom of the boat is held in its secured position by a safety toggle pin. b. USCG requires that the release lever be painted bright red and have, in raised letters, either the words DANGER-LEVER DROPS BOAT on new boats or DANGER LEVER RELEASES HOOKS on old boats. In order to make the release lever stand out more sharply against the international orange interior of the lifeboat, the area in way of the red release lever, from the keel to the side bench, is painted white, to provide a contrasting background for the lever. The band is approximately 12 inches wide. c. When the release lever is secured, the boat-release hooks are held in their closed position by the hook lock. (See Figure 09.) d. A preventer bar at the mouth of each release hook keeps the chain link engaged in the hook so that the link will not drop out when the falls are slackened. The preventer bars are hinged to permit freeing the chain link if the releasing gear is inoperable. The falls also can be hooked on, when recovering the boat, with the release lever in its secured position and without operating it. e. The release hooks are hinged to permit their upsetting when the release lever is operated, causing the hook lock to open.
USMMA GMATS
22
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
FIGURE 09 ROTTMER LIFEBOAT RELEASING GEAR
FIGURE 10 LIFEBOAT RELEASE LEVER CAUTION
USMMA GMATS
23
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
OPERATION - When the release lever is operated, the release hooks are capsized and both falls are released simultaneously. The releasing gear can be operated under tension and the boat dropped even though not waterborne. a. A seaman is stationed at the release lever to guard it during lowering and thus ensure against tampering or accidental release. b. The release lever is to be operated only on order of the Boat Commander. c. It must be kept secured by its keeper-toggle pin at all times since the gear can be operated at any time regardless of whether the boat is waterborne or not. (Point out the serious consequences if the release lever is operated at the wrong time.) d. The release lever should be operated with extreme caution, and only after the boat is waterborne or within not more than one foot of the water. To release, the keeper toggle pin is removed and the lever is swung through 180 degrees, from the secured position side of the boat to the release position of the opposite side of the boat. (1) In calm water, release the boat after it is waterborne. (2) In a seaway, lowering is stopped before the boat is fully waterborne. The roll of the ship and the rise and fall of the seas must be taken into account and the release timed to drop the boat onto the crest of a swell. e. The boat commander normally waits until the ship is stopped before releasing. With headway on, the sea painter must be taut so as to tow the boat in position directly under the davits since the davits are not designed for sideways strain. PRECAUTIONS a. As mentioned above under operation, but to be stressed again here, serious injury to personnel and damage to equipment has occurred when the release lever in lifeboats has been inadvertently operated during drills or while work was being performed on or in lifeboats suspended from their davits. Many such accidents have occurred through confusing the hand-operated propeller (Fleming) gear with the releasing gear. Uninformed seamen, instructed to operate the pulling handles, have swung the release lever and dropped the boat. This can be avoided by: (1) Making sure that each man knows the difference between the two gears. (2) Assigning one man to guard the release lever. (3) Giving orders clearly so there can be no possible chance of misunderstanding. (a) Referring to the hand-operated propelling gear as pulling handles never as levers. (b) Watching carefully to ensure that orders are properly carried out. (c) Using the word release only in connection with the release lever. Do not use release in any other order! (4) A white stripe, 1/2 inch wide, will be painted vertically starting in the throat of the release hook and extending down the center of the hook and over the hook and lock to its base. This will provide a quick visual check that the release hooks are properly engaged before releasing the main gripes. b. Cite examples of accidents which have occurred. Discuss similar accidents, their causes and how they could have been avoided. (1) Carefully explain that the release lever can be manually operated at any time. Under certain conditions it can be opened and then closed without having the hooks properly
USMMA GMATS
24
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
secured and locked. Therefore it is important to check the releasing gear carefully before each launching and to test it during each boat drill. (2) Stress that the releasing gear will be operated only on order of the boat commander. This point should be emphasized. (3) Consider the release lever as you would a loaded gun. Everyone is familiar with the phrase Dont point a gun at anything you dont want to shoot and kill, Similarly, crewmembers should be impressed with the fact that they must not tamper with or operate the release lever unless they want to drop the boat and themselves with it. Facetiously expressed, it might be said that any time a boat is dropped, it is only because someone in the boat meant to drop it, and themselves with it, and had to work hard to do it! c. Before repair or maintenance work is conducted in lifeboats suspended from their davits when in port, the release lever shall be lashed in its secured position by qualified personnel designated by the First Officer. In addition, the boat shall be secured to the davit heads by adequate preventers. These should be similar to the suspension pendants for nested boats and secured independent of the boats release hooks. This will prevent dropping of the boat and its occupants into the water or onto the docks or ships alongside if the release lever is inadvertently tripped. Precautions also should be taken, by means of stopper bars and lashings, to prevent movement of the davits and to prevent capsizing of the boat in its chocks. Lifeboats shall not be swung out over the side when underway at sea for the purpose of effecting repair or maintenance work. Such work shall be accomplished either in port or with the boats in the inboard or stowed position. d. The releasing gear is intended to release both falls simultaneously. However, one fall may release before the other (with the possibility of capsizing and attendant danger) if release hooks become frozen due to improper maintenance (lubrication), or if the boat is permitted to become fully waterborne with slack in the falls. Therefore it is important that the upper and lower guide bearings of the release hooks and other moving parts of the release gear be properly maintained and lubricated at regular intervals, and that the falls be released promptly as soon as the boat is partially waterborne with strain on the falls for a positive release.
INADVERTENCE AND/OR STUPIDITY (Reproduced from Proceedings of the Merchant Marine Council, USCG.) Inadvertence and/or stupidity on the part of a presently unknown person was the cause of another serious tragedy! How? By someone prematurely operating the manual lifeboat releasing gear when the boat was swung over the side during a presailing lifeboat drill. The results: One crewmember was killed while eight others aboard were seriously injured when the lifeboat dropped 40 feet into the water. This particular tragedy occurred during the presailing boat drill held onboard a large passenger vessel at a port in the United States. When the time came for the hand-propelled lifeboat to be lowered into the water, 10 members of the 20-man lifeboat crew were present. The boatswain in charge left the embarkation deck to round up the stragglers, most of them in the stewards department. The other nine men, seven from the stewards department and three of whom were
USMMA GMATS
25
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
qualified as lifeboatmen, and two from the engine department, entered the lifeboat to prepare it for drill. Before the boatswain and the stragglers from the stewards department returned, the lifeboat suddenly dropped 40 feet from the embarkation deck to the water, seriously injuring the nine men aboard and crushing the bottom of the lifeboat. The lifeboat immediately filled with water, but remained afloat due to its buoyancy tanks. Crews of other lifeboats waterborne at the time removed the injured, who were in a severe state of shock, and they were immediately rushed to the hospital where one of them later died. An examination of the damaged lifeboat immediately after the accident and while it was still in the water revealed that the releasing gear lever and mechanism were in the open position and that the mechanism was in good operating condition. The hooks of the lifeboat falls were hanging adjacent to the embarkation deck which indicated that the lifeboat had been released from that position. It was necessary to overhaul the boat falls by hand to lower them to the water. The damaged boat was then hooked on and hoisted to a position at the embarkation deck, where it was again thoroughly examined. The handle of the releasing gear was found to be painted red, and when secured, was housed in a channel-shaped bracket which protected it from accidental release by a keeper pin, which had to be removed before the handle could be released to operate the releasing gear. On the side bench under the releasing handle when in closed position there was also stenciled in conspicuous red letters DANGER--RELEASING GEAR. To release the falls holding the lifeboat, the releasing lever had to be manually operated through 180 degrees arc. Therefore, it would require several deliberate actions on the part of someone to operate the releasing gear. The eight members of the lifeboat crew that survived the accident were questioned concerning the accident. Each one was asked what duty he was performing in the lifeboat, also whether or not he operated or saw anyone else operate the lifeboat releasing gear. Each man denied he operated the releasing gear. Each man also stated that he did not see anyone else operate the releasing gear. No other witnesses onboard the passenger vessel, who were questioned, could testify as to who operated the lifeboat releasing gear. This fatal accident was apparently caused by reason of the inadvertence and/or stupidity on the part of one man, presently unknown, who operated the releasing gear without orders, thus releasing the gear and dropping the lifeboat. In summarizing this accident the following is pointed out. (1) Certificated lifeboatmen must always be on the alert to prevent accidents. (2) All members of a lifeboat crew must report immediately to their stations. (3) Know-how and common sense are necessary and must be used to avoid accidents. This tragedy points out the necessity for all crewmembers to know how to conduct themselves during abandon ship drill. Cornell Maritime Press has published The Cornell Manual for Lifeboatmen, Able Seamen and Qualified Members of the Engine Department which may be obtained from Cornell Maritime Press, Centreville, MD 21617 and book stores that sell nautical publications. The manual is a handy guide for the ordinary seaman who is studying for the lifeboatmans or able seamans exam. There are also many other commercial publications available on the same subject.
USMMA GMATS
26
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
WHY LEARN THE HARD WAY? (Reproduced from Proceedings of the Merchant Marine Council, USCG.) After we lowered our boat in the water and went to release it, one of the falls hung up. Had to cut the block away. It would not release. Only one hook came unhooked and almost caused the mast of the ship to sink the boat and kill the men. *** The lifeboat--she jumped off the forward hook and was hanging by her afterfall, and the stem piece and part of the keel was torn out of the lifeboat, and we had to cut her adrift. I would not have lost the No. I boat if we had a different kind of gear for hooking on her. If she had automatic releasing gear that would not have happened. * * * No. 5 boat that was the first boat launched * * * must have been about 16 or 20 men aboard when they lowered the boat. The after tackle came unhooked, and the forward tackle--they didnt know where the release was, I think. The boat was swamped and everybody that was in the boat was swept out of the boat. Thats why they lost their lives. The passengers lowered No. 6 lifeboat into the water. But they were unable to release this boat. They didnt know anything about how to release it. These are anguished words from the past. The voices of experience rising above the horror of War to guide you. Can you hear them? Can you grasp their message? World War 11 is over, but ships still sink, and men still scramble for survival. Others have heard their demand. New releasing gear has been designed in answer to their plaints. Do you know what it is; what it does; how it works? You should for your life may be at stake. It is now possible to release both boat falls simultaneously. It is possible to do this safely and quickly. You no longer need fear being hauled to the ocean depths due to time consuming releasing gear, if you know your releasing gear, that is, what it is; what it does; how it works. What type of releasing gear incorporates features to correct past deficiencies? Its nothing brand new. Since 1944, all new installations of mechanical disengaging apparatus (releasing gear) in ocean and coastwise vessels have incorporated these safety features. You know it as Rottmertype releasing gear. How does it work? This gear consists essentially of a pivoted open hook whose foot reposes in an open cup-shaped device. To release the lifeboat, the cup is turned to an open position by means of shafting which is rotated with an operating handle located in the bottom of the boat. Thus, both ends of the boat are released simultaneously from the falls. Why is it an improvement over wartime releasing gear? Because this arrangement allows both falls to be released simultaneously and quickly regardless of the tension on them. The ability of the Rottmer gear to release both falls simultaneously under tension is advantageous not only in
USMMA GMATS
27
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
rescue missions but also under abandon-ship conditions where the vessel may have some way on, causing considerable tension of the falls. Is there any need for caution in using this type of releasing gear? Yes. This ability of the gear to release under tension requires that care be exercised when lowering a lifeboat to insure that the release gear lever is not thrown until the boat is waterborne. In the case of rescue missions under adverse weather conditions the gear may sometimes be tripped safely as the boat is about to become waterborne in order to take advantage of the most favorable sea conditions, but in normal operations the boat should be lowered into the water before the release lever is thrown to the open position to release the falls. Similarly, the lever should not be touched when cleaning or painting a boat aboard ship. Are there other safety features? Again, yes. The Rottmer releasing gear operating handle is required to be readily accessible and is held in position by a toggle pin which is connected to a permanent part of the lifeboat structure so that air tanks, footings, lifeboat equipment, etc., may be removed without distributing the handle. In addition, the release lever is required to be painted red and have, in raised letters, the words: DANGER-LEVER DROPS BOAT. Another safety feature in the Rottmer gear is provided by preventer bars which act not only as an automatic mousing device but also permit the release of the falls when the lifeboat is waterborne in the event the gear is inoperable. This automatic feature is also desirable when retrieving a lifeboat since the link under the block can be thrust into the hook without fear of subsequent unhooking. How much care is required to maintain this type of releasing gear? Routine maintenance. As is the case with most mechanical contrivances, the Rottmer releasing gear requires periodic lubrication to maintain the gear in a satisfactory operating condition. Grease fittings are provided in the upper and lower guide bearings for this purpose. In addition, other moving parts should be greased or oiled as found necessary, for proper maintenance is closely coupled to safe operation. Now for the question, Who needs to know all this? Do you recall an earlier quotation? The passengers lowered No. 6 lifeboat into the water. But they were unable to release this boat. They didnt know anything about how to release it. Who should know? You, you and YOU. Everyone sailing onboard a ship should know how to get a lifeboat away, whether deck officer or engineer, fireman or seaman, steward or what have you. The other fellow might not know either.
GOOD TO THE LAST DROP (Reproduced from Proceedings of the Merchant Marine Council, USCG) The problem of safely launching a lifeboat from a ship at sea has occupied the minds of mariners for centuries untold. While development and change in this particular field has been slow, the last half century or so has seen a remarkable evolution in lifeboat handling. With the advent of wire boat falls, lifeboat winches and gravity davits, safety in the use of lifeboats took a tremendous stride forward. These new devices, which permitted the uniform and smoothly controlled lowering of lifeboats under almost any conditions, also made practical the use of automatic releasing gear to instantaneously and simultaneously release the hooks from the falls
USMMA GMATS
28
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
on both ends of a lifeboat. This device is extremely helpful to the boat commander, especially when the boat is rising and falling in a seaway. What seaman who has ever been lowered into a rough sea in a lifeboat with independent hooks will ever forget that hair-raising thrill when one end did not get unhooked, the other end fell deep in the trough between seas and the boat almost stood on its end? And, is there is a seaman who has experienced this treatment who cannot do without a repeat performance? Rottmer-type lifeboat releasing gear, which is presently found in the majority of American ships with power lifeboat winches, is an efficient and dependable automatic apparatus that will provide the type of quick and positive release which is so valuable to a boat commander lowering to a rough sea. This gear is activated by a shaft running the length of the boat which, when rotated by moving a hand lever through an arc of approximately 180 degrees, revolves a sturdy metal sleeve around the movable shank of the boat hooks at each end. As the hand lever approaches the end of its 180 degrees arc, a notch of recess in the metal sleeve moves into place in front of the shank of the hook and the weight of the lifeboat causes the hook to tumble backward, the shank swinging up through the recess of the sleeve. A smooth and rapid activation of the hand lever then produces a positive and instantaneous release of the boat. When in its hooked-on and locked position, the lever lies in a metal channel on the bottom of the boat where it is locked in place by a metal pin which must be pulled out before the releasing gear can be operated. The hand lever is painted red and a warning: DANGER--LEVER RELEASES HOOKS is mounted in raised letters on the lever. (New boats, DANGER--LEVER DROPS BOA T.) Unfortunately, in spite of designed safety features, warning signs and colors and all other possible precautions which can be taken, there remains one element of danger in the use of this releasing gear which cannot be eliminated--the man who irresponsibly or stupidly releases the gear while the boat is still suspended high in the air, sending it crashing to the surface. A casualty involving the accidental dropping of a lifeboat with the loss of one life occurred in a freighter in a southern port. The ship was undergoing annual inspection and No. 2 motor lifeboat was hanging from the falls, stripped of all provisions, air tanks and gear to permit cleaning, painting and inspection of the boat. Two carpenters from a shore repair gang entered the boat to restow the equipment and reinstall the floor boards. The foreman noticed that there were no wire gripes or preventer slings rigged from the davit heads under the boat to prevent an accidental drop. He left the scene to procure a wire gripe. While waiting for him to return, helpers on deck began to pass up floor boards to the two carpenters in the boat to save time while waiting for the gripe. About five minutes after this job was started, the boat suddenly dropped from the falls, hit the chocks, and then slid overboard and dropped to the water, carrying both carpenters with it. One man was seriously injured in the crash and died three hours later in the hospital. The other man suffered no serious injuries. The surviving carpenter testified that he and the other occupant had noticed the disengaging lever standing inclined at about a 45 degrees angle to the port side of the boat and that they had shouted a warning to each other and had started to climb out just before the boat dropped. This position of the lever was just about the exact point of release, as was later demonstrated. Although the lever had been lashed down in its locked position the previous afternoon after the
USMMA GMATS
29
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
first coat of paint had been applied to the interior, obviously someone had cast off the lashing and partially rotated the lever, not realizing the possible effects. During boat drill in a passenger vessel, one boat was delayed at the embarkation deck when the other boats were almost down to the water. A man in the boat rotated the releasing gear handle apparently in the belief that this would expedite the lowering of his boat. It did--but nine persons were seriously injured and one died. In a freighter holding boat drill in a foreign port, the disengaging apparatus in No. 3 lifeboat was tripped, sending the boat plummeting downward 24 feet and injuring three seamen but not seriously. One seaman admitted tripping the gear. He could not explain his action other than that he had become confused by the activity in lowering No. 4 lifeboat and felt that it was time to release No. 3. Another lifeboat accident from a similar cause occurred in a transport at a west coast port. A workman entered a lifeboat to paint the releasing gear handle red as a warning against operating it prematurely, then in the painting process, he lifted it and the boat dropped, landing on the gangway. Three men were seriously injured. Perhaps as long as ships go to sea, there will be men Aboard them who foolishly press buttons, open valves, pull handles and rotate lifeboat disengaging levers--either to see what will happen or because they dont know any better. But why?
CHECK YOUR RELEASING GEAR! - While lowering No. 3 lifeboat in an MSC ship, immediately after tricing pendants were tripped, the stern release hook opened, causing the stern of the boat to drop. This sudden strain caused bending and twisting of the forward davit and also warped the davit roller guide. A survey upon recovery of the boat disclosed that the guide bearing of the releasing hasp unit had cracked, permitting the hasp to open. Close scrutiny revealed that the guide bearing had been partially cracked prior to the casualty. This casualty emphasizes the importance of examining lifeboat releasing gear carefully each time before lowering of boats and of testing releasing gear during each boat drill.
USMMA GMATS
30
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
LIFEBOAT LAUNCHING PROCEDURES

STATION BILL AND DRILLS a. The station bill provides for the organization and coordinated action of a ships crew during drills and in actual emergencies, including fire and collision, CBR defense and abandon ship. 1. Emergency signals are specified, with special safety-at-sea instructions to cover all emergencies. 2. Each crewmember is assigned to emergency stations and duties in the order of his position code number and rating. Position code numbers also are used in manning scales, crew lists and for pay purposes. They are not necessarily listed in any order of position seniority. 3. The station bill also lists the organization and duties of emergency boat crews, equipment to be provided by repair parties, location of fire stations and watertight doors, location of zone areas and port watch instructions. b. Basic requirements for station bills are established by USCG, augmented by COMSC and Area Commanders through issuance of standard type station bills for each class of ship. These station bills, providing uniform assignments to stations and duties, are adapted to individual ships by the Area Commanders. They are posted in civil service manned ships with the approval of the Master. This practice provides considerable assistance to the ships and assures the standardization of bills throughout the fleet. c. Station bills are signed by the ships Master, who sees that they are posted in conspicuous places, such as: 1. Crew quarters of each department and separate living areas. 2. Public spaces, such as the salon mess, crew day rooms and officers day rooms. 3. A station bill is posted in the pilothouse to assist in the examination and verification of assignments. SIGNALS - The station bill sets forth the various emergency signals used to initiate action in an emergency, safety-at-sea instructions regarding the ships organization to cope with casualties and stations and duties of each crewmember for general emergency duties, CBR defense and abandon ship. The general emergency signals are specified by the USCG and have universal application. Under USCG regulations, the Master may establish additional emergency signals to provide that all officers, crew, and passengers will have notice of an existing emergency. The required emergency signals and those additional signals adopted for MSC use are listed below. The only ones which are in addition to those specified by the USCG are those for CBR defense, recalling boats, man overboard, steering casualty and directing the emergency boat. These are in general conformance with the international code of signals. The emergency signals below have been reviewed and are considered by the Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard to be adequate and in compliance with regulations. They shall be closely adhered to and no others shall be used. The general alarm or ships whistle shall not be used to signal emergencies within the ship except as specified herein. Where installed, the PA system shall be used for supplementary announcements after the signal, and for emergencies not requiring all hands. FIRE, COLLISION AND GENERAL EMERGENCY (_____________________________)
USMMA GMATS
31
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
For fire, collision and general emergencies steady ringing of the general alarm bells and a continuous blast of the ships whistle for at least 10 seconds followed by appropriate announcement on the PA system. CBR DEFENSE (______________________________.______.______.______.______) For CBR (formerly ABC and NBC) defense, the steady ringing followed by short and long rings (A) on the general alarm bells for at least another 10 seconds. Supplementary PA announcements shall be made in ships so equipped. ABANDON SHIP ( ......___________________) More than six (seven or more) short blasts and one long blast on the ships whistle and the same signal on the general alarm bells, followed by PA announcement in ships so equipped. WHISTLE SIGNALS FOR HAND BOATS Lower boats ...one short blast (____) Stop lowering boats ..two short blasts (___ ___) Recall and recover boats...a short, a long and a short blast (R) MAN OVERBOARD (___________ ____________ ____________) Three long rings on the general alarm bells (0), announcement on the PA system in ships so equipped, followed by three more long rings on general alarm bells (international code signal0). SIGNALS FOR DIRECTING EMERGENCY BOAT Use radio as first choice--otherwise by whistle, light or flags. Whistle signals should not be used to direct emergency boat when other ships are in the vicinity because of conflict with passing signals. Turn to starboard One ( - ) Turn to port Two ( - - ) Dead ahead Three ( - - - ) Towards ship Four ( - - - - ) Stand off, we are maneuvering (Danger Signal)
Five ( - - - - - )
STEERING CASUALTY (__________________ . .) One long and two short rings on the general alarm bells (D), announcement on the PA system in ships so equipped, one long and two short rings on the general alarm bells. When other ships are in the vicinity, international code flag hoist D and/or one long and two short blast on the ships whistle will be used to advise: - Keep clear of me - I am maneuvering with difficulty.
USMMA GMATS
32
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
DISMISSAL FROM ANY OR ALL DRILLS (______ _____ _____) Three short blasts on the ships whistle and the same signals on the general alarm bells, followed by PA announcement in ships so equipped. OTHER EMERGENCIES NOT REQUIRING ALL HANDS Announcement on the PA system in ships so equipped or pass the word. MUSTERING a. The mustering of boat crews requires training and drill. The Master is responsible for conducting such drills and instruction to ensure that all hands are familiar with their duties as specified in the station bill. The number of lifeboatmen per boat is specified in USCG regulations, five lifeboatmen in boats of 85 to 110 persons and six lifeboatmen in boats of over 110 persons. A first and second in command are appointed for each boat and raft. A man capable of working the motor is assigned to each motorboat and a radio operator is assigned to each boat carrying a radio and searchlight. Mustering, instruction and continuous drilling in handling boats are important since: (1) Without understanding the purpose of what is done, incentive is lacking in the performance of duties. (2) A good understanding of all duties permits better adaptability in exchanges of positions. (3) Discipline is self-imposed by personnel who are conscientious about their emergency duties. (4) Repetition develops confidence, ability and establishes the highest standards. (5) Personnel transferring between ships can be quickly acquainted with their new positions and drilled in their duties. b. Instruct crewmembers in mustering procedure at boat stations in accordance with their station bill and billet card assignments. Clothing adequate for the season and location should be worn at boat drills, including a cap or other head covering. Demonstrate and drill crewmembers in the proper method of donning life preservers. (1) Show training film MN-24642DN, Life Preservers - Jacket Type, if available. (2) Discuss the importance of properly adjusting life preservers in order to prevent injury and loss of jacket should it be necessary to jump overboard. Point out the feature of additional warmth it provides in cold weather. Impress on crewmembers the importance of wearing lifejackets when working where there is a chance of falling overboard, such as painting over the side, handling mooring lines at the piers edge, working or rowing in small boats or entering lifeboats either afloat or hoisted for any purpose. (3) Stress the need of a cap or other head covering where it may be necessary to endure long hours of severe exposure to sunlight in the tropics. (4) Stress the importance of each crewman not only adjusting his own lifejacket properly, but being prepared to instruct passengers, if necessary. (a) Slip into lifejacket like a vest.
USMMA GMATS
33
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
c.
(b) Pull tight and secure all ties. Newer type lifejackets do not have collars. Collars need not be tied during drills. They are properly secured by leading the collar ties down through the rings underneath the collar and then crossing and tying the ties. This keeps the collar down under the chin. (c) The chest strap is adjusted and secured by means of its snap hook. It also serves as a lifting strap and may be used to fasten several persons together in the water or to a boat or raft. (d) The leg straps are rolled up and kept in the pockets at the back of the lifejacket and need not be fastened during drills. They are designed primarily to keep the lifejacket from riding up on the wearer during prolonged periods in the water. The leg straps may be adjusted after the wearer has entered the water. (5) No one should jump overboard wearing a lifejacket except as a last resort. Any other method should first be used to get into the water. Abandon ship in the lifeboats or, if necessary to get into the water, climb down the embarkation ladder or slide down a line or fire hose. If it is necessary to jump, fasten the leg straps, make sure there are no persons or debris in the water below. The jump should be made feet first, holding the lifejacket down and against the body by means of the elbows and one hand, while holding the nose with the other. (6) Rotate crewmembers boat stations to permit each man to practice and become familiar with each station, including that of boat commander. Many ships used stenciled identification numbers on boat crews lifejackets as a check on boat assignments. Identification numerals are stenciled on the left front and on the back of all crewmembers lifejackets -- a large number indicating each mans boat number and a smaller number below it giving his position code number. This system, used with muster lists of boat crews, assures proper manning of boats during drills and in actual emergencies.
BOAT-LAUNCHING COMMANDS a. Without a system of commands, crewmembers could not launch the boats. Should the signals become confused or misunderstood, the process of launching would be hindered. b. Commands for launching a boat under gravity davits: (1) Prepare for launching. Bow and stern tenders board the boat, unlash and assist in removing the boat cover, let go the boat gripes, hand test release hooks by pulling on hooks to make sure they are engaged, check the release lever ensuring that it is secured by the keeper-toggle pin, free the manropes and close the boat drains. Bow and stem tenders will remain in the boat during lowering to the embarkation deck. (2) Lead out the sea painter. Bow tender passes the sea painter to the sea painter tender, who leads the painter well forward, outboard of everything except the boat falls, and secures it to a cleat. (3) Swing out boat. (a) The boat commander orders his boat swung out and lowered to the embarkation deck when he is satisfied that the boat is cleared and ready for lowering. However, boats are not lowered below the embarkation deck until the Master gives the whistle signal of one short blast to lower when ready.
USMMA GMATS
34
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
During rough weather or other circumstances in which the Master considers it advisable to clear away and swing out boats, he will pass the word accordingly immediately after the abandon ship signal. (b) The winchman slowly raises the brake lever to let the davits and boats roll down the trackways and ease up to the outboard stoppers. (Refer to Figure 05) (c) Bow and stern tenders drop the manropes over the inboard side. Lower to embarkation deck. The winchman again raises the brake lever to lower the boat to the embarkation deck. Bow and stern tenders tend the tricing pendants to keep them clear. Care is taken to halt the downward movement of the boat (avast lowering) when the tricing pendants have drawn the boat in to within a foot of the ships side. Slacking the falls too much would put the boats full weight on the tricing pendants. Fraper in. Bow and stern tenders assure that the wire frapping lines are either shackled or hooked on above the fall blocks, as the case may be, and that sister hooks, where used, are moused. They then pass the hauling lines to the frapping line tenders, who heave taut and secure them to the cleats to hold the boat in to the ships side (See Figure 08). Trip tricing pendant. Tricing-pendant trip hooks are tripped by the bow and stern tenders, who must be seated while they do this because the boat will swing. It has been noted that in some ships tripping lines have to be passed to frapping line tenders on deck because the tricing-pendant trip hooks are not properly attached to the falls blocks. (See Figure 08for proper hookup.) The tricing-pendant trip hooks must be tripped from within the boat, one at a time. Boat crew, man your boat. All men assigned to the boat go aboard and prepare it to receive passengers. They check the rudder, ship the steering oar and insert propeller gear pulling handles. Passengers embark. Passengers embark from the embarkation station after the boat has been -readied. They are assisted aboard, directed to their seats and advised to sit down promptly. Lower away. (a) The boats are not lowered beyond the embarkation deck until the Master sounds a single short blast on the ships whistle to indicate lower boats into the water when ready. This signal is given when it is apparent that passengers are embarked and boats are ready for lowering. (b) The order lower away is given by the boat commander only after the Masters whistle signal and when all persons are seated in the boat, as far inboard as possible and all is in readiness for lowering. (c) The winchman raises the brake lever to lower the boat to the water. (d) The frapping lines restrict the boats swinging--especially important when the ship is rolling. (e) The sea painter tender keeps a strain on the sea painter until the boat is waterborne. (f) Boat crewmembers at bow and stem fend the boat off from the ships side with the butt end of boat hooks during lowering. (g) The stem tender takes his station at the release lever to guard it against accidental release during lowering. If this lever is operated, the boat will drop.
USMMA GMATS
35
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
Therefore, the safety toggle pin must not be removed until the boat is within a few feet of the water (see Figure 10). (10) Release the falls. As soon as the boat is waterborne in calm water or before fully waterborne in a seaway, the boat commander issues this order and the stern tender lifts the release lever and rotates it to the opposite side of the boat, releasing the fall blocks. Care is taken by crewmembers in the bow and stem to prevent the blocks from swinging. (11) Cast off. (a) Bow tender fends boat away from the ships side using the butt end of the boat hook. (b) Boat commander uses the steering oar in getting boat clear of the ships side. (c) Bow tender casts off the sea painter. c. In an actual emergency some of the commands may have to be given by hand signals. (1) Noise interference may require signals, such as: (a) A downward motion of the hand, palm down, to indicate lower away. (b) A tugging gesture to indicate fraper in. (c) A downward, jerking gesture indicating trip the tricing pendants or trip suspension-pendant trip hooks. (d) A circular upward motion of the hand, index finger up, to indicate heave away. (e) A flat, horizontal motion of the hand for avast heaving or avast lowering (2) Any manner of hand signals can be substituted for verbal commands and should supplement them. A well-trained crew can do this job effectively with no more than a few hand signals and without the necessity for shouting or confusion. d. Pass out a sheet containing the commands and permit each trainee to take a turn as boat commander after he has studied the sequence of commands. LOWERING AN ENCLOSED LIFEBOAT a. The procedures for lowering an enclosed boat are divided into the following steps: (1) Loading and preparing the boat. (2) Lowering the boat. (3) Releasing boat and getting underway. b. Loading and preparing the boat. (1) Place debarkation ladder over the side. (2) Open the entrance hatch to the enclosed boat and order the entire boat complement to enter. (3) Each member of the boat complement takes a seat in the boat and fastens the seat belt securely around himself. (4) The boat commander positions himself in a seat by the brake control wire. (5) The man assigned to the releasing lever positions himself in a seat over the release lever. (6) A crewmember assigned to check the automatic drain plug places the cap over this drain (7) The bow tender positions himself in a seat at the bow. (8) The stern tender positions himself in a seat at the stem of the boat. c. Lowering the lifeboat.
QMED
LIFEBOAT
(1) The boat commander grasps the brake control wire and pulls steadily on the wire until the boat begins to ride down the davit track. (2) The boat commander continues to keep a constant pull on the wire in order for the boat to continue to lower. (3) If at any time the boat commander wishes to stop the boat from lowering, he releases the control wire. (4) At a short distance above the water, and while continuing to lower the boat commander may wish to start the boat engine in preparation for getting underway when the boat is waterborne. d. Releasing boat and getting underway. (1) When the boat settles in the water the boat commander may elect the release or he may elect to hold at this point if for some reason all crewmembers are not accounted for. (2) To release the boat the boat commander gives the command Release the releasing gear at which point the seaman assigned to the release lever removes the safety pin and pulls the lever 180 degrees over to release the boat. (3) Because the fall pendant is also the sea painter in this type of boat, it is not necessary to order the sea painter to be released. Once the releasing gear is released the boat is free from the ship. (4) The boat commander may now engage the engine and get underway. (5) Should the boat commander wish to hang on the ship while awaiting more personnel, he would not release the releasing lever. The fall pendant forward and aft will keep the boat alongside the ship until the releasing gear is released. e. Explain to the class that there are no tricing pendants, frapping lines, sea painter, or gripe releases on this type of design and therefore many of the jobs previously assigned in a standard lifeboat are not necessary for the enclosed lifeboat
USMMA GMATS
37
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR LAUNCHING LIFEBOATS UNDER GRAVITY DAVITS Signal - More than six short blasts followed, y one long blast on the ships whistle and the same signal on the general/alarm bells, followed by PA announcement in ships so equipped. LIFEBOAT LAUNCHING PROCEDURES (OTHER THAN ENCLOSED LIFEBOATS) Command Action Key Points PA announcement: All Crew and passengers muster at Crewmembers muster at the hands report to boat abandon ship stations; boat location of their duties at stations. All passengers commander inspects lifeassigned boat station, as at don lifejackets and report jackets and attire; a supply of forward davit, frapping line to their abandon ship eight blankets Is delivered to tenders on embarkation deck, stations. each boat by steward etc. department personnel. Prepare for launching Bow and stern tenders board The release hooks and lever boats, remove boat covers and must be in their closed and strongback, hand test release locked position. Boat hooks by pulling on fall links, commander must assure himself check release hooks and lever, that release hooks and lever are check and clear suspension and properly secured before letting tricing pendants and trip hooks, go main gripes. let go gripes, close boat drains, and free manropes
USMMA GMATS
38
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
Command Lead out the sea painter
Action Bow tender passes It to the sea painter tender, who leads it well forward and secures it. Swing out boats Winchman slowly raises brake lever to let the davits and boats roll down the trackways and ease up to the outboard stoppers in full outboard position. Bow and stern tenders drop manropes over inboard side. Lower to embarkation Winchman again raises brake lever deck to lower boat to embarkation deck. Bow and stern tenders clear and tend tricing pendants. Winchman follows boat commanders orders to stop the boat within a foot of the ships side. Frapper in Bow and stern tenders assure that the wire frapping lines are shackled or hooked onto the falls, with sister hooks moused where used, and frapping line tenders haul taut and secure. Trip tricing Bow and stern tenders sit down pendants and trip tricing pendant hooks one at a time. Close boat drains
Key Points It is led outboard of everything but the boat falls. The davits must not be permitted to hit the outboard stoppers but should be eased up to them and stopped momentarily.
Slacking the falls too much would put the boats full weight on the tricing pendants.
If not taut, boat will swing excessively.
If not previously closed, boat drains are now closed. In any event, they are checked. Boat crew, man your Boat is prepared for passengers. boat Steering oar is shipped, and propeller gear pulling handles Inserted. Passengers embark Passengers are assisted aboard and All must sit down promptly. directed to seats. Signal - A short blast on the ships whistle directs boat commanders to lower their boats when ready for launching.
Tricing pendant trip hooks must be arranged so they can be tripped from within the boat. This is done by bow and stern tenders.
USMMA GMATS
39
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
Command Lower away
Action Boat is lowered to water. Winchman raises brake lever and follows boat commanders lowering instructions. Frapping lines are kept taut; a strain is kept on the sea painter, and crewmembers fend off. Stern tender removes safety toggle pin, lifts releasing lever, and rotates It to the opposite side, releasing the fall blocks. Frapping line tenders haul falls in to ships side quickly to avoid the blocks hitting persons in the boat. The bow is shoved off, boat commander gives necessary oar commands to get underway, and uses steering oar to clear ships side. The sea painter is cast off.
Key Points Boats are lowered in order, according to a prearranged plan - generally with the after boats first then the boats next forward, etc. in order to avoid fouling. The stern tender guards the release lever to avoid accidental dropping of the boat. This command is given as soon as the boat is waterborne in calm water or before fully waterborne in a seaway.
Release the falls
Cast off
The boat is gotten clear of the ships side as soon as possible. With way on, the sea painter is used to sheer off.
Signals - Two short blasts on the ships whistle - stop lowering boats. A short, a long and a short blast of the ships whistle (international code signal R) -recall and recover boats. Three short blasts of the ships whistle and the same signal on the general alarm bells followed by PA announcement in ships so equipped - dismissal from any or all drills.
USMMA GMATS
40
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
TRIAL BY FIRE (Reprinted from Proceedings of the Merchant Marine Council, USCG.) A grim reminder of the terrible consequences of failing to have a crew trained to cope with emergencies occurred a few months ago when a foreign combination passenger freight vessel burned at night in an American port. The deaths of eight passengers and three crewmembers were directly attributable to the breakdown of the smooth functioning of the crew when it was presented with a disastrous situation for which it had been poorly trained. With the ship at anchor in an open harbor, the fire apparently started in a maze of wiring, distribution panels, and ventilating and heating ducts installed in a 14-inch void space between the ceiling and the deck above it in the midship passenger and crew berthing area. Smoke was detected issuing from the paneling; the Master was notified; but, no general fire alarm was rung or any positive action taken for several minutes. Consequently, dense smoke and darkness caused by the failure of several lighting circuits hampered subsequent firefighting efforts. Streams of water from the burning ships fire hoses were played at the general overhead area. Passengers were aroused and directed to assemble at the smoking lounge on the upper deck. When all the passengers had gathered in the lounge, and were accounted for, the Master returned to the scene of the fire. By this time dense clouds of smoke had engulfed the entire midships area. Realizing that conditions were beyond control, the Master ordered abandon ship. In lowering lifeboats No. 2 and No. 4, the after end of No. 4 was dropped, and the boat ended by hanging vertically with two crewmembers clinging to seats. When it was finally lowered, the boat was partially filled with water. Some passengers climbed down into this boat. An attempt was made to lower a liferaft, but it was dropped and lost, and flames prevented any attempt to lower Nos. 1, 3, 5 and 6 lifeboats. However, the crewmembers did manage to lower and cast off two small dinghies near the stern. The Chief Mate blew a distress signal on the ships whistle. Fortunately, due to the nearby presence of service installations, this distress was heard and immediately answered. Within fifteen minutes a Navy fireboat and a Coast Guard picketboat were alongside searching for and picking up survivors. All those who were in sight in the water, on the burning ship, or in lifeboats or dinghies were safely delivered to the Coast Guard Depot. However, the count of survivors ashore revealed three crewmembers and eight passengers to be missing. With the arrival of two Coast Guard Cutters on the scene, efforts to combat the fire and rescue the missing were intensified, but it was impossible to get into the areas below decks where the fire was raging. Several days later, when it was possible to enter the midship area, the eight passengers were found in a sitting position in the lounge, apparently asphyxiated by toxic gases and the three crewmembers were found burned to death in the crew quarters and in the promenade. Investigation of this tragic casualty pointed up the deficiencies in the training of the vessels crew to meet emergencies. Effective organization, instruction and drilling of the crew had not been established or carried out. Many of the crew had not been thoroughly acquainted with their
USMMA GMATS
41
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
duties for emergencies. There was no effective plan for the warning and safeguarding of all passengers. Abandon ship was a fiasco. Such organization as had existed seemed to vanish in the overwhelming holocaust of flame and smoke. The three stark words FIRE AT SEA must ever remain indelibly imprinted on the subconscious minds of mariners, not as an omen of fear, but as a finger of warning. How would you have fared under similar circumstances?
WITHOUT PANIC An engineroom explosion, a ship gutted by fire, over 1500 passengers aboard including 294 women, children and invalid soldiers, yet only four persons lost! This unbelievable small loss of life (and these four lives were lost in the initial explosion, not in the action that followed) can be attributed to one main factor--preparation through organization, training, and drills. Abandon ship was accomplished calmly and without panic in spite of the raging flames, the threat of exploding boilers and the immediate loss of all power. All women, children and invalids were embarked in the lifeboats first, then, as the remaining men began jumping overboard, chairs, benches and anything that would float when thrown overboard for them. This is the story of the loss of the 14,650-ton British troop transport EMPIRE WINDRUSH in the Mediterranean Sea, 50 miles northeast of Algiers, on the morning of 28 March 1954. Although there were other factors--the calm sea, nearness of a major port and other ships in the vicinity--no amount of luck would have prevented a greater loss of lives if there had not been adequate preparation and training. The crew knew their duties well and the passengers followed directions promptly and orderly. One observer on the scene remarked, Everything went as though the passengers were going through a lifeboat drill. It is not yet known why some of the men had to jump overboard. Perhaps some of the boats were damaged by the explosion or the subsequent fire or some of the crew may have remained aboard to continue to fight the fire. In any event, it emphasizes the necessity for coping with each casualty according to the individual circumstances. It is fortunate amid all the tragedies at sea to have this excellent example of what can be done in an emergency rather than the review of contributing errors.
CHEAP INSURANCE (Reprinted from Proceedings of the Merchant Marine Council, U.S. Coast Guard.)
USMMA GMATS
42
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
There is an old adage A drowning man will grasp at a straw. While this has not been demonstrated scientifically, a drowning man will certainly grasp at a life preserver or ring buoy, if he knows it is there. For years, marine safety organizations have preached the doctrine of wearing life preserves whenever exposed to the likelihood of falling overboard. A recent casualty wherein a man was drowned in broad daylight alongside his ship moored in a quiet harbor, because there was nothing thicker than water for him to grasp, is a powerful argument for an additional safety precaution--having a ring buoy in the water. It was early morning with the ship lying at the pier during fair and balmy weather. Two able seamen rigged a staging over the offshore side for the purpose of painting the ships side. Rigging on the staging was adequate. It consisted of 2 watch tackles using 12-thread manila line with a double upper block and a single lower block, permitting the ABs to hoist or lower at will. Neither man wore a life preserver. After shifting the staging forward about 10 feet, one AB, age 55, climbed down to resume work while the other departed on a short errand. Upon returning about 5 minutes later, he heard a commotion and saw his partner floundering the water. He immediately threw a handy ring buoy overboard near the immersed man. At this point two stevedores who were working on the ship reacted with highly commendable courage and initiative dove overboard and swam to the rescue. They were able to float the struggling man to the offshore gangway, which had been lowered. One of the stevedores clung to the ring buoy while doing this and the ring buoy undoubtedly contributed largely to the rescue attempt. The victim was quickly brought aboard and artificial respiration rendered. All attempts to revive the man were of no avail and a doctor who had been called aboard pronounced him dead; cause of death: Simple asphyxia due to drowning. After the accident the stage and rigging, all still in good condition, were found to be suspended by the forward tackle alone. The hauling part of the after tackle was loose. Under just what circumstances the deceased man had slipped, fallen, lost his grip on the hauling part or suffered some form of mental lapse resulting in his immersion, probably will never be known. The moral of this tale is simple. Had the ring buoy been floating in the water on its heaving line before the painting started, instead of being hastily thrown overboard after the man fell, that man might be alive and well today? The principle that all men working in such an exposed position should wear a life preserver is unassailable. Since wearing a life preserver is admittedly somewhat awkward due to its bulk, many seamen seem to prefer taking the calculated risk to their lives by not wearing the lifejacket rather than bear the slight annoyance of wearing it. Therefore, providing some solid means of support, that little bit of buoyancy which sometimes divides life from death, would be an excellent precaution. Such use for one of the ring buoys, which are required equipment onboard, would be so simple yet so effective that this precaution would seem almost elementary. Even the floatation of a life preserver or any other buoyant material on a line alongside the ship when men are exposed to falling overboard could easily be the straw which would mean everything to the drowning man.
USMMA GMATS
43
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
LIFEBOAT LADDERS (Reprinted from Proceedings of the Merchant Marine Council, USCG.) The steel and wood chain-type embarkation-debarkation ladders approved for use onboard inspected merchant vessels of the United States are designed to furnish dependable and troublefree service under all conditions of use. Nevertheless, as with most equipment, certain precautions must be observed in their use. The inherent hazard of any ladder whereby a man is exposed to the dangers of painful or fatal falls, is particularly pronounced in embarkation ladders where the height and sea and weather conditions may be especially dangerous. Two recent accidents, one occurring on a passenger vessel in a southern port of the United States and involving the death of the injured man, and the other occurring in a foreign port involving injuries to two men, were both directly related to carelessness and improper use of the abovetype ladders. In the first instance, a large vessel was moored at the dock and the crews were engaged in carrying out a presailing boat drill. After mustering at boat stations, the Chief Mate ordered the crew of No. 2 lifeboat to take over No. 4 lifeboat (on the offshore side) for launching and rowing exercise. Although the regulations require fire and boat drills to be conducted as if an actual emergency exists, lowering of this lifeboat with a full boats crew in it was not attempted. Instead, davits were swung out and the boat was lowered to a point where its gunwales were level with the boat deck where the Third Mate, who was in charge of the boat, and two crewmembers embarked. The remainder of the boats crew was then ordered to the embarkation deck on the next deck below the boat deck with the exception of the man who was operating the winch brake. The boat was then lowered until, when about 4 feet below the embarkation deck, the ladder which was coiled between the second and third thwarts in the boat and was being payed out as the boat lowered, caught on either the bilge pump or the provision box or both. The Third Mate immediately shouted to stop lowering and the ladder was cleared. The lifeboat was then lowered to the water without further incident. At this time one member of the boat crew, wearing ordinary cotton work gloves, climbed over the rail at the embarkation deck and stepped around and onto the ladder. There was a sudden movement of the ladder and he lost his grip and fell into the boat, injuries resulted in his death, one and a half hours later at the hospital. The closest investigation and analysis of this accident could not ascertain exactly what caused the movement of the ladder at the moment after the injured man stepped onto it, but the possibilities were narrowed down to two most likely explanations. The first is that one or two segments of the ladder had remained on top of the boat deck in such a manner that the ladder had hung up with the ears of one step caught inside of the fish plate or coaming so that all of the ladder below this point was suspended by the hung up ears rather than by the shackles outboard of the fish plate, which are the proper suspension points. When the mans weight first came upon the ladder, it was sufficient to dislodge the ears, causing the ladder to fall abruptly a few feet until it fetched up with a jerk at the proper suspension point, causing the man to lose his grip and fall. However, although this was the most plausible explanation, it is not completely acceptable since two experienced observers were present on the boat deck at the time and did not
USMMA GMATS
44
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
recall any spare segments of the ladder lying on deck, and it would be almost certain that they would have noticed this condition had it existed. The second most logical explanation was that one of the boat crewmembers standing on the embarkation deck had held the ladder against the rail at the point where the men would climb onto the ladder. This would be a distance of about 15 inches from the vertical line in which the ladder would normally hang. One of the crewmembers held the ladder in this manner but he claimed he had released it before any weight was placed on the ladder. If the deceased mans weight had come upon the ladder and the man holding the ladder in had then released it, the ladder would have snapped outward with somewhat of a jerk and with sufficient movement to easily break the grip of the man on the ladder. The fall may well have been caused by the combination of both of the above circumstances, i.e., some of the ladder may have been caught above the coaming, and the ladder may have been held into the rail and released in such a manner that this slack ran over the coaming, the jerk at the end of the run throwing the man off the ladder. Kinking of the chain with subsequent abrupt straightening was discounted. The amount of chain between rungs is very small and minimizes kinking. Regardless of which circumstances caused the fall from the ladder, it was due to lack of proper care and foresight by the personnel handling the gear and not by any fault of the equipment. There was no material failure. The principal error was the use of the embarkation ladder in this manner to carry out any part of emergency drills. It is the intent of the regulations that drills should be conducted as though a true emergency exists, i.e., boats should be lowered at boat drills as though the crew were actually abandoning ship, with a full boats crew aboard. Embarkation-debarkation ladders are intended for emergency use only when personnel cannot be lowered with a boat and must have some other means of safely reaching waterborne boats. They are not intended for the convenience of ships personnel in descending to lifeboats during drills. Another error was the failure to use any portable steps at the rail of the embarkation deck to assist in climbing over the rail. This is particularly important in the case of passenger ships where the aged or infirm would otherwise have considerable difficulty climbing into lifeboats. Still another error, and perhaps most important of all, was the practice of stowing the coiled flexible ladders in the boats, to pay out as the boats are lowered. This method is awkward and uncertain, as the ladder catches and fouls as it uncoils and the person in the boat tending the ladder as it pays out cannot check the ladders condition at the top, or suspension point. These ladders should be stowed on deck or lashed to a rail or other object where they will not interfere with the operation of the davits or the lowering of the boats, and where they can run free, over and down the side. In this manner, men lowering the ladder from the boat deck can observe that its entire length is free of obstruction and also, that it is hanging properly from its suspension points. In the second accident, two able seamen were ordered by the boatswain to rig the embarkation ladder for means of access to a lifeboat which was in the water. The ship was moored in a foreign port and the chief mate, to take advantage of available inport time, decided to test lifeboat releasing gear and examine and lubricate boat falls and running gear. After the first boat
USMMA GMATS
45
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
was waterborne, the two ABs lowered the steel ladder from its stowage position on the boat deck. It was customary on this vessel to stow the ladders in a coiled-up bundle lashed on the inside of the steel pipe guard rail installed between or adjacent to lifeboat launching positions. Both inboard ends of the ladder chains were shackled to padeyes installed on the boat deck outboard of the rail and the bulk of the ladder was brought in over the rail, coiled-up and lashed to the inboard side of the rail in such a manner that the lashing could be quickly cast off and the coil of the ladder pushed over the rail where it would spill down the side. Twelve-thread line was used as lashing. In casting off the ladder, the two ABs removed all lashings except one strand. This held both sides of the ladder to the upper course of the pipe rail on the outboard side so that the bight of the ladder was actually supported at this point by the 12-thread line. Several trips were made up and down the ladder suspended in this manner, one man at a time while working on the releasing gear with the boat waterborne. When the two ABs were finally ordered out of the boat, the second man started climbing on the ladder before the first was off at the top so that their combined weights came onto the ladder. With a sudden snap, the 12-thread lashing at the rail on the boat deck parted and the ladder fell about 5 feet, or the amount of slack which had been retained by the lashing. The jerk at the end of this fall was sufficient to dislodge both men, one falling about 3 feet into the boat and the higher man 10 feet or more into the boat. The latter seaman suffered a severely dislocated left shoulder and was incapacitated over three weeks, while the former suffered minor injuries only. There was no mechanical failure of the ladder itself. Here again was the careless overlooking of important details by men working on ladders. It is unbelievable that these two experienced seamen intentionally left the ladder suspended by a piece of 12-thread when they knew they would be entrusting their own safety to the ladder. Undoubtedly the oversight of the lashing was not readily detectable. While the Chief Mate and Boatswain could be criticized for not checking the safe condition of the ladder before it was used, there was no reason for them to suspect that there was anything wrong with the ladder or that two experienced able seamen could not or would not perform so simple a task as rigging this ladder properly and thoroughly, especially when they were to use the ladder themselves. It is difficult to believe that people will be more careless with their own safety than with the safety of others, but the evidence all too often would indicate that this is true. It would seem to be glaringly obvious that certain elementary precautions should be taken whenever it is necessary for crew or passengers to use this type ladder. a. Before any weight is placed on the ladder, the entire suspended length of the ladder should be hanging from the proper suspension point. b. If there is any obstruction in the path of the ladder which cannot be avoided or removed, make sure the ladder is not caught or hung up on such obstruction. c. If possible, shake out the ladder to see if it is hung clear and lies straight. d. If possible, the ladder should be located so that it hangs just aft of the lifeboat for which it is to be used and not abreast of any portion of the boat where it could be damaged or where it could damage the boat during or after lowering. If necessary, it is a simple matter to ease the boat slightly astern after lowering to make the bottom of the ladder more accessible.
USMMA GMATS
46
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
e.
It is advisable to keep these ladders stowed and ready for use in such a manner that they can be dropped with a run, uncoiling as the free end falls. Many ships have found it practicable to lash the coiled-up ladder just inboard of a rail or horizontal member so that the lashing can be slipped quickly and the ladder can be pushed over the side where it will fall to its intended position suspended from permanent padeyes or shackles. An advantage of this method of stowage is that the ladder will not clatter about under the effects of heavy rolling or boarding seas. In addition, the strain imposed on the ladder by the jerk at the bottom of the drop is a simple test that it is properly secured and will not later slip or fail at the suspension points. Needless to say, the ladder should not be dropped in this manner if the lifeboat or any personnel are directly under it. f. If possible, wear no loose or baggy clothing which could catch on the ladder or any other object when descending or ascending the ladder. A wise precaution is to remove gloves, unless the weather is so frigid that fingers would be numbed, as it is an indisputable fact that the bare hand can grasp better than one with a glove on. g. When descending or ascending, it is wise to have one foot placed squarely on the next rung before the weight is removed from the foot on the preceding rung. Always step on the ends of the rungs. Breaks in rungs almost never occur near the ends, almost always near the center. h. Never hold on to the ladder rungs when climbing up or down. It is not only dangerous but is harder work. The safest and easiest way is to grasp both sides of the ladder firmly and hold on to the sides as you climb up or down. (MSC editorial addition.)
USMMA GMATS
47
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
BOAT HANDLING BOAT HANDLING

USE OF SEA PAINTER (See Figure 11) - The sea painter is made fast, by means of its strop eye and toggle pin, on the forward thwart, off-center toward the ships side, leading out over the gunwale on the side next to the ship.
FIGURE 11 SEA PAINTER RIG When a boat is waterborne, the sea painter causes the boats bow to sheer away if the ship is moving ahead. 1. Another strop on the outboard side near the bow can be used in the boat to cause the boat to tow parallel to the ship. 2. The sea painter may be fitted with a light retrieving line from the deck, spliced in about 1-1/2 fathoms from the eye splice. This is especially useful for the emergency boats. 3. The steering oar should be used to hold the boat alongside in the position desired while towing on the sea painter. 4. If the ship is dead in the water or has sternway, the sea painter will not sheer the boat away from the ships side. b. The length of the sea painter should be adjusted so that the boat drops back alongside the embarkation ladder and the boat is directly under the falls. Overall length of the sea painter is three times the distance from the boat deck to the lightest seagoing draft. c. The wooden toggle pin is removed to cast off the sea painter only when directed by the boat commander. The toggle pin is secured by a lanyard or chain attached to the thwart, not to the sea painter. d. After being cast off from the boat during drills or rescue operations, the sea painter should be tended from the ship by means of the retrieving line. If a retrieving line has a.
USMMA GMATS
48
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
e.
not been attached, the sea painter should be hung in a bight forward of the davits to permit the boat to pick it up upon return to the ship. An additional painter may be used from the boats stern, a sternfast, when alongside, to keep the boat from surging forward.
HAND-OPERATED PROPELLER (See Figure 12) a. The hand-operated propeller, previously referred to as Fleming gear, is required in all boats with a capacity of 60 or more persons. Power is transmitted by a shaft, through a gear box controlled by a clutch lever, with provision for forward and reverse positions. b. Motive power is provided by inserting pulling handles in the sockets and moving them in a fore-and-aft direction. Passengers are able to operate the pulling handles without previous instruction. c. The gear box and reverse lever are located aft, convenient to the coxswain. The only commands necessary for hand-operated propeller gear are stand by pulling handles, give way together, and stop. These are kept simple to assure understanding and cooperation by passengers.
FIGURE 12 HAND-OPERATED PROPELLER (FLEMING GEAR) OAR COMMANDS a. Commands should be given in a clear, sharp tone. 1. All oarsmen carry out the commands smartly and in unison. 2. Feather oars on the recovery part of the stroke to reduce wind resistance and prevent catching a crab. 3. Oarsmen keep eyes in the boat; watch the back of the man in front and take stroke from him. 4. Stroke oarsmen (on aftermost thwart) keep in stroke together if doublebanked and set the stroke as directed by the coxswain or boat commander. 5. Give new commands at the start of a stroke rather than at the finish to permit oarsmen to complete the stroke and execute the new command in unison.
USMMA GMATS
49
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
b. Standard commands and the action taken when handling a lifeboat under oars are as shown below. Although listed in the general order in which given when taking a boat out, maneuvering and returning, commands are used as required and according to the circumstances. Oar nomenclature consists of three parts (see Figure 13).
FIGURE 13 OAR NOMENCLATURE 1. The handle where the oar is gripped. 2. The loom the shaft of the oar. Around the loom is the leather fitted where the loom rests in the rowlock. 3. The blade - the flattened part that bites the water.
Command Stand by your oars.
Action Lift oars off thwarts, place bow oars with their blades flat on the forward gunwales, push other oars forward with their blades resting on the gunwales until their handles are over each oarsmans thwart; insert rowlocks. Bow tender lets go boat rope or sea painter or hauls in boat painter. He shoves off bow using butt end of boat hook. The oars are lifted together, swung out together and are dropped into the rowlocks together. A preparatory command. Rowers lean forward, arms extended, with the oar blades perpendicular to the water and the tips just touching the water, ready to start the stroke. Blades or oars are lowered--dipped about two-thirds into water and the stroke started. Several short quick strokes may be taken to get underway quickly. At end of stroke, blades are feathered forward and another stroke made. The stroke should be taken with the feet braced, the arms straight, and the weight of the body thrown into a strong pull on the oar. Midway through the stroke, pull the handle to the chest and at the same time pull with the back. This is the end of the stroke. To prepare for the next stroke lift the blade from the water, drop the wrists to feather the blade, lean forward as far as possible and raise the wrists. Complete the stroke and level the oars with blades parallel to the water.
Shove off bow.
Out oars.
Stand by to give way.
Give way together
Oars.
USMMA GMATS
50
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
Hold water all.
(Given to check way.) Complete the stroke and stop rowing. Dip the blades, held vertical and stationary, into the water directly abeam. Hold water all should always be followed by the command oars. Row in astern motion, keeping stroke as in pulling ahead Designated oars are backed as for stem all.
Stem all or back water all Back starboard (or port).
Back starboard, give way Designated oars row astern while other side pulls ahead to turn the port (or vice versa). boat without making head or sternway. Hold water starboard, give Designated oars hold water while other side pulls ahead to turn the way port (or vice versa). boat with slight headway Trail oars (Given to pass an obstacle.) Complete the stroke and allow oars to trail in the water alongside the boat. Hold onto handles to avoid losing oars. (Given as a salute.) Handles are pressed down inboard and oars raised vertically, with blades trimmed fore and aft. (Given from toss oars position.) Oars are dropped outboard into oars position. (Given to shove a grounded boat off.) Crew stand facing aft and shove off together. (Given as a landing is approached.) Bowmen complete stroke, unship and swing their oars forward and boat them with blades forward. They then stand by with boathooks or to receive the sea painter or boat rope. (Given from the position of oars.) Each man unships his oar and lays it in the boat, blade forward (starting with forward man first). Rowlocks are removed and oarsmen sit at attention (Given when crew is rowing.) The stroke is completed and oars boated without further command (same as boat the oars.) Out oars also may be given from this position if necessary to resume rowing.
Toss oars.
Let fall.
Point the oars
In bows.
Boat yours oars.
Way enough.
USMMA GMATS
51
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
EMERGENCY SIGNALS
Review one of the ships station bills for the standard emergency signals adopted for all MSC civil service manned ships. MAN OVERBOARD - Steps to be taken: a. The bridge should be hailed, phoned or otherwise immediately notified of man overboard, indicating which side he fell over. b. A ring buoy should be thrown over the side as soon as possible; at night it should be one with a water light attached. c. The Deck Officer on watch, upon notification of man overboard, shall: 1. Order the wheel put hard over towards the side that the man fell over. 2. Stop the engines. 3. Drop ring buoys over the side (at least one with a water light, if at night). 4. Drop man-overboard signal marker. All MSC ships have one installed on each bridge wing. The man-overboard signal marker can be used during day or night since it is a smoke and a light signal. Other orange smoke distress signals and/or sea-dye markers also may be used during daylight. 5. Illuminate the area and use searchlight at night. 6. Station lookouts to keep the man in sight. d. The man overboard signal shall be given--three long rings on the general alarm bells, announcement on the PA system in ships so equipped, followed by three more long rings on the general alarm bells (international code signal 0). e. The emergency boat crew shall assemble at the emergency boat announced on the PA and appropriate lights should be turned on, if at night. f. The First Officer takes charge of the launching of the emergency boat, usually #1 or #2 boat, while the Master, who has been called, takes charge on the bridge. Both emergency boats are readied for launching. g. When the Master is certain that the ship is well clear of the man overboard, he shall utilize the appropriate methods of returning to the man in the water by: 1. Backing to stop headway and lowering the emergency boat. 2. Circling with engines full ahead to return and lower boat. 3. Using the engines full ahead to gain way for the Williamson turn, returning on reciprocal course and slowing down as the ring buoy is approached and lowering boat. 4. Consideration must be given to the time interval between the casualty and the dropping of a ring buoy. A ship making 13.5 knots will travel a nautical mile in 41/2 minutes. Therefore, the Master will want to proceed cautiously for a short time at a speed not too excessive to permit launching within seconds of the time the victim is sighted. The searchlight will be sweeping the area continuously at night and additional lookouts should be posted. h. When the victim is sighted, the boat should be launched upon the order of the Master who is maneuvering into a position most advantageous to the boat crew but not close enough to the victim to endanger him.
USMMA GMATS
52
11/3/2006
QMED
LIFEBOAT
i.
During the period of maneuvering, the boat launching crew should have swung out the emergency boat, the boat should be manned and lowered to a safe distance above the sea ready for immediate launching. j. The boat is directed to the man in the water by means of the radio whenever possible. Otherwise, the following whistle, blinker or flag signals are used: 1. Turn to starboard - one 2. Turn to port - two 3. Dead ahead - three 4. Towards ship - four 5. Stand off, we are maneuvering - five or more blasts (danger signal) k. If there is heavy sea, great care and experience is required in releasing the boat, and the boat commander must approach the victim cautiously so as to put him on the windward side of the boat for the rescue. If victim is on the lee side of the boat, there is a grave possibility that the boat will drift down on him. l. When rescued, the victim should be wrapped in blankets to dry and warm him in order to avoid shock. Artificial respiration should be started immediately if the victim is unconscious. m. Refer, also, to the Man Overboard Bill in the MSC Damage Control Manual.
DISTRESS SIGNALS (See Figure 14) a. The following signals used or exhibited either together or separately, indicate distress and need of assistance. The signals listed are specified in Annex IV, International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972. 1. A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about a minute. 2. A continuous sounding with any fog-signaling apparatus. 3. Rockets or shells, throwing red stars fired one at a time at short intervals. 4. A signal made by radiotelegraphy or by any other signaling method consisting of the group (SOS) in Morse Code. 5. A signal sent by radiotelephony consisting of the spoken word Mayday. 6. The International Code Signal of distress indicated by N.C. 7. A signal consisting of a square flag having above or below it a ball or anything resembling a ball. 8. Flames on the vessel (as from a burning tar barrel, oil barrel, etc.). 9. A rocket parachute flare or a hand flare showing a red light. 10. A smoke signal giving off orange-colored smoke. 11. Slowly and repeatedly raising and lowering arms outstretched to each side. 12. The radiotelegraph alarm signal. 13. The radiotelephone alarm signal. 14. Signals transmitted by emergency position-indicating radio beacons. 15. A piece of orange-colored canvas with either a black square and circle or other appropriate symbol (for identification from the air). 16. A dye marker. b. Although not listed, the national ensign flown inverted is another recognized distress signal.
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c.
In addition to distress signals given by a ship, the following lifeboat equipment may be used in the event that the ship was abandoned: 1. Dye or sea marker is used to attract the attention of aircraft by spreading the brightly colored dye over the sea surface. 2. Flashlights stowed in lifeboat can be used for short range blinker signaling. 3. The lantern has sufficient oil for nine hours service and may assist in attracting attention if the boats are close to a shipping lane. 4. Signaling mirrors are used as a day signal to aircraft by reflecting the rays of sun towards the craft. 5. Hand distress signals or flares are used to attract attention by their brilliant red lights. 6. Orange-smoke signals, when ignited, throw a quick, orange-colored smoke which may attract the attention of passing aircraft or sea traffic in daytime. 7. One of the best night signals is the parachute flare which is projected by a pistol to an altitude of about 300 feet. 8. One or more of the emergency boats will have a radio installation or a battery radio by which SOS or other understood distress signals may be transmitted. 9. Orange-colored sails assist in attracting attention in daylight. 10. Motor lifeboats have a searchlight which is very effective in attracting attention at night. 11. Hoisting a metallic object aloft, such as a bucket, will aid in earlier detection by radar-equipped vessels.
FIGURE 14 DISTRESS SIGNALS (72 COLREGS)
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INTERNATIONAL LIFESAVING SIGNALS - International lifesaving signals are used by USCG and other lifesaving stations and maritime rescue units when communicating with ships or persons in distress and by ships or persons in distress when communicating with lifesaving stations and maritime rescue units. (If in distress and not discovered immediately by the beach patrol, continue to make the distress signals specified in Article 10.3a.) The international lifesaving signals will be found on Form CG 811, Lifesaving Signals, Helicopter Recovery Procedures, and Breeches Buoy Instructions, which prior to July 1988 was required to be posted in the pilothouse, engine room and crews quarters of vessels. The new rule requires that Form CG 811 be readily available to the deck officer of the watch. (Refer to Figures 10-2 through 10-6.) BREECHES BUOY (See Figure 14) a. Use. The breeches buoy is used to rescue personnel from a ship which is grounded close enough to the shore to permit a shot line to be fired across it and a tailblock and hawser rigged in cases where the surf is too high to permit use of boats. It also may be used in rescue operations between two ships. In case of stranding on a shore where the surf is high, it is best to remain by the wreck until assistance arrives from a lifesaving station ashore, as long as possible. b. Rigging 1. A shot with a small line attached will be fired across the stranded ship. The line should be taken hold of as soon as possible, the end made fast and the line hauled onboard until a tailblock with a whip or endless line rove through it is reached. The tailblock should be hauled onboard as quickly as possible to prevent the line drifting off with the sea or fouling in wreckage. 2. Attached to the tailblock will be a tally board with the following directions in English on one side and French on the other: Make the tail of the blockfast to the lower mast, well up, or if the masts are gone, to the best place you can find. Cast off the small shot line, see that the line in the block runs free and show signal to the shore. 3. As soon as this signal is seen, a three-inch hawser will be bent onto the whip and hauled off to the ship by the lifesaving crew. If circumstances permit, the lifesaving crew should be assisted by manning that part of the whip to which the hawser is bent and hauling with them. 4. When the end of the hawser is received onboard, a tally board will be found attached, bearing the following directions in English and French: Make this hawserfast about two feet above the tailblock, see that all is clear and that the line in the block runs free and show signal to the shore. Make sure that there are no turns of the whip line around the hawser before making the hawser fast. 5. When the hawser is made fast, the whip cast off from the hawser and the signal is seen by the lifesaving crew, they will haul the hawser taut and by means of the whip will haul off to the vessel a breeches buoy suspended from a traveler block running on the hawser. c. Operation 1. One person should get into the breeches buoy immediately, thrusting his legs through the breeches. Women, children and invalids should be sent ashore first.
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In signaling as directed in the foregoing instructions, if in the daytime, one man should separate himself from the rest and make a vertical motion with his arms or a white flag. At night, a vertical motion of a white light or flare. 3. The empty buoy will be hauled back to the ship and the operation repeated until all personnel are off. 4. The chances of success in landing all personnel safely will greatly depend upon coolness and attention to these instructions. 5. The above procedure is similar to that employed in transferring personnel between two ships by the highline method. d. Highline Transfer. MSC ships are equipped and crews are trained to conduct mercy and rescue missions using the highline transfer. Refer to the MSC Damage Control Manual for further information on the highline transfer. EMERGENCY POSITION INDICATING RADIO BEACONS a. In addition to the portable radio, each self-propelled vessel in ocean and coastwise service must have an approved Class A emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB). b. There are different makes of EPIRBs. They all have the following in common: 1. EPIRBs float. They are stowed outside, so they will float free if the ship sinks. 2. They are small, approximately 6 thick and F - 3 long. 3. They are easy to use. 4. EPIRBs work on one-way automatic operation and cannot be used for two-way communications. 5. They transmit a continuous two-tone (HYLO) signal. 6. If an EPIRB is floating nearby, try to catch it and tie it to the survival craft so it wont drift away. c. EPIRBs are vital in distress situations where radio communications have not been or can not be established. Using the EPIRB is a simple, effective way to bring the Coast Guard to your aid during disasters at sea. Waiting until a vessel is reported overdue usually results in long, fruitless, frustrating and expensive searches. The number of saves and the marked reduction in search time clearly indicates the value of EPIRB s. d. No emergency rescue/survival equipment is foolproof, and EPIRBs are no exception. Activating an EPIRB may not result in an immediate rescue. Much of survival and rescue depends on good judgment and using good quality and well-maintained equipment. Accidental activation must be avoided to assure availability of rescue forces and a fully charged battery for real distresses. e. Just as visual distress signals must be seen, EPIRBs must be heard. There have been many rescues involving the use of EPIRBs. Commercial and private aircraft are not required to monitor Class A and B EPIRBs. Many do if they have a spare receiver, but around busy airports they generally monitor traffic control and/or company channels. Normally U.S. military and Coast Guard aircraft monitor, but their receiving range is limited by antenna height. f. Distress frequencies used in Class A and B EPIRBs also are monitored by satellite (SARSAT or COSPAS/SARSAT) which greatly enhances the chances of rescue by providing an accurate location of the distress. The extreme altitude of the satellite also provides a broad area of coverage but due to its track path on the earth, it could be hours
2.
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before the satellite receives the distress signal and relays information to search and rescue authorities. Class C EPIRBs will not be picked up by SARSAT; they operate alternately on channels 15 and 16 in the FM marine band and are intended for use within 20 miles of the coast. g. There are three types or classes of EPIRBs. Class A and B EPIRBs transmit a swept tone signal on both aviation distress frequencies, 121.5 and 243.0 MHz. 1. They are required to operate at least 48 hours in freezing water, and will operate much longer in warmer water, up to seven days in water of 70 degrees F. 2. (2)T heir signal is transmitted line of sight, will not follow the curvature of the earth, and can be interrupted by waves, hills and the like. 3. Reception range to an aircraft under ideal conditions is about 200 miles at about 40,000 feet, and decreases as the height of the receiving antenna decreases. 4. They are intended for use on vessels operating 20 or more miles offshore. 5. They can be detected and located by the SARSAT satellite which will relay their positions to the appropriate Rescue Coordination Center. 6. Class A EPIRBs are designed to float off the sinking vessel and automatically activate. 7. Class B EPIRBs must be manually removed from their mounting bracket and manually activated. h. Class C EPIRBs transmit a brief alerting signal on VHF-FM Channel 16 and then alternately a homing signal on Channel 15. 1. Their range is about 20 miles depending on the height of the receiving antenna. 2. The signals can be received by other vessels, Coast Guard stations and SAR units. 3. These EPIRBs must be manually activated and transmit for 24 hours and then automatically shut off. They can be manually reactivated for additional transmissions. 4. Class C EPIRBs are intended for use on coastal waters (not more than 20 milesfrom shore) and on inland waters. i. Recommendations on operating EPIRBs: 1. EPIRBs should be turned on and left on when used. A continuous transmission provides the best means for alerting, determining position and homing. 2. Class A EPIRBs are provided with lanyards as required by Federal Communications Commission regulations. Some operators are incorrectly attaching these lanyards to the vessel. 3. The lanyards on Class A EPIRBs are intended to be used to secure the EPIRB to a lifeboat, liferaft or person in the water after a casualty. Under no circumstances is the lanyard to be attached to the vessel. This can defeat the float-free operation of the EPIRB. 4. EPIRBs operate best when floating with the top out of the water and the antenna vertical. 5. In rough conditions, it is recommended that the EPIRB be operated inside the liferaft, even though this may reduce the range of the signal. Hold it upright, clear of the raft and do not touch the antenna. CAUTION: EPIRBs with water-activated switches must be kept in the water.
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j.
When rescue units are near, use your visual distress signals, (found in Rule 37 and Annex IV of the Navigation Rules) so your position can be pinpointed. (See Figure 14.) To test a Class A (automatic) or Class B (manual) EPIRB you will need the EPIRB, a small FM broadcast receiver (small commercial radio), a bucket with enough water to activate the water activated switch if the EPIRB is so equipped, and a watch: 1. Operate the battery test switch. Turn on the FM radio and tune it to 99.5 MHz. Check the time. The full-power test can be made only during the International Distress Frequency test period (00 to 05 the first five minutes of any hour). 2. Before placing the EPIRB in the water, visually examine the sealing gasket. If the gasket is missing, torn or lose, do not conduct the emersion test because the EPIRB could fail. 3. When the time is right, dunk the bottom of the class A (automatic) EPIRB into the water. For a class B (manual) EPIRB, just turn it on. Watch the indicator lamp and listen to the radio. NOTE: You cannot hear the EPIRB operating unless the radio is tuned to 99.5 MHz. 4. If the EPIRB is operating properly, the indicator lamp will light and you will hear the EPIRB signal - an oscillating tone - on the radio. Pull the EPIRB out of the water - turn it off as soon as you hear the signal. This full power test must not last longer than one second or three audio sweeps. 5. If you do not hear the signal on the radio, the EPIRB needs service. Perform this test each month and log the results in the ships deck log.
6.
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ENCLOSED LIFEBOATS
GENERAL a. The enclosed lifeboat has been a common lifesaving appliance aboard Scandinavian and Soviet merchant vessels for many years, but was unknown in the U.S. merchant marine until recently. In 1976, Military Sealift Command made U.S. flag history by obtaining a temporary approval from the Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, to install four of these boats aboard the USNS ARNOLD for test and evaluation. Those tests proved satisfactory and the installation subsequently received U.S.C.G approval. The ARNOLD has since been deactivated and her lifeboats have been placed aboard the USNS REDSTONE. b. The regulations for enclosed lifeboats require that they must be readily opened from both inside and outside, do not impede rapid embarkation or disembarkation or the launching or handling of the lifeboat. They must have embarkation arrangements that allow each lifeboat to be fully boarded in the stowage position, and be launched by gravity davit and winch systems, each of which is operated from the lifeboat, and which does not require any crew to remain onboard the vessel. c. SOLAS CHAPTER III, 1983 Amendments -- In 1983, the Maritime Safety Committee of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) approved a complete revision of Chapter III of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), Lifesaving Appliances and Arrangements. d. The major changes for lifeboats on new ships begun on or after July 1, 1986 are summarized below: 1. The enclosed lifeboat will give increased hypothermia protection to its occupants. Lifeboats on cargo vessels must be totally enclosed and be self-righting when unflooded. If capsized in a flooded or damaged condition, enclosed lifeboats must attain a position that gives an above water escape for their occupants. 2. Lifeboats on passengers ships must be either totally enclosed or partially enclosed with rigid covers over bow and stern and a quickly deployable flexible cover in between. This compromise in the rules allowing partially enclosed lifeboats recognizes that totally enclosed boats can take longer to enter by untrained passengers. 3. Lifeboats on ships carrying toxic cargoes must have a self-contained air supply system for the engine and crew. 4. Lifeboats on ships carrying flammable cargoes must have a self-contained air supply system for the engine and crew and an external sprinkler system to permit the boat to proceed through the water during a fire. 5. Lifeboats are required to have a release mechanism that unlocks when the boat enters the water but that can also be released before the boat is waterborne by activating a protected safety lock. 6. All lifeboats must be motor lifeboats. CONSTRUCTION (See Figure 15)
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The general construction requirements for enclosed lifeboats are the same as for open lifeboats. Previous sections the details for hull materials, releasing gear and other required equipment. b. Davits for enclosed lifeboats provide for lowering from within the lifeboat. Many enclosed lifeboats are lowered by gravity-pivot or trackway davits. c. External fire protection is achieved by means of a water pump driven off the main engine furnishing water to the hull, cover and dome via water jets strategically placed to give water coverage to the cover, dome and exposed portion of the hull. The sprinkler system can be activated once the lifeboat motor is started and the boat is waterborne. The operating control for the sprinkler pump is located at the helmsmans position. This system is required for lifeboats on new ships begun on or after I July 1986 which carry flammable cargoes. d. A compressed air system is provided to supply air for the passengers and diesel engine when the boat is operating through fire or poisonous gas environment. A regulator is provided to control the rate of discharge of air into the boat such that more air is released than is used by the engine to prevent ingress of noxious fumes, smoke, etc. This system is required for lifeboats on new ships begun on or after 1 July 1986 which carry toxic or flammable cargoes. e. Each person in the boat is provided with seat belts and must be securely strapped in at each seat position. f. For an enclosed lifeboat launched by a Miranda davit, the bow and stern launching pendants that support the boat in the cradle act as a bow and stem painters when the boat is in the water and before it has been released. There is a painter stowed inside the bow of the boat but it is not required during the launch sequence. When the boat returns to the ship for recovery, the bow and stern recovery pendants act as bow and stern painters while the boat is afloat prior to hoisting. g. In the event of motor failure, openings have been provided in the rigid enclosure so that oars may be inserted from the outside. When these openings are not being used for oars they may be left open or an adapter plate may be inserted to seal them closed as might be required during rough weather or launching into a burning oil seaway. When not in use the oars for the boat are tied to the top of the rigid house. h. An antenna mounting plate has been provided on the top of the rigid house so that the emergency lifeboat radio antenna can be rigged when necessary. i. A fall-away boat gripe has been designed for the Miranda davit so that it does not have to be manually released before lowering the boat. The gripe normally maintains tension and holds the boat firmly to the ship when the boat is in the stowed position. A hook is mounted on the keel amidship and the gripe ring is positioned over this hook. When in the stowed position the gripe pulls the keel inboard tightly. When the loaded boat begins descent from the stowed position the gripe falls off and releases the boat to run freely down the track. This is an important design feature which holds the boat securely in place during loading. j. The propulsion unit is a marine diesel engine. It is approved by the USCG for hand cranking; hydraulic or electric starting is provided for convenience. The engine is cooled by a closed circuit keel cooler which allows the engine to be started and run out of the water while hanging in the davits. The fully loaded speed is approximately 6.5 knots.
a.
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FIGURE 15 INTERIOR LAYOUT OF A TOTALLY ENCLOSED LIFEBOAT MIRANDA BOAT DAVIT SYSTEM (See Figure 16) a. In October 1975 leading manufacturers of lifesaving equipment, in conjunction with the British Department of Trade, carried out extensive and successful sea trials of a prototype launch/recovery system aboard the fishery support ship MIRANDA. b. The MIRANDA davit, named after that fishery support vessel, is the result of years of experience in the development of davit systems. The MIRANDA system comprises fixed davit arms and trackways, winch, motor and a survival craft in its own launch/recovery cradle rather than the more traditional moving davit arm. The lifeboat is attached to the cradle by launching pendants of wire rope at the bow and stern. Two single wire boat falls lead from the boat winch to the forward and aft boat cradle arms instead of the doubled fall traveling block assembly more common to the open lifeboat. The craft is stowed at the embarkation deck position in its cradle. It is this cradle which is lowered down the trackways, down the side of the parent vessel and finally separating from the lifeboat when it becomes waterborne. The cradle with its rollers thus provides protection for the boat when it is being lowered, rendering it unnecessary to turn the craft out clear of the ships side. This eliminates the need for a davit which turns from the inboard to the outboard position and all the maintenance which comes with that type of equipment. Once the cradle lowers past the boat deck it continues to protect the boat as it passes down the side of the ship. c. The wire falls fairlead over the rounded knuckle at the deck edge. The resultant angle of the fall tends to pull the lifeboat into the side of the vessel during lowering especially under small angles of listing by the parent vessel. This feature has the effect of reducing or eliminating the tendency of the boat swing away from the ship when the ship is working in a seaway. This is a distinct advantage over the old open boat system where the boat could always be counted on to swing wildly and hit the side of the ship unless bow and stem tenders were positioned to dampen the impact. d. In addition to the protection it affords the survival craft during launch and recovery, the MIRANDA system has the following advantages: 1. The craft can be launched with the parent vessel in a 30 degree high or low side list accompanied by 15 trim either fore or aft. This exceeds international maritime
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regulations for new ships begun on or after July 1, 1986 which require that a davit work with a 20 degree list.
FIGURE 16 EMBARKATION AND LAUNCH 2. The cradle allows personnel to be loaded while the boat is in a fully stowed position. The launching is controlled by the boat commander from within the craft. The brake control wire for lowering the boat leads from the boat via the fixed davit arm down to the brake handle of the winch on deck. A small drum attached to the shaft of the main winch drum adjusts the length of the brake control wire so that it is always in reach of the personnel in the lifeboat regardless of the position of the boat during the lowering cycle. A downward pull on the brake control wire has the effect of raising the winch arm on the davit winch thereby relaxing the winch brake. Releasing the brake control wire lowers the winch brake thus stopping the descent. Other than the rollers on the cradle, the MIRANDA system has very few moving parts. The rollers enable the cradle, with the craft mounted in it, to move down the trackways, over the side of the ship and into the water. The boats gripe automatically disengages as the boat moves down the trackways. (See Figure 17.) The boat is disengaged from the cradle and launching pendants by actuating the release lever inside the boat. The lever releases both ends simultaneously whether or not there is a load on the hooks. Release gears conforming to 1983 SOLAS amendments have a hydrostatic interlock preventing operation before becoming waterborne. In the unlikely event of the hydrostatic interlock not working, an overriding lever is incorporated into the mechanism, which, when activated allows the lifting hooks to be opened. Because of the reduced number of moving parts, the maintenance required to keep these systems in first-class working order is less than that needed for conventional davit systems.
3.
4. 5.
6.
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FIGURE 17 DETAILS OF A FALL-AWAY BOAT GRIPE SYSTEM (LOOKING OUTBOARD) - This picture shows the boat snugged in tightly while in the stowed position. As the boat starts to run down the davit track the gripe ring will fall off of the keel hook automatically 7. Since the craft is protected by the cradle, the lifeboats can be launched while the parent vessel still has some way on, before coming to a complete stop. Launching thus does not require the vessel to be dead in the water. Recovery of the craft is simple and quick (3 minutes or less, depending on the condition of the seas). Hook-up is made by engaging a lightweight snap hook on the recovery pendant to the falls above the cradle; the other end of the pendant is placed into the release hooks. The recovery crew on the ship insures that the boat cradle has been lowered enough so that it is hanging well below the surface of the sea and the hull of the lifeboat. When the lifeboat comes along side the ship the bow and stern tenders snap the safety hook on the recovery pendants to the boat falls. The lifeboat is now ready for hoisting. (See Figure 19.) On hoisting, the snap hooks slide down the fall and become fixed on the head of the cradle. The boat is thus guided back into the cradle, and hoisting back to the embarkation deck is achieved. The transfer of the boat from the recovery pendants back to the launching pendants on the ends of the cradle is made at the davit head in a quick and simple procedure. A hanging off jib and pendant is provided on the forward and aft fixed davit. The hanging off pendant is first attached to the release gear assembly at each end of the lifeboat and the boat is then lowered slightly until both hanging off pendants are supporting the weight of the boat. The recovery pendant is then removed from each end of the boat and the regular launching pendant is reattached from the cradle. The boat is then raised to its final position and proper tension is applied to the gripes. The hanging off pendants are then removed and restowed inside the bow and stern of the lifeboat.
8.
9.
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FIGURE 19 USING THE RECOVERY PENDANT DURING HOOK-ON 10. The launch/recovery winch includes a centrifugal brake to maintain a constant lowering speed on 120 feet per minute when the craft is fully laden. (This speed can be increased to accommodate changes in regulations.) The main fail safe holding brake, which is operated from within the craft, can be used to stop descent of the craft at any point; simply release the brake control wire. Lowering is resumed when the wire is again pulled. This feature enables the release of the craft at the most opportune moment in the prevailing sea conditions and immediately steer away from the danger area at maximum speed. 11. For shipyards, the big advantage is the ease of installation of the simple MIRANDA davit. One of the most important features of the new davit is the fact that a MIRANDA operation does not require that any crewmembers remain on deck, descending later to the boat via a ladder or manrope. In an emergency, all personnel can exit the ship in the lifeboat together.
e.
OPERATIONS a. Lowering 1. Once the crew has mustered and the order to abandon ship has been given, the debarkation ladder should be lowered over the side and the boat should be boarded. The boat is loaded from the stowed position. 2. As each person enters the boat a seat is selected and the seat belt is securely fastened. 3. The boat commander selects the seat that allows control of the brake control wire.
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4. 5.
If the ship is on fire or if fuel is burning in the water the entry doors to the lifeboat should be tightly closed and the compressed air supply activated. Boat lowering occurs when the boat commander pulls down on the brake control wire. The boat gripe is designed to fall away as the boat travels downward. No crewmember remains on deck to operate the winch since boat lowering is controlled from inside the boat being lowered. During drills, the lifeboat winch is manned during recovery. Once descent begins, lowering may be stopped by releasing the brake control wire. Pulling on the brake control wire resumes lowering. (See Figure 18.)
FIGURE 18 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT FOR LIFEBOAT WITH LAUNCHING PENDANT 6. As the boat descends down the trackways the lifeboat motor should be started. The engine is equipped with a closed circuit keel cooler that provides cooling water to the engine at all times. When the boat is in the water the circulation of water through the keel cooler dissipates the heat to the sea water flowing past the cooling coils affixed to the boat hull. It takes approximately five minutes for the fresh water in the keel cooler to come up to operating temperature. When the boat is waterborne the boat commander continues lowering the cradle until the top of the cradle is even with the lifeboat deck. The bow and stern fall pendants functions as sea painters until such time as the cradle separates from the lifeboat.
7.
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If external fire protection is needed, the sprinkler system should be activated at the helmsmans position. The engine driven water pump will take suction and provide water from jets strategically placed to give water to the cover, dome and exposed portion of the hull. 9. When ready to get underway, the boat commander orders the release lever inside the boat operated. The action of the lever opens the release gear hooks which will release each end of the boat simultaneously whether or not there is load on the hooks. The boat is now free to maneuver away from the side of the ship. 10. In the event of engine failure, oars are provided for propulsion. The oars are unlashed and fitted into the openings along the gunwale of the enclosed lifeboat. b. Recovery (See Figure 19.) 1. Lifeboat recovery requires a winchman on deck. 2. In preparation for recovery, the boat commander orders the release lever inside the boat to its secured position and fastened by the safety toggle pin. The release gear hooks are checked to see that they are closed and locked. 3. The bow and stern tenders are directed to break out the recovery pendants and latch the long link end of the recovery pendant to the release gear hook, bow and stern. A preventer bar at the mouth of each release hook keeps the long link engaged in the hook so that the link will not drop out when the recovery pendants are slack. 4. The bow and stern tenders hold the snap hook end of the pendants in preparation for hooking onto the wire rope fall. 5. With the cradle below water level the boat commander directs the boat into position. The bow and stern tenders now secure the free snap hook end of the recovery pendants onto the wire rope fall above the cradle. The recovery pendants slide up and down the wire rope fall without the sudden jolt common to recovery with other davits when the swell drops and the release hooks assume the load of the boat. 6. Hoisting commences when the lifeboat winch is engaged by the winchman on deck. As the cradle raises out of the water the recovery pendant snap hook bears down against the head of the cradle. The boat is thus guided back into the cradle, and hoisting back to the embarkation deck is achieved. 7. Personnel are disembarked as soon as the boat reaches deck level. Hoisting an empty boat from the deck to the stowed position is the safest method of recovery. Hoisting is continued until the limit marks on the davit trackway line up with the limit marks on the boat cradle. c. Restowing the Boat 1. The bow and stern tenders are directed to attach the hanging off pendants to the release gear assembly and insert the securing pins. (See Figure 20.) 2. The boat is then lowered until the weight of the boat is suspended on the hanging off pendants. 3. The recovery pendants are then removed at each end of the lifeboat. 4. The launching pendants leading from the boat cradle are now attached to the releasing gear hooks at each end of the lifeboat. 5. The boat is hoisted upward to transfer the weight of the boat to the launching pendant and slacken the hanging off pendant. The hanging off pendants are removed from the release gear assembly and the hanging off jib is secured in the upright position.
8.
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6. 7.
The boat is moved up or down as necessary to return it to the final stowed position with the proper tension on the keel gripes. The stowed boat is ready for launching.
FIGURE 20 THE HANGING OFF PENDANT PRECAUTIONS a. The ships crew must not modify the lifeboat or davit systems. The U.S.C.G. approval applies to the specific configuration as delivered from the manufacturer. As with any new system, there is a tendency to handle the new equipment in a manner common to a former system. The installation of boat gripes typical to open boats or the use of tricing pendants is neither practical or safe. b. The boat is designed to be loaded in the stowed position. Do not attempt to lower the boat to the main deck level for embarkation as is required for open lifeboat systems. c. All persons in an enclosed lifeboat must remain seated with their seat belts securely fastened during launch and operation of the boat. An attempt to hang on rather than having the belts fastened risks possible injury and creates instability should a roll cause the passenger load to shift. The boat is designed to be self-righting but in at least three marine casualties, totally enclosed lifeboats have capsized.
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LIFEBOAT
d. As the descending lifeboat crosses the rounded knuckle at the deck edge of the vessel, the lifeboat will rock. Persons not familiar with the Miranda davit should be cautioned that the motion of the boat over the knuckle is normal and not to be alarmed. e. The MIRANDA davit system should be exercised frequently. Periodic lowering of the boat insures that the winch and fairlead rollers are free and ready for actual use. A regular maintenance schedule should be followed for the grease fittings on the cradle rollers, winch and fairleads to keep the system in optimum condition. f. The USCG regulation that requires lifeboats to be lowered to the water at least once in each 3 months is the same for fully enclosed lifeboats as it is for open lifeboats. The crew should be exercised in handling the boats under oars as often as possible to maintain proficiency in what may be a new procedure to many. g. MSC enclosed lifeboats installed prior to 1986 are fitted with standard Rottmer type releasing gear. Many enclosed lifeboats constructed prior to 1986 were fitted with Viking on-load releasing gear. The Viking on-load release gear consists of an upsetting hook which releases the falls in a manner similar to the Rottmer gear. However, unlike the Rottmer gear which uses a rotating collar to hold the foot of the hook in place until release, the Viking gear hook is held in place by stainless steel cables that run through a series of cable guides inside the boat to release the control mechanism. A complete visual examination of the Viking on-load release gears must be conducted as part of the annual stripping, cleaning and overhaul of the lifeboat. Refer to U.S. Coast Guard Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular Number 1-80 for complete details on the extent of the examination. (See Figure 21.)
FIGURE 21 VIKING ON-LOAD RELEASE GEAR TYPICAL INSTALLATION IN ENCLOSED LIFEBOAT
USMMA GMATS
68
11/3/2006
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FIRST AID QUESTIONS
FIRST AID QUESTIONS

GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1. One of your co-workers has a serious injury. She has lost a lot of blood. You approach her and offer to help, but she refuses to let anyone touch her. She answers your questions and does not appear to be confused. What should you do? a. Tell the victim that you must give first aid and begin to apply pressure to her wound b. Tell the victim that she should phone 911 and get proper care for her wound c. Phone your companys emergency response number (or 911) and stay with the victim until ems rescuers arrive d. Tell another co-worker to hold pressure on her wound while you phone your companys emergency response number (or 911) You are asked to help when some of your co-workers are injured in a truck crash in front of your workplace. What is the first thing you should do as you approach the scene? a. Tell the victims to move off the street b. Ask any bystanders to help you move the victims inside the building c. Tell the victims to be still to avoid making their injuries worse d. Look around and make sure the area is safe for you and the victims After you give first aid in the workplace, what should you do with anything that might have touched the victims blood, saliva, or urine? a. Wrap the items in a sealed plastic bag and throw the bag away in the trash b. Place the items in a biohazard waste bag, seal it, and follow your companys plan for disposing of hazardous waste c. Save the items and give them to ems rescuers for transport with the victim to the hospital, where medical personnel can check them d. Do not touch the items (even with gloves) and do not dispose of them. Only persons who are trained in disposal of hazardous waste materials can dispose of these items You are asked to help a co-worker. As you approach the area, you see the victim lying face down on the floor. You make sure the area is safe. Now what should you do for this victim? a. Quickly roll the victim over and begin CPR b. Check to see if the victim is responsive by gently shaking him and shouting Are you OK? c. Find out if the victim has any allergies or is taking any medications d. Move the victim to a comfortable place and keep him warm
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FIRST AID QUESTIONS
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As you walk to your car after work, you see a co-worker slump against a car and then slide to the ground. You run to help and find that the victim is unresponsive. You lay her on her back. You ask a passerby to phone 911. After you open the victims airway, what should you do next? a. Look into the victims mouth to see if anything is blocking the airway, and then you wipe out the victims mouth with your finger b. Give several abdominal thrusts, then place your ear over the victims chest and feel for chest movement c. Gently shake the victim and look for a response d. Place your ear next to the victims mouth and nose, look to see if the chest is moving, and listen and feel for breaths One day after giving first aid to a co-worker, you find out that the man died. You feel guilty and blame yourself. What should you do about your feelings? a. You should discuss your feelings with a counselor, doctor, nurse, or other healthcare provider b. You should talk with several of your co-workers, give them details about your coworkers problem, and explain what you did to help in this emergency c. Ignore your feelings and dont talk about them because it is best not to think about these things d. If you think that you may not have done the right thing to help this person, you should tell a supervisor that you do not want to give first aid in the future
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FIRST AID QUESTIONS
MEDICAL EMERGENCIES 1. A co-worker is eating a sandwich and suddenly grabs his neck. He is unable to make sounds, cough, speak, or breathe. What should you do? a. Leave him alone and try to get him to cough vigorously b. Tell him you are going to help and do abdominal thrusts c. Look in his mouth and use your finger to try to dislodge the object that is causing him to choke d. Phone 911 and do nothing until emergency help arrives A woman who is in late pregnancy suddenly stops eating and grabs her neck with her hands. She is unable to breathe, talk, or cough. What should you do for her? a. Tell her you are going to help and give her several abdominal thrusts b. Phone 911 and dont do anything until ems rescuers arrive c. Look in her mouth and use your finger to try to dislodge whatever is causing her to choke d. Tell her you can help and give her chest thrusts Your co-worker is having trouble breathing. He tells you that he has asthma and has medicine in his locker. He cant catch his breath. You hear a whistle sound when he tries to breathe. What should you do? a. Tell him you are going to help him and give abdominal thrusts b. Try to get him to relax and encourage him to cough c. Get the medicine for him and then stay with him d. Leave him to phone 911 or your companys emergency response number because you cant do anything to help him You think that your co-worker might be having an allergic reaction. Which of the following are signs of a bad allergic reaction (different from a mild allergic reaction)? a. Stuffy nose, sneezing, and itchy eyes b. Itchy skin c. Swelling of the tongue and face and trouble breathing d. A raised, red skin rash A co-worker is having a bad allergic reaction. She asks you for help and tells you that she has an epinephrine pen with her. What should you do about the epinephrine pen? a. Wait until EMS rescuers arrive and tell them about the pen so that they can use it b. Help her use the pen if you are trained and approved to do so c. Do not let her use the pen unless EMS rescuers say it is OK d. Wait until she becomes unresponsive, then use the pen if you are trained to do so
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FIRST AID QUESTIONS
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Your supervisor complains that she is suddenly nauseated, weak, and lightheaded. She is awake but looks pale and is sweaty. What should you look for to see if she might be having a heart attack? a. An uncomfortable feeling of pressure or pain in the chest or upper body, arms, jaw, back, neck, or stomach b. Inability to cough or speak c. Noisy breathing d. Numbness or weakness on one side of the body, trouble speaking, severe headache, and facial droop You think that your supervisor is having a heart attack. He is awake and you are the only person with him. What should you do right away? a. Start CPR immediately b. Tell him to try to walk around to see if the pain goes away c. Tell him to sit quietly, phone 911 immediately, get an AED if one is available, and get a First Aid Kit d. Tell him to move to a cool area, to loosen his clothing, and to rest for 30 minutes A worker in your office stands up suddenly after kneeling for several minutes to file papers. She tells you she feels dizzy. Then she leans against her desk. She is awake but says she feels very dizzy. What should you do? a. Tell her to drive home and rest b. Tell her to lie flat on the floor and raise her legs about 12 inches off the floor c. Tell her to take a brisk walk outside and get a breath of fresh air d. Have her sit in a chair and wipe her face with a cool, wet cloth for several minutes You think that a co-worker may be having a stroke. What are signs of a possible stroke? a. pain or pressure in the chest or upper body, shortness of breath, and lightheadedness b. dizziness and throbbing pain in the arms and legs c. coldness and tingling sensations in the fingers and toes d. sudden facial droop, weakness on one side of the body, and trouble speaking
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FIRST AID QUESTIONS
INJURY EMERGENCIES 1. A co-worker cuts her leg on the corner of a metal shelf. The cut is large and is bleeding a lot. The victim asks you to help. The area is safe. Another worker is getting the First Aid Kit and phoning 911. What should you tell the victim while you wait for the First Aid Kit? a. Tell her there is nothing you can do until the First Aid Kit arrives b. Tell her to press on the leg wound wither clean cloth to stop the bleeding c. Tell her she is probably in shock, and cover her with a blanket and raise her legs about 12 inches off the floor d. Tell her to let the cut bleed because it will not hurt anything A co-worker is using a razor knife to open a box and cuts her arm by mistake. The cut is large, and a lot of blood is gushing from it The victim asks you to help. A co-worker phones the company emergency response number and brings the First Aid Kit. You stop the bleeding with pressure. The victim is lying down. She says that she is feeling weak and dizzy, and she is shivering. What should you do? a. Cover her with a blanket and raise her feet about 12 inches off the floor b. Do not do anything more until EMS rescuers arrive c. Put more pressure on the bleeding from the arm d. Take off the dressing on the cut on her arm Your co-worker is using a saw and cuts his hand by mistake. He turns the saw off and runs to you for help. The cut is bleeding a lot You get the First Aid Kit and ask the victim to apply pressure to the cut while you put on personal protective equipment. What should you do now to control the bleeding? a. Put a dressing on the wound and apply pressure b. Be sure that the victim is comfortable and warm c. Have the victim lie flat and raise the victims legs d. Tightly squeeze the area around the wound to cut off circulation A metal fittingh bursts, causing a large piece of metal to strike a worker. The metal is sticking out of his arm. The victim asks for your help. You get the First Aid Kit and put on personal protective equipment What should you do about the piece of metal stuck in the victims arm? a. Gently remove it and control the bleeding b. Gently remove it and look for signs of shock c. Dont remove it; control the bleeding and look for signs of shock d. Dont remove it until the victim becomes unresponsive; then you can take it out An office worker has a bad nosebleed and asks you to help her. After you put on your personal protective equipment, what should you do to help her? a. Have her sit and lean her head back; do not touch the nose for a few minutes b. Place an ice bag on her nose or forehead c. Have her sit and lean forward while you pinch her nostrils for a few minutes d. Have her lie down, raise her legs, and put an ice bag on her nose
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FIRST AID QUESTIONS
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A worker is arranging pipes on a rack in the storeroom. Several pipes roll back and strike him in the stomach. He sits on the floor holding his stomach and crying out in pain. The area is safe and there is no wound that you can see. You ask him to lie on his back. A bystander phones 911 and gets the First Aid Kit. The victim is now shivering and says that he is dizzy and feels funny. What should you do now? a. Cover him with a blanket and raise his feet about 12 inches off the floor if it does not hurt him b. Tell him you think he is having a heart attack and be ready to start cpr c. Press firmly on his stomach d. Move the victim to a cool, comfortable place and tell him to rest You are asked to help someone injured at an outdoor park next door to your:office. Which of the following might make you think that the victim has a spine injury? a. The victim has trouble breathing and has swelling of the tongue or face b. The victim has a lot of bleeding that you can see c. The victim has a large cut on his arm d. The victim has received a forceful blow to the head A co-worker slips on a wet floor in the cafeteria and twists his ankle. He asks for your help. You make sure the area is safe, and you find that the mans ankle is swollen and discolored. You shout for help, and someone brings you a First Aid Kit. You put on personal protective equipment What should you do for his ankle injury? a. Place an ice bag over a towel on the ankle and dont try to move the ankle b. Put a heat pack over a towel on the ankle and dont try to move the ankle c. Tell the victim to move the ankle and walk around as much as possible to be sure it isnt broken d. Put a heat pack over a towel on the ankle and have him move the ankle around to maintain blood flow A jet of steam from a pipe causes a burn on a workers arm. He yells to you for help and tells you that the burn hurts a lot. You see a small red burn on his arm. You put on gloves. What should you do now for his burn? a. Put burn ointment on the burn and cover it with a dressing b. Put antibiotic ointment on the burn and cover it with a dressing c. Hold the victims arm under cold running water for about 15 to 30 minutes d. Wrap the burn with a tight dressing
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FIRST AID QUESTIONS
CPR 1. You see a co-worker suddenly slump to the floor. You look around and see that the area is safe. How do you check to see if the victim is responsive? a. Shake him gently and shout Are you OK? b. Open his airway and look, listen, and feel for breathing c. Check for signs of circulation d. Look at his color and breathing pattern You have started the steps of CPR for a co-worker who is unresponsive. You open his airway and find that he is not breathing. What should you do next? a. Open the victims mouth, sweep it out with your finger, then check for signs of circulation b. Keep the victims airway open, then use a face mask or face shield and give 2 rapid and forceful breaths c. Keep the victims airway open, then use a face mask or face shield and give 2 slow breaths d. Open the victims mouth and look inside to see that the airway is clear; if the airway is clear, begin chest compressions A woman in your office tells you that she has an uncomfortable feeling in her chest, and then she suddenly collapses. She is unresponsive. You send a co-worker to phone 911 and get the First Aid Kit and AED (if available). You open the victims airway and find that she is gasping, so you give her 2 rescue breaths that make the chest rise. What should you do next? a. Begin chest compressions b. Check for signs of circulation c. Give abdominal thrusts d. Give 2 more rescue breaths Which of the following should tell you that you should start chest compressions as the next step? a. The victim is unresponsive, is not breathing, and has no signs of circulation after receiving 2 rescue breaths b. The victim is unresponsive c. The victim is unresponsive and is not breathing normally d. The victim is unresponsive; after receiving 2 rescue breaths, she is breathing normally, coughing, or moving A woman walking outside your office leans against the building and then slumps to the ground. You run outside and find that she is unresponsive. You send a co-worker to phone 911 and get the AED and First Aid Kit. You open the womans airway and check breathing. She is breathing normally. What should you do next? a. Give her 2 rescue breaths to see if she will respond b. Begin chest compressions c. Lay her on her back and raise her legs 12 inches from the ground while you wait for EMS rescuers to arrive d. Turn her on her side if there are no signs of head or spine injury
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FIRST AID QUESTIONS
AED 1. You are performing chest compressions when a co-worker arrives with the AED. Why is it important to use the AED as quickly as possible? a. If the victims heart has stopped pumping blood, the sooner you use the AED, the more likely it is that the victim will survive b. If you use the AED right away, you wont have to do anything else until EMS rescuers arrive c. If the victim has an abnormal heart rhythm and you use the AED right away, you dont need to phone 911 d. If the victim has an abnormal heart rhythm and you use the AED right away, the AED will tell you whether or not to phone 911 A co-worker tells you that he is having bad pain in his chest, and then he collapses. He is unresponsive. You send someone to phone 911 and get the AED and First Aid Kit. After checking the victim, you begin CPR and give chest compressions. Another co-worker brings the AED but does not know what to do. What should you do next? a. Recheck the victim to see if-he is still unresponsive and not breathing b. Continue cpr until someone else arrives to operate the aed c. Immediately stop CPR, turn on the AED, and attach the pads to the victims chest d. Complete 1 cycle of 15 compressions and 2 breaths, and then turn on the AED While you are using an AED on a victim, the AED tells you that a shock is advised. What should you do immediately before you push the SHOCK button? a. Shake the victim and shout Are you OK? to make sure that the victim is unresponsive b. Make sure that no one is touching the victim by telling everyone to Stand clear c. Push down on the AED pads to make sure that they are firmly in place d. Push the AED power button so that the AED can check the victims rhythm again You are ready to attach the AED pads. On the victims bare chest you see a medicine patch where one of the AED pads should go. What should you do about the patch? a. Take off the medicine patch, wipe the skin dry, and then attach the AED pad b. Put the AED pad over the medicine patch, being careful to cover the entire patch with the pad c. Put the AED pad at least 2 inches away from the medicine patch on the same side of the chest as the medicine patch and leave the patch in place d. Put both of the AED pads on the other side of the chest from the medicine patch
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FIRST AID QUESTIONS
ENVIRONMENTAL EMERGENCIES 1. Which animal bites should you report to the police or animal control officer? a. Report the bite only if the animal has rabies b. Report the bite only if the animal is a skunk, raccoon, fox, or bat c. Report all wild animal bites d. Report the bite only if the animal is aggressive or vicious A co-worker runs into your workplace and asks for your help. He tells you he was bitten by a dog. His arm is bleeding from the bite. Someone else phones 911 and goes to get the First Aid Kit. You put on your personal protective equipment What should you do for this victim next? a. Immediately put a dressing on the bite wound, bandage it, put ice over the bandage, and elevate the arm b. Gently wash the bite area with soap and water; then apply direct pressure to stop the bleeding c. Gently wash the bite area with soap and water and apply ice to the bite, but do not touch the bite area d. Apply ice to the bite; then apply direct pressure to stop the bleeding A worker is clearing brush from a site when a snake bites his leg. He asks you to look at the bite. How can you tell if the bite might be from a poisonous snake? a. Poisonous snakebites swell and cause a lot of pain; nonpoisonous snakebites are not painful and do not cause swelling in the area of the bite b. Poisonous snakes are very aggressive; nonpoisonous snakes are very tame c. A victim bitten by a poisonous snake will collapse and become unresponsive very quickly d. Nonpoisonous snakes often leave tooth marks in the shape of a horseshoe; poisonous snakes usually leave 1 or 2 puncture wounds A co-worker is cutting the lawn when a bee stings him. He tells you that he is allergic to bee stings and asks you to help. What signs tell you that he is having a very bad allergic reaction to a bee sting? a. The victim feels burning at the bite and swelling of the bite area within 5 minutes b. The victim feels numbness and has redness and swelling in the area of the sting c. The victims tongue and face swell and he has trouble breathing d. The victim has a lot of itching, redness, or pain in the area of the bee sting You find a tick on your arm after walking through a wooded area near your workplace. What is the recommended way to remove the tick? a. Hold the tick with your fingers or tweezers and pull until the tick lets go b. Pinch the tick as hard as you can with tweezers and twist the tick until it lets go c. Place a hot match on the tick until it lets go d. Dont remove the tick right away; instead, watch it and remove it only if a rash appears
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FIRST AID QUESTIONS
6.
On a very, very cold day, an outside worker comes into your workplace and asks you to help. He complains that he has been working outside for several hours without gloves and all his fingers are very cold and numb. Several of his fingers are white with a waxy color. You tell someone to phone 911 and to get the First Aid Kit. The nearest hospital is a few minutes away. What should you do for this victim? a. Have him lie down and raise his legs while you wait for EMS rescuers to arrive b. Remove any jewelry from his fingers and wrist (if possible); then thaw his frozen fingers in warm water c. Remove any jewelry from his fingers and wrist (if possible), but do not try to thaw his fingers d. Gently massage the frostbite area and wrap his fingers in a heated blanket. You find one of your co-workers sitting outside against the building. It is a very, very cold day, and she is not wearing appropriate clothing for the cold temperature. Which of the following suggest that she might be suffering from severe hypothermia? a. She acts normally but is shivering and says that she is very, very cold b. She appears confused and sleepy and is not shivering c. She is shivering a lot and jumping up and down to keep warm d. She is complaining of nausea and headache On a very hot summer day you find your co-worker sitting on the floor inside a hot warehouse. The ventilation is poor and there is no air conditioning. Her skin is red and hot. She responds when you ask if she is all right, but her answers are confused. You send someone to phone the emergency response number (or 911). What should you do for her now? a. Move her to a cool area, loosen her clothing, encourage her to drink water, and sponge or spray her with cool water b. Loosen her clothing, but dont try to cool her off with water or anything else if ems rescuers will be there within 10 minutes c. Loosen her clothing and cover her with a blanket to prevent chills; give her ice chips to chew on until ems rescuers arrive d. Lay her down on the floor, raise her legs, and keep her airway open until ems rescuers arrive A co-worker spilled a liquid chemical on her bare arm. She tells you that it is burning her skin and asks you to help. The large, very red spot on her arm is beginning to blister. You are sure the area is safe. You ask someone to phone 911 and get the First Aid Kit. You put on personal protective equipment. What should you do now? a. Do not do anything until you find and read the Materials Safety Data Sheet b. Take the victim to a sink and run water over her skin for at least 20 minutes or until EMS rescuers arriver c. Ask the victim to sit quietly; if she feels faint or lightheaded, tell her to lie down and raise her legs on a box d. Tell the victim there is nothing you can do until you call the Poison Control Center or EMS rescuers arrive
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OIL POLLUTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS
OIL POLLUTION LEGISLATION

1. FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ACT, AMENDED 1972 2. MARPOL 73/78 3. ACT TO PREVENT POLLUTION FROM SHIPS 1980 4. OIL POLLUTION ACT OF 1990 5. CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS 6. OIL RECORD BOOK ENTRY REQUIREMENTS 7. ANNEX 8. OIL RECORD BOOK PART II - CARGO/BALLAST OPERATIONS 9. CODE AND ITEM NUMBER TO BE RECORDED FOR TANKERS
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OIL POLLUTION
1.. FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ACT AS 1 FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ACT AS AMENDED IN 1972 AMENDED IN 1972
Prohibits the discharge of oil into the navigable waters of the United States or the contiguous zone in harmful amounts (defined by the EPA in 40 CFR 110 as "if the oil causes a film, sheen, or discoloration of the surface, or a sludge or emulsion beneath the surface"). Requires the PIC to report any discharge of oil to the USCG by the fastest possible method. (This is after steps have been taken to stop the discharge). Created the transfer regulations found in Title 33 of the Code of Federal Regulations including the present day Declaration of Inspection. Person responsible for the discharge is also responsible for the clean up. Discharge is defined as: "includes but not limited to spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, or dumping into the waters of the US by accident or on purpose". The USCG can board and inspect any vessel, with or without a warrant, and arrest any person who violates the FWPCA of 1972. Penalties: These penalties are for historical purposes only, see OPA 90
Fine not more than 5000 dollars for the owner, operator, or any other person subject to the regulations promulgated by the USCG for the failure or refusal to comply with the requirements of the FWPCA and 10,000 dollars and/or 1 year in jail for the failure to notify the USCG of the discharge OIL DISCHARGE CLEANUP - The PIC must stop the transfer whenever oil from any source is discharged in 1) the transfer work area, or 2) into the water or upon the adjoining shoreline. The transfer is not to be resumed until after the oil is cleaned up from the transfer area or oil discharged into the water is cleaned up or contained. Title 33CFR Part 156.125.
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OIL POLLUTION
2.. MARPOL 73//78 2 MARPOL 73 78

ANNEX I Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil Appendix I...list of oils Appendix II.... international oil pollution prevention certificate Appendix III...form of oil record book Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances (chemicals) in Bulk Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances in Packaged Forms
ANNEX II
ANNEX III
ANNEX IV Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships ANNEX V Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships
DEFINITIONS New Ship - Means a ship that: (a) The building contract was placed after 31 Dec. 1975 (b) The keel was laid after 30 June 1976 or (c) The delivery was after 31 Dec. 1979 or (d) Has undergone a major conversion Existing Ship - Means a ship which is not new REPORTING REQUIREMENT - Responsibility to report lies with the Master. Reports are required for the violation of pollution regulations, the discharge of oil for the safety of the ship or saving a life at sea, the discharge due to damage to ship or equipment, the probability of a discharge from any of the preceding. Reports must be made by radio whenever possible or by the fastest possible means at the time. The report is to be made to the government of the country in whose waters the incident occurred. For US ships the report shall also be directed to the nearest USCG Captain of the Port or National Response Center. Phone (800) 424-8802 or TELEX 892427. The contents of a report must include the identity of the ship, the time and date of the incident, the geographic position, the wind and sea conditions, the details of the ship, and the quantity of oil discharged or likely to be discharged. DISCHARGE LIMITATIONS - The following is a summary of the oil discharge limitations required by MARPOL 73/78 and adopted into US Law by the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships, 1980. The information that follows is extracted from the Marine Safety Manual of April 18, 1993.
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OIL POLLUTION
All ships must comply with the discharge limitations in figures 33- 5 and 33-6 that follow. Conflicts arise between the FWPCA and the provisions of MARPOL. The USCGs views on these conflicts are as follows: In the US Territorial Sea: these are the navigable waters of the US up to 3 nm offshore. Any discharge in the territorial sea, which creates a sheen, even if permissible by MARPOL 73/78, is a violation of the FWPCA. If the discharge is greater than 15 ppm it is also a violation of MARPOL. In the US Contiguous Zone: these are the waters between 3 and 12 nm offshore as measured from the territorial sea baseline. The FWPCA prohibits any discharge of oil that may be harmful but excludes a discharge permitted under MARPOL. MARPOL permits discharges from machinery space bilges and oil fuel tanks if less than 15 ppm when operating an approved oily water separator and monitor or alarm system. Thus, discharges in compliance with MARPOL are not a violation of the FWPCA, even if a sheen results. Discharges under 15 ppm should not produce a sheen under most conditions.
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OIL POLLUTION
MARINE SAFETY MANUAL FIGURE 33-5 Control of Discharge of Oil from Cargo Tank Areas of Oil Tankers Sea Areas Within a SPECIAL AREA Discharge Criteria NO DISCHARGE segregated ballast except clean* or
Within 50 nautical miles NO DISCHARGE except clean or segregated from land ballast NO DISCHARGE except either: (a) Clean or segregated ballast; (b) Or when: (1) The tanker is enroute; and Outside a SPECIAL AREA More than 50 nm from land (2) The instantaneous rate of discharge of oil does not exceed 60 litres per nautical mile; and [Changed to 30 litres per nm] (3) The total quantity of oil discharged does not exceed 1/15,000 (for existing tankers) [1/30,000 for new tankers] of the total quantity of cargo which was carried on the previous voyage; and (4) The tanker has in operation an oil discharge monitoring and control system and slop tank arrangements as required by Regulation 15 of Annex I of MARPOL 73/78
* Clean ballast is the ballast in a tank which has been so cleaned that the effluent therefrom does not create a visible sheen or the oil content exceed 15 PPM NOTE: Items in brackets [ ] are not in the current MSM but show changes due to current regulation changes
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OIL POLLUTION
MARINE SAFETY MANUAL FIGURE 33-6 Control of Discharge of Oil and Oily Waste from all Ships Within a Special Area (Machinery Space / Fuel Oil Tank Ballast Water) Ship Type & Size Location Within Special Area Discharge Criteria NO DISCHARGE except when: (1) The ship is proceeding enroute; and Oil tankers of all sizes and other ships 400 grt ANYWHERE (2) The oil content of effluent without dilution does not exceed 15 PPM; and (3) The ship has in operation oil filtering equipment with automatic 15 PPM stopping device; and (4) For oil tankers the bilge water does not originate from cargo pump room bilges or is not mixed with oil cargo residue Ships <400 grt other than oil tankers Within 12 nm from land NO DISCHARGE except when the oil content of effluent without dilution does not exceed 15 PPM NO DISCHARGE except when either: (a) The oil content of effluent without dilution does not exceed 15 PPM; or (b) (1) the ship is proceeding enroute; and (2) The oil content of the effluent is less than 100 PPM
Beyond 12 nm from land
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OIL POLLUTION
MARINE SAFETY MANUAL FIGURE 33-6 (contd) Control of Discharge of Oil and Oily Waste from all Ships Outside a Special Area (Machinery Space / Fuel Oil Tank Ballast Water) Outside Special Areas Within 12* nm from land Ship Type & Size Oil tankers of all sizes and other ships 400 grt Other ships < 400 grt Discharge Criteria NO DISCHARGE except when the oil content of effluent without dilution does not exceed 15 PPM The conditions for ships 400 grt apply as far as practicable and reasonable NO DISCHARGE except when either: (a) The oil content of effluent does not exceed 15 PPM; or [for existing ships] (1) The ship is proceeding en route; and More than 12 nm from land Oil tankers of all sizes other ships 400 grt (2) The oil content of the effluent is less than 100 PPM; and (3) The ship has in operation an oil discharge monitoring and control system, oily-water separating or filtering equipment or other installation required by Regulation 16 of Annex I of MARPOL 73/78; and (4) For oil tankers the bilge water does not originate from cargo pump room bliges or is not mixed with oil cargo residue Other ships < 400 grt The conditions for ships 400 grt apply as far as practicable and reasonable
* Discharges of a quantity of oil that may be harmful are prohibited within the territorial seas of the United States.
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OIL POLLUTION
WATER EFFLUENT CLEANLINESS REQUIREMENTS

THE 30 LITRES PER MILE CRITERION - Any tanker sailing in normal weather conditions can keep within the oil discharge rate limit of 30 litres of oil per mile of ship travel; oil discharged at this rate quickly spreads to a thin film which disappears as detectable contamination within two or three hours. Contamination of the surface of the sea behind a discharging ship depends initially on: (a) The effluent discharge rate, (b) The oil content of the effluent, (c) The ship's speed. The oil discharge rate in litres per mile is given by: (ppm of oil in effluent) x (effluent discharge rate in m3 / hour) (ship's speed in knots) x 1,000 Different combinations of effluent discharge rates, effluent oil contents and speeds can clearly produce similar oil discharge rates. Consider, for example, a large tanker traveling at 15 knots. Discharge of the clean part of the dirty ballast water at, say, 8000 m3 / hour and an oil content of 30 ppm gives an oil discharge rate of 16 litres per mile. An identical discharge rate would be obtained during the final slow discharge of the slop tank water as the oil / water interface nears the pump suction, if the effluent discharge rate and oil content were 80 m3 / hour and 3000 ppm respectively. LOAD ON TOP EFFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS - The effluents from Load on Top operation have distinct characteristics 1. The discharge of the bulk of the settled dirty ballast. This effluent is characterised by a high flow rate, large in quantity but of low oil content. Oil content in good weather is typically amount 30 ppm, but higher oil content may be expected if there is substantial ship movement 2. The discharge of the bulk of the settled water from a slop tank. This is characterised by a moderate discharge rate, moderate quantities and moderate oil content. Oil content in good weather may be typically around l50 ppm, but again higher oil content will occur in heavy weather. 3. The slow discharge of slop tank water as the oil / water interface nears the tank suction. This effluent is characterised by very low discharge rate, low quantity but probably of substantial oil content, particularly in the last stages just before visibly discernible oil discolouration appears in the effluent. An average oil content of around 500 ppm is typical, rising sharply to double this or more as the effluent becomes discoloured. Stopping further discharge at this point will always leave a water bottom in the tank the depth of which will vary with ship movement and the shape and structure of the tank bottom.
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MARPOL 73 / 78 30 LITER / NM CRITERIA

EXAMPLE A - Settled dirty ballast at about 30 PPM, vessel speed 15 knots, maintaining less than 30 liters per nautical mile. Find cubic meters per hour (m3/h) and Barrels per hour (Bph) pumping rates: 30 PPM x (m3/h) / 15 knots x 1000 = 30 l/nm m3/h = 15,000 15,000 x 6.28 = 94,200 Bph
EXAMPLE B - Settled water in a slop tank at about 150 PPM, all other values same as in example A: 150 PPM x (m3/h) / 15 knots x 1000 = 30 l/nm m3/h = 3,000 3,000 x 6.28 = 18,840 Bph
EXAMPLE C - Settled water in slop tank nearing the oil / water interface at 500 PPM (value double as interface discolors), all other values remain the same as in example A: 500 PPM x (m3/h) / 15 knots x 1000 = 30 l/nm m3/h = 900 900 x 6.28 = 5,652 Bph
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3.. ACT TO PREVENT POLLUTION FROM SHIPS 1980 3 ACT TO PREVENT POLLUTION FROM SHIPS 1980
Found in Subchapter O, "Pollution", Title 33 CFR: Not for vessels strictly engaged in inland waters. Essentially adopted MARPOL Annexes I, II, and V into US law. Covers machinery space operations on tank vessels and other than tank vessels within 12 miles and beyond 12 miles. Tank vessels to discharge cargo residues as per MARPOL 73/78 that is the same as Title 33 CFR part 157.37. Report discharge to appropriate agency by fastest means possible plus the Captain of the Port or the National Response Center. The violation of this Act is punishable by new fines and penalties brought about by OPA 90. The fines for individuals are up to $250,000 and $500,000 for organizations with half going to the informer. One company has been fined twice under the new limits; once for garbage and once for oily wastes from machinery spaces. In the first case the husband and wife passengers were awarded half of the collected fine amounting to $250,000. In the second case the USCG were the reporting parties and no one rceived the informers half. The jail sentence for violations is up to 6 years.
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4.. OIL POLLUTION ACT OF 1990 4 OIL POLLUTION ACT OF 1990

ENACTED TO ACCOMPLISH THE FOLLOWING:

Increase liability of persons / companies that handle / transport oil Establish a $1 billion trust fund to finance cleanup operations Mandate a new criteria for vessel construction and operation Improve preparedness and ability to respond to spills Promote international cooperation in spill prevention Provide special protection for Prince William Sound Create oil pollution research and development programs Require specific improvements to Trans Alaska Pipeline
TITLE I (LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION)

DEFINITIONS - Under OPA 90 a responsible party is one who has the ownership or right to control the source of a spill. Examples are owners, operators, and demise charterers of vessels. Removal Costs include costs incurred by any person acting consistently with the National Contingency Plan, and costs incurred by the US government, a state, or Indian tribe. Oil is oil of any kind or in any form, including, but not limited to, petroleum, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuse and oil mixed with wastes other than dredged spoil. Oils specifically listed as hazardous substances are covered under the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) insofar as liability is concerned. Response and clean-up are covered by OPA '90. WHERE DOES IT APPLY - The scope of OPA 90 is the navigable waters of the US, the adjoining shoreline, and the exclusive economic zone (the high seas contiguous to the territorial sea {3 miles from land under the old FWPCA} which extend to 200 nautical miles from the baseline). NEW PLACARD - 33 CFR 155.450 The Federal Water Pollution Control Act prohibits the discharge of oil or oily waste into or upon the navigable waters of the United States, or the waters of the contiguous zone, or which may affect natural resources belonging to, appertaining to, or under the exclusive management authority of the United States, if such discharge causes a film or discoloration of the surface of the water or causes a sludge or emulsion beneath the surface of the water. Violators are subject to substantial civil penalties and /or criminal sanctions including fines and imprisonment. WHO IS LIABLE - The party responsible for a vessel or facility from which oil is discharged OR poses a substantial threat of discharge is liable for removal costs and damages. Under OPA
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90 the cargo owner is not liable for removal costs and damages although the states are free to impose such liability and some do. LIABILITY FOR WHAT? - Under the FWPCA owners/operators were liable for actual costs incurred by the US government in removing the oil. Damages were not covered in the FWPCA. Under OPA 90 each responsible party is liable, up to its limit of liability, for the following removal and damage costs:

The cost of removal under the FWPCA or state laws consistent with the National Contingency Plan Damages for injury, destruction, loss or loss of use of natural resources (land, fish, wildlife, biota, water, ground water, drinking water supplies, and other such resources), including assessment costs Real or personal property damages Subsistence use of a natural resource (to obtain the minimum necessities of life) Lost revenues Lost profits and lost earning capacity due to the damage of a resource or property. The costs of additional public services necessitated by the oil spill
LIMITS OF LIABILITY - Under the FWPCA of 1972 an owner/operator was liable for the greater of $150 per gross ton or $250,000 for removal costs incurred by the US government. Inland oil barges were liable for $125 per gross ton up to $125,000. Compensatory damages could be limited to the value of the vessel and pending freight on the cargo. OPA 90 creates new limits of liability, which are as follows:
For tank vessels over 3000 grt. 1200 dollars per ton or ten million dollars, whichever is greater, for vessels and for tank vessels of 3000 grt. or less 1200 per ton or two million dollars, whichever is greater. For other vessels the limit is 600 dollars per gross ton or 500,000 dollars whichever is greater. These limits represent an eightfold increase over the FWPCA although they may not touch upon real costs of removal and compensatory damages. Note also that the tanker is liable for twice as much as the dry cargo vessel of the exact same grt. For offshore facilities, except deepwater ports, the limit is 75 million for damages and unlimited for removal costs. For onshore facilities and deepwater ports the limit is capped at 350 million (may be adjusted by Sec. of Transportation).
LOSS OF LIMITS OF LIABILITY Loss of limits of liability by the following: Gross negligence, willful misconduct, and the violation of an applicable Federal safety, construction, or operating regulation by the responsible party, its agents and anyone acting pursuant to a contractual relationship with the responsible party. Also the limits are lost for the failure to report a spill, or to cooperate with or assist officials under the provisions of the
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FWPCA. Although not stated, it is assumed that the violated regulation was the proximate cause of the discharge. * Foreign claimants and responsible parties may recover from the Oil Spill Trust Fund for removal costs and damages in excess of the limits of liability. EXEMPTION FROM LIABILITY - Persons are not liable for removal costs or damages that result from actions taken or omitted to be taken in the course of rendering care, assistance, or advice consistent with the Nat'l. Contingency Plan or as otherwise directed by the President. This does not apply to a responsible party, to a response under CERCLA, with respect to personal injury or wrongful death, or if the person is grossly negligent or engages in willful misconduct. The responsible party is liable for any removal costs and damages that another person is relieved of by this exemption section. FINANCIAL RESPONSIBILITY - Financial responsibility to meet the claims imposed by OPA 90 must be maintained. VESSEL RESPONSIBILITY - The USCG regulations require the responsible party to maintain evidence of financial responsibility to meet the "maximum amount of liability to which they may be responsible under the act". Applies to vessels over 300 grt except non-self propelled vessels that do not carry oil as cargo or fuel and to any vessel using the waters of the US and its economic zone to lighter oil destined for a place subject to the jurisdiction of the US. For fleets of vessels, evidence of financial responsibility is required only to an amount representing the vessel having the greatest potential liability. GUARANTOR'S EXPOSURE TO DIRECT ACTION - Claims for removal and damages may be asserted directly against any guarantor providing the COFR. The guarantor may use any defense available to the responsible party and is also free from liability if the discharge was caused by willful misconduct. The states are free to enforce the requirements for COFR under OPA 90 on state navigable waters. PROOF OF RESPONSIBILITY - Proof may be established by several methods such as proof of insurance, surety bonds, guarantees, and letters of credit. VIOLATIONS AND PENALTIES - Vessel may be denied entry into US waters; vessel may be detained if already in US waters, vessel may be seized and forfeited to US, and fines may be levied. DEFENSES UNDER OPA'90 - OPA 90 allows for the following four defenses provided that the responsible party can show that the sole cause of the discharge was due to one of the four: 1. An act of God 2. An act of war 3. Act or omission of a 3rd party if the responsible party can prove its own due care in handling the oil and in taking precautions against forseeable consequences of the acts or omissions of 3rd parties. 13
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4. Any combination of 1,2,3. Defenses listed are not available to a party who fails or refuses to A. Report an incident B. Cooperate with a responsible official on removal; or C. Comply, without cause, with a governmental order in connection with removal efforts. The slightest negligence by the responsible party will mean that these defenses are not available to that party. An act of God means an "unanticipated grave natural disaster". Under OPA 90 the responsible party must show that the effects of the disaster or natural phenomenon could not have been prevented or avoided by the "exercise of due care or foresight". Third parties referred to cannot be employees, agents, or anyone acting in a contractual relationship with the responsible party. However, a responsible party can be exonerated as a result of an act or omission by a common carrier by rail. Even if a responsible party can prove one or more of the defenses it must nevertheless pay all clean up costs and damages in the first instance. It will then proceed against the third party to recover damages. This party may or may not have the same limits of liability, assets, or financial responsibility as the responsible party. STATE POLLUTION LAWS - Under OPA 90 individual states are NOT pre-empted from imposing additional liability requirements for a discharge or from imposing additional removal activities. Under OPA 90 no federal law may be used to limit liability if there is a more stringent state law. The liabilities, clean up requirements, fines and penalties, and response plans under the laws of the coastal states are complex to say the least and are often in conflict with federal laws. OIL SPILL TRUST FUND The Act creates a $1 billion trust fund, which is supported by a tax on imported oil, and certain civil fines collected from violators of the FWPCA. The Fund may be used for: A. The payment of federal and state removal costs B. The cost of assessing natural resource damage and for implementing plans for restoration C. Removal costs and damages resulting from a foreign offshore unit D. Uncompensated removal costs and damages and federal administrative and personnel costs and expenses incurred to administer, implement, and enforce the Act. E. Administrative costs to implement this Act
TITLE IV PREVENTION AND REMOVAL
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SUBTITLE A PREVENTION - This section of the Act calls for alcohol and drug testing as well as other matters in the licensing and certification of merchant mariners. Drug testing is required for original and renewals. Further testing is required in the following categories: random, periodic, reasonable cause, and post accident.

The National Driver Registry will be consulted for the previous three-year period whenever application is made for original, renewal, or upgrade procedures. Criminal records of applicants will be reviewed. Testing for dangerous drugs is required for applicants.
* Merchant Mariner Documents are now valid for a period of five years and may be renewed for additional five-year periods. This provision went into effect in January of 1995. Existing documents expire according to a table, which is based on five-year increments from the original date of issue. Example: A document issued in 1977 will expire in 1997 (four blocks of five years each). * Suspension and revocation proceedings for licenses, certificates of registry, and Merchant Mariner Documents are expanded in scope and purpose. The typical RS 4450 action was commenced for:

While acting under the authority of the paper in question the holder: Has violated or fails to comply with this section of the law or any regulation Prescribed under this section, or any law or regulation intended to promote Marine safety or to protect navigable waters, or has committed an act of Incompetence, misconduct, or negligence
Now the action can be commenced by the Secretary of Transportation who may temporarily suspend and take possession of licenses, certificates, or documents for a period of up to 45 days if an individual performs a safety sensitive function and there is probable cause to believe that the individual: 1. Has performed a safety sensitive function in violation of of law or Federal regulation regarding the use of alcohol or dangerous drugs 2. Has been convicted of an offense that would prevent issuance of license, certificate, or document 3. In the 3 year period preceding the suspension proceeding, has been convicted of an offense listed at the following: A. Operating a motor vehicle while under the influence of, or impaired by alcohol or drugs; B. A traffic violation connected with a fatality; C. Reckless driving D. Racing on the highways, and E. Any offense that would prevent the issuance of merchant mariner's credentials.
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If a license, certificate, or document is suspended temporarily under this section, an expedited hearing must be held within 30 days after the temporary suspension. The termination of revocation can be accomplished if the Secretary decides that the issuance is compatible with the requirements of good discipline and safety at sea and that the former holder of the paper provides satisfactory proof that the bases for revocation are no longer valid. Removal of the master or individual in charge (sec. 4104) is required when the 2 next most senior licensed officers on a vessel reasonably believe that the master or individual in charge of the vessel is under the influence of alcohol or a dangerous drug and is incapable of commanding the vessel. The next most senior master, mate, or operator shall temporarily relieve the master or individual, shall take command of the vessel, shall immediately enter details in the log if a log is required, and shall report the details to the Secretary by the most expeditious means available and in a written form within 12 hours after arrival at the next port. Manning standards for foreign tank vessels (sec. 4106) will be evaluated by the Secretary on a periodic basis and when a vessel of such a country is involved in a marine casualty required to be reported under this Act. Evaluation will also cover training, qualifications, and watchkeeping standards of that foreign country. The Secretary will ensure that the standards are at least equivalent to the US standards and that they are being enforced. If a country fails to maintain or enforce standards at least equivalent to the US or international standards accepted by the US then vessels issued documentation by that country would be prohibited from entering the US until the standards are met and enforced. The Secretary may allow provisional entry. Reporting of marine casualties applies to US and foreign vessels within the exclusive economic zone. Vessel traffic service systems (sec. 4107) - The Act requires the Secretary to determine what vessels should be mandated to participate in VTS and to determine and prioritize which ports and channels are in need of VTS systems. Final rule published in July 1994. Periodic gauging of plating thickness (sec. 4109) - Regulations were issued on Oct. 8, 1993 for establishing minimum standards for tank vessels and for requiring the periodic guaging of plating thickness for all such vessels over 30 years old operating on the navigable waters or the waters of the EEZ. Overfill devices The Act required the Secretary to develop standards for devices warning of overfills in cargo tanks. The USCG has taken the standards already developed under vapor control regulations (found in 46 CFR 39.20-7 and 39.20-9) as a basis for these new overfills device requirements. The IFR was published on Oct. 21, 1994. Double hull vessels must be equipped with overfill devices. Existing tankers that will be phased out before January 1, 2000 and are not double hull do not have to comply. Existing tankers that will be phased out after January 1, 2000 and are not double hull will have to comply. If compliance is required US vessels must be in compliance at the next scheduled cargo tank internal examination. Tank level or pressure monitoring devices (Sec. 4111) - regs. must be written within one year. Projected NPRM 4/96
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Tank Vessel Manning (sec. 4114)- is already changed by the Act and on tankships the crew (licensed and unlicensed) is not permitted to work more than 15 hours in a 24 hour period nor more than 36 in a 72 hour period except in an emergency or drill. Work includes any administrative duties associated with the vessel both on board or ashore. This does not apply to foreign flag vessels or to tank barges. Double Hull requirements (sec. 4115) - The final rule printed in March, 1995 calls for double hulls on all vessels constructed or adapted to carry, or one that carries, oil (including animal and vegeatble) in bulk as cargo or as cargo residue and when operating within 200 miles of the US. It does not apply to oil spill response vessels, nor to vessels less than 5000 grt if equipped with a double containment system determined to be effective, nor to vessels discharging at the LOOP and other approved offshore lightering zones more than 60 miles offshore until January 2015. Existing tank vessels (single hull or double side or bottom) are subject to a phase out schedule that will terminate in 2015 when the last vessel is phased out. All new tank vessels that are not considered to be existing are required to be double hull. Double Hull Dimensions - Vessels of 5000 dwt and above: Width = [0.5 + (DWT / 20,000)] meters or w = 2.0 meters whcihever is less, but in no case less than 1.0 meter. Height = B/15 or h = 2.0 meters whcihever is less, but in no case less than 1.0 meter Vessels of less than 5000 dwt: Width = [0.4 + (2.4)(DWT / 20,000)] meters but in no case less than 0.76 meters (30 inches). Height = B/15 meters but in no case less than 0.76 meters Two Licenses in the Wheelhouse - On July 9, 1993 a final ruling came into effect which requires tankers of 1,600 grt or more to be navigated with two officers on the bridge and an adequate engineering watch, including a licensed engineer in the machinery spaces, while operating on the navigable waters of the US including the territorial sea (that is, out to 3 miles). Restrictions are placed on the use of autopilots aboard these tankers. Also covered in this section of the Act is the topic of escorts for certain tankers. The Secretary is required to define those areas including Prince William Sound, Rosario Strait, Puget Sound and the Strait of Georgia where single hulled tankers over 5000 grt transporting oil in bulk shall be escorted by at least two towing vessels or vessels considered appropriate by the Secretary. Maritime Pollution Prevention Training Program - The Act calls for a study to determine the feasibility of such a training program to be carried out in cooperation with the approved maritime schools. SUBTITLE B REMOVAL - Under this section of the Act the President of the United States shall ensure an effective and immediate removal of a discharge and mitigation or prevention of a substantial threat of a discharge or oil or a hazardous substance in the navigable waters, on the adjoining shoreline, and in the EEZ. These actions would be in compliance with the Nat'l. Contingency Plan and any appropriate area contingency plans. The USCG would likely be the agency acting on behalf of the President and as seen in the liability section of Title I, the responsible party must pay for time and materials once the USCG shows up. The caseworker assigned to the case by the Fund would be paid by the Fund.
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National Contingency Plan - the Act requires the President to prepare and publish a Nat'l. Contingency Plan for the removal of oil and hazardous substances. The plan is to provide for efficient, coordinated, and effective action to minimize damage from discharges, including containment, dispersal, and removal. The details of this section of the Act are quite lengthy however the response plans required of tank vessels and facilities is of immediate interest. In this section of the Act owners and operators of tank vessels or facilities are required to prepare and submit a plan for responding, to the maximum extent possible, to a worst-case discharge, and to a substantial threat of such a discharge, of oil or a hazardous substance. Also, Federal response plans must meet the requirements of MARPOL 73/78 Annex I Reg. 26 for shipboard emergency plans. Also the 24 coastal states have a vessel response plan requirement as well. Some states agree with the federal requirements whilst others do not. Florida, for instance, requires the plans of all vessels with a storage capacity or 10,000 gallons or more of oil as a cargo or as a fuel while operating in Florida. Vessel Response Plans - The Act required that owners file oil response plans with the USCG in Washington by 2/18/93 and that vessels comply with these plans by by 8/18/93. The failure to meet either deadline could mean that the vessel can no longer handle oil in the US. Plans were reviewed and approved (or not) within 2 years. During that time the owner had to certify that they were complying with the plan submitted. Hazardous substance plans have no implementation schedule at this time. The plans are required of all foreign and domestic vessels carrying oil in bulk as cargo and all vessels involved in lightering within the EEZ and at deepwater ports. The plans are required if the vessel carries oil as a primary or secondary cargo (such as an offshore supply bost delivering oil to a rig, a towing vessel transferring to a vessel not in tow, and a cargo vessel carrying oil in a deep tank, wing, or double bottom. Bulk means oil carried in an integral tank as well as oil transferred to or from a portable or independent tank while on board the vessel. Oil includes petroleum oil, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuse, oil mixed with waste, animal fat, vegetable and so forth. It does not include hazardous materials listed under CERCLA. The plans are not required of public vessels under the FWPCA, laid up vessels with no oil cargo on board, vessels carrying cargoes other than oil, vessels entering US waters for repairs with no oil aboard, dedicated spill response vessels when operating in the spill area, and vessels on innocent passage through the EEZ. Cargo does not include oil transferred from fuel tanks for use by machinery or boats on the vessel or oil transferred from a towing vessel to a vessel in tow for use by machinery. The federal response plans must include the following 10 sections: 1. Introduction and general information, 2. Shipboard spill mitigation procedures, 3. List of contacts, 18
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4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Drill procedures, Notification procedures, Shore based response activities, Training procedures, Plan review and update procedures, Geographic specific appendix for each COTP of the zones in which the vessel will operate, A vessel specific index.
For vessels carrying oil as a secondary cargo the plans are less elaborate and are based on the volume of oil carried. The categories are less than 100 bbls, 100 - 1000, 1000 - 5000, and over 5000 bbls. Vessels carrying oil as a primary cargo must show response to the average most probable spill of 50 bbls and all vessels must show response to the most probable spill of 2500 bbls or 10% of the cargo within 12 hours for a high volume port (and the Great Lakes) or 24 hours elsewhere and must show prepositioned equipment with a 1250 bbls per day rate of recovery. All must show a response plan for the worst-case discharge taking into account the type of cargo, capacity, and geographic area. The equipment arrival is in 3 tiers. Worst case is often thought of as the catastrophic loss of the entire cargo in adverse weather conditions. Qualified Individuals are to be named in the Oil Response Plan and at least one alternate must also be indicated. The QI must act on behalf of the owner or operator with full authority to implement the response plan. The QI and alternate must be located in the US, be available on a 24 hour basis, and must implement the plan as rapidly as possible after notification of a spill. Implementation actions include:

Activation and engagement of contracted oil spill removal organizations Act as liaison with federal on scene coordinator Obligate directly or through prearranged contracts the necessary funds to carry out required or directed oilresponse activities Fulfill other duties as may be indicated in the response plan
SUBTITLE C - PENALTIES and MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS - The FWPCA contains criminal penalties for negligence, knowingly making false statements, and the failure to report a discharge. OPA 90 changed numerous fines and penalties for the violation of the FWPCA. As an example, the failure to immediately notify the federal agency of a prohibited discharge (EPA for inland waters and USCG for coastal waters) can result in a fine of not more than $250,000 or 5 years imprisonment, or both for an individual ($500,000 for an organization). This penalty is aimed at the PIC. The criminal immunity clause is narrowed: 1. To notification only, not information obtained by exploitation of such notification, 2. To apply only to natural persons, not to firms, corporations, associations, or partnerships which were considered persons under the FWPCA. Administrative penalties - Usually against the owner, operator, PIC of vessel or faclity for the following: Prohibited discharge under FWPCA Class I - not more than $10,000 per violation 19
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failure/refusal to comply with regulation issued under FWPCA
up or to max. total of $25,000 Class II - not more than $10,000 per day for each day violation continues up to max. total of $125,000 OR Up to $25,000 per day of violation or up to$1000 per barrel discharged
Civil penalties - Assessed against owner, operator, or PIC of vessel or facility for: Up to $25,000 per violation or up to $1000 per Prohibited discharge barrel discharged Failure to remove discharge or Up to $25,000 per day of violation or up to 3 times the failure to comply with an the cost incurred by the Fund as a result of the failure abatement order Gross negligence or willful Not less than $100,000 nor more than $3000 barrel misconduct causing a prohibited discharged discharge Criminal penalties - Assessed against owner, operator, or PIC of vessel or facility for: Negligent discharge of oil in amounts Not less than $2500 nor more than $25,000 harmful into or upon the navigable waters of the amounts into or upon the per day of violation or one US or which affect natural resources of year or both. the US Second conviction max. fine and sentence may be doubled Knowingly violating the prohibition Not less than $5000 nor more than $50,000 per day of against discharges violation or up to three years or both Second conviction max. fine and prison doubled Knowingly endangering life or welfare For individuals up to $250,000 or 15 years physical or of another person during a both. For organizations a fine up to one million. prohibited discharge Second conviction max. fine and prison doubled OTHER PENALTIES AND FINES INCREASED BY OPA 90 Person knowingly manufactures, sells, Class D felony, up to $250,000 ($500,000 for offers for sale, or possesses with intent to organizations) or up to 6 years or both sell equipment which is so defective as to be insufficient to accomplish purpose forwhich intended Operating a vessel in a grossly manner Criminal class A misdemeanor, up to negligent $100,000 for individuals or $200,000 for
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organizations and up to 1 year; if death occurs $250,000 and $500,000 for organizations Operating a vessel while intoxicated (33 Civil - not more than $1000. CFR 95.055) Criminal - class A misdemeanor up to$100,000 for individuals or $200,000 for organizations and up to 1 year, if death occurs $250,000 and $500,000 for organizations Working crew more than prescribed number Up to $10,000 for the master of hours Violation of the Act to Prevent Pollution Class D felony not more than 6 years and fine not from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) more than $250,000 or $500,000 for organization, up to 1/2 may go to the informer Willful and knowing violation of the Ports Class D felony, up to 6 years, up to $250,000 for and Waterways Safety Act (including hiring individuals; $500,000 for organizations of incompetent personnel) If a dangerous weapon is used or Class C felony, up to 12 years, $250,000 and enforcement officer is threatened $500,000 for organizations Violation of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act For corporations - $10,000 per bird killed Violation of the Marine Protection Research Criminal penalties of up to $50,000 and prison and Sanctuaries Act if discharge is result of intentional conduct Violation of load line rules Class A misdemeanor up to $100,000 criminal fine for individuals, $200,000 for organization STATE PENALTIES AND FINES DIFFER FROM FEDERAL AND EACH OTHER State of Florida (as example) CIVIL $25,000 for failure to maintain financial responsibility $50,000 per day of violation may be imposed for the violation of this statute (ie. discharges) $500 fine may be imposed upon persons responsible for 2 or more discharges within 12 months $5000 against the Master for failure to have a contingency plan CRIMINAL 3rd degree felony for failure to report spill, insufficient financial security, and "fleeing the waters" 2nd degree felony for false statements 3rd degree = $5000 or up to 5 years or both 2nd degree = $10,000 or up to 15 years or both
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Inspection and Entry - The USCG under the FWPCA has the right to enforce the FWPCA by boarding and inspecting vessels within the contiguous zone and in navigable waters and by affecting warrantless arrests of FWPCA violators. OPA 90 has expanded these rights to cover facilities as well.
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5.. CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS 5 CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS CFR PART 33

151.25 OIL RECORD BOOK. (a) Each oil tanker of 150 gross tons and above, ship of 400 gross tons and above other than an oil tanker, and manned fixed or floating drilling rig or other platform shall maintain an Oil Record Book Part I (Machinery Space Operations). An oil tanker of 150 gross tons and above or a non oil tanker that carries 200 cubic meters or more of oil in bulk, shall also maintain an Oil Record Book Part II (Cargo/Ballast Operations). (b) An Oil Record Book printed by the U. S. Government is available to the masters or operators of all U.S. ships subject to this section, from any Coast Guard Marine Safety Office, Marine Inspection Office, or Captain of the Port Office. (c) The ownership of the Oil Record Book of all U.S. ships remains with the U.S. Government. (d) Entries shall be made in the Oil Record Book on each occasion, on a tank-to-tank basis if appropriate, whenever any of the following machinery space operations take place on any ship to which this section applies (1) (2) (3) (4) Ballasting or cleaning of fuel oil tanks; Discharge of dirty ballast or cleaning water from fuel oil tanks; Disposal of oily residues (sludge); and Discharge overboard or disposal otherwise of bilge water that has accumulated in machinery spaces.
(e) Entries shall be made in the Oil Record Book on each occasion, on a tank-to-tank basis if appropriate, whenever any of the following cargo/ ballast operations take place on any oil tanker to which this section applies (1) Loading of oil cargo; (2) Internal transfer of oil cargo during voyage; (3) Unloading of oil cargo; (4) Ballasting of cargo tanks and dedicated clean ballast tanks; (5) Cleaning of cargo tanks including crude oil washing; (6) Discharge of ballast except from segregated ballast tanks; (7) Discharge of water from slop tanks; (8) Closing of all applicable valves or similar devices after slop tank discharge operations; (9) Closing of valves necessary for isolation of dedicated clean ballast tanks from cargo and stripping lines after slop tank discharge operations; and (10) Disposal of residues. (f) Entries shall be made in the Oil Record Book on each occasion, on a tank-to-tank basis if appropriate, whenever any of the following operations take place on a fixed or floating drilling rig or other platform to which this section applies (1) Discharge of ballast or cleaning water from fuel oil tanks; and (2) Discharge overboard of platform machinery space bilge water. 23
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(g) In the event of an emergency, accidental or other exceptional discharge of oil or oily mixture, a statement shall be made in the Oil Record Book of the circumstances of, and the reasons for, the discharge. (h) Each operation described in paragraphs (d), (e) and (f) of this section shall be fully recorded without delay in the Oil Record Book so that all the entries in the book appropriate to that operation are completed. Each completed operation shall be signed by the person or persons in charge of the operations concerned and each completed page shall be signed by the master or other person having charge of the ship. (i) The Oil Record Book shall be kept in such a place as to be readily available for inspection at all reasonable times and shall be kept on board the ship. (j) The master or other person having charge of a ship required to keep an Oil Record Book shall be responsible for the maintenance of such record. (k) The Oil Record Book for a U.S. ship shall be maintained on board for not less than three years. (1) This section does not apply to a barge or a fixed or floating drilling rig or other platform that is not equipped to discharge overboard any oil or oily mixture. (m) This section does not apply to a fixed or floating drilling rig or other platform that is operating in compliance with a valid National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit. (Approved by the Office of Management and Budget under control number 2115-0025.) [CGD 75-124a, 48 FR 45709, Oct. 6, 1983; 48 FR 54977, Dec. 8, 1983, as amended by CGD 88 002A, 55 FR 18582, May 2, 1990]
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6.. OIL RECORD BOOK ENTRY REQUIREMENTS 6 OIL RECORD BOOK ENTRY REQUIREMENTS
MARPOL 73/78, Annex I, Chapter II, Regulation 20
1. Every oil tanker of 150 tons gross tonnage ant above and every ship of 400 tons gross tonnage and above other than an oil tanker shall be provided with an Oil Record Book Part I (Machinery Space Operations). Every oil tanker of 150 tons gross tonnage and above shall also be provided with an Oil Record Book Part II (Cargo/Ballast Operations). The Oil Record Book(s), whether as part of the ships official log book or otherwise, shall be in the Form(s) specified in Appendix III to this Annex. 2. The Oil Record Book shall be completed on each occasion, on a tank to tank basis if appropriate whenever any of the following operations take place in the ship: (a) FOR MACHINERY SPACE OPERATIONS (ALL SHIPS): (i) Ballasting or cleaning of oil fuel tanks; (ii) Discharge of dirty ballast or cleaning water from tanks referred to under (i) of the sub-paragraph; (iii)Disposal of oily residues (sludge); (iv) Discharge overboard or disposal otherwise of bilge water which has accumulated in machinery spaces. (b) FOR CARGO/BALLAST OPERATIONS (OIL TANKERS): (ii) Loading of oil cargo; (iii)Internal transfer of oil cargo during voyage; (iv) Unloading of oil cargo (v) Ballasting of cargo tanks and dedicated clean ballast tanks; (vi) Cleaning of cargo tanks including crude oil washing; (vii)Discharge of ballast except from segregated 2 ballast tanks; (viii)Discharge of water from slop tank (ix) Closing of all applicable valves or similar devices after slop tank discharge operations; closing of valves necessary for isolation of dedicated clean ballast tanks from cargo and stripping lines after slop tank discharge operations; (x) Disposal of residues. 1. In the event of such discharge of oil or oily mixture as is referred to in Regulation II of this Annex or in the event of accidental or other exceptional discharge of oil not excerpted by that Regulation, a statement shall be made in the Oil Record Book of the circumstances of, and the reason for, the discharge. 2. Each operation described in paragraph (2) of this Regulation shall be fully recorded without delay in the Oil Record Book so that all the entries the book appropriate to that operation are completed. Each completed operation shall be signed by the officer or officers in charge of the operations concerned and each completed page shall be signed by the master of the ship. The entries in the Oil Record Book shall be in an official language of the State whose flag the ship is entitled to fly, and, for ships holding an international Oil Pollution Prevention
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Certificate, in English or French. The entries to an official national language of the State whose flag the ship is entitled to fly shall prevail in case of a dispute or discrepancy. 3. The Oil Record Book shall be kept in such a place as to be readily available for inspection at all reasonable times and except in case of unmanned ships under tow, shall be kept on board the ship. It shall be preserved on board the ship for a period of three years after the last entry has been made. 4. The competent authority of the Government of a Party to the Convention nay inspect the Oil Record Book on board any ship to which this Annex applies while the ship is in its port or offshore terminals and may make a copy of any entry in that book and may require the Master of the ship to certify that the copy is a true copy of such entry. Any copy so made which has been certified by the Master of the ship as a true copy of an entry in the ships Oil Record Book shall be made admissible in any judicial proceedings as evidence of the facts stated in the entry. The inspection of an Oil Record Book ant the taking of a certified copy by the competent authority under this paragraph shall be performed as expeditiously as possible without causing the ship to be unduly delayed.
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5.. ANNEX 5 ANNEX

WATER EFFLUENT CLEANLINESS REQUIREMENTS THE 30 LITERS PER MILE CRITERION - Any tanker sailing in normal weather conditions can keep within the oil discharge rate limit of 30 liters of oil per mile of ship travel; oil discharged at this rate quickly spreads to a thin film which disappears as detectable contamination within two or three hours. Contamination of the surface of the sea behind a discharging ship depends initially on: (a) The effluent discharge rate, (b) The oil content of the effluent, (c) The ship's speed. The oil discharge rate in liters per mile is given by: (ppm of oil in effluent) x (effluent discharge rate in m3/hour) (ship's speed in knots) x 1000 Different combinations of effluent discharge rates, effluent oil contents and speeds can clearly produce similar oil discharge rates. Consider, for example, a large tanker traveling at 15 knots. Discharge of the clean part of the dirty ballast water at, say, 8000 m3/hour and an oil content of 30 ppm gives an oil discharge rate of 16 liters per mile. An identical discharge rate would be obtained during the final slow discharge of the slop tank water as the oil/water interface nears the pump suction, if the effluent discharge rate and oil content were 80 m3/hour and 3000 ppm respectively. THE 1/30,000 OF THE TOTAL CARGO-CARRYING CAPACITY - This requirement in association with the 30-liters/mile limit effectively prohibits the discharge to the sea of bulk residues. It must be appreciated that this limit of 1/30,000 includes the amount of oil in the clean water discharged from the dirty ballast tanks and the oil content of the water discharged from the slop tank. Due allowance must therefore be made to avoid exceeding this total limiting amount. The volume of oil in m3 put to the sea in any effluent is given by: (volume of effluent in m3) x (oil content in ppm) 106 LOAD ON TOP EFFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS - The effluents from Load on Top operation have distinct characteristics: (a) The discharge of the bulk of the settled dirty ballast. This effluent is characterized by a high flow rate, large in quantity but of low oil content. Oil content in good weather
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is typically around 30 ppm, but higher oil content may be expected if there is substantial ship movement. (b) The discharge of the bulk of the settled water from a slop tank. This is characterized by a moderate discharge rate, moderate quantities and moderate oil content Oil content in good weather may be typically around 150 ppm, but again higher oil content will occur in heavy weather (c) The slow discharge of slop tank water as the oil/water interface nears the tank suction. This effluent is characterized by very low discharge rate, low quantity but probably of substantial oil content, particularly in the last stages just before visibly discernible oil discoloration appears in the effluent. An average oil content of around 500 ppm is typical, rising sharply to double this or more as the effluent becomes discolored. Stopping further discharge at this point will always leave a water bottom in the tank the depth of which will vary with ship movement and the shape and structure of the tank bottom.
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8.. OIL RECORD BOOK PART II - CARGO//BALLAST 8 OIL RECORD BOOK PART II - CARGO BALLAST OPERATIONS OPERATIONS
ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR OIL TANKERS - The following pages of this section show a comprehensive list of items of cargo and ballast operations which are, when appropriate, to be recorded in the Oil Record Book in accordance with Regulation 20 of Annex I of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73178). The items are grouped into operational sections, each of which is denoted by a letter. When making entries in the Oil Record Book, the date, operation code and item number shall be inserted in the appropriate columns and the required particulars shall be recorded chronologically in the blank spaces. All quantities should be consistently recorded throughout the Oil Record Book as cubic meters, gallons, or barrels. Each completed operation shall be signed for and dated by the officer or officers in charge. Each completed page shall be signed by the master of the ship. In respect of the oil tankers engaged in specific trades in accordance with Regulation 13C of Annex I of MARPOL 73/78, appropriate entry in the Oil Record Book shall be endorsed by competent Port State authority (United States Coast Guard). NOTE: Every oil tanker of 150 tons gross tonnage and above is provided with Oil Record Book Part II to record relevant cargo/ballast operations. Such a tanker is also provided with Oil Record Book Part I to record relevant machinery space operations .
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9. CODE AND ITEM NUMBER TO BE RECORDED FOR TANKERS

(A) LOADING OF OIL CARGO 1. Place of loading. 2. Type of oil loaded and identity of tank(s). 3. Total quantity of oil loaded. (B) INTERNAL TRANSFER OF OIL CARGO DURING VOYAGE 1. Identity of tank(s) 1 From: 2 To: 2. Was (were) tank(s) in 4(1) emptied? (C) UNLOADING OF OIL CARGO 1. Place of unloading. 2. Identity of tank(s) unloaded. 3. Was (were) tank(s) emptied? (D) CRUDE OIL WASHING (COW TANKERS ONLY) - (To be completed for each tank being crude oil washed) 1. Port where crude oil washing is carried out or ships positions if carried out between two discharge ports. 2. Identity of tank(s) washed. 3. Number of machines in use. 4. Time of start of washing. 5. Washing pattern employed 2 6. Washing line pressure. 7. Time completed or stopped washing. 8. State method of establishing that tank(s) vas (were) dry. 9. Remarks. (E) BALLASTING OP CARGO TANKS 1. Identity of tank(s) ballasted. 2. Position of ship at start of ballasting. (F) BALLASTING OF DEDICATED CLEAN BALLAST TANKS (CBT TANKERS ONLY) 1. Identity of tank(s) ballasted. 2. Position of ship when water intended for flushing or port ballast is taken into dedicated clean ballast tank(s) 3. Position of ship when pump(s) and lines are flushed to slop tank. 4. Quantity of oily water resulting from line flushing transferred to slop tank(s) (identify slop tank(s). 5. Position of ship when addition ballast water is taken into dedicated clean ballast tank(s).
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6. Time and position of ship when valves separating the dedicated clean ballast tanks from cargo and stripping lines were closed. 7. Quantity of clean ballast takes on board * (G) CLEANING OF CARGO TANKS 1. Identity of tank(s) cleaned. 2. Port or ships position. 3. Duration of cleaning 4. Method of cleaning. 4 5. Tank washings transferred to: 1 - Reception faculties 2 - Slop tank(s) or cargo tank(s) designated as slop tank(s) (Identity of tank(s)). (H) DISCHARGE OF DIRTY BALLAST 1. Identity of tank (g). 2. Position of ship at start of discharge into the sea. 3. Position of ship on completion of discharge into the sea. 4. Quantity discharged into the sea. 5. Ship's speed (8) during discharge. 6. Was the discharge monitoring ant control the discharge? 7. Was a regular check kept on the effluent ant the surface of the water in the locality of the discharge? 8. Quantity of oily water transfer to slop tank(s) (identify slop tanks)). 9. Discharge to shore reception facilities (identify port if applicable). (I) DISCHARGE OF WATER FROM SLOP TANKS INTO THE SEA 1. Identify slop task(s). 2. Time of settling from last entry of residues, or, 3. Time of settling from last discharge. 4. Time and position of ship at start of discharge 5. Ullage of total contents at start of discharge. 6. Ullage of oil/water interface at start of discharge. 7. Bulk quantity discharged and rate of discharge. 8. Final quantity discharge and rate of discharge 9. The and position of ship on completion of discharge 10. Is the discharge monitoring and control systems 1n operation during the discharge? 11. Ullage of oil/water interface on completion of discharge. 12. Ships speed(s) during discharge. 13. Was a regular check kept on the effluent and the surface of the water in the locality of the discharge? 14. Confirm that all applicable valves in the ships piping system have been closed on completion of discharge from the slop tanks. (J) DISPOSAL OP RESIDUES AND OILY MIXTURES NOT OTHERWISE DEALT WITH
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1. Identity of tank(s). 2. Quantity disposed of from each tank. 3. Method of disposal: a. To reception facilities (identify port) b. Mixed with cargo c. Transferred to another tank(s) (identify tank(s)) d. Other method (state which). (K) DISCHARGE OF CLEAN BALLAST CONTAINED IN CARGO TANKS 1. Position of ship at start of discharge of clean ballast. 2. Identity of tank(s) discharged. 3. Was (were) the tank(s) empty on completion? 4. Position of ship on completion if different from 58 5. Was a regular check kept on the effluent and the surface of in the locality of the discharge? (L) DISCHARGE OF BALLAST FROM DEDICATED CLEAN BALLAST TANKS (CBI TANKERS ONLY) 1. Identity of tank(s) discharged. 2. Time and position of ship at start of discharge of clean ballast into the sea. 3. Time and position of ship on completion of discharge into the sea. 4. Quantity discharged. 5. l. Into the sea; or 6. To reception facility (identify port) 7. Was there any indication of oil contamination of the ballast water before or during the discharge into the sea? 8. Was the discharge monitored by an oil content meter? 9. Time and position of ship when valves separating dedicated clean ballast tanks from the cargo-and stripping lines were closed on completion of deballasting. (M) CONDITION OF OIL DISCHARGE MONITORING AND CONTROL SYSTEM 1. Time of system failure. 2. Time when system has been made operational 3. Reasons for failure. (N) ACCIDENTAL OR OTHER EXCEPTIONAL DISCHARGES OF OIL 1. Time of occurrence. 2. Port or ships position at time of occurrence 3. Approximate quantity and type of oil. 4. Circumstances of discharge or escape, the reasons therefore and general remarks. (O) ADDITIONAL OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES AND GENERAL REMARKS ADDITIONAL CODES FOR TANKERS ENGAGED IN SPECIFIC TRADES (P) LOADING OF BALLAST WATER
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1. 2. 3. 4.
Identity of tank(s) ballasted. Position of ship when ballasted. Total quantity of ballast loaded. Remarks.
(Q) REALLOCATION OF BALLAST WATER WITHIN THE SHIP 1. Reasons for reallocation. (R) BALLAST WATER DISCHARGE TO RECEPTION FACILITY 1. Port(s) where ballast water was discharged. 2. Name or designation of reception facility. 3. Total quantity of ballast water discharged. 4. Date, signature and stamp of port authority official. NOTES: 1. When an individual tank has more machines than can be operated simultaneously as described in the operations and Equipment Manual, then the section being crude oil washed should be identified e.g. No. 2 center, forward section. 2. In accordance with the Operations and Equipment Manual, enter whether single-stage or multi-stage method of washing is employed. If multi-stage method is used, give the vertical covered by the machines and the number of times that arc is covered for that particular stage of the program. 3. If the methods given in the Operations and Equipment Manual not followed, give the reasons under Remarks. 4. This Includes hand hosing, machine washing and/or chemical cleaning. Where chemically cleaned, state the chemical concerned and amount used.
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*EXAMPLE*
Name of Ship: Official Number or Call Sign:
CARGO/BALLAST OPERATIONS (OIL TANKERS) MACHINERY SPACE OPERATIONS (ALL SHIPS) (Circle one) DATE 8/11/82 CODE G ITEM 27 28 29 31.1 1 2 3 6 7 8 4.1 4.2 5 Record of operations/signature of officers in charge. No. 5 Port tank Port Shaw, CA 1 hour 8/11/82 J.B. Smith Port Shaw, CA Heavy fuel oil 1-5C, 1-5 SB and 1-5P 1500 barrels 8/14/82 J.B. Smith Port Pine, Texas 1 C 3 C and 5 C yes 2 C 5 C No 8/18/82 D.B. Miller
8/14/82
8/16/82
8/18/82
Signature of Master:
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LIST OF OILS (APPENDIX I TO ANNEX I OF MARPOL 73/78)

Asphalt Solutions: Blending stocks Roofers flux Straight run residue Gasoline Blending Stocks: Alkylates - fuel Reformates Polymer - fuel
Oils : Clarified Crude oil Mixtures containing crude oil Diesel oil Fuel oil No. 4 Fuel oil No. 5 Fuel oil No. 6 Residual Fuel oil Road oil Transformer oil Aromatic oil (excluding vegetable oil) Lubricating oils and Blending stocks Mineral oil Motor oil Penetrating oil Spindle oil Turbine oil
Gasolines: Casinghead (natural) Automotive Aviation Straight run Fuel oil No. 1 (kerosene) Fuel oil No. 1-D Fuel oil No. 2 Fuel oil No. 2-D
Jet Fuels: JP - 1 (kerosene) JP - 3 JP - 4 JP - 5 (kerosene, heavy) Turbo fuel Kerosene Mineral spirit
Distillates: Straight run Flashed feed stocks Naphtha: Solvent Petroleum Heartcut Distillate oil
Gas 0il: Cracked
This list of oils is not meant to be comprehensive, but suggest the most common types of oil carried.
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*EXAMPLE*
Name of Ship: Official Number or Call Sign: CARGO/BALLAST OPERATIONS (OIL TANKERS) MACHINERY SPACE OPERATIONS (ALL SHIPS) (Circle one) DATE CODE ITEM Record of operations/signature of officers in charge.
Signature of Master:
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TOOL AND THEIR USES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BASIC TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS
Introduction Measuring Equipment and Marking Tools Safe use of tools
MACHINE SHOP TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS

Grinders Right hand round nose face finishing tool Right hand round nose roughing tool Grinding a right hand round nose tool Measuring tools
LATHE OPERATIONS
Basic lathe components Machining the unthreaded blank Thread depth determination Table A-1 Machining the unthreaded blank Table A-2 Threading the blank Table A-3 Lathe Control Settings Drawings Lathe Securing Criteria Appendix A Tap and Die Information33 Appendix B Thread Information34 Appendix C Formulas35
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TOOLS AND THEIR USES
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11/3/2006
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BASIC TOOLS AND USAGE BASIC TOOLS AND USAGE

INTRODUCTION -- With the information available in this chapter the student will be able to INTRODUCTION identify and locate the right tools for a job and to perform mechanical duties more efficiently. Except for certain special types, all hand tools commonly used by the engineering department are described. Explanations and precautions in using and caring for these tools are also given. Good mechanics take care of their tools at all times. Valuable time and lives depend on the accomplishment of a piece of work efficiently done by the mechanic. Keep cutting tools sharp and when through with the job, store your tools to protect them against damage or from becoming dull. Handle delicate measuring instruments with care and do not keep such instruments where they may be damaged or destroyed by more powerful instruments on board ship or by careless supervision. The way in which tools are handled and the care given to each and every tool indicate the quality of workmanship expected from the engineering department. You are what your tools are - sharp and efficient, always ready for the job needed to be done.
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MEASURING EQUIPMENT AND MARKING TOOLS MACHINIST RULE i) The machinist rule is comprised of metal and is 6 inches in total length. ii) The scales on the rule are as follows: (1) 1/8 (2) 1/16 (3) 1/32 (4) 1/64 The rule is used exactly like the rule on the combination square. All fractional values for your project can be measured to within the designated tolerances with the machinist rule. SCRIBER - A scriber is used to make clean narrow lines on metal. It is made of tool steel. Some have single ends, Figure 1; others have double ends with one end bent about 90 as shown, Figure 2.
FIGURE 1 SCRIBER WITH SINGLE END
FIGURE 2- SCRIBER WITH DOUBLE ENDS
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DEPTH RULE - As shown in Figure 3, the depth rule is a narrow blade, which slides through a slotted locking arrangement. It is used to measure the depth of holes, slots, keyways and other recesses. Some of these rules can be used for measuring angles as well as depth of holes drilled at an angle to the surface.
FIGURE 3 DEPTH RULE COMBINATION CALIPER RULE - The combination caliper rule, Figure 4, has jaws designed to make either inside or outside measurements. If the diameter of a hole is being measured, the graduation that lines up with the mark labeled IN is read. When measuring the diameter of a shaft, the graduation that lines up with the Out mark is read.
FIGURE 4 COMBINATION CALIPER RULE CALIPERS - Calipers are used for measuring diameters and distances or for comparing distances and sizes. The three common types are inside calipers, outside calipers and hermaphrodite calipers, Figure 5.
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11/3/2006
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Outside calipers are used for measuring outside dimensions, for example, the diameter of a piece of round stick (Figure. 5A). Inside calipers have outward curving legs for measuring inside diameters, such as the diameters of holes, the distance between two surfaces, the width of slots, etc (Figure 5B). Hermaphrodite calipers are generally used to scribe arcs, or as a gauge in layout work (Figure 5C). Dividers are tools for measuring distance3s between points, for transferring distances directly from a rule, or for scribing circles or parts of circles (Figure 5D)
FIGURE 5. CALIPERS A. OUTSIDE; B, INSIDE; C. HERMAPHRODITE; D. DIVIDERS PROTRACTOR - The instrument shown in Figure 6 is a protractor and is used in measuring or laying out angles. It is usually made of a transparent substance, such as celluloid, so that the lines can be seen through it, but it can be made of metal or other materials. A protractor is made semicircular in shape so as to include 180 and is therefore usually divided into 180 equal parts, each division representing 1. By placing the base of the protractor on a line, with the midpoint of the protractor where a second line intersects the first line, the angle between the two lines can be read directly from the instrument. For example, the line shown in Figure 6 forms an angle of 40. With the aid of a straightedge, or when used in a combination bevel protractor, lines can be drawn on sheet metal, for example, at any desired angle. The protractor can also be used in the construction of triangles used in mathematical problems and can be used in the graphical solution of such problems, if the work is done with great care.
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11/3/2006
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FIGURE 6 - PROTRACTOR SQUARES AND COMBINATION SET - In order to scribe, measure and check angles, to construct lines at right angles to the edge of a piece of material, to establish points for lines parallel to the edge, and to serve as a guide or reference edge for other instruments, a square is essential. A steel square, 16 by 24 inches and a smaller solid square are shown in Figure 7. A combination set is also shown in Figure 7. This set can be used for various purposes, some of which are shown in Figure 8. Note that a scriber, a spirit level and a protractor are included in the combination set.
FIGURE 7 STEEL SQUARES AND COMBINATION SET
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FIGURE 8 USES OF COMBINATION SET.
FIGURE 9 WIRE AND SHEET GAUGE
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11/3/2006
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WIRE AND SHEET GAUGE - The gage shown in Figure 9 is a U. S. standard wire and sheet gauge. It can be used to measure cross sections of wire and to determine the gauge (thickness) of metal sheets. Before using one of these gauges, be sure all burrs are removed from the material being measured. CENTER GAUGE - The gauge shown in Figure 10, is of a 60 and are used to check the grinding of thread cutting tools, as a American National thread has a thread angle of 60 The center gauge can also be used for setting thread-cutting tools square with the work in a lathe.
FIGURE 10 CENTER GAUGE Center gauges are usually marked on both faces and along both edges with scales that are convenient for measuring the number of threads per inch of bolts, studs etc. One face had 20 divisions to the inch on one edge and 14 divisions to the inch on the other edge. On the opposite face of the center gauge there are 24 divisions per inch on one edge and 32 divisions per inch on the other edge. The divisions of different sizes are used to check the pitch, or number of threads per inch, of screw threads. The different numbers of threads per inch for which scale is suitable are those, which divide into the scale number without a remainder. For example, the edge with 20 divisions is suitable for measuring 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 and 20 threads per inch and also for any multiple of 20, such as 40, 60, 80 etc. The edge with 14 divisions may be used for measuring 1, 2, 7 or 14 threads per inch, and for any multiple of 14. The scales with 24 divisions and 32 divisions are used similarly. SCREW PITCH GAUGE - If there is any doubt as to the number of threads on a bolt, screw nut, etc., a screw pitch gauge, Figure 11, can be used to check. Each blade or finger is stamped with the number of threads cut on it. THICKNESS GAUGE - The thickness gauge or feeler gauge is used for measuring distances or clearances between two surfaces, Figure 12. The number stamped on each blade is the thickness of that particular blade in thousandths of an inch.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
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FIGURE 11 SCREW PITCH GAUGE
FIGURE 12 THICKNESS GAUGE
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10
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SAFE USE OF TOOLS AND HOW THEY ARE USED FILES - Files are used for cutting, smoothing or removing small amounts of metal. They are made in various shapes, cuts of teeth and length. Figure 13 shows the names of the parts of a file.
FIGURE 13 FILE TERMINOLOGY
FIGURE 14 SHOWS CROSS SECTIONS OF THE MOST USED FILES. Single cut files are used for sharpening tools, finish filing and draw filing. Double cut files are used for rough work and quick removal of metal. Figure 15 shows some of the more common cuts of files. Small round files are usually called rat-tailed files. Safe-edge files have no teeth on their edges and are used, for instance, in cutting along a shoulder where it is not desired to remove any metal from the side.
There are a number of other classifications of files but the foregoing are the most important. When filing soft metals, small particles of the metal will remain between the file teeth. This will cause the file to scratch the metal that is being worked on. To clean the teeth a filecard is used, Figure 17. This is a combination wire brush and bristle brush; the wire side is run across the file teeth and then cleaned off with the bristle side. If the pins: (small pieces of metal stuck in the file teeth) are stuck too hard, a sharp pointed wire or nail will have to be used to clean them out. Never use a file without a handle. Order a file by giving the length, type and shape, i.e., 12 inches, single cut, smooth, flat.
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11
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FIGURE 15 COMMON FILE CUTS
FIGURE 16 SHOWS THE CORRECT POSITION OF THE HANDS WHEN FILING. A STRAIGHT STROKE MUST BE USED AT ALL TIMES. DO NOT ROCK THE FILE UP AND DOWN LIKE A SEESAW.
FIGURE 17 TOOLS FOR CLEANING FILES
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12
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HAND SNIPS - In Figure 18 hand snips are shown, which are used for cutting sheet metal or other thin pieces of metal. The straight snips shown in the Figure have straight flat blades and will cut along a straight line. Snips are also made with curved blades for cutting out circular pieced and are called circular snips. Never use snips for cutting screws, nails etc. Snips are ordered by their overall length and length of cutting blades.
FIGURE 18 STRAIGHT BLADE SNIPS DRILLS - Twist drills are made of carbon steel of high speed-alloy steel. Carbon steel drills are satisfactory general work and are less expensive, although they may lose their hardness if heated excessively. High-speed drills are used on tough metal and at high speeds. They will keep on cutting when red hot, but should be cooled in still air; if cooled quickly, they may crack or split. The drill shank is the end that fits into the chuck of the hand drill, electric drill or drill press. Straight-shank drills are used to drill holes up to about inch in diameter. Larger holes are usually drilled with the taper-shank drill. The square-shank drill is made to use in a brace. The various shanks are shown in Figure 19.
FIGURE 19 TWIST DRILL SHANKS
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13
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Twist drills are available with 2, 3, or 4 flutes (the spiral grooves formed along the sides), but drills having 3 or 4 flutes are used for following smaller drills of for enlarging cored holes and are not suitable for drilling onto solid stock. The spiral flutes provide several advantages 1) They give a correct rake angle to the lips, as shown in Figure 20. 2) They cause chips formed while drilling to curl tightly so that they occupy the minimum amount of space. 3) They form channels through which such chips escape from the hole. 4) They allow the lubricant, when one is used, to flow easily down to the cutting edge of the drill.
FIGURE 20 RAKE ANGLE The twist drills used most frequently are those made in fractional sizes, from 1/64 inch up to 1 inch in diameter, although larger sizes are also found aboard ship. The size of the drill is stamped on the shank. Because drills vary 1/64 (0.0156) inch from one size to the next, two other identification systems have been developed for special sizes: 1) Number drills, ranging from No. 80 (0.0135 inches) to No. 1 (0.228 inches). 2) Letter drills, ranging from A (0.234 inches) to Z (0.413 inches). Before drilling a large hole, it is advisable to drill a smaller pilot hole. This helps to guide the larger drill. Always use a lubricant when drilling iron or steel. The use of hand drill and breast drill, Figure 21, has been practically eliminated by the electric drill. When drilling a piece of metal in a drill press, always secure the metal by some means such as a V block or a drill vise, Figure 22. The V block is most suitable for drilling holes in round stock, which can be secured by the clamps and is thus prevented from turning. If for some reason the drill should slip and start cutting to one side, as shown in Figure 23, it can usually be brought back to the center by cutting a groove with a round nose chisel as shown in the second picture, the cut being made in the side toward which you want the direction of the drill moved
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14
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FIGURE 21 HAND DRILL AND BREAST DRILL
FIGURE 22 DRILL VISE AND V-BLOCK
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15
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FIGURE 23 RECENTERING A DRILL CUT COUNTERSINKS - Are used to shape the end of drilled holes to fit screws, rivets or bolts with countersink heads, Figure 24.
FIGURE 24 COUNTERSINK COUNTER-BORES - Are used to shape the end of a drilled hole to fit fillister head bolts, screw, etc. Figure 25.
FIGURE 25 COUNTERBORE THREAD FORMS - The four most common types of screw threads are the V-thread, the American National thread, the square thread and acme thread. The same rules for diameter and pitch apply to all types of threads. The sharp V-thread, Figure 26, has serious disadvantages and is seldom used. The sharp crests and roots are hard to cut accurately; the crests are easily dented and chipped; and the roots become clogged with dirt and bits of metal.
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16
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QMED
The American National thread, also shown in Figure 26, resembles the sharp V-thread, except that the crest and roots are flat. The length of this flat portion, of both crest and root, is 1/8 of the pitch of the distance. Because of the design, American National threads are not easily damaged and the roots are easily cleaned. This type of thread is the one generally used on the many bolted and nuts found in a ships installation. American National threads are standardized into two series: NC (National Coarse) and NF (National Fine). The coarse thread series is used for rough work on heavy materials, while fine thread series is used on small bolts, machine screw, adjusting mechanisms, etc.
The square thread shown in Figure 26, is strong and efficient. It is used on the tightening screws of vises, clamps and jacks. The acme thread is a heavy-duty thread with sides forming an angle of 29 with each other. This type of thread can withstand heavy strains and loads and is easier to machine than square threads
FIGURE 26 THREAD FORMS
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TAPS - The tap hole must be smaller than the diameter of the tap. The reason for this is shown in Figure 27. Consult a tap drill table for proper size drill. Hand taps are usually provided in sets of three for each diameter and thread series. Each set contains a taper, plug and a bottom tap.
FIGURE 27 TAP DRILL AND TAP SIZES
FIGURE 28 TAPER TAP AND TAP WRENCHES
The taper tap is used to start the tapping process because its end is tapered back a few threads. The taper tap is used when completing threads through a piece of stock when it can be run entirely through the stock, the plug tap is used when one end of the hole is closed. The bottom tap is used when it is necessary to cut full threads to the bottom of a closed hole. Plug or bottom taps should never be used to start a thread. It is very important to start the tap straight and keep it so throughout the work, because taps will break easily if bent or strained. The tap should not be fed into a hole with any pressure; its threads will pull it in at the proper rate. The safest procedure is to turn the tap a half turn another half turn forward (clockwise) then a quarter turn back (counter clockwise) then another half turn forward (clockwise), etc. With soft metals, such as brass or cast iron, the back turn is not necessary. When tapping steel or bronze use cutting oil as a lubricant. Soft metal may be tapped dry. Figure 28 illustrates a taper tap and two common types of tap wrenches. The first one is referred to as a straight handle and the second one as a T handle. The tapping of a hole for a pipefitting is accomplished in somewhat the same way as bolt tapping. However, the pipe tap is tapered and should never be run all the way through the hole. It the tap goes in too far, the threads will be too loose. A pipe tap should be run in approximately of its length.
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18
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Because pipe is measured by the inside diameter, it can be seen that the tap drill size will be larger that the given size of pipe. Table 1 shows a chart of pipe tap drill sized. For example, the tap drill for 1-inch pipe is 1 5/32. TABLE 1 - AMERICAN STANDARD TAPER PIPE TREADS
SIZE OF TAP 1/8 3/8 1 1 1 2 2 3 THREADS PER INCH 27 18 18 14 14 11 11 11 11 8 8 SIZE OF TAP DRILL 11/32 7/16 19/32 23/32 15/16 1 5/32 1 1 23/32 2 3/16 2 5/8 3
Be sure to lubricate. Follow same instruction as for hand taps. Even when used with care, taps will sometimes break off and the mechanic should become familiar with the usual methods of removing the broken part of the tap from the hole. Two satisfactory ways of doing this, with a chisel or with a tap extractor, are as follows:
FIGURE 29 REMOVING BROKEN TAP WITH PUNCH 1. With a chisel or punch broken taps can often be removed by using a small, blunt cold chisel or taper punch, as shown in Figure 29. This will frequently start the tap; the job can then be completed with a tap extractor s described below. Taps often shatter when they break; the broken pieces should be picked from the hole with a small prick punch of a magnetized scriber before any attempt is made to remove the tap.
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2. With a tap extractor Figure 30 shows the application of a tap extractor. This tool has moveable fingers, which can be placed in the flutes of the broken tap as shown, after which the collar should be brought up against the surface of the work. A tap wrench can be used on the extractor to back out the broken piece. The tap extractor will not stand much turning force without breaking the moveable fingers. Removing a broken tap by any method is often a long, tedious job that requires time, skill and patience. It is therefore wise for the mechanic to avoid breakage by being as careful as possible
FIGURE 30 USING TAP EXTRACTOR DIES - The diestock (handle) is shown in Figure 31. Before threading a piece of round stock its end should be tapered or chamfered slightly with a file or by grinding, so that the die will start cutting more easily.
FIGURE 31 - STOCK AND DIE READY FOR USE. When using a split die such as is shown in Figure 31 the first cut should be taken with the split in the die set opposite the setscrew of the stock. As the setscrew is tightened into the slot the die spreads open and therefore cuts off a relatively small amount of metal on this first cut. You will note after this cut that there is only a rough thread. It will probably be impossible even to get a nut to fit because there is still too much metal on the rod.
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20
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Before taking the second cut, turn the die as shown in Figure 32. Now as the setscrew is tightened, the split closes in and will cut more metal, producing the final smooth thread. Figure 33 shows the screw adjustment or loosening the adjusting screw. Threads and thread cutting Threads cut on the outside a piece of round stock are called external threads. Threads cut on the inside of a cylindrical hole are called inside threads. Dies are used for cutting the external or outside threads, and taps are used for cutting inside threads.
FIGURE 32- STOCK AND ADJUSTABLE DIE The two types of general threads used are the NC (National Coarse) and NF (National Fine). Pitch is the distance from the top of one thread to the top of an adjacent thread. The pitch is usually stated as the number of threads per inch, such as 8, 10, 12, etc. A tap or die marked -20 indicates inch diameter and 20 threads per inch. Table 2 is a table of NC and NF tap sizes and the proper size tap drill to be used in each case. To start the thread, press down firmly on the stock, while turning to the right (clockwise). When the die catches, start using cutting oil. Continue turning, following the same procedure as with tapping, half a turn clockwise and a quarter turn back, etc.
FIGURE 33 SPLIT OR ADJUSTABLE DIE
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TABLE 2 - AMERICAN NATIONAL COARSE (NC) AND NATIONAL FINE (NF) THREADS
Size of tap
NC
NF
Threads per inch 20 28
Size of tap drill 7 3
5/16 NF 5/16 NF 3/8 NC 3/8 NF 7/16 NC 7/16 NF NC NF 9/16 NC 9/16 NF 5/8 NC 5/8 NF 11/16 NC 11/16 NF NC NF 13/16 NC 7/8 NC 7/8 NF 15/16 NC 1 NC 1 NF 1 1/8 NC 1 1/8 NF 1 NC 1 NF 1 3/8 NC 1 3/8 NF 1 NC 1 NF 1 5/8 NC 1 NC 1 7/8 NC 2 NC
18 24 16 24 14 20 13 20 12 18 11 16 11 16 10 16 10 9 14 9 8 14 7 12 7 12 6 12 6 12 5 5 5 4
F I 5/16 Q U 25/64 25/64 29/64 31/64 33/64 17/32 37/64 19/32 5/8 21/32 11/16 23/32 49/64 13/16 53/64 7/8 15/16 63/64 1 1 7/64 1 11/64 1 7/64 1 11/64 1 11/32 1 27/64 1 29/64 1 9/16 1 11/16 1 25/32
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22
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NUTS, BOLTS AND SCREWS - In assembly and disassembly operating threaded parts such as nuts, bolts and screws are handled so frequently that every mechanic should be thoroughly familiar with their various types and uses and should understand the common methods of cutting or renewing threads. The common devices used for fastening or holding metal parts together are bolts and nuts, screws, washers and rivets. Figure 34 shows the various types of bolts in everyday use. They are generally suitable for holding pieces or parts together that on occasion must be removed or taken apart. They are always used with a suitable nut. The types of screws the mechanic ordinarily has to work with are shown in Figure 35. Cap screws and machine screws are generally used without nuts, so that a hole must be threaded (tapped) to receive them. Cap screws have a rounded head, which pilots the thread in to the tapped hole. The flat end of a machine bolt is likely to walk before the threads catch. All types of machine screws are available with Philips cross-slot heads. Setscrews are ordinarily used to set wheels or collars solidly on shafts. Socket-type set screws are turned by a small wrench made of a piece of hexagon rod bent and hardened. Lag screws are for holding metal to wood; sheet metal screws are hardened and cut their own threads in drilled or punched holes.
FIGURE 34 TYPES OF BOLTS At times a screw or stud will break off in a hole and must be extracted. The best method of doing this is to use a screw extractor. First drill a hole in the broke screw or stud a little smaller than its body diameter; then insert the extractor into this hole and turn it counterclockwise. The screw extractor is tapered and has sharp ridges, similar to left-handed threads, which will grip the sides of the hole in the broken part so that it can be turned out of the hole by a wrench. Nuts, Figure 36, must always be used with some kind of bolt or stud, so that the two pieces, nut and bolt or nut and stud, exert holding force by the strength of their threads. They are suited to assemblies that may have to be removed or taken apart. Wing nuts are especially useful where there is frequent occasion for hand adjustment. Castle nuts can be set immovable by a cotter pin placed through the slots provided in the nut and hole in the bolt. Washers, also shown in Figure 36, are often put under nuts or bolt heads to protect the pieces being fastened or to make tightening up easier. Lock washers are made of spring steel and exert a light bite on a nut to keep it from turning and becoming loose.
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FIGURE 35 TYPES OF SCREWS
FIGURE 36 TYPES OF NUTS AND WASHERS RIVETS - Although not threaded, rivets are classified as metal fasteners, the pressure of their heads, instead of threads, exerting the holding force. Rivets are commonly used for permanent fastening and are not practical for any assembly that has to be taken apart. Rivet holes must be drilled or punched and must be carefully spaced and aligned. The thickness of the parts to be riveted and the load to be applied determine the proper diameter and length of the hole. Tinners rivets are used on thin metal sheets. They have flat heads, are made of soft iron of steel, and are usually coated with tin as a protection against corrosion. The weight, in pounds, of 1000 rivets, denotes the size of the rivets, as shown in Figure 37. The length of a rivet is proportional to its weight and diameter. The use of a rivet set is necessary with tinner's rivets. After the rivet has been inserted in the holes in the pieces of material being riveted together, the
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set is placed over the headless end of the rivet and is used to press the sheets of metal together and against the rivet head. The broken lines in Figure 64 indicate the recessed hole for this purpose in the set. The set is then removed; the rivet is upset (headed upon the headless end) with a riveting hammer. After this is done, the set is used to round the upset end. Rivet sets are available in several sizes.
FIGURE 37 TINNERS RIVETS AND RIVET SET SHEET METAL SCREWS - The screws shown in Figure 38 are used to hold together sections of sheet metal, fiber, plastic, etc and are known as sheet metal screws. They are especially useful aboard ship when applying sheet metal covering over insulation. Type A has a sharp point and resembles a wood screw, except that the threads extend to the head of the screw. Type Z screws have blunt points and maybe used with heavier material. A special self-tapping sheet metal screw had a tap end that cuts threads as the screw is inserted. Holes for sheet metal screws should be drilled or punched to about the same diameter as the core of the screw used. The screws are available in a variety of head shapes, as shown in Figure 65.
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25
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FIGURE 38 SHEET METAL SCREWS
SHEET METAL - Sheet metal and wire come in various thicknesses measured by number according to the American Wire Gage system. Sheet metal usually comes in sheets 4 feet by 8 feet. Some of the more common sizes are listed with their corresponding thicknesses on thousandths of an inch. See following table 3. TABLE 3 - AMERICAN WIRE GAGE OR BROWN AND SHARP
Gage Number 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 Diameter or Thickness in Decimal Parts of Inch .325 .258 .204 .162 .128 .102 .081 .064 .051 .040 .032 .025 .020 .0159 .0126 .010 .008 .0063 .005 .004 .003
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26
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COUPLING AND GEAR PULLER - A 3-jaw puller suitable fro removing couplings, gears, etc., shafts is shown in Figure 39. This tool is designed to exert a strong, uniform pull, and is arranged for convenient use. Spring tension helps to hold the jaws on the work, and when the locking nut is screwed down against the yoke, the jaws are locked in position, causing the puller to maintain its grip until the locking nut is backed off. This arrangement permits both hands to be used for the actual pulling of the gear or coupling. In order to use puller, the jaws are hooked over the coupling or gear, and the centering tip of the stud is centered in the countersink in the end shaft. For shafts without countersinks, a special screw-point protector is used to prevent damage to the centering tip. Applying a wrench to the hexagon head of the stud and turning the stud clockwise exert a strong pull exerted on the part being removed. Always use a wrench that is a good fit on the hexagon end of the stud, otherwise the corners of the hex may be rounded off and the usefulness of the tool impaired. A socket wrench is preferable. When the stud is turned, the resulting pull tends to remove the work from the shaft, although sometimes it may be necessary to assist by tapping with a soft hammer or a hammer and a piece of wood. Be sure to tap at the hub of the coupling or gear and not at the circumference. Tap evenly all around the hub, so that the work will not become cocked and jammed on the shaft.
FIGURE 40 GEAR PULLER MADE FROM SCRAP METAL FIGURE 39 GEAR PULLER Before starting to remove a coupling or gear from a shaft, it is advisable to examine for nicks and burrs on that section of shaft over which the part must slide. In some cases a film of oil or grease applied on the shaft will make for easier removal. If the part has rusted to the shaft it may be necessary to use penetrating oil to break up the corrosion.
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27
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QMED
It should be noted that the jaws of the puller are reversible permitting their use through an opening for inside pulls on sleeves, bushings, etc. If a suitable puller is not available, one, such as shown in Figure 40, can be made from scrap metal. GRINDING WHEELS - The term emery wheel is often incorrectly used in referring to grinding wheels, for emery wheels have been largely replaced by aluminum oxide and silicon carbide wheels. Aluminum oxide wheels are best for grinding materials of high tensile strength, such as carbon steels, alloy steels, malleable iron, wrought iron, tough bronze and tungsten. Silicon carbide wheels are used to grind material of low tensile strength, such as aluminum, Bakelite, brass, common bronze, cast iron, copper, leather and rubber. Grinding wheels are graded according to softness and hardness. Soft wheels should be operated at slower speeds, as the grains wear away rapidly and the wheel is easily broken. Medium hard and hard wheels are operated at higher speeds. Special bonds hold the abrasive grains of grinding wheels together and the type of bond affects the uses of the wheel. Shellac bond wheels are used for sharpening tools and finish grinding. Silicate bond wheels are used when the heat generated in grinding must be kept at a minimum; large diameter, slow turning wheels are usually of this type. Vitrified wheels are bonded with clay or flint at high temperatures. These wheels do not clog with metal as rapidly as other wheels. Vitrified wheels of coarse grain are used when rapid removal of metal is desired. Fine grain wheels are used for precision grinding. Vulcanite wheels are bonded with rubber by a vulcanizing process and are strong and tough. Thin wheels used for cutting-off and for high speed grinding are rubber bonded. Resinoid wheels are bonded with synthetic resins and may be operated at high speeds. They are especially good for fast rough grinding. A 14 or 16 grain wheel should be used for coarse, rough grinding in castings, etc., while a 24 grain wheel is satisfactory for general shop work. A 46-grain wheel is recommended for most small tool grinding and a 60 grain wheel for grinding twist drills and lathe cutting tools. Slow turning oilstone wheels, which are soft and porous, are best for grinding keen edges on plane irons, knives and other wood cutting tools. An abrasive wheel of this kind should be soaked with kerosene while it is being used. Grinding wheels are manufactured in great variety of shapes, sizes and bores (diameter of arbor hole). BENCH GRINDER - An ordinary bench grinder mounts two wheels of the same size, shape and bore, as shown in Figure 41. They are from to 1 inch thick, 6, 8 or 10 inches in diameter and have an arbor hole of to 1 inch in diameter. Usually one wheel is coarse for rough grinding, the other fine for tool sharpening and finish grinding.
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28
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Bench grinders should be sufficiently heavy and rigid to minimize vibration and should be securely mounted in place. They should be provided with shields and guards for the safety of personnel. The shield should be adjustable and provide with non-shatterable glass. Tool rests should be kept adjusted close to the wheel, the space between wheel and tool rest being about 1/16 inch, never over 1/8 inch. This prevents the work from being caught between the wheel and the rest. The tool rest should be securely clamped after each adjustment. The adjustment should never be made while the wheel is in motion. Before being mounted on the shaft, grinding wheels should be closely inspected to make sure that they have not been damaged in any way, and all contacting surfaces of the wheel and grinder should be checked to see that the are free of foreign material. Some mechanics tap a new wheel slightly with a small piece of metal and check for the ring that indicates a sound wheel. The wheels should fit freely on the shaft; they should not be forced on, nor should they be too loose. A thin cushion of compressible material should be fitted between the wheel and the washers, as shown in Figure 41. If blotting paper is used for this purpose, it should not be thicker than 0.0025 inch. If rubber or leather is used; it should not be thicker that 1/8 inch. When tightening the nuts that hold the wheel, care should be taken to tighten them just enough to hold the wheel firmly; an excessive clamping strain may damage the wheel or its associated parts. After mounting the wheel, care should be taken that the guards and shields are properly placed.
FIGURE 41 GRINDER Precautions in the use of grinding wheels are as follows. All new wheels should be run at full operating speed for at least 1 minute, during which time the operator should stand at one side, out of the path of flying pieces, in case the wheel should be defective and break. If the wheel is chipped or uneven in any way, it should be dressed before grinding of fine tools is attempted.
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29
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When grinding is being done, the work should not be forced against a cold wheel, but applied gradually, giving the wheel an opportunity to warm up. This precaution minimizes the chance of breakage, and especially applies when working in a cold room or when using new wheels that have been stored in a cool place. Grinding on the flat sides of straight wheels is often hazardous and should not be allowed when the side of the wheel is appreciably worn or when any considerable or sudden pressure is brought to bear against the sides of the wheels. When a grinding wheel gets out-of-place or out-of-round, it is necessary to dress, or true, the wheel. This can be done by a means of a star type steel-dressing tool, as shown in Figure 42. To dress the wheel, the tool is held against the grinding wheel and moves sideways across the periphery as the wheel revolves. The work must be done carefully, however, and the operation requires considerable skill. Wheels, which cannot be balanced by dressing, should be removed from the machine. After a grinding wheel has been used for some time, it will become clogged with dirt, grease, etc., or the abrasive grains will become rounded or dull. The dressing tool may then be used to clean and sharpen the wheel, as it will cut away the clogged surface and break up the rounded grains so the new, sharp cutting edges are exposed. A precision grinding wheel may be dressed by a special tool in which diamond are mounted. The tool is mounted in a fixture designed for the purpose.
FIGURE 42 GRINDING WHEEL DRESSING TOOL
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30
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QMED
HOLE SAWS - For making large round holes in wood or metal, a set of hole saws is useful. These tools, one of which is shown in Figure 43, are not adjustable, but are made in all common sizes. They are also available. They are also available in two types, a coarse tooth saw for cutting wood, cast iron, bakelite and other thick coarse material, and a fine-tooth saw for cutting sheet metal, steel, porcelain and other fine, thin material. They can be used in a hand or electric drill.
FIGURE 43- HOLE SAW CHISELS - Cold chisels are tools used for chipping or cutting cold metal. They are classified according to the shape of their point, the most common being flat, cape, diamond and round nose, Figure 44. The size of the flat cold chisel is determined by the width of the cutting edge. Chisels are usually made of octagonal tool steel bar stock, carefully hardened and tempered. Note that the cutting edge is slightly convex. This prevents the weak corners from chipping. Cape chisels are used for cutting keyways where square corners on the slot are necessary. Round nose chisels are usually used for cutting oil grooves in bearings. The diamond point chisel is used for cutting V groves and inside sharp angles. When chipping steel, lubricate the chisel point with light machine oil. This makes the chisel easier to drive. Dont use oil on cast iron. Always use goggles when chipping. Keep the handle and hammer handle dry and clean to prevent slipping. Do not let the chisel heads become mushroomed as this leads to flying chips and possible injury. Figure 44E.
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31
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FIGURE 44 COLD CHISELS: A) FLAT CHISEL AN POINT ANGLE; B) CAPE CHISEL; C) DIAMOND POINT; D) ROUND NOSE; E) RIGHT AND WRONG HEAD HOW TO SHARPEN CHISELS AND DRILL BITS - Sharpening stones are divided into two groups, natural and artificial. Some of the natural stones are oil treated during and after the manufacturing processes. The stones that are oil treated are sometimes called oil stones. Artificial stones are normally made of silicone carbide or aluminum oxide. Natural stones have very fine grains and are excellent for putting razor-like edges on fine cutting tools. Most sharpening stones have one coarse and one fine face. Some of these stones are mounted, and the working face of some of the sharpening stones is a combination of coarse and fine grains. Stones are available in a variety of shapes. To sharpen a chisel with a sharpening stone, use a common oilstone that has coarse grit on one side and fine grit on the other. Make sure the stone is firmly held so that it cannot move. Cover the stone with a light machine oil so that the fine particles of the steel ground off will float and thus prevent the stone from clogging. Hold the chisel in one hand with the bevel flat against the coarse side of the stone. Use the fingers of your other hand to steady the chisel and hold it down against the stone. Using a smooth even stroke, rub the chisel back and forth parallel to the surface of the stone. The entire
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surface of the stone should be used to avoid wearing a hollow in the center of the stone. Do not rock the blade. The angle of the blade with the stone must remain constant during the whetting process. After a few strokes, a burr, wire edge, or featheredge is produced. To remove the burr, first take a few strokes with the flat side of the chisel held flat on the fine grit side of the stone. Be careful not to raise the chisel even slightly; avoid putting the slightest bevel on the flat side; for then the chisel must be ground until the bevel is removed. After whetting the flat side on the fine grit side of the stone, turn the chisel over and place the bevel side down and hold it at the same angle as used when whetting on the coarse side of the stone. Take two or three light strokes to remove the burr. To test the sharpness of the cutting edge, hold the chisel where a good light will shine on the cutting edge. A keen edge does not reflect light in any position. If there are no shiny or white spots it is a good edge. DRILL GAUGE - If the size number is worn off the drill shank, the size can be checked with a drill gauge, figure 45, for the number drills with a drill stand for fractional drills, or with a micrometer for any kind of drill. When measuring a drill with a micrometer, measure from the outside of one margin to the outside of the other margin at the point of drill. The shank diameter of a straight-shank drill is usually a few ten-thousandths of an inch smaller than the point diameter.
FIGURE 45 DRILL GAUGE Use of lubricant: When drilling, some materials require no lubricant while others require a lubricant peculiar to their nature. The following tabulation may be used ad a guide:
Materials to be Drilled Tool steel, copper Soft steel, wrought iron Babbit, brass, cast iron Glass Lubricant Oil Oil or soda water No lubricant (dry) Turpentine
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A drill gauge is used for determining the size of a drill in the event that the size number has been worn off. It is a flat piece of steel with a large number of holes in it. Each hole marked with a size number, the drill is fitted to the proper hole and the size noted.
FIGURE 46 DRILL POINT SHOWING PROPER ANGLE OF CUTTING LIP To sharpen a drill properly is an art itself. Machine shops have special jigs for holding a drill at the proper angle to the grinding wheel and these, naturally, do the perfect job. To sharpen a drill properly by hand takes much practice. The best way to learn is to sharpen some old, broken drills and test them out on a piece of metal. Figure 46 shows the proper angle of the lips and cutting edges. Note that the cutting edges run parallel to each other.
HOW TO USE AND READ DIAL INDICATORS, MICROMETERS, DEPTH GAUGES MICROMETER CALIPERS - The micrometer is the most commonly used adjustable gauge and it is important that the mechanic understands the mechanical principles, construction, use and care. Figure 47 shows a one-inch outside micrometer caliper with the various parts clearly indicated. Before making any attempt to use the tool, one should become familiar with its nomenclature, especially the frame, anvil, spindle, barrel (or sleeve), screw and thimble. Micrometers are generally intended to measure distances to the thousandths or ten-thousandths of an inch; the measurement is usually expressed or written as a decimal, so a mechanic must also know the method of writing and reading decimals. The decimal system is a method of expressing fractions and mixed numbers. For x, written decimally, 2.000 inches indicates exactly 2 inches. All figures to the left of the decimal point are the whole numbers; all numbers to the right of it indicate parts of the whole number. Starting from the decimal and moving to the right, the first digit indicates tenths; the second, hundredths; the third, thousandths; and so on. Thus 2.3 is read two and three tenths; 1.85 is read one and eighty-five hundredths; 4.071 is read four and seventy one thousandths; 0.2318 is read twentythree hundredths and eighteen thousandths. When there is no number to the left of the decimal point, the quantity indicated is less than 1.
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FIGURE 47 OUTSIDE MICROMETER
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Two types of micrometers most commonly used are the outside micrometer, Figure 47 and the inside micrometer, Figure 48. The outside micrometer is used for measuring outside dimensions, such as the diameter of a piece of round stock. The inside micrometer is used for measuring inside dimensions, as, e.g., the inside diameter of a tube or hole, the bore of a cylinder or the width of a recess. The micrometer actually records the endwise of a travel of a screw during a whole turn or any part of a turn. The micrometer screw has a pitch of 40 threads to the inch; in other words, if the screw is turned 40 times, it will move the spindle exactly one inch either toward or away from the anvil. A clockwise turn moves the spindle toward the anvil; a counter clockwise turn moves the spindle away from the anvil. Therefore, by simple arithmetic, it is plain that a single turn of the screw moves the spindle one-fortieth or twenty-five thousandths (0.025) of an inch (1.000 inch 40 = 0.025 inch).
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FIGURE 48 INSIDE MICROMETER AND EXTENSION RODS As explained above, if the sleeve of a micrometer is turned through one complete revolution, the micrometer opens or closes 0.025 inch. Hence, to change the opening 0.001 of an inch inch, the sleeve should be turned through only one twenty-fifth of a revolution. To divide the inch into 1,000 parts by using a the micrometer, therefore the problem involved is to count the number of complete revolutions, plus any part of a revolution in twenty-fifths, that the sleeve makes to set the spindle and anvil exactly against the work being measured. For this purpose, the barrel, or from one graduation to the next are marked as shown in Figure 49. The revolution line on the barrel should be understood first. It is graduated in lines 0,025 of an inch apart, so that each complete revolution of the sleeve moves the thimble exactly 0.025 inch along the barrel, or from one graduation to the next. Two complete revolutions move the thimble 0.050 of an inch, three revolutions 0.075 of an inch and four revolutions 0.100 of an inch the numbers at every fourth graduation on the revolution line indicate, therefore, tenths of an inch (4x0.025=0.100 of an inch). Assuming, for example, that the micrometer is closed and the screw is turned counterclockwise through four whole revolutions, the edge of the thimble would exactly coincide with the fourth graduation on the revolution line (marked 1) and the micrometer would be opened 1/10 of an inch. If the edge of the thimble coincided with the next graduation on the barrel, five revolutions would have been made, so the micrometer would be opened 0.125 of an inch (01.00 of an inch + .025 of an inch). The graduations on the barrel are numbered from 0 to 10. The mechanic should become thoroughly familiar with them before considering the graduations on the thimble.
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37
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FIGURE 49 MICROMETER GRADUATIONS The graduations on the barrel of the micrometer, as explained above, divide the inch into parts of twenty-five thousandths each; the graduations on the thimble further divide it into single thousandths, by indicating each twenty-fifth of a revolution of the sleeve. It has been shown in the preceding paragraph that one twenty-fifth of a revolution opens or closes the micrometer 0.001 of an inch. When the micrometer is closed, the edge of the thimble will coincide with zero on the barrel, and zero on the thimble will also coincide with the revolution line. As the thimble is turned, each time a graduation on the thimble passes the revolution line on the barrel, the micrometer opens 0.001 of an inch. With practice the mechanic can read a micrometer correctly at a glance; however, in learning to do so the following procedure is recommended: using pencil and paper, find the largest number on the revolution line between zero and the edge of the thimble. Use the middle reading in Figure 49 as an example; this number is 2. Write it as 0.200 inch. Then add to it the number of unmarked graduations between this figure and the edge of the thimble, which in the example being used is1 or 0.025. Set this down under 0.200 of an inch, already written. At this point, if the zero graduation on the thimble coincides with the revolution line, the reading would be complete, as follows: 0.200 inch 0.025 inch 0.225 inch, final reading However, the zero graduation on the thimble and the revolution line do not coincide, so it is necessary that the number of graduations between zero on the revolution line be added to the 0.225-inch reading. In this example, there is one such graduation. Write this as 0.001 inch, and the complete addition as follows:
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0.200 inch 0.025 inch 0.001 inch 0.226 inch, final reading Therefore, in the example being used, the micrometer is open 0.226 of an inch. Using a similar procedure with the top reading in Figure 49, the result works out as follows: 0.300 inch (largest number on revolution line between zero and edge of thimble) 0.000 inch (number of marked graduations between this and edge of thimble) 0.004 inch (number of graduations on the thimble between zero and the revolution line) 0.304 inch, correct reading Using the same procedure again with the bottom reading in Figure 49: 0.200 inch (largest number on revolution line between zero and edge of thimble) 0.000 inch (number of marked graduations between this and edge of thimble) 0.024 inch (number of graduations on the thimble between zero and the revolution line) 0.224 inch, correct final reading It should be noted particularly in this last example that the edge of the thimble appears to coincide with the 0.025 graduation on the barrel; but if this were true, the zero line on the thimble would coincide with the revolution line, the third number of the final reading cannot be zero. DEPTH GAGE - A Depth gage is an instrument for measuring the depth of holes, slots, counterbores, recesses, and the distance from a surface to some recessed part. The two most common types are the rule depth gage and the micrometer depth gage. The rule depth gage is a graduated rule with a sliding head designed to bridge a hole or slot, and to hold the rule perpendicular to the surface on which the measurement is taken. This type has a measuring range of 0 5 inches. The sliding head has a clamping screw so that it may be clamped in any position. The sliding head has a clamping screw so that it may be clamped in any position. The sliding head has a flat base, which is perpendicular to the axis of the rule and ranges in size from 2 2 5/8 inches in width and form 1/8 to inches in thickness. The micrometer depth gage consists of a flat base attached to the barrel (sleeve) of a micrometer head. These gages have a range from 0 9 inches, depending on the length of extension rod used. The hollow micrometer screw (the threads on which the thimble rotates) itself has a range of either or 1 inch. Some are provided with a ratchet stop. The flat base ranges in size from 2 to 6 inches. Several extension rods are normally supplied with this type of gage. To measure the depth of a hole or slot with reasonable accuracy, hold the body of the depth gage against the surface from which the depth is to be measured and extend the scale into the hole or slot. Tighten the setscrew to maintain the setting. Withdraw the tool from the work and read the depth on the scale.
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FIGURE 50 TYPES OF DEPTH GAUGES
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FIGURE 50 TYPES OF DEPTH GAUGES
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MACHINE SHOP TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS MACHINE SHOP TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS
1) GRINDING A RIGHT HAND ROUND NOSE TOOL a) LEFT SIDE i) Use the one finger method for positioning the tool if this method is helpful. As you become more comfortable with grinding you can adjust as needed in order to produce the 10-12 degree side relief angle. When using this method be sure to hold the tool steel perfectly horizontal both lengthwise and side-to-side. ii) Grind 1/3 to 1/2 across the end of the tool. iii) A ships bow shape should be formed at the seam on the left side of the tool. (The seam is the boundary between the grounded region and the tool shank.) iv) Grind enough so that the side cutting edge length is at least the minimum length. (1) Facing/finishing tool: 3/16 minimum (2) Roughing: 1/4 minimum v) Grind only ONE FACET on the left side. vi) Use the 10 and 15 portions of the test gage to check for accuracy in the side relief angle. vii) Repeat the above steps until a 10-12 degree left side relief angle is produced THIS IS CRITICAL!
FIGURE 1 - PARTS AND ANGLES OF A LATHE CUTTING TOOL

Roughing 1/4 5/16 Closer to 80 0 1/64 Facing/Finishing 3/16 Closer to 61 1/32 1/16
Left side cutting edge length Point Angle Nose Radius
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FIGURE 2 TOOL SHAPES b) END (RIGHT SIDE) i) Use the one finger method for positioning the tool if this method is helpful. Adjust as needed in order to produce the 8-10 side relief angle. ii) Imagine where the end (right side) cutting edge will be located. Ensure that this imaginary line and the left side cutting edge will form the appropriate point angle. The point angle must be 61-80. Strive to achieve the ideal point angles: (1) Facing/finishing tool: 61 (2) Roughing tool: 80 iii) Grind only ONE FACET on the end (right side). iv) Use the 10 and 15 portions of the test gage to check for accuracy in the right side relief angle. v) Use the 61 and 80 portions of the test gage to check for accuracy in the point angle. vi) Repeat the above steps until an 8-10 degree right side relief angle AND a 61-80 point angle are produced. THIS IS CRITICAL! (Checking the end relief angle for 1215 degrees can verify that both the left and right side relief angles are correct.) c) TOP i) NOTE: All grinding of the top should consist of moving the tool straight into the grinding wheel, then straight out DO NOT use any side-to-side motion! ii) Face the top of the tool toward the grinding wheel. iii) Hold the left side cutting edge horizontal. iv) Align the top end of the left side seam with the right edge of the grinding wheel. v) For the first pass into the grinding wheel, the left side cutting edge should ideally be 1/32 from the wheel when the top of the tool opposite the left cutting edge first contacts the wheel. This will automatically produce a side rake of 5-10 degrees. If the side rake needs to be changed, then perform the following:
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vi) To decrease the side rake, lean the left side cutting edge closer to the grinding wheel, then perform the necessary in-and-out grinds. vii) To increase the side rake, lean the left side cutting edge further from the grinding wheel, and then perform the necessary in-and-out grinds. viii) All-grinding marks should be perpendicular to the left side cutting edge. d) NOSE RADIUS i) Hold the nose (front edge) of the tool vertically or horizontally to the grinding wheel. ii) Very lightly graze the tool on the grinding wheel. The goal is to evenly and very lightly grind the entire length of the nose. Very little pressure on the tool is needed. iii) Check the tool edge for even removal of material. iv) Facets should be removed from the nose when honing. Multiple facets during grinding are normal on the nose. CAUTION Depending upon how you hold your cutting tool, you may find it helpful to view your work from the side. If this applies- MAKE SURE THAT YOU WEAR EYE PROTECTION! e) HONING i) The purpose for honing is to produce a keen cutting edge. A keen cutting edge can extend the life of a cutting tool up to three times. ii) Hone only the edges. DO NOT HONE THE ENTIRE GROUNDED REGION ON ANY PART OF YOUR TOOL! iii) Suggestion: Hone the grounded regions in the same order as they were ground so that you don't forget any. iv) Use a very fine grit stone for honing. v) Hold the region of the tool, which is to be grounded flat on the honing stone. vi) Move the tool across the stone in the direction of the cutting edge. (The cutting edge is the leading edge.) Be sure that the tool stays flat on the stone or else the cutting edge will not be properly honed. Improper honing will leave the edge rough or rounded (and dull). vii) While honing, always move the tool in one direction only, unless you are directed otherwise. The nose radius is the only region of the right hand round nose tool, which necessitates the honing of the tool in more than one direction
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44
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BASIC LATHE OPERATIONS BASIC LATHE OPERATIONS

1) BASIC LATHE COMPONENTS (REFER TO FIGURE 3) a) Bed (Refer to Figure 4) (1) Ways (2) Quick Change Gear Box (3) Lead screw f) Headstock (Refer to Figure 5) Upper cone pulley Drive plate Live center Sleeve Back gears
Back gear lever Bull gear Bull gear lock pin Feed reverse gears Feed reverse lever
g) Carriage (Refer to Figure 6) i) Apron (Front Side Of Carriage) Apron hand wheel Carriage locking screw (Automatic feed friction) clutch Feed change lever Dial indicator Half nut lever
ii) Saddle (Top Of Carriage) Compound rest (with adjustable dial) Cross feed (with adjustable dial) Cross feed binding lever (not visible) Toolpost Taper attachment (not visible) Taper attachment locking screw (not visible)
h) Tailstock (Refer To Figure 7) i) Tailstock hand wheel ii) Spindle iii) Tailstock binding lever iv) Dead center v) Tailstock clamping nut i) Motor (Not Shown - Located Inside Of The Lathe Cabinet) i) Motor ii) Lower cone pulley iii) Motor-to-cone pulley belt (V-belt) iv) Drive belt (flat belt) v) Belt tension lever
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FIGURE 3 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF AN ENGINE LATHE
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FIGURE 4 LATHE BED AND ASSOCIATED COMPONENTS
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FIGURE 5: ALL COMPONENTS IN THE HEADSTOCK MUST BE SETUP WHEN THE LATHE IS DE-ENERGIZED
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FIGURE 6: AUTOMATIC CARRIAGE OPERATION ALMOST MAKES USING A LATHE A SPECTATOR SPORT
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49
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FIGURE 7 - THE TAILSTOCK PROVIDES EXCELLENT SUPPORT FOR A PIECE OF WORK AND IS AN ACCURATE REFERENCE
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2. MACHINING THE UNTHREADED BLANK a. Project Overview i. Face the work to the dimension length. ii. Turn down the .875 Spec. diameter. iii. Cut all of the grooves. iv. Turn down the .725 Spec. diameter. v. Cut the 3 x 14-degree taper. vi. Cut the 45 degree taper vii. Make the mass cut. viii. Turn down the .625 Spec. diameter. ix. Deburr the project. x. Polish the project. xi. Identify the tools and blank. b. Machining the Unthreaded Blank i. (Refer to TABLES A-1, A-2-1 and A-2-2 and DRAWING B-1 I 1. Face off the work to the dimension length. (8) (Refer to Figure 8, Figure 9 & Figure 10 a. Face off the first end. b. Center drill the first end. c. Scribe the work to the dimension length. d. Face off the second end to the scribe mark (dimension length). e. Center drill the second end.
A conical shaped center indicates that the lathe cutting tool is above center FIGURE 8: THE RESULTANT EFFECT OF CUTTING WITH A LATHE END CUTTING TOOL OFF CENTER, IS EXTRA MATERIAL LEFT ON THE TOOL MIDDLE OF THE FACE WORK A cylindrical shaped center indicates that the lathe cutting tool is below center
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FIGURE 9: REMEMBER WHEN FACING OFF THE END CUTTING TOOL OFF THE OF PIECE OF WORK THAT YOUR LATHE SHOULD ALWAYS BE ON CENTER.
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CAUTION - Whenever you turn your work between centers ALWAYS use center lube in the center hole which mates with the dead center. Failure to do so will result on damage to the center hole in your work to significant overheating ii. Turn down the .875 spec. diameter. 1. Rough cut .100 for approximately 6-1/2 of length.
NOTE: Measure your work frequently to identify any possible tapering of you work. 2. Rough cut to within .010-.030 of the spec. diameter. 3. Finish cut to within .001-.002 of the spec. diameter. Remember to leave the extra .001-.002 of material for polishing. (.876-.877)
FIGURE 10
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iii.
Cut all of the grooves. 1. Measure and scribe the location of the first groove
CAUTION - ALWAYS cut grooves in a series of shallow passes. This is referred to as step cutting. By doing so, you will provide the most support for your work and thereby minimize the risk of damage. 2. Cut the .500 diameter groove. Plunge cut .030-.050 deep. Side-to-side cut .002 at a time until a good finish is present. CAUTION - The MAXIMUM depth of a side-to-side cut is .002! c. d. Measure the new diameter. Repeat the above process until you achieve .500 (Remember to leave this extra material for polishing). e. Use the first groove as a reference and measure and scribe the location of the last groove. ii. Cut the second .500 diameter groove; use plunge and side-to- side cuts as described above. iv. Turn down the.725 spec. diameter. 1. Rough cut to within .010-.030 of the spec. diameter. 2. Finish cut to wfthin.001-.002 of the spec. diameter. Remember to leave t extra .001-.002 of material for polishing. (.726-.727) v. Cut the 3 x 14-degree taper. 1. Set the taper attachment tool to 3. 2. Lock the taper attachment. 3. Scribe the region of the work to be tapered. a. Scribe the spec. length exactly. (1) b. Scribe the work at practice positions of approximately 1/2 and 3/4. 4. Set up the tool exactly on center. 5. Place the tool in the vicinity of the first scribe mark (1/2). 6. Lock the cross feed. 7. Position the tool exactly on the scribe mark. 8. Note the compound rest dial reading. 9. Back off on the compound rest so that the tool can be moved to the right of the work. 10. Position the tool at the end of the work using the apron. 11. Set the compound rest at the exact dial value, which you previously noted. 12. Put the practice tapers. 13. Cut the spec. taper. (1) CAUTION - ALWAYS TAKE UP ON THE BACKLASH in the apron hand wheel to preclude initially cutting straight into the work, vice at the desirable taper.
a. b.
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Cut the 45-degree taper. 1. Set the compound rest at 45 degrees in the first quadrant. 2. Place the tool exactly on center. 3. Position the tool symmetric to the taper such that similar clearances exist on both sides of the tool. 4. The cutting of the 450 taper should be accomplished in a series of small (shallow) cuts. The use of a good hand-over-hand technique will significantly enhance the quality of the finish. Remember that each pass is actually a type of cut. 5. Take care to accomplish the following on the last pass: a. Use good hand-over-hand technique throughout the cut. (i.e. leave no cutting marks in the face of the groove.) b. Remove the entire shoulder on the .875 diameter. c. Leave no marks on the.500 groove. vii. Make the mass cut. CAUTION - SAFE cutting ranges on the lathe are as follows: Direct drive: depths up to and including .200 Back Gears: .200 - .350 3. PRECAUTIONS a. VERIFY, IN THE DESIGNATED ORDER, THAT THE FOLLOWING ARE TIGHT: ii. Compound rest iii. Lathe dog iv. Tool post v. Tool holder b. By verifying the above items are tight will ensure that your tool will not damage your work. (1) Cut the .350 mass cut. (i.e. 1.000 down to .650) vi) Turn down the .625 spec. diameter. (1) Rough cut to within .010-.030 of the spec. diameter. (2) Finish cut to within .001-.002 of the spec. diameter. Remember to leave this extra .001 -.002 of material for polishing. (.626-.627) vii) Debur the project (1) All mushrooms and sharp edges must be removed, to include the following: (a) Shoulders on all of the grooves (b) Ends of the work (shoulders and center holes) (2) File all of the shoulders on the project. DO NOT produce a measurable chamfer (i.e. all chamfers must be less than 1/64). (3) Refresh the center holes on the ends of the work by re-center drilling to a depth that is slightly deeper than your original center drilling. If the center drill produces mushroom material around the center holes, then you must perform .001-.003 depth skim cut on the end(s) of the work in order to remove this waste material. viii) Polish the project. (4) Place the feed reverse ever in neutral.
vi.
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CAUTION - The FEED REVERSE LEVER must be placed in NEUTRAL OR the QUICK CHANGE GEARS will be DAMAGED due to over speed! (5) Shift to the high pulley speed. (6) Use a file to perform medium to heavy polishing. (a) Pins develop rapidly when filing on a lathe. (b) Use only a clean file that has absolutely no pins wedged into it. (c) Clean the file thoroughly after every stroke across your work. (7) Use emery cloth for light and final polishing. (a) New emery cloth will leave a coarser finish than worn emery cloth. Use new emery cloth on the entire project; next, go over the entire project with the worn emery cloth. This choice of actions will improve the finish (b) Use the backside of the emery cloth (non-abrasive) to buff a brighter polish onto the work. 4. THREAD DEPTH DETERMINATION a. Classes Of Fit i. Class 1 1. This is the loosest class of fit. 2. Hand only operation is very easy. 3. The mating fasteners are easily able to be spun onto and off of each other more than any other class of fit. . 4. Some axial movement between mating fasteners is evident without the turning of the fasteners. This is the only class of fit where axial movement occurs. ii. Class 2 1. Hand only operation is easy. 2. The mating fasteners are able to be spun onto and off of each other. iii. Class 3 1. Hand only operation is possible with some exertion. 2. The mating fasteners are NOT able to be spun onto and off of each other. iv. Class 4 1. Hand only operation is NOT possible. 2. The mating fasteners must have mechanical assistance in order to be able to be threaded onto and off of each other. b. Formula (Adjusted): D (P X .64952) X 2 1. where 2. D = Depth 3. P = Pitch (P = 11N) 4. N = Number of threads per inch (TPI) 5. 2 = Constant (this value could be 1 on other lathes) c. Project Specifications Are 5/8-11-Unc-3 i. 5/8 represents the 5/8 (.625) work diameter. ii. 11 represents the number of threads per inch (TPI). iii. UNC designates this thread to be a Unified National Coarse type of thread.
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iv.
3 represents the class of fit required. Application D = (P x .64952) x 2 where P = 1/(11 TPI) hence D (1/11 x.64952) x 2 = (.05904) x 2 = (.059) x 2
The formula value of .059 represents the depth of one thread at any one point on the project, therefore, the thread on the opposite side of the work would also be .059 deep. The Machine Shop lathes indicate the total amount of material removed. An indication of .059 on a Machine Shop lathe would correlate to .0295 for the depth of each thread on each side of the work. Consequently, the actual amount that must be indicated on the Machine Shop lathes would be [2 x .059'1 or.1 18 total, hence the formula constant of 2. d. General Information i. Synchronization of threads (using the lathe dial indicator) 1. For EVEN numbers of threads per inch (TPI) use ANY indicated value on the dial indicator (numbered AND unnumbered). 2. For ODD numbers of threads per inch (TPI) use EITHER indicated value on the dial indicator (numbered OR unnumbered). 3. For FRACTIONAL numbers of threads per inch (TPI) use ONLY one mark on the dial indicator for all cuts. ii. Threading rates 1. Use depth increments of .0 10 for approximately 70% of the FIRST TEST POINT thread depth. DANGER - During threading, DO NOT MAKE ANY CUTS DEEPER THAN .010 or your tool will likely hang up in your work or the tip will snap off. Use depth increments of .005 for approximately 25% of the FIRST TEST POINT thread depth. iv. Use a depth increment of .003. In addition to removing some material, this small increment enhances the finish of the threads. v. Use a depth increment of .002. In addition to removing material, this very small increment significantly enhances the finish of the threads. vi. Finally, use a depth increment of .001 , clean the threads, inspect for satisfactory quality, and then test for the desired fit. Repeat this step until the desired fit is achieved. e. Threading controls i. For lathe control settings refer to TABLE A-3 ii. Whenever possible, use the compound rest for positioning the tool for all size increments EXCEPT the .001 size increments . iii. Use the cross feed for positioning the tool for all increments of.001. f. Realignment Procedure i. Place the tool adjacent to the threaded region that will be realigned. iii.
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ii. iii. iv.
v.
vi. vii.
Place the dial indicator on a convenient mark (e.g. a numbered line). Engage the half nut lever. Take up backlash and continue to do so throughout the remaining portion of the realignment procedure. 1. For right hand (common or normal) threads, take up backlash by applying clockwise resistance to the apron hand wheel. 2. For left hand threads, take up backlash by applying counter-clockwise resistance to the apron hand wheel. 3. The FIRST TEST POINT can be considered to be the CALCULATED DEPTH minus approximately 10-20%. Use the cross feed and compound rest to position the tool exactly in the bottom of the threads. BE SURE TO COMPENSATE FOR BACKLASH IN THESE DIALS! Perform a dry run prior to performing a cutting pass to verify that realignment has been successful. Proceed with threading using the dial indicator values, which resulted from this procedure. DO NOT USE OLD (ORIGINAL) DIAL VALUES!
NOTE - The dial readings on the compound rest and the cross feed Will NOT be the same as before realignment g. Cutting the Prescribed Project Threads (Refer to TABLE A-3 i. National form threads 1. Set up the lathe in accordance with TABLE A-3 CAUTION - Visually VERIFY that the dial indicator pinion gear is FULLY ENGAGED witht the lead screw. 2. Cut seven increments of .0 10. (.000-.070) 3. Cut four (or five) increments of .005. (.070-.090) 4. Cut one increment of .003. (.090-.093) 5. Cut one increment of .002. (.093-.095) 6. Clean and inspect the threads. 7. Test the threads for proper fit using the Machine Shop test nut. 8. Perform the following until the test nut tests to the proper fit: Cut one .001 increment. Clean and inspect the threads. Test for proper fit. If necessary, repeat steps Deburr the project. 1. Remove all mushrooms and sharp edges, to include the following: a. Lightly file the tops of all of the threads. b. File the ends of all of the threads; blunt each thread end. 2. DO NOT produce any measurable chamfer on the tops of the threads, nor reduce the height of the threads.
ii. iii. iv. v. ii.
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TOLERANCES
UNITS OF MEASURE Fractional Decimal TOLERANC E 1/64 .002 FORMULA D=(p X.64952 X 2
FORMULA
PURPOSE Calculate the total depth for cutting a V type of thread
TABLE A-1 - LATHE CONTROL SETTINGS MACHINING THE UNTHREADED BLANK

OPERATION LATHE CONTROL PULLEY POSITION BULL GEAR LOCK PIN CHUCK/DRIVE PLATE BACK GEAR LEVER FEED REVERSE LEVER Left/out (Up) Neutral Right/In (Down) QUICK CHANGE GEARBOX COMPOUND REST Position Quadrant Clock reference TOOL Type of tool Tool holder Angle to work On/Above Center FEED CHANGE LEVER Apron Neutral Cross Feed (CF) OPERATOR Clutch Half Nut Lever Manual LOCKS Carriage Taper attachment Cross Feed Face Off Medium In 3 Jaw Chuck Out Out or In D-7,8 or 9 60 II 9 Facing Left 10-20 On Center Drill Medium In 3 Jaw Chuck Out Rough Cut(s) (.875) Slow In Drive Plate Out Left Neutral N/A D-7,8 or 9 60 II 9 Rough Left 0-15 On Apron CF Clutch Manual Off/On Clutch Clutch Manual Clutch Clutch F-7.8 or 9 60 II 9 Finish Left 0-15 On Apron Finish Cut (.875) Medium In Drive Plate Out Left Neutral N/A D-7,8 or 9 60 II 9 Rough Left 0-15 On Apron F-7,8 or 9 60 II 9 Finish Left 0-15 On Apron Groove Cuts (.725) Medium In Drive Plate Out Rough Cut(s) (.725) Slow In Drive Plate Out Left Finish cut Medium In Drive Plate Out Left
N/A
60 II 9 Cut Off Straight 0 On N/A
Center drill Chuck N/A
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9. LATHE CONTROL SETTINGS MACHINING THE UNTHREADED BLANK Table A-1

OPERATION LATHE CONTROL PULLEY POSITION BULL GEAR LOCK PIN CHUCK/DRIVE PLATE BACK GEAR LEVER FEED REVERSE LEVER Left/out (Up) Neutral Right/In (Down) QUICK CHANGE GEARBOX COMPOUND REST Position Quadrant Clock reference TOOL Type of tool Tool holder Angle to work On/Above Center FEED CHANGE LEVER Apron Neutral Cross Feed (CF) OPERATOR Clutch Half Nut Lever Manual LOCKS Carriage Taper attachment Cross Feed Mass Cut (.625) Medium Out Drive Plate In Left Left F-7,8 or 9 60 II 9 Finish Left 15 On Neutral N/A D/E-7,8 or 9 60 II 9 Rough Left 15 On Apron D-7.8 or 9 60 II 9 Rough Left 0-15 On Apron Apron F-7,8 or 9 60 II 9 Finish Left 0-15 On Rough Cut Optional Medium In Drive Plate Out Left Finish Cuts (.625) Medium In Drive Plate Out Left Neutral N/A
3 Taper Medium In Drive Plate Out
45 Taper Medium In Drive Plate Out
Polish High In Drive Plate Out
45 I 3 Finish Left Symmetri c On N/A
N/A N/A N/A
Apron
Clutch Manual Lock Lock -
Clutch
Clutch
Clutch Manual
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10 - TABLE A-2 LATHE CONTROL SETTINGS THREADING THE BLANK

OPERATION LATHE CONTROL PULLEY POSITION 5/8-11-UNC-3 National Form Medium OPERATION LATHE CONTROL COMPOUND REST Position Quadrant Clock reference TOOL Type of tool Tool holder Angle to work On/Above Center FEED CHANGE LEVER Apron Neutral Cross Feed (CF) OPERATOR Clutch Half Nut Lever* Manual LOCKS Carriage Taper attachment Cross Feed (CF 5/8-11-UNC-3 National Form 29 II 12 #11 V Straight 0 On
BULL GEAR LOCK PIN
Out
CHUCK/FACE PLATE
Face Plate
Neutral
BACK GEAR LEVER
In
Half Nut Lever
FEED REVERSE LEVER Left/out (UP) Neutral Right/In (Down) QUICK CHANGE GEARBOX
Left B-4
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60
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LATHE SECURING CRITERIA Leave each lathe in the following condition: 1. Collect and deposit ALL waste metal (chips, shavings, filings etc.) into the appropriate scrap bin.1 2. Sweep the entire floor around the lathe, including the adjacent aisles and toe area. 3. The final setup of the lathe should consist of the: a) Drive plate installed on the headstock spindle. b) Table under the drive plate. c) Carriage up against the table. d) Tailstock at the right end of the lathe ways. e) LATHE WORK LIGHT OFF. f) BELT TENSION RELEASED. g) Cleaning rag draped over the tailstock. 4. The following lathe tools should be located in the lathe cabinet: 2 a) TOP SHELF 1) (Live) center removal tool 2) Tool post 3) Lathe dog 4) Tailstock wrench (may be left on the tailstock) 5) Hermaphrodite calipers b) MIDDLE/BOTTOM SHELF 1) Three jaw (universal) chuck with the small chuck key 2) Four jaw (independent) chuck with the large chuck key 3) One spare set of chuck jaws (three pieces)
Common areas, which are frequently missed during cleanup are (1) under the quick-change gearbox, (2) in both chip trays. (3) on the taper attachment tool, (4) under the headstock and tailstock spindles and (5) on the toe area of the floor. 2 ALL other tools should be returned to where they were issued (typically this is the roll-around cart or other designated location).
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APPENDIX A: TAP & DIE INFORMATION 1. TAPS a) Purpose - To cut internal threads b) Basic description 1) Square head - part of tap, which is held by a tap wrench 2) Shank - solid and cylindrical; contains tap size 3) Cutters - comprised of tapered and full depth cutters c) Types 1) Taper (also known as Starter) a) Taper taps are used to initiate thread cutting. b) They contain the longest tapered set of cutters. 2) Plug a) Plug taps are used to cut the majority of tapered threads which remain after using a taper tap. b) A plug tap contains about 1/3 of the tapered cutters compared to that of the taper tap. 3) Bottoming a) Bottoming taps are used to cut the last tapered thread (or two) which remains after using a plug tap. b) They contain essentially no taper. d) Tap wrench 1) A tap wrench is used to hold a tap. 2) Types a) Straight handle tap wrench b) T handle tap wrench 2. DIES a) Purpose - To cut external threads b) Types 1) Rethreading a) Rethreading dies are only used to refurbish existing threads. b) They contain no taper in the cutter region. 2) Split a) A split die is used to cut new threads.. b) Split dies contain a taper in the cutter region. 3) Two Place a) A two-piece die is used to cut new threads. b) They contain a taper in the cutter region. c) Die Stock - The wrench used to hold a die
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APPENDIX B: THREAD INFORMATION 3. COMMON THREAD TYPES a) Unified National Form 1) Unified National Fine (UNF) 2) Unified National Coarse (UNC) b) ACME 4. CLASSES OF FIT a) Class 1: the loosest of fits; fasteners spin together and apart; exhibits axial movement between fasteners b) Class 2: loose fitting; fasteners spin, but not as much as a Class I fit; no axial movement c) Class 3: snug fit; fasteners can not spin, but can be operated by hand d) Class 4: tight fit; fasteners must be operated with mechanical assistance (e.g. wrench) e) Class 5:(Interference fit); fasteners must be operated with mechanical assistance (e.g. impact wrench) 5. THREAD DESIGNATION a) Order - The designation of thread characteristics should be made in the proper order as indicated by the example: 318-24-UNF-3B, where: 1) 318 is the fastener diameter 2) 24 represents the number of threads per inch 3) UNF is the type of thread 4) 3 is the class of fit 5) B indicates the thread to be an internal set of threads; A would indicate an external set of threads
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APPENDIX C: Formulas 1. DRILL SPEED (RPM) a) Purpose - To ensure that a drill is operated at the correct speed. Proper drill speed produces the highest quality cut. Additionally, the life of the drill is extended and damage to the work piece is minimized. b) Formula: RPM = (CS x 4)/D Where: RPM = Drill speed CS = Cutting Speed3 4 = Formula constant D = Diameter of drill c) Example: 1/2 drill used to cut steel; (1/2=D) and (90=CSsteel) therefore: RPM = (90 x 4) / (1/2) (360) 1 (112) = 720 RPM 2. TAP DRILL SIZE (TDS) a) Purpose - To ensure that a precise sized hole will be drilled in preparation for tapping 1) Sufficient material must be removed to allow insertion of a tap. 2) An adequate amount of material must be left so that the tap will engage with this remaining material thus forming useable threads. b) Formula: TDS = D - (1/TPI) Where TDS = Tap Drill Size D = Diameter of the fastener TPI = Threads Per Inch c) Example: 318-16 threads, where (318 D) and (16 TPI), therefore: TDS = 318 - (1/16) = 6/16 1/16 = 5/16 or.312
The value for, cutting speed, or simply CS, is determined by the machine tool being used AND the type of material being cut. The cutting speed for steel (CS,) is equal to 90.
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WELDING AND PIPEFITTING
TABLE OF CONENTS
SECTION 1 PIPE FITTING a. Basic Hand b. Basic Pipefitting Tools c. Piping and Tubing d. Methods of Joining Piping and Tubing e. Packing and Gasket Material f. Pipe Fittings g. Specialty Tools SECTION 2 PIPE CALCULATIONS AND FORMULAS
SECTION 3 WELDING a. Welding Cutting and Brazing b. Arc Welding
Joseph Kass Welding and Piping Instructor
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1.. 1
BASIC HAND TOOLS BASIC HAND TOOLS
HAMMERS - An all-purpose hard hammer is the ball-peen or machinists hammer, Figure 1A. The ball-shaped end is called the peen; the flat end is the face. This hammer is classed according to the weight if the head without the handle, i.e., 6 ounces, 8 ounces, 1 pound etc. When hammering or working on a finished surface, a soft hammer is used, so that the surface being struck will not be marked or marred. This hammer is usually made of rawhide, brass, lead or plastic. Sledgehammers are heavy hammers used for producing heavy blows. They usually weigh between 5 and 25 pounds. This type of hammer is often referred to in the trade as a button-set. Scaling hammers are more often referred to as a chipping hammers, Figure 1B. They are used for removing scale, paint etc., from metal surfaces. The edges of the chipping hammer should be slightly rounded, not ground with a sharpened edge. A sharpened or knife-edge will nick the metal and leave a rough, irregular surface, thus production air pockets beneath the new coat of paint and eventual blistering of the paint. Mallets - Mallets are generally made from softer materials than hammers, such as lead, brass, rubber, and rawhide. Mallets are used where the force of a steel hammer would cause damage or mar the surface of a material struck by the hammer. A hammer should be held near the end of the handle. Do not hold the handle close to the hammerhead. Most hammer accidents are caused by loose-heads. The head should fit tightly on the handle and a tapered metal wedge should be driven into the end of the handle as shown in Figure 1C. Always wipe your hands dry of sweat, grease, or oil and wipe the handle and face of the hammer before using it.
FIGURE 1 A) BALL-PEEN OR MACHINISTS HAMMER, B) CHIPPING HAMMER, C) TAPERED METAL EDGE IN HANDLE
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PUNCHES - Several types of punches are shown in Figure 2. These tools may be used for a variety of jobs, but the correct punch for the job should always be selected. A center punch is used to make a starting mark for a drill when holes are to be drilled in metal. If the center punch mark is not made, the drill will wander off walk away from desired center. The center punch should be taper-ground to an angle of about 90. Never use a center punch to remove a bolt or pin, as the sharp point will act as a wedge and tend to tighten the bolt or pin in the hole. Prick punches are generally used for marking centers and lines in layout work, Start punches, sometimes called drifts, have a long taper from the tip to the body. They are made to withstand the shock of heavy blows. They may be used for knocking out rivets after their heads have been cut off, of for freeing pins or bolts from their holes. After a pin or bold has been loosened or partially driven out, it may be found that the starting punch is too large to finish the job. A pin punch can then be used, as it is designed to follow through the hole without hamming. Both starting punches and pin punches must have flat ends, never pointed, edged, or rounded ones. FIGURE 2 - PUNCHES BOLT CUTTERS - For heavy-duty cutting jobs, a bolt cutter, shown in Figure 3, is used. These tools are made in several sizes, from 18 to 36 inches in length, the larger ones being used to cut mild steel bolts and rods up to inch in diameter. Bolt cutters usually have replaceable jaws of extra hard metal alloys; the jaws therefore are brittle and will break before they bend or dent. Any twisting motion should be avoided when they are used. The cutter shown had set screws, which enable the relative positions of the blades to be adjusted if they should fail to meet properly after having been sharpened. The aligning, or lining-up punch is used to line up corresponding holes in adjacent parts, i.e., when working on engines that have pans and cover plates.
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FIGURE 3 - BOLT CUTTERS SCREWDRIVERS - Screwdrivers are designed for one purpose and that is to tighten or loosen screws. The tip or blade of a screwdriver is very hard so that it will hold its shape and resist the shearing action of the slot in the screw. When grinding a blade, keep the edges flat and be sure the edges are sharp. The end of the blade should be straight and rectangular in shape, Figure 4A. A screwdriver is ordered by the length of the blade from tip to the handle. Heavy-duty screwdrivers are made with square heavy shanks. This is done so that a wrench can be used with them to obtain more leverage. Electricians screwdrivers are made with insulated handles. In an emergency, wrapping it with electricians tape can insulate the handle of an ordinary screwdriver. The offset screwdriver, Figure 4B, is used for screw located in inaccessible places. The ratchet screwdriver, Figure 4C, is a very handy tool due to the fact that the handle can be held with a firm grasp and does not have to be turned continually, as does the standard screwdriver. The Phillips screwdriver, Figure 4D, is one that fits Phillips type screws only. These screws are cut with 4-way slots as shown. FIGURE 4 - TYPES OF SCREWDRIVERS
When using a screwdriver on a small piece of work, which is unattached, always hold that object in a vice and not in your other hand. Slips have all too often been the cause of severe hand injuries.
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PLIERS AND VISE GRIPS - There are many types of pliers in general use today, Figure 5 shows some of the more common types. The slip joint or combination pliers has one arm of the slip joint slotted so that the hinge pin can be slipped from one position to another, thus allowing the jaws to open wider. The side cutting pliers had a sharp cutting edge on one side of each jaw. This type is used to a great extent in electrical work to strip the insulation from the wire. The needle-nose pliers are used to get into tight spaces of corners where the ordinary pliers would not fit. The jaws of most pliers and vise grips are cut with teeth for better gripping purposes. Never use pliers to tighten nuts; they will chew off the corners of the nuts. Pliers are measured by overall length.
FIGURE 5 - PLIERS VISE GRIPS - Vise-Grips come in a variety shapes. In addition to the conventional pliers, they also have several versions that come with a chain between the jaws for use on pipes and other round objects. Other versions have flat, paddle shaped jaws, another has large curved jaws to grab pipes and a new version has specially shaped jaws to grab hexagonal nuts. Figure 6 shows 3 types of vice grips.
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CURVED JAWS WITH WIRE CUTTERS
LONG NOSE FIGURE 6 VISE GRIPS
LOCKING WRENCH
WRENCHES - Wrenches are tools for tightening or removing bolts, nuts, studs, etc, or for gripping round material such as pipe, studs round rods, etc. They may be classified under three general headings: adjustable, solid, and open end. Wrenches may also be named for their shapes of for the particular job for which they are used, such as S wrench, angle wrench, pipe wrench, monkey wrench, tap wrench, etc. Open-end wrenches are solid, non-adjustable, wrenches with openings in one or both ends. The openings are set at various angles to the body of the wrench, the most common angle being 15. The size of a wrench on stamped on the face of and denotes the size of the opening or the distance across the flats, Figure 7. This measurement is the distance across the flats of a hexagon nut. A inch nut measures 7/8 inch across the flats, thus the wrench for a inch nut would be marked 7/8 inch. Why the actual size is not used remains a mystery. This present system is most confusing.
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There is a fairly simple system for converting the nut size to the wrench size and vise versa: to determine the wrench size for a nut, divide the size of the nut by 2/3 and add 1/8. For example the wrench size for a inch nut would be; / 2/3 + 1/8 x 3/2 +1/8 9/8 + 1/8 = 10/8= 1 2/8 = 1 inches To find the nut size for the number on a wrench, subtract 1/8 inch from the size of the wrench and multiply by 2/3. For example, the nut size for the wrench marked 7/8 would be 7/8 1/8 x 2/3 6/8 x 2/3 = 12/25 = inch Figure 7 shows three other common types of open-end wrenches. The S wrench is used for working in close quarters. The crowfoot has its head set at a 90 to the axis of the handle and is used to reach nuts in out-of-the-way locations. The spud wrench has a long, tapered handle and is frequently used for aligning boltholes in plates of flanges.
FIGURE 7 OPEN-END WRENCH; A) S WRENCH; B) CROWFOOT WRENCH; C) BOILER OR SPUD WRENCH In tightening of loosening large nuts (4 inches, 5 inches or larger), which usually fit very snugly and cannot be run down the bolt threads by hand, the regular wrench is very heavy and cumbersome. To get the nuts down into place, or to remove them once they have been loosened with the regular wrench, a special tool called a skeleton wrench is used. As the name implies, this wrench is much lighter in weight and easier to handle Never use open-ended wrenches that have sprung jaws, i.e., jaws that have been spread due to excessive pressures. Never use a wrench that is larger than the size of the nut; a larger wrench usually slips around and flattens out the corners of the nut. Whenever possible, pull on a wrench do not push on it. If it is necessary to push on a wrench due to the location of the nut, hold the
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hand open and push with the base of your palm. This should prevent bruised knuckles should the wrench slip off the nut. One of the handiest of all wrenches is the adjustable or crescent wrench, Figure 8. This is quite similar to the open-end wrench except that the opening is adjustable to fit any number of nuts of different sizes. Always apply the wrench to the nut so that the force of the pull comes on the solid jaw, i.e., the jaw that is part of the handle casting (note arrow on Figure 8).
FIGURE 8 ADJUSTABLE WRENCH The monkey wrench, Figure 9 is a type of adjustable wrench; however, the jaws are set at a 90 angle with the handle. The size indicated by its overall length.
FIGURE 9 MONKEY WRENCH The Stillson wrench or pipe wrench, as the name implies, is used on pipes and other round objects, Figure 10. The jaws have teeth cut into them to provide a better grip. Never use a pipe wrench on square objects or on nuts; it will chew the corners off and make the nuts useless. Its overall length indicates the size of the wrench.
FIGURE 10 STILLSON WRENCH
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Box wrenches are very handy because they can be used in close quarters. They completely surround the (box) nut, Figure 11. They are usually made with 12 notches (points) thereby giving them a minimum swing of 15. There is little chance of this type of wrench slipping off the nut. Some box wrenches have their ends offset at various angles.
FIGURE 11 BOX WRENCH There are a number of different types of socket wrenches; Figure 12 shows the offset type and the T-handle type. The most common types of socket wrenches come in sets and have various handles, as shown in Figure 13. The set usually consists of ten or twelve different size sockets, two or three types of handles, a knuckle joint and a number of extensions. The upper handle in Figure 13 is a ratchet type and saves a great deal of time on the job. The ratchet may be moved in either direction without removing it from the nut.
FIGURE 12 SOCKET WRENCHES
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FIGURE 13 SOCKET HEAD AND HANDLES There are a number of types of spanner wrenches in general use, Figure 14. Fire hoses and fire hydrant connections on board ship are usually of the spanner type construction. Some are fitted with slotted packing gland nuts, which require spanner wrenches.
FIGURE 14 SPANNER WRENCHES
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Allen set screws torx screws and cap screws are headless and are intended to set flush with or below the surface of the part into which they are screwed. A hexagonal hole is made in the end of the screw as shown in Figure 15. The Allen wrench is a piece of hexagon stock usually bent as shown in the diagram. The Allen set screw is the same diameter over its entire length. The Allen cap screw is made with a round head that is large than in diameter than the body of the screw. This larger head also fits into a hole in the part into which it is screwed.
FIGURE 15 ALLEN WRENCH AND SET SCREW CUTTING TOOLS - The hacksaw is used for cutting metal. There are two types of hacksaw frames solid and adjustable, Figure 16. The solid type will only hold one size blade; the adjustable type can be fitted with different length bladed. Hacksaw blades come in two general forms hard back and flexible back. The hard-back type is hardened all over, and the flexible back has only its teeth hardened. The hard-back blade is generally used on steel, brass, cast iron and pieces with heavy cross sections; the flexible is used on hollow shapes and pieces with light cross sections. Blades also come in various pitches. The pitch represents the number of teeth per inch. The standard pitches are 14, 18, 24 and 32 teeth per inch. For general purpose work the 18 pitch is used. The 24 pitch is used for cutting thick wall tubing, pipe, copper, brass, channel and angle iron. The 14 pitch is used on machine steel and cold rolled steel.
FIGURE 16 HACKSAWS: A) ADJUSTABLE FRAME; B) SOLID FRAME
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Always insert the blade in the frame with the teeth pointing away from the handle. Tighten with just enough tension to hold the blade rigid between the frame pins. Take full strokes when cutting, standing with the left foot slightly forward. Inasmuch as the teeth point away from the handle, it should be remembered that the pressure should be applied on the forward stroke. No pressure should be exerted on the backstroke. Cut at about 40 or 50 strokes per minute. Most trouble in hacksawing is caused by too fast cutting speed. For cutting long narrow strips of metal the blade should be placed at right angles to the frame. CHISELS - Cold chisels are tools used for chipping or cutting cold metal. They are classified according to the shape of their point, the most common being flat, cape, diamond and round nose, Figure 17. The size of the flat cold chisel is determined by the width of the cutting edge. Chisels are usually made of octagonal tool steel bar stock, carefully hardened and tempered. Note that the cutting edge is slightly convex. This prevents the weak corners from chipping. Cape chisels are used for cutting keyways where square corners on the slot are necessary. Round nose chisels are usually used for cutting oil grooves in bearings. The diamond point chisel is used for cutting V groves and inside sharp angles.
FIGURE 17 COLD CHISELS: A) FLAT CHISEL AN POINT ANGLE; B) CAPE CHISEL; C) DIAMOND POINT; D) ROUND NOSE; E) RIGHT AND WRONG HEAD
QMED
When chipping steel, lubricate the chisel point with light machine oil. This makes the chisel easier to drive. Dont use oil on cast iron. Always use goggles when chipping. Keep the handle and hammer handle dry and clean to prevent slipping. Do not let the chisel heads become mushroomed as this leads to flying chips and possible injury. Figure 17E. HOW TO SHARPEN CHISELS - Sharpening stones are divided into two groups, natural and artificial. Some of the natural stones are oil treated during and after the manufacturing processes. The stones that are oil treated are sometimes called oil stones. Artificial stones are normally made of silicone carbide or aluminum oxide. Natural stones have very fine grains and are excellent for putting razor-like edges on fine cutting tools. Most sharpening stones have one coarse and one fine face. Some of these stones are mounted, and the working face of some of the sharpening stones is a combination of coarse and fine grains. Stones are available in a variety of shapes. To sharpen a chisel with a sharpening stone, use a common oilstone that has coarse grit on one side and fine grit on the other. Make sure the stone is firmly held so that it cannot move. Cover the stone with light machine oil so that the fine particles of the steel ground off will float and thus prevent the stone from clogging. Hold the chisel in one hand with the bevel flat against the coarse side of the stone. Use the fingers of your other hand to steady the chisel and hold it down against the stone. Using a smooth even stroke, rub the chisel back and forth parallel to the surface of the stone. The entire surface of the stone should be used to avoid wearing a hollow in the center of the stone. Do not rock the blade. The angle of the blade with the stone must remain constant during the whetting process. After a few strokes, a burr, wire edge, or featheredge is produced. To remove the burr, first take a few strokes with the flat side of the chisel held flat on the fine grit side of the stone. Be careful not to raise the chisel even slightly; avoid putting the slightest bevel on the flat side; for then the chisel must be ground until the bevel is removed. After whetting the flat side on the fine grit side of the stone, turn the chisel over and place the bevel side down and hold it at the same angle as used when whetting on the coarse side of the stone. Take two or three light strokes to remove the burr. To test the sharpness of the cutting edge, hold the chisel where a good light will shine on the cutting edge. A keen edge does not reflect light in any position. If there are no shiny or white spots it is a good edge. REAMERS - Reamers are used in precision work to smooth and enlarge holes to exact size. The hole is usually drilled .003 to .007 inch undersize. Two common types of reamers are shown in Figure 18. The most practical is the expansion reamer, Figure 19. Reamers come in sets, each one increasing in diameter by 1/32. Taper reams are used to smooth and true taper holes for tapered pins.
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FIGURE 18 HAND REAMERS: A) SOLID STRAIGHT FLUTE; B) SOLID SPIRAL FLUTE
FIGURE 19 EXPANSION REAMER CUTTING PIPE - Pipe is usually cut with a hand hacksaw, a power hacksaw, or a pipe cutter. The pipe cutter is probably the most popular, inasmuch as most ships do not carry hacksaws. The pipe cutter has special alloy steel cutting wheels. These are adjusted and tightened by turning the handle. The whole tool, Figure 20 is revolved around the pipe.
FIGURE 20 USING A PIPE CUTTER
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The operation of the pipe cutter leaves a shoulder on the outside of the pipe and a burr or ragged edge on the inside. This ragged edge will catch dirt and other solid matter and must be removed. This is done with a pipe reamer as shown in Figure 21.
FIGURE 21 USING A REAMER THREADING PIPE - Pipe fitters have tapered threads and special dies are required to cut this taper. The taper allows for tightening up the fittings to make them leak-proof. There are a number of different types of pipe dies. One consists of a stock onto which various sized dies may be inserted. Another type consists of a large stock into which a set of four cutters is inserted, Figure 22. In this type the front piece is threaded into the larger back head. It is necessary to back out this front piece before cutting a thread. As the thread is cut, this front piece turns (screws) into the back piece, which is secured rigidly to the pipe with set or thumb screws. Be particularly careful that these two sections do not come together and jam.
FIGURE 22 PIPE THREADING STOCK AND FOUR-PIECE DIES.
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A popular type for smaller size pipe is the ratchet stock shown in Figure 23. A number of different dies come with the set and may be inserted and held in place by a pawl or pin, as shown. It will be noted that the part of the diestock that goes over the pipe first is recessed. This is for the insertion of the collar, which acts as a guide and holds the whole assembly in line with the pipe.
FIGURE 23 RATCHET TYPE PIPE THREADING STOCK AND DIES The general threading procedure should be the same as with the bolt dies, i.e., a half turn forward (clockwise), a quarter turn backward, and a half turn forward, etc. This helps to break off the chip that has just been cut and prevents it from being carried ahead and possible ruining the next thread. Pipe shops doing a large volume of pipe threading usually cut pipe with electric motor driven dies. Lubricate dies the same as when cutting bolt threads this is very important. PIPE CUTTER - The operation of pipe cutting leaves a shoulder on the outside of the end of the pipe and a burr in the inside. Always remove the burn. If the burr on the inside is not removed, the ragged edges will catch dirt and other solid matter and will block the flow. A pipe reamer, Figure 24 is use for this purpose.
FIGURE 24 PIPE REAMER
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CHAIN PIPE WRENCHES - Also known as chain tongs, these wrenches are of the chain strap and lever type. Two examples are shown in Figure 25. They are generally designed for use on large diameter piping, although they are also made in sizes suitable for handling small pipe. When using this type of wrench, the best gripping position is midway on the jaw teeth. The wrench is also designed so that the handle will bend under heavy load before the chain will break. The bending of the handle should therefore be taken as a warning that maximum load has been applied.
FIGURE 25 CHAIN PIPE WRENCHES BELT (HOLE) PUNCH - Figure 26 shows a hole or belt punch. It is used for cutting the bolt holes in gasket materials or in leather belting.
FIGURE 26 BELT (HOLE) PUNCH
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GASKET CUTTER - There are number of ways to cut gaskets. Two gasket cutters that can be made on board ship are shown in Figure 27. They are not too difficult to make and are usually worth the trouble and effort because they can be used for years. Hacksaw blades sharpened on one side make good cutters.
FIGURE 27 GASKET CUTTERS CUTTING AND FLARING TOOL - The small tubing generally used for refrigeration lines and similar purposes can be cut with the tubing cutter, shown in Figure 28. The use of the cutter is similar to the use of the pipe cutter on a much smaller scale. A reamer for removing the burr left inside the tubing is attached to the tool. It is important that the tubing be cut off at right angles to its length, especially if it is to be flared. If a flare fitting is to be used, the flaring tool shown in Figure 29 is used. The purpose of this flaring tool is to expand the end of the tubing so that it will fit into the expansion fittings frequently used as tubing connections. Always be sure the fitting is placed on the tubing before using the flaring tool. The tool clamps on the end of the tubing, and a tapered plug turned into the end of the tubing forms the flare.
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FIGURE 28 TUBING CUTTER
FIGURE 29 FLARING TOOL CLAMPS - When a vise is not available a clamp can be used to hold pieces of material together while they are being worked on. Clamps if this type are shown in Figure 30. A different kind of clamp is often used to make a temporary fastening in the engine room when it is desired to lift or take a strain on some object. To do so, the clamp is securely fastened to a convenient beam, as shown in Figure 31 and a line or small hoist is then suspended from the clamp.
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FIGURE 30 SCREW CLAMPS
FIGURE 31 BEAM CLAMPS
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PACKING TOOLS - Packing tools (hooks) are used to remove sort packing from packing glands of valves and pumps, Figure 32. The straight type is used for prying. The corkscrew type can be twisted into the packing to get a secure grip. The flexible type is probably the handiest of them all, inasmuch as the body or shank is made of a number of strands of wire that makes it very flexible. It can be maneuvered into places, which would be impossible to enter with the straight or corkscrew type.
FIGURE 32 PACKING TOOLS SCRAPERS - Scrapers are made in many forms, the type to be used depending on the particular job to be done. Several commonly used types are shown in Figure 38 (top view. Flat scrapers should be used for scraping or removing high spots from flat surfaces only; bearing scrapers are used for truing up bearing surfaces; and the 3-cornered scraper is commonly used for removing burrs or sharp internal edges from soft bushings, etc. To scrape a flat surface, select a flat scraper with the length and width suitable to the work. Use a fairly light pressure to hold the scraper against the work, although the harder the material being scraped the more pressure required. The proper way to hold a flat scraper is shown in Figure (bottom view). If there are holes in the work, avoid pushing the scraper across them; instead, work around their sides. When scraping near the edge of a piece, scrape toward the edge, or at an angle to it. Do not scrap parallel to it. It is often necessary aboard ship to refit a bearing. This operation must be done very carefully, as the metal of the bearing must be shaped so as to fit its pin or journal with the correct clearance and without high spots. When it is believed that a bearing needs refitting, the bearing bolts are loosened and the bearing halves removed, the exact procedure depending on the construction. The bearing metal is examined and if burnished or discolored spots are present, showing contact and heating of the bearing metal, these spots must be removed.
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FIGURE 33 SCRAPERS Each bearing half is also tested by applying a thin coat of Prussian blue on the shaft and then placing the bearing half on the shaft and rotating it back and forth several times. When the bearing is removed from the shaft, the spots of blue on the bearing metal indicate areas of contact. These high spots are removed by the process known as scraping in, which means that a bearing scraper is used to scrape off the contacting areas, the bearing retested and scraped in until uniform distribution of the blue spots indicates that the bearing bears evenly over the desired surface.
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Since the scraping of a bearing usually involves the removal of a comparatively small quantity of soft bearing metal, and the cutting edges of the scraper are ground to a keen edge, only a light scraping pressure is needed. If too much pressure is applied, not only will too much metal be removed, but also in addition, the scraper will tend to chatter and leave a rough uneven surface. When scraping a bearing the handle of the scraper is held firmly with one hand and the blade of the scraper is carefully guided with the other hand. The scraper can be pushed or pulled toward the workman, depending on the location of the high spot, the position in which the bearing is held or where the workman is standing in relation to the bearing. When scraping, however, always scrape in a crosswise direction, following the curve of the metal. Do not scrape lengthwise. Also be careful not to gouge or chip excess metal when scraping at the edges of oil grooves or other openings. In general, as explained previously, it is best to remove only a small amount of metal and then recheck the location of the high spots before continuing with the scraping. Usually, the work is not considered complete until the blue spots are distributed over a combined area equivalent to about 75% if the total bearing surface. Remember that scraping increases the running clearance of the bearing. If too much is removed, the clearance will be increased above the amount desired and this will necessitate the removal of shims to reduce clearance. Removal of shims might possibly create a new series of high spots and the fitting and scraping would have to be repeated. SURFACE PLATE - A surface plate is a flat topped steel or cast iron plate that is heavily ribbed and reinforced on the under side, as shown in Figure 34. Its top surface is precision ground to form a true flat surface and this surface is a base used as a base for making layouts with precision tools, such as the surface gauge.
FIGURE 34 SURFACE PLATE The surface plate can also be used for testing machine and engine parts that are required that are required to have flat surfaces. To do this, a thin film of Prussian blue of some other color pigment is spread evenly over the surface plate. The surface of the part to be tested is then rubbed on the surface plate. The color pigment will adhere to the high spots of the part and indicate the areas to be scraped off. After scraping the high spots, the part is tested again the surface plate and the procedure continued until the color distributes evenly over the tested surface, indicating that the job is completed.
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2.. 2
BASIC PIPEFITTING TOOLS BASIC PIPEFITTING TOOLS
RULE Rules are simply used to measure lengths. There are many types of rules used in pipefitting applications, including folding metal or wooden rules, rigid or soft tape measures, etc. These rules are generally divided into graduations of 1/16 increments, with lengths up to 100 feet. FILES- Files are mainly used to bevel or prepare the end of the pipe for threading operations. They are also used to remove small amounts of metal. Files come in many different forms, including coarse and fine grades, and in shapes ranging from flat to round. When using files, be sure to clean the file before use, check the integrity of the handle, and wear eye protection. VISES The majority of piping work will take place in a vise, which holds piping securely while threading. A pipe vise has a specially designed set of jaws that will hold a round object perfectly tight, whereas a machinists vise has flat jaws, and is used to hold other object shapes properly. Pipe vises use either jaws or a chain to hold the work, and are mounted either on a bench or a freestanding tripod stand. Vises come in many different sizes, ranging up to 8-inch diameters. PIPE CUTTERS Pipe cutters are tools that have a hardened steel blade wheel (or wheels) that sever a pipe or a tube by applying pressure on the blade while rotating the cutter until the cut is completed. Always avoid putting excess pressure on the cutting wheel by turning the handle only 1/2 to 3/4 turns per 2 rotations. Excess pressure on the cutting wheel will cause uneven cuts and broken blades. PIPE REAMERS Pipe reamers are tapered steel blades that will remove the restriction left inside the pipe from the use of the pipe cutter. Proper pipefitting techniques require the use of the reamer to remove the internal restriction before threading to avoid weakening the threaded end of the pipe. NIPPLE CHUCK- Nipple chucks are extension devices that allow the threading of short lengths of pipe into pipe nipples when using some types of threading tools. THREADING TOOLS Threading tools are devices that enable a thread to be cut into the outer surface of a pipe by friction metal removal and shaping the metal into a pattern that will provide a tight, leak proof method of joining pipe into systems. There are many types, of threading tools used, both manually and electrically powered. Three of the most common manual threading tools used for threading pipe aboard ship are: a. Adjustable Die - The adjustable dies placed in this type of thread tool allow for easy repair of damaged pipe threads, as well as the normal threading of pipe. Components of this thread tool include the dies, the die holder (head), the bearing collar, which holds the pipe more or less straight, and the handle. This tool may or may not be ratchet operated. b. Solid Block Die - The most common type of thread tool used due to the simplicity and lower cost. Components include a one-piece die, the die holder (head), and the handle. Usually
QMED
ratchet operated, this thread tool is the easiest to use to thread most common smaller pipe sizes. c. Toledo Probably the most complicated and expensive thread tool used to thread pipe. Usually limited as to the sizes of pipe it can thread, it is heavy and fragile. Components include the dies (four individual dies), the head, which has a vise built into the rear of the head to keep the pipe aligned, and the handle. This tool is ratchet operated, and provides the most accurate and precise threads. It is good practice to lubricate the dies when threading to prevent premature wear of the cutting edges. Worn dies will cause poor and less than leak proof threads. Eye protection should always be used whenever using any threading tool.
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26
11/3/2006
BASIC PIPEFITTING
BASIC VALVES
3.. 3
PIPING AND TUBING PIPING AND TUBING
Piping and tubing are commonly used to contain pressurized fluids and gasses used to operate machinery and utilities. The major difference between piping and tubing is the wall, or material thickness. Pipe is usually thicker (larger wall) than tubing. Depending on the material type and thickness, pipe generally holds higher pressures than tube, although some tubing may withstand up to 6000 psi hydraulic pressure with a wall thickness of less than 0.125 inch. SOME MATERIALS USED IN PIPE AND TUBING SYSTEMS INCLUDE: a. PVC Or Plastics- Low range pressures and temperatures, depending on the type. One drawback with the use of plastics is that at sub-freezing temperatures, plastic may become brittle, and at elevated temperatures, plastic may soften. Most commonly used in water and drain lines, and where acid may cause corrosion problems. b. Mild Steel- Medium to high pressure and temperature. Excellent ductility and strength, low in cost and available throughout the world. c. Cast Iron- Not commonly used for any application but underground drainage lines. Brittle and hard to work with, cast iron is susceptible to failure under rapid temperature changes. Once cast iron begins to rust, further corrosion rarely causes failure due to its carbon content. d. Stainless Steel- A chromium-nickel alloy of steel, stainless is generally corrosion resistant and extremely strong, lighter than carbon steels. Hard to work and expensive to purchase makes this a rarely used marine piping material. e. Bronze (Brass)- Mainly used on salt watercooling lines due to its corrosion resistance. It is fairly soft and ductile, making it easy to work with. f. Copper- Extremely soft and ductile, easy to work with, and not as expensive as bronze or brass. Mainly used for water and compressed air lines. g. Galvanized Steel- Mild steel coated with zinc. Galvanized steel is fairly corrosion resistant, but hazardous to the health of workers and users. As the zinc coating is only a couple of thousandths of an inch in thickness, as soon as the coating is removed, (as in threading) the galvanized steel is prone to corrosion. Pipe is generally measured by its internal diameter (standard wall thickness sizes). Pipe is sold in three basic types of thickness or schedules: schedule 40 (standard), schedule 80, and schedule 120. Schedule 80 and 120 pipe is generally used to hold extremely high pressures, due to the increased wall thickness. Schedule 8O and 120 piping is measured by its outside diameter, compared to schedule 40 outer diameter (see table 1 for size comparison). Piping runs in size from the smallest size, 1/8-inch diameter, to sizes over 4 feet in diameter. Tubing is generally measured by its outside diameter, and generally has a wall thickness of 1/8 inch or less, regardless of the material composition.
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27
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BASIC PIPEFITTING
BASIC VALVES
4.. 4
METHODS OF JOINING PIPING AND TUBING METHODS OF JOINING PIPING AND TUBING
JOINING Piping may be joined with a variety of methods. The joining method chosen may depend upon such factors as cost, tools available, system parameters, location and skill of the work force. The more common joining methods include: a. Threading The most common method of joining pipe ranging in size from 1/8 inch to 2 inch diameters. The main advantage if threading piping systems is the ability to replace sections or individual parts of those systems at a low cost without extensive labor or time. Threading is especially useful in hazardous locations (sparks and fumes may be a safety hazard) b. Welding - Welding is the most common method of joining larger diameter piping (usually larger than 2 inch diameter). Welding is a rapid and low cost joining method, but requires a large amount of skill to effectively join pipe. In some cases, welding requires expensive equipment and cannot be performed in or near flammable or explosive areas. c. Mechanical Connections A number of mechanical connections are now used to join pipe. Usually, a specially machined pipe end and special equipment are needed to join pipe with this method. Most tube is generally joined this way. Mechanical connections are relatively simple to use, and may be pre-fabricated in the shop and assembled in the field. d. Flanges Flanges are simply round plates with a provision for bolts to join flanged sections of pipe together. Flanges may be wither welded or threaded to a pipe end and can be connected to a mating flange, allowing for rapid assembly of pipe sections. Flanges are generally manufactured from the same material a pipe is made from. Gaskets or a sealing material is required to form a tight, leak proof seal between flanges during assembly. e. Soldering Mainly used to join small diameter copper tubing used in low-pressure water and airlines.
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28
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BASIC PIPEFITTING
PACKING AND GASKET MATERIALS
5.. 5
PACKING AND GASKET MATERIAL PACKING AND GASKET MATERIAL
Many different materials are used for packing and gaskets, used to seal and join piping systems and valves. Some factors to consider in choosing a material for packing and gaskets include pressure and temperature ratings, cost, toxicity, availability, and the nature of material or substance transported. PACKING Packing is used to prevent a liquid or gas from escaping from the valve stem. Some materials used in valve packing and their advantages and limitations include: Graphite Asbestos - High pressure/temperature steam: valves. Asbestos in flake form is a hazardous material. Teflon - Low to medium pressure/ temperature applications. Safe and simple to use, most common packing material used due to its cost and ability to be used almost everywhere. Rubber/Neoprene - Low pressure/temperature liquids. Rubber used on water and air lines, neoprene used on petroleum products. Waxed Rope - Low pressure/temperature liquids. Synthetic Materials - (Kevlar, Zetex, Gore-Tex) expensive, able to be used almost every-where, safe, simple to work with. Valve packing or repacking in itself is a very simple operation. A basic description of valve packing is outlined below. a. Secure inlet and outlet valves closest to the valve to be packed. Drain valve and attached line before removing any valve parts. Lock out/Tag out secured inlet/outlet valves. b. Remove valve operating wheel and packing gland nut/washer to expose existing packing. Using a packing puller or hand fashioned tool, remove all old packing material inside gland. c. Determine packing type to be used. Measure the packing length and size by wrapping packing around valve stem; cut length exact and straight, and place rings into the packing gland staggering the cut ends at 180-degree intervals. This should ensure a leak free seal. Cut enough rings to fill the packing gland except for the top 1/4-inch. d. Replace the washer and packing gland nut, and tighten the nut slightly snug. Remove lock out/tag out equipment, open outlet valve fully, and then slowly open the inlet valve. If the packing gland leaks slightly, tighten the packing gland nut slowly until leakage stops. Add another ring of packing if necessary to leave room for further tightening in the future. GASKETS Gaskets are used to provide a leak free joint in a pressurized system. This may include a piping system as well as a tank cover, pump flanges, etc. Materials used for gaskets share similar selection factors with valve packing materials. Materials used for gaskets include the same materials used for valve packing applications, plus: Lead - Low to medium pressure/ temperature, gas and liquid. Copper - Medium pressure/ temperature, stronger than lead. Teflon Coated Asbestos - Ideal for medium to high-pressure steam systems. High pressure/temperature systems use a wire-reinforced gasket.
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29
11/3/2006
BASIC PIPEFITTING
PACKING AND GASKET MATERIALS
Gaskets can be either hand fabricated or manufactured by a number of suppliers. Hand fabricated gaskets can easily be made with a special gasket making set, or can be traced by using the flange or a similar flange as a template, tracing the shape, and cutting the gasket out with shears. Holes for the bolts can be cut with a hole-punch. When installing the gasket, be sure it is aligned in the flange, and tighten the bolts in a cross pattern using even torque to avoid leakage.
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30
11/3/2006
QMED
7.. 7
PIPEFITTINGS PIPEFITTINGS
The purpose of pipefittings used in piping systems is to join pipes into a system at various angles and configurations, with a minimal amount of time and materials. Pipes and valves can be fabricated to perform many different functions- branch lines, drain lines from main pipe sections, alterations or additions to existing systems, and many other uses as they are needed. Pipefittings come in all sizes and configurations, and can be found in all common materials used in piping and valves. Pipefittings are usually bought from suppliers, but special pipefittings can be made with knowledge of welding and machining processes. Some of the more common pipefittings include: Union - A fitting used to join closed piping systems or used to join parts of a piping system that need to be occasionally removed for maintenance or repair. Tee - A fitting used to join a pipe or piping system at a 90-degree angle to another pipe or piping system (usually a horizontal pipe run). Elbow - A fitting, either a 90 or 45-degree angle bend, that allows pipes to go around obstructions such as other piping, machinery, or walls. Coupling A fitting used to join pipe lengths together in a straight line. Bushing - A fitting used to join internal threads (other fittings or valves) to external threads (pipe threads). Cap - An internally threaded fitting used to seal off external pipe threads. Plug - An externally threaded fitting used to seal off internal threads (valves, other fittings).
Fittings can be of the same size, or of different sizes than the pipe or valves being joined. For example, if a job required the joining of a 2-inch pipe to a 1-inch pipe, a 2-inch by 1 inch reducing coupling would be used. Another example of a specialty fitting would be the requirement of joining a 1 1/2 inch valve into a 1-inch piping system. In this case, a 1 inch by 1 inch bushing would be used. One other example of the versatility of fittings is the tee fitting that can join three different sizes of pipe, one size at each opening. Other special fitting types include fittings to join tubing into piping systems (either compression or flare types), street elbows (elbows that have the same thread size on each end, but one thread is external, the other thread internal), and fittings such as reducing elbows, union elbows, and thread-solder fittings. The Figures below show many different fitting types
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31
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PIPE FITTINGS RETURN BENDS
PIPE FITTINGS CROSSES
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PIPE FITTINGS ELBOWS
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33
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PIPE FITTINGS TEES
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34
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PIPE FITTINGS REDUCERS
PIPE FITTINGS COUPLINGS
PIPE FITTINGS CAPS AND PLUGS
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35
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PIPE FITTINGS BUSHING
TEES PIPE FITTINGS SUPPORTS
PIPE FITTINGS NIPPLES
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36
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PIPE FITTINGS UNIONS AND FLANGES
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37
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As discussed in Sections 1 and 2, there are many types of basic hand and pipe fitting tools used for a variety of applications. However, in the normal course of maintenance and repair, a pipefitter must learn to select and use many other tools that will a job to be performed efficiently and properly. Some of more common specialty tools used in pipefitting include: Greenlee Knock -Out punch- a hole-cutting device, either powered mechanically or hydraulically, that cuts holes through metal plates for pipe to pass through. E-Z Outs - A set of tapered, spiral flutes cut in the reverse direction of a drill bit that will penetrate and grab broken bolts and drill bits inside machinery. C-Clamps - Devices that allow the holding of objects securely while drilling and other work is performed on both small and large objects. Tubing Bender - A tool used to bend soft copper and tubing in exact, precise angles. Internal Pipe Wrench- A tool commonly used to remove broken pipe and nipples from the inside of a valve or a fitting. Taps And Dies - Cutting tools used to both repair damaged threads and make new threads on nuts, bolts, round rods, etc. Spud Wrench - A wrench that has an open end wrench on one side, and a tapered end on the other side, used to align flanges. Strap And Chain Wrenches - Tools used to tighten or loosen odd shaped objects or soft material piping. Strap wrenches have a nylon or soft material band that is tightened around the object to be tightened or loosened; Chain wrenches use a steel chain instead of the soft strap to tighten or loosen an object. Scrapers - Tools used to clean surfaces of rust and hardened gasket material. Calipers- Measurement tools used to measure inside and outside dimensions, especially on hard to measure (round, oblong) objects where rulers may give inaccurate readings. Retrieving Tools - Used to pick up or grab small parts that may have fallen into inaccessible places. Can be of either or magnetic type. There are also many electrical or air powered tools used in pipefitting repair or fabricating jobs, including power hacksaws, grinders, chipping or hammer guns, and a variety of special tools that will be found both aboard ship and in a repair facility.
8.. 8
SPECIALTY TOOLS SPECIALTY TOOLS
1.. 1
PIPING CALCULATIONS AND FORMULAS PIPING CALCULATIONS AND FORMULAS
HOW TO DETERMINE THE LENGTH OF A PIPE NEEDED TO CONNECT TWO FITTINGS AT SOME GIVEN DISTANCE. The distance that a piece of pipe should screw into a fitting is fairly well standardized. The distance differs according to the size of the pipe being used. The table below gives the normal thread engagement into a fitting.
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38
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QMED
Dimensions in inches
Nominal Pipe Size 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 E Length Effective Thread 0.2638 0.4018 0.4078 0.5337 0.5457 0.6828 0.7068 0.7235 0.7565 1.1375 1.2000 1.2500 1.3000 F of Normal Engagement by Hand between Male and Female Number of Thread Threads Per Inch 0.180 0.200 0.240 0.320 0.339 0.400 0.420 0.420 0.436 0.682 0.766, 0.821 0.844 27 18 is 14 14 11 11 % 11 11 8 8 8 8
AMERICAN STANDARD PIPE THREADS To find the end to end measurement of a pipe EXAMPLE :Center to center measurement = 12 inches Subtract the distance from the face of the elbow to the center of the elbow. (2 inches for both).
12 - 4 = 7 inches
Add normal thread engagement of both threads. (1 inches) -
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39
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QMED
7 + 1 = 9 inches end to end
FIGURE 1 END TO END PIPE CALCULATIONS INSTALLATION OF A FITTING IN A FIXED PIPELINE - One problem a pipefitter may face is installing a new fitting in an existing pipe system or in a line where no fitting has been provided. To install a fitting in a line where there is no existing fitting a section of the main line must be cut to install the necessary fittings.
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40
11/3/2006
QMED
FIGURE 2 INSTALLING A NEW FITTING ON AN EXISTING SYSTEM Technique 1. Determine the center of the tee on the main line. 2. Make up the tee, nipple, and the union. 3. Subtract normal thread engagement from the face to center of the tee, and mark the main line where the pipe is to be cut. (B) 4. Take the measurement (A), and mark the point on the main line. (C) 5. Cut the pipe with a hacksaw or pipecutter at points B and C. Thread pipe with pipe threading tool. 6. Make up the tee, nipple, and one-half of the union at B. Tighten the other half of the union at C. Tighten the union, and the job is complete. FABRICATION OF A 45 DEGREE OFFSET AROUND A CIRCULAR OBJECT. Formula: D= 4142 (B+C) A=B+C D=A x 0.4142 A = distance f ram the center of the tank to center of the pipe B= distance from side of tank to center of the pipe C= of the tank diameter D = distance from the center line of the tank to the starting point of the offset
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41
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QMED EXAMPLE: Find D if C is 18 inches and B is 8 inches A= B+C 8+18=26 inches D= A x 0.4142 26 x 0.4142 = 10.75 inches
Therefore, the center of the 45-degree fitting is 10.75 inches from the center line of the tank. Note: To find G (end to end pipe length), add A + E -F x 1.414
FIGURE 3 PIPING CALCULATIONS DETERMINE THE LENGTH OF PIPE FOR FABRICATING AN OFFSET BETWEEN GIVEN POINTS - An offset in a pipe system is usually made to get around, under, or over obstacles of various types. The constant, 1.41, is used to measure a 45-degree offset. METHOD: (a) Multiply the offset distance (in the example, 12"), by the constant (1.41), 12 x 1.41 = 16.92 inches (rounded off, 17 inches) (b) Add the face to center measurements of both 45-degree elbows. 1 11/16 + 1 11/16 = 3 3/8 inches
QMED (c) (d) Subtract (b) from (a). 17 - 3 3/8 = 13 5/8 inches Add the normal thread engagement of both threads. (From standard pipefitting reference tables) 3/4 + 3/4 = 1 1/2 inches Add (c) to (d). 13 5/8 + 1 1/2 = 15 1/8 inches offset length
(e)
FIGURE 4 DETERMING LENGTH OF PIPE 5. DETERMINING PIPE BENDS - Using the formula below, L is the bend length, R is the radius of the bend, and D is the degree of the bend angle. If the entire length of a pipe is to be included, the length of the tangents must be added to the length of the bend. The symbol for the tangent is T. Formula: L = R x D x 0.01745 EXAMPLE: Find the length of a pipe for a 90-degree bend with a radius of 40 inches, with two 15-inch tangents. Length of bend = 40 x 90 x 0.01745 = 62.82 inches Length of pipe = 62.82 + 2T = 62.82 + 30 = 92.82 inches end to end
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43
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FIGURE 5 DETERMING PIPE BENDS
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1.. WELDING CUTTING AND BRAZING 1 WELDING CUTTING AND BRAZING

EQUIPMENT Oxygen Cylinders - Oxygen cylinders are constructed of alloy steel and are formed from a single piece of metal. Generally oxygen cylinders contain 244 cu ft (7.32m3) of oxygen at a maximum filling pressure of 2265 psi (15.6 x 103 kPa), however actual contents will depend on the size of the cylinder. Acetylene cylinders - Acetylene cylinders are constructed of alloy steel but differ from oxygen cylinders. Generally acetylene cylinders have a welded construction ad are filled with a porous substance. The cylinders are back filled with acetone and pressurized with acetylene to about 250 psi (1.7 x 103 = 15600 kPa) holding between 250-300 cu ft. The contents and pressure will vary with the size of the cylinder.
FIGURE 1 CYLINDERS Manifolds - Two or more cylinders may be manifolded together. Regulators - Pressure regulators are required to reduce cylinder gas pressure to required working pressure.
Regulators for oxygen cylinders have right-hand screw thread. Regulators for acetylene cylinders have left-hand screw thread, except for CGA 310 fittings that are right-hand screw threads.
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45
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QMED
FIGURE 2 PRESSURE REGULATORS Outlet Or Welding Pressure Gauges - For oxygen, outlet or welding pressure gauges should read up to 100 psi (690 kPa) for outlet pressure. For acetylene, outlet or welding pressure gauges should read up to 15 psi (103 kPa) for outlet pressures. Cylinder pressure gauges - Pressure gauges can be used to indicate the amount of oxygen pressure in the cylinder. Gauges used for this purpose should have a dial reading of not less than 3000 psi (20.7 x 103 kPa). Tips - Tips of torches used for welding may be gooseneck extensions that fit into the mixer portion of the torch or tips that screw on to the head of the torch
FIGURE 3 WELDING TORCHES
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Hoses - Hoses for oxygen are green and have right-hand threaded connections. Hoses for acetylene and most other combustible gases are red and have left-hand threaded connections.
FIGURE 4 HOSE PROTECTING DEVICE Safety-Check Valves - Safety check valves may be installed at either or both ends of the hoses. They are more reliable when attached to the regulator end of the hose, but do not prevent backflow of gases within the hose prior to that point. They are intended to eliminate conditions of flashback and backfire by preventing the fuel and oxygen from mixing within the lines. However, their use should not encourage carelessness on the operators part as they are not foolproof. Torches - High-pressure or equal-pressure torches for use with acetylene are of the mixer pattern. Both gases must be supplied to the torches at pressures appropriate for the torch tip in use.
Note: Inspect welding tip 'O' Rings to ensure their position and condition before installing the welding tip to the torch body.
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47
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FIGURE 5 TORCHES
FIGURE 6
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QMED ASSEMBLY OF EQUIPMENT
SAFETY Do not use any oil, grease, or oil-based substance to aid the assembly of equipment. It may cause an explosion. Connections To Cylinders - Gas supply may be either from separate cylinders secured to a rack, workbench, or mobile trolley or piped to the welding station from an evaporator or cylinders linked by manifolds. Note: Copper pipe must never be used for acetylene installations. At the welding station (or at the cylinders), the high-pressure gases are passed through regulators to reduce to correct working pressure not to exceed 200 psi. Usually these regulators are screwed into the cylinder outlet valves. Regulators may be fitted with gauges on the high-pressure side to indicate cylinder gas pressure and on the low-pressure side to indicate the gas-flow pressure.
FIGURE 7
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FIGURE 8
FIGURE 9
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Note: All threaded connections conform to the rule: 1. Right-hand screw thread for oxygen (green hose) and for other noncombustible gases (black hose). 2. Left-hand screw thread for acetylene and other combustible gases (red hose). The nuts on oxygen and other noncombustible gas connectors are plain hexagons. The nuts on acetylene and other combustible gas connector are chamfered and/or grooved to indicate left-hand threading. Connecting regulators - Before screwing the regulator into the outlet valve pocket, make sure that the socket is clean, dry, and free from dust. This is done by "cracking" the cylinder valve to allow the gas to discharge and blow the dust and foreign material from the valve socket. Oxygen regulator burnouts almost always occur when a regulator is attached to a cylinder and the valve is opened for the first time after the connection is made. Screw regulator into valve socket until gently seated, then a sharp blow with the hand on the wrench will ensure gas-tight seating. Back-off regulator adjusting screws to relieve pressure on the regulator diaphragm.
FIGURE 10 / FIGURE 11 CONNECTING REGULATORS Connecting Hoses - Attach hoses to the regulators, ensuring that a reverse flow device is fitted at the torch or regulator end of the hose. Tighten all nuts, using only the correct size wrench. When attaching new hoses to regulators, purge dust or any foreign materials from inside the hose by turning gas pressure on momentarily. Note: This should be done before fitting safety check valves.
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51
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QMED
Connecting Torch - Using correct size wrench, screw hose connectors to the torch after fitting hose protecting device. Fit welding tip to torch; do not strain by over tightening. Tip sizes and gas pressures appropriate to the tip sizes are quoted by equipment manufacturers to suit thickness and type of material being welded.
FIGURE 12 CONNECTING HOSES FILLER ROD Handling And Storage 1. Handle filler rods with care 2. Store under clean, dry conditions to prevent deterioration 3. Do NOT mix different types of filler rod. Ensure that packages and their labels make for easy and correct selection. 4. Where it is not practicable to store filler rods under heated conditions, an absorbent (such silica gel) for moisture may be used in the storage area. SAFETY
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52
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1. Always place a hot filler rod where it cannot be accidentally touched or handled 2. Always position the filler rod to avoid personal injury while welding bend filler rod end to prevent injury to eyes and to facilitate identification of the hot end 3. Take care to avoid fire hazards by keeping hot filler rods away from combustible materials
FIGURE 13 STORE FILLER RODS IN CLEAN DRY CONDITION Selection Of Correct Filler Rod (1) Ensure the composition of the filler rod is suitable to weld the parent metal (refer to AWS A.2 69). (2) The filler rod diameters to be used depend upon the thickness to be welded and the welding position. (3) Select a filler rod of: a. Suitable composition b. Correct diameter Economy In Use To ensure economy in use of filler rods, join the short ends to a new length of filler rod. Preparing The Filler Rod For Use (1) Ensure the rod is free from contamination, such as rust, scale, oil, grease and moisture.
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53
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QMED (2)
Ensure the rod is reasonably straight to assist manipulation during welding
PRESSURIZING SYSTEM (1) Close the torch valves and back the pressure adjusting screw out on each regulator. (2) Turn on the gases opening the fuel cylinder no more than 1 turns. (3) Dealing with one gas at a time a. Open the torch valve. b. Set the working pressure by turning the adjusting screw. c. Allow gas to flow so that the hose is purged of any other gas. d. Close the torch valve. (4) The system is then pressurized and purged LEAK TESTING - At this stage carefully check the system for leaks. Use a small soft hairbrush and apply a soap and water solution to all connections. Escaping gases can be detected by sight, sound, and feel (or smell in the case of acetylene). SAFETY When a leak is found, rectify immediately. Even small amounts of acetylene escaping into a confined space can cause a serious explosion.
FIGURE 14 / FIGURE 15 LEAK TESTING
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54
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CLOSING-DOWN PROCEDURE - At the end of the work period or when there is a long interruption, close down the system: a. Turn off the torch control valves, the acetylene valve first and then the oxygen valve to extinguish the flame. b. Close the cylinder valves. c. Release the pressure in the hose by first opening the acetylene valve on the torch. Watch for the working pressure gauge to read zero, then close the valve on the torch. Release the adjusting screw on the regulator. d. Release the pressure in the oxygen hose by the same procedure as above. WELDING FLUX - Welding flux is available in powder or paste form. Welding flux performs a number of functions, for example, it forms a fluid pool and it gives protection against oxidation. It is important to follow the manufacturer's instructions for use. Storage Of Flux (1) Where the flux is in the form of a coating on the filler rod, protect carefully at all times against damage and dampness. (2) Seal flux tin lids when storing, especially for long, periods. Selection Of Flux - The choice of flux to be used will depend upon the type of material to be joined, the accessibility of the joint, and any specific requirements relating to the component to be welded. A flux will be necessary when welding cast iron; copper and copper alloys; aluminum and aluminum alloys; magnesium alloys; and braze welding stainless steel and cast irons. Copper may be welded without a flux in appropriate cases. It is not necessary to use a flux when welding wrought iron and mild steel. Commercial fluxes are readily available, suitably prepared for various metals and welding conditions; but it is important to read the manufacturer's instructions and to ensure that the flux is appropriate for the work concerned. Applying Flux - Introduce the flux to the weld by either: (a) Dipping the heated end of the filler rod into the flux, in a separated container, to obtain a coating. DO NOT DIP THE ROD INTO THE CAN OF FLUX (b) Applying as paste with a suitable brush. IMPORTANT Do not dip the filler rod directly into the flux tin; place supplies of flux in a separate clean container for immediate use.
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55
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FIGURE 16 APPLYING FLUX Flux Residue Removal - Safeguard against corrosive attack and poor weld appearance by removing all flux residues immediately after the welded component is cooled. Methods of removing flux include: (1) Removal by wire brush and scraper. (This method is mainly used on cast iron.) (2) Immersing the weld in hot water and scrubbing vigorously. Alternatively, a mild acid solution can be used, followed by final washing in hot water. (Suitable for aluminum, copper, brass, and stainless steel.) SAFETY Follow the appropriate safety precautions when using acid.
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56
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FIGURE 17 / FIGURE 18 FLUX RESIDUE REMOVAL GASES USED IN WELDING - A number of different fuel gases are used for welding. However, a combination of oxygen and acetylene is the most widely used for industrial processes. It is necessary to understand the nature of these gases in order to use them safely and skillfully. They are valuable; handle them with care. OXYGEN - Oxygen is one of the most common elements on earth. It is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. The air we breathe contains about 20 percent oxygen. It provides a readily available source for commercial production of oxygen. Oxygen is obtained by liquefying air. It is separated from other elements by a form of distillation. The resulting oxygen used for welding is about 99.5 percent pure. At normal conditions, 12.07 cu. ft. of oxygen weighs 1 lb. This means it is just slightly heavier than air. The most important property of oxygen for welding purposes is its ability to support combustion. It will not burn alone, but when combined with most other elements the compound becomes highly flammable. This property makes oxygen one of the most valuable sources of heat for welding. However, it is also a hazard if not handled carefully. Since oxygen supports combustion so quickly, it must NEVER be used like compressed air to blow off dust or dirt from clothing or equipment. It should only be used in welding equipment with proper controls. Oil should never be used around oxygen cylinders, regulators, hoses or torches. An explosion may result. Remember, when oxygen is combined with acetylene, it produces one of the hottest gas flames obtainable-about 6300F (3482C). Figure 19 indicates the value of this high temperature in welding. ACETYLENE - Unlike oxygen, acetylene is a chemical compound composed of equal parts of carbon and hydrogen. It is a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Acetylene is a very
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unstable combustible gas, which can become highly explosive when mixed with oxygen or air. In combustion with oxygen, it can produce one of the hottest flames possible. The dissociation of acetylene under pressure into its component parts releases energy in the form of heat. (Dissociation means breaking up into simpler elements.) It is this property of acetylene gas that makes it so very useful. However, when it is subjected to pressures above 15 lb. per square inch it can cause a violent explosion. ACETYLENE GAS SHOULD NEVER BE COMPRESSED ABOVE 15 PSI IN ITS FREE STATE IN CYLINDERS, PIPES, HOSES, REGULATORS OR TORCHES. Always observe this precaution to prevent accidents
FIGURE 19 - AVERAGE MELTING TEMPERATURES (IN DEG. F) OF COMMON METALS USED IN WELDING COMPARED WITH TEMPERATURES OF FLAME. Bringing calcium carbide into contact with water makes acetylene. The reaction of this contact produces acetylene gas. (This is a commercial process and should not be attempted in the welding shop.) The resulting gas is stored in cylinders ready for shipment to suppliers. Approximately 4 cu. ft. of acetylene gas can be produced from 1 lb. of calcium carbide. ACETYLENE AND OXYGEN CYLINDERS - The discussion of acetylene and oxygen fuel gases for welding shows the need to prepare them carefully for. Before these gases can be used for welding purposes, they must be compressed into containers called cylinders. Since the
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properties of acetylene and oxygen are so different, it is necessary to use different cylinders that will safely handle each fuel gas. Acetylene and oxygen cylinders are built to rigid specifications. Because of the explosive nature of these gases, the cylinders must be strong and durable for storage, transportation and handling. Although these gases are compressed at considerably different pressures, the principle is similar to that of the compressed air in an automobile tire. Overheating, puncture or misuse can release dangerous explosive forces. Always handle fuel gas cylinders property to prevent accidents. Acetylene cylinders are made from welded steel tubes filled with a highly porous material. The filler material acts like a large sponge. It is saturated with liquid acetone. Acetone has the ability to absorb acetylene gas much like cotton absorbs water. The acetylene gas can then be safely compressed at pressures between 200 and 300 psig in the cylinder. (Psig means pounds per square inch gage. This is atmospheric pressure measured by the gage above atmospheric pressure. Hereafter we will refer to it as psi.) If acetylene gas is released from the cylinder at pressures over 15 psi it may separate into its two parts (carbon and hydrogen). This separation, along with increased pressure and temperature, will cause explosion. DO NOT USE ACETYLENE AT PRESSURSE OVER 15 PSI. Construction details of an acetylene cylinder are shown in Figure 20. Filler materials such as balsa wood, charcoal or asbestos are used to absorb the acetone. Low-temperature melting fuse plugs are placed at the top and bottom of each cylinder to allow gas to escape if temperatures over about 212F are encountered. Escaping gas may cause a fire but there will be no explosion. A steel valve is fastened to the top of the cylinder. A special key is used to open and close the valve. The key should always be in place when the cylinder is in use. A typical acetylene cylinder contains about 280 cu. ft. of gas at a pressure of 250 psi. The removable metal cap should always be kept in place when the cylinder is not in use. OXYGEN CYLINDERS -Oxygen cylinders are made from seamless, drawn steel and shaped by dies to the form of a tank as shown in Figure 21. They are produced this way to provide a container with no joints or welded seams. The only opening is a threaded hole at the top where the valve is fitted. Specially designed bronze valves, Figure 22, are used to contain the high pressures in oxygen cylinders. The valve should always be closed when not in use. A threaded safety cap protects the valve when the cylinder is transported or in storage. A typical oxygen cylinder holds about 244 cu. ft. of oxygen at a pressure of 2200 psi at 70 deg. F when it is fully charged. At this pressure range, the oxygen cylinder has the explosive force of a bomb. If it was dropped, bit with a heavy object or the valve knocked off, it could explode and cause heavy damage to a welding shop. Proper handling of an oxygen cylinder is a must to protect persons and property.
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FIGURE 20 DETAILS OF A TYPICAL ACETYLENE CYLINDER
FIGURE 21 A 244 CU. FT. OXYGEN CYLINDER
CYLINDER CARE 1. Always stand to one side of the regulators when the cylinder valve is opened. 2. Fasten oxygen and acetylene cylinders securely in either fixed or portable positions. 3. Never use cylinders as rollers to move a load. 4. Never use a wrench to open oxygen cylinder valves. Use only hand pressure. Acetylene cylinder valves should be opened only with the key supplied. 5. Always handle cylinders in an upright, secure position. 6. Always store oxygen and acetylene cylinders separately at least 20 ft. from each other and any combustible material. 7. Store full cylinders away from empty cylinders. 8. Always fully open the oxygen cylinder valve, when in use, so oxygen cannot leak around the valve stem.
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FIGURE 22 CROSS SECTION OF AN OXYGEN CYLINDER VALVE. PRESSURES AND SI METRIC MEASURE - The metric measure of pressure is given in Pascals. The symbol for Pascals is Pa. In time, Pascals will replace pounds per square inch in pressure gage readings. Pressure per square inch is always expressed in thousand of Pascals (kilopascals). One pound per square in. is equal to 6.8948 kilopascals (kPa). To convert psi to kPa, use this formula: kPa = Number of pounds per square inch x 6.8948 To find the number of kPa in 200 psi: kPa = 200 x 6.8948 kPa = 1378.96 WELDING TORCH TIPS - To make good welds, it is necessary to pick the right size tip. Different metal thicknesses require different amounts of heat to produce a quality weld. The tip size will govern the amount of heat. Tip size is measured by the diameter of the orifice (the hole at the flame end of the tip). The larger the tip size, the greater the gas flow through the orifice. The greater the gas flow the greater the heat produced.
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Remember, the temperature of the welding flame is about 6300F (3315C). This temperature does not change with a change in tip size. Only the amount of heat supplied to the welding area changes. Welding lips are sold in various sizes. They are attached to the mixing chambers on the torch body, Figure 23. Assembled units are also made in which each tip has its own mixing chamber. These are often called "in-tip" mixers. Two are shown in Figures. 50 and 51.
FIGURE 23 - ASSORTMENT OF INDIVIDUAL TIPS
FIGURE 24 TIP ASSEMBLY BEING FASTENED TO THE TORCH BODY
FIGURE 25 - CUTAWAY OF WELDING TIP WITH AN IN-TIP MIXING CHAMBER
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CARE IN USING TIPS - Welding tips are made of copper, which carries away the heat of the flame. Each orifice is accurately machined to standard drill sizes. The orifice should be regularly cleaned to remove deposits of slag and carbon. A tip cleaner of the correct size, should be used so as not to enlarge the orifice. A small mill file can safely be used to smooth the flame end of the tip if it becomes scratched or rough. The welding tip is a delicate instrument and should be handled with care. The following suggestions should help you keep them in good condition: (1) Tighten hand valves with your fingers, not a wrench. (2) Use tips designed for the torch being used. (3) Always use the correct size tip cleaner. (4) Use a torch wrench on the torch nut. Never use pliers (5) Always turn the torch off before you put it down. (6) Do not fit a cold tip to a hot torch. (7) Hang the torch up when not in use so the tip will not be damaged. WELDING TIP SELECTION - To get the correct amount of heat for a particular weld, the right tip should be used. Each manufacturing company has its own system of numbering the orifice size. THERE IS NO STANDARD NUMBERING SYSTEM. The number is stamped on the torch end of the tip. Each manufacturer's number indicates a "drill size." Drill sizes range from No.1 and No. 80. A No. 1 drill measures .228 in. in diameter while a No. 80 drill measures .0135 in. In this text, the drill size is used to indicate the orifice diameter. Specifications from each manufacturer may be obtained to indicate their numbering system. The chart in Fig. 7-5 provides tip size selection for general purpose welding using a medium pressure type torch. Table 2 - COMPARISONS OF WELDING TIP ORIFICE SIZE TO METAL THICKNESS FOR PRACTICE WELDING, ALONG WITH AVERAGE ACETYLENE AND OXYGEN PRESSURES. TIP SIZES FOR GENERAL WELDING METAL THICKNESS ORIFICE DRILL PRESSURE - PSI IN INCHES NUMBER ACETYLENE OXYGEN 1/16 60 to 65 3 3 3/32 57 to 59 4 4 1/8 54 to 56 4 4 3/16 50 to53 5 5 1/4 44 to 52 6 6 3/8 42 to 48 7 7 THE WELDING FLAME - The essential requirement for welding is a hot, controlled flame that is easily manipulated to heat or melt metal without altering the chemical composition of the metal. Lighting and adjusting the torch flame
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Close all valves of the torch. Release pressure on the adjusting screw before opening cylinder valves. Open cylinder valves very slowly to prevent damage to the regulator. Open acetylene cylinder valve up to one turn and open oxygen cylinder valve all the way. Set the regulators to the correct working pressures. Point the torch in a safe direction and open the acetylene control valve on the torch about one quarter of a turn. (7) Using a spark lighter, light the acetylene. (8) Reduce or increase the gas supply by operating the torch valve until the flame stops smoking. (9) Open the oxygen control valve until the white inner cone becomes visible. Continue to increase the oxygen until the feather just disappears and the outer flame is at its maximum length. If the overall length of the flame shortens, too much oxygen has been added. (10) This is the neutral flame used for all welding of mild steel. (11) To extinguish the flame, close the acetylene valve and then the oxygen valve on the torch.
FIGURE 26 USING A SPARK LIGHTER TO LIGHT THE TORCH
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FIGURE 27 FLAMES
FIGURE 28 EXTINGUISHING THE FLAME
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GENERAL PROCEDURE - The following general instructions apply to welding. Always (1) Comply with the prescribed safety precautions and fire-prevention procedure. (2) Check that hoses are not kinked or otherwise obstructed. (3) Check that correct size tip is fitted to the torch. (4) Back-off adjusting screw on regulator before opening cylinder valve. (5) Check that cylinder valves are open. (6) Check that regulators are set to correct working pressures. (7) Use effective protection equipment and any necessary protective clothing. (8) Point the torch in a safe direction when lighting. (9) Handle the lit torch with due caution and take care that the flame does not come into contact with gas-cylinder walls. (10) Concentrate on watching the welding operation. (11) Hold the torch with just sufficient grip at the point of balance to give full control. (12) Extinguish torch flame when not in use or when moving location; follow closing-down procedure when necessary. (13) Carefully segregate different types and sizes of filler rods. Ensure that they are protected from moisture. (14) Place the welding torch in a safe place when it is not in use. (15) Ensure complete removal of flux residue after welding. (16) Ensure the main gas supplies are turned off at source at the end of the work period. (17) Ensure that the work area is left clean and that equipment is properly stored. Return unused filler rods to storeroom in their original packages and ensure that flux tin lids are replaced and sealed. (18) Before leaving the work area, ensure freedom from burning or smoldering materials. Avoid leaving any form of fire risk. SAFETY Do not remove the cylinder wrench from the acetylene cylinder; it may be needed urgently for fire-prevention purposes. Keep fireproof gloves readily available. WELDING METHODS Forehand - In forehand welding, the flame is directed toward the un-welded part and the filler rod, when used, is directed toward the welded part of the joint. With the torch held in the right hand, welding proceeds from right to left; with the torch held in the left, hand, welding proceeds from left to right. In vertical welding, the movement is upward. This technique is used for welding steel in thickness of less than 3/16 in. (4.8 mm). Backhand welding -The method of welding that has been termed backhand welding should be adopted for thicker plates. For this technique, the torch normally makes an angle of 50 with the
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plane of the plate and the welding rod makes an angle of 30. The torch flame in this case points toward the deposited metal. When held in the right hand, welding proceeds from left to right.
FIGURE 29 WELDING METHODS (1) (2) (3) WELDING PROCEDURE Use the appropriate preparation and technique. Refer to Table 2 of tip sizes. The prepared plates should be correctly set up in the welding position and suitably tack welded. Before tack welding, taper space the plates 1/4 in. (6 mm) per 16 in. (400 mm) of plate, irrespective of plate thickness. The joint is set up to give the correct gap at the point where the first tack weld is made. As the tacks are progressively made, contraction will bring the plates together to the correct gap setting Fix the assembly securely in the welding position. Start to fuse the tack at the beginning of the joint Pause to allow the metal to be heated sufficiently to ensure full penetration at the beginning of the joint. When the molten pool has formed, start to travel, adding the filler rod. Hold the filter rod and the torch at the recommended angles. The angle of the flame to the workpiece governs the heat buildup and thus the amount of melting and penetration. Carefully control the lateral movement of the torch. Excessive sideway movement or too slow a speed of travel along the line of weld will enlarge the molten pool and cause overheating, with possible excessive penetration. Terminate the weld carefully by manipulating the torch to reduce heat while controlling the deposit filler metal. On completion, carefully examine the weld and see that there is: a. Uniform reinforcement, making due allowance for positional joints. b. Freedom from blowholes, undercut, overlap, cracks, porosity, and other defects. c. In the case of butt joints, adequate root penetration and no burn-through of the plates.
(4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
(10) (11)
TIP SIZES - The heat capacity of a tip is recognized by e amount of acetylene it consumes per hour at the recommended gas pressures; this is usually expressed in cubic feet. Manufacturers usually mark their tips with a number, indicating the orifice or related drill size of the tip.
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Always check the manufacturer's recommended flame setting for specific tips. For any metal and welding technique employed, the flame required has a definite relationship to the type of metal and its thickness. BRAZING PROCESS - Brazing is a joining process. It involves the use of a filler metal with a working temperature above 800 F (425C) but below the melting point of the metals or alloys to be joined. The filler material (usually in rods) is a nonferrous (not iron) metal or alloy. The study of brazing in the following units includes the use of the flame as a source of heat and filler material of a copper and zinc alloy. This alloy is generally called bronze rod. In brazing, the strength of the joint depends upon the molecular penetration of the bronze filler metal into the surface of the base metal. (Molecular penetration means that the smallest possible particles of each metal mix together and form a bond.) In order to obtain the greatest joint strength, it is necessary that the metal parts be closely fitted and that a thin uniform layer of filler metal flows between the surfaces. Then, the strength of a brazed joint is only as strong as the bond between the filler metal and the base metal. Brazing is a very important industrial process. It is particularly valuable in joining or repairing such metals as mild steel, cast iron, copper and brass. It is also used to join dissimilar (unlike) metals such as cast iron and brass. Brazing is used extensively in joining thin steel sheet, fastening carbide-cutting tips to steel tools and a variety, of surface buildup applications ADVANTAGES OF BRAZING 1. Material such as malleable (cast) iron can be brazed without destroying their ductile (plastic) properties, since lower temperatures are used and the base metal is not melted. 2. Low temperatures used in brazing generally eliminate stresses, which often develop in fusion welding of certain metals. Less expansion and contraction occurs. 3. The low heat required for brazing reduces preheating and post heating of cast iron. Cast iron cracks easily when heated or cooled too fast during fusion welding. 4. Brazing is often used for building up metal surfaces when softer materials, such as brass, bronze or other alloys, are required. Less heat is generated and filing or power sanding can easily smooth the soft metal. FLUXES FOR BRAZING - Without the use of a flux, the molten bronze rod would form beads and roll across a metal surface without sticking. It would be like drops of water slipping over a dirty windowpane; therefore, it is necessary that the base metal not only be clean but also free of oxides. Since oxides form so quickly on a clean metal surface, they must be removed by using a high quality flux so that the filler alloy can make a good bond. Cleaning the metal surface for brazing is important. Paint, rust, grease or other foreign matter must be removed along the surfaces to be joined. Cleaning can easily be done by filing, grinding or using an abrasive paper such as aluminum oxide or emery cloth.
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A flux acts on both the filler alloy and the metals being joined to keep them clean during brazing. Fluxes are available in powder, paste and liquid form. Brazing filler rods are also available with a flux coating. Of most importance, however, is the selection of the correct flux for the brazing process to be performed. Follow the manufacturer's specifications in selecting a flux for each brazing job. Flux is usually applied by dipping the heated filler rod into the powdered flux. The flux will stick to the rod and transfer to the joint when enough heat is applied by the torch as brazing begins. Paste fluxes may be applied to the filler rod with a small, inexpensive brush. BASIC PROCEDURE AND SAFETY - The brazing process is quite different from fusion welding. You are already familiar with the welding puddle and how it is controlled. In brazing, no puddle will be formed. Instead, the base metal is heated to the proper temperature, filler rod with flux is added and begins to flow while the desired bead shape is built up. The molten metal cannot be easily directed by the flame as in fusion welding of steel. It tends to run away from the flame, but will flow back into the heated area as the torch is moved away. The surfaces of the metals being joined are heated to dull red. Do not melt the base metals. All brazing should be done in a properly ventilated area. Fumes (zinc oxide) given off by the brazing process are very toxic. Breathing these fumes over a period of time can cause illness. The signs are chills and an upset stomach. Although the illness is not considered serious, it can be very painful. A nurse or doctor should be consulted as soon as possible. The same safety precautions observed for welding apply to all brazing operations. This includes protective clothing, goggles and the handling of equipment. SILVER BRAZING - The terms silver brazing and silver soldering are commonly given to the same process. However, they do not mean the same thing. In silver brazing the filler metal melts and flows at temperatures above 800F (425C). As in other brazing processes, the base metal does not melt. In soldering the filler metals melt at very low temperatures - less than 800F. Silver brazing is widely used for joining both ferrous and nonferrous metals. It is an ideal process for joining small precision parts, tubing and copper and brass fittings. Another important use is for mounting carbide tips on cutting tools Figure 30. It is still one of the major processes used in the fabrication of jewelry, air conditioning and refrigeration units, bicycles, airplane parts, electrical and household appliances.
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FIGURE 30 - CARBIDE TIP SILVER BRAZED ON A ROUND NOSE WOOD TURNING LATHE TOOL PROVIDES A. LONG LASTING CUTTING EDGE. The main difference between silver brazing operations and standard brazing processes, previously described, are: 1. The type of filler alloy used. 2. The thickness of alloy in the joint. 3. Use of much lower working temperatures in silver brazing. See Figure 31. Silver brazing filler alloys usually contain a number of different metals. Among them is copper, cadmium, gold, phosphorus and zinc. The typical alloy for joining brass, bronze and copper parts contains 15 percent silver, 80 percent copper and 5 percent phosphorus. It melts at about 1180F (about 635C) and flows into the joint by capillary action at about 1300F (705C). (Capillary action means it is drawn to into the cracks by the attraction of molecules of the alloy for the molecules of the solid base metals.) Joint design is similar to those used in other brazing processes except that all joints should have a large bonding area. They must also be close fitting. Since the filler alloy is fairly weak, joint strength depends upon the close bond between the mating surfaces and the paper-thin layer of alloy, Figure 32. Best capillary action and joint strength is obtained when the alloy film is about .002 in. thick. Further buildup of a bead does not add strength and wastes expensive filler alloy. Various butt and lap joint designs prove to be the best for silver brazing.
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FIGURE 31 FLOW TEMPERATURE RANGE OF FILLER ALLOYS FOR SILVER BRAZING
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FIGURE 32 - TYPICAL JOINT DESIGNS SHOWING MATING SURFACE FOR SILVER BRAZING The parts to be joined MUST be clean before a flux is applied. Clean with steel wool, abrasive cloth, by filing and grinding or with chemical cleaning solutions. Fluxes will not spread evenly over heated unclean metal. This uneven spreading leaves bare spots over which the filler alloy will not flow. Most silver brazing requires a good flux. These fluxes are generally supplied in paste form. During brazing, the flux begins to melt and dissolves surface oxides at about 800F (425C). Further heating to around 1100F (595C) causes the flux to become a clear liquid. Just above this point the flux begins to flow and will allow the molten filler alloy to form a complete bond between the closely fitted surfaces.
FIGURE 33 - PLANS FOR SILVER BRAZED LAP JOINT.
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Carefully study the plans for this exercise. See. Figure 33. Cut materials to size, file edges and clean thoroughly. Select the proper silver brazing wire and flux according to manufacturer's specifications. Use a fairly large torch tip for faster heating and a shorter brazing time. A small welding unit is very handy when working with small parts PROCEDURE (1) Make the usual preparations for welding. (2) Brush flux on both overlapping surfaces. Support pieces on the welding table so they have a good fit and clearance. (3) Adjust the torch to a neutral flame and heat the joint carefully. Keep the inner cone of the flame at least an inch away from the metal being joined. (4) Watch the flux as heat increases. It will dry out, turn a milky color and then begin to bubble at about 608F (320C). Upon further heating, the flux will turn into a clear liquid and soon begin to flow. (5) Add some filler alloy and hold the flame over the joint at all times to keep air away. Continue brazing until a thin film of alloy has spread between the strips along the entire length. (6) When the brazed joint is completed, it is necessary to thoroughly clean the surfaces by scrubbing in warm water. Any flux left on the metal may cause corrosion. (7) Examine the finished work for any areas where the filler alloy did not adhere. A good joint will show a fine line of alloy at the overlapping edges on both sides of the strips. Further inspection can be made by cutting across the joint with a shear or hacksaw. Note the silver colored line between the two mating surfaces. VISUAL EXAMINATION OF WELDS - Visual examination is used to check or detect: (1) Weld size. (2) Profile or weld-face shape. (3) Surface defects in-weld face. (4) Undercut and overlap. (5) Root defects. (6) Weld penetration either before or after breaking open through the weld as appropriate.
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2 SHIELDED METAL // ARC WELDING 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

EQUIPMENT Power Sources - Power sources are classified into two groups, alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), according to the output current. Alternating Current (AC) Equipment - With power supplied from the Power Company, the alternating current (AC) welder works as follows (1) Using a step-down transformer, the high voltage and low amperage is transformed to low voltage and high amperage, which are usable for welding. (2) This high current or amperage must be controlled for it to be usable, thus some form of adjustment is used. The most common forms of adjustment are: a. Movable coil control. b. Movable shunt control. c. Saturable reactor electric control. d. Magnetic amplifier electric control. e. Tapped reactor coil control. f. Silicon control rectifiers. (3) The open-circuit voltage is from 40-80 volts on most power supplies. Direct Current (Dc) Equipment - There are two groups of DC equipment: generators and rectifiers. Generators may be driven by (1) Motors connected to power supplied from the power company. (2) Self-contained and portable power supplies, such as gasoline or diesel engines that drive the generator. A rectifier takes AC current from a transformer by means of a current regulator and converts it to DC. AC/DC Equipment - In a single-phase transformer and rectifier: (1) AC output is taken from the secondary side of the transformer by means of a current control. (2) DC output is taken from the rectifier output terminals. ASSEMBLY OF EQUIPMENT - The initial installation and connection of the power source to the appropriate city power should be carried out by a competent person. Ensure that the equipment is adequately grounded. Connections For Secondary Side - Use welding cables of a suitable size for the maximum welding current. (1) Connect one end of the welding lead to the electrode holder, and then connect the other end to the Welding terminal on the power source.
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(2)
Connect one end of the ground lead to a clamp or terminal on the workpiece, and then connect the other end to the ground terminal on the power source.
FIGURE 34 CABLE CONNECTIONS (SECONDARY SIDE) Connectors - Loose joints or bad contacts cause overheating of cable, electrode-holder handle and so on, and adversely affect the welding arc. (1) Make any necessary joints in cables, using properly designed cable connectors. (2) Make sure that good electrical contact is always obtained when connecting cables to power source, electrode holder, and ground clamp. (3) Pay particular attention to mechanical joints that may work loose, especially when using AC.
FIGURE 35 GROUND CLAMPS
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FIGURE 36 RUBBER INSULATED INTERLOCKING CABLE CONNECTOR Electrodes - The filler metal is provided by the melting of an electrode. The grip end, which is inserted in the electrode holder, is bare of covering for a distance of approximately 1 in. (31 mm). The other end, known as the striking end, is sometimes pointed to ensure good electrical contact when striking the arc. Purposes of the electrode are: (1) To give stability to the arc. (2) To provide good arc transfer conditions. (3) To control the reactions occurring during welding (4) To protect the molten metal during transfer. (5) To provide good welding characteristics. (6) To provide a suitable slag protection for the cooling weld. (7) To ensure that the deposited metal has satisfactory chemical, physical, and mechanical properties.
FIGURE 37 IMPORTANT Electrodes should be stored and used in a dry condition.
Carefully segregate different types and sizes of electrodes.
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Standard Sizes Core Wire Diameter in (mm) 1/16 (1.6) 5/64 (2.0) 3/32 (2A) 1/8 (32) 5/32 (4.0) 3/16 (4.8) 1/4 (6.4)
Standard Lengths Standard Lengths E6010, E6011, E6012, E6013, E6022, E6020, E6027, E7024, E7014, E7015, E7016, E7018 E7027, E7018 Classifications in. (mm) Classifications in. (mm) 9(22.7) 9 or 12 (22.7 or 30.5) 12 or 14 (30.5 or 35.6) 12 or 14 (30.5 or 35.6) 14(35.6) 14(35.6) 14(35.6) 14(35.6) 14(35.6) 14 or 18 (35.6 or 45.7) 18(45.7) 18 or 28 (45.7 or 71.1)
SHIELDED METAL ARE WELDING ELECTRODE SIZES AND LENGTHS ELECTRICAL TERMS - Shielded metal arc welding (sometimes called stick electrode welding) requires an electrical power supply of either alternating current (AC), direct current straight polarity (DCSP), or direct current reverse polarity (DCRP). Alternating current (AC) - Alternating current (AC) is a form of electricity that is common to all of us. It is the type of current that is supplied by the power company. Alternating current works as diagrammed, Figure 38. This diagrams 1 hertz (Hz)* and occurs 60 times per sec. The current travels in a positive direction for one-half of the time and in a negative direction for the other half of the time, completing 1 Hz in 1/60 sec. Hertz is a measurement of electrical frequency that replaces the term cycles/sec in present electrical terminology. Direct current (DC) Direct current travels in only one direction at a time, giving the current polarity. Polarity means that the current has stabilized directional flow.
FIGURE 38 Polarity - When the work is positive and the electrode is negative, the current is straight polarity (D6SP) or DC-. It can be said that the current is flowing through the electrode straight to the work. When the work is negative and the electrode is positive, the current is reverse polarity (DCRP) or DC+.
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Classification of electrodes - In 1964, the American Welding Society (AWS) revised specifications for covered electrodes. These revisions required the classification number be imprinted on the flux covering. These electrode designations are more than a given number for a specific electrode. They give the welder important information about the electrode to be used. The numbers and what they mean - Classifications for mild steel and low-alloy steel electrodes will begin with the prefix E and consist of a four or five digit number. The first two digits (or three, in five-digit numbers) indicate the maximum tensile strength of weld deposit. This is read in thousands of pounds per square inch. For example, 80 as in E8018 = 80,000 psi; 110 as in El 1018 = 110,000 psi; 60 as in E601 0 = 60,000 psi. Position of electrode - The welding position is indicated by the next to the last digit. This number indicates the welding position in which the electrode is capable of making satisfactory welds: 1 = all positions-flat, horizontal, vertical, and overhead; 2 = flat and horizontal fillets; 3 = flat position only.
FIGURE 39 SHEILDED METAL ELECTRODE
FIGURE 40
Type Of Coating And Welding Current - The last digit indicates the type of coating and welding current. These numbers will range from 0 through 8 and special attention should be given to these numbers as they tell the welder the proper type of current and polarity to use. Placing these numbers in groups is the best way to remember them. There are four groups that can be formed for the type of current used for each electrode. (1) Electrodes with last digits 0 and "5" can only use direct current reverse polarity (DCRP). (2) Electrodes with last digits 2 and 7 are the only two electrodes that must use alternating current (AC) or direct current straight polarity (DCSP). (3) Electrodes with last digits 3 and 4 can be used with AC or DC, either polarity. (4) Electrodes with last digits 1, 6, and 8 use AC and DCRP.
USMMA GMATS
78
11/3/2006
QMED
Chemical Composition Of Weld Deposit (Alloy) - The two digits following the hyphen, as in E8018-132, indicates the approximate alloy in the weld deposit. Suffix G need have only one alloy above the minimum to qualify for the chemical requirements. Electrodes having a suffix M conform to alloy designation by military specifications.
None Al B1 B2 B3 CI C2 C3 Di D2 G M - Mild steel - Carbon, 0.5 Mo - Cr, Mo - 1 Cr, Mo - 2 Cr, 1 Mo - 2 Nickel - 3 Nickel - 1 Nickel - 1 Mn, Mo - 1 Mn, Mo - Alloy not designated - Conforms to alloy designated by military specification
Note Cr = chromium: Mn = manganese Mo = molybdenum
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WELD DEPOSIT (ALLOY) Storage Of Electrodes - The efficiency of an electrode is impaired if the covering becomes damp. (1) Keep electrodes in unopened packets in a dry store. (2) Place packages on pallet, not directly on the floor. (3) Store so that air can circulate around and through the stack. (4) Do not allow packages to be in contact with walls or other surfaces that can trap moisture. (5) The temperature of the store should be about 10F higher than the outside shade temperature to prevent condensation of moisture. (6) Free air circulation in the store is as important as heating. Avoid wide fluctuations in the store temperature. (7) When electrodes cannot be stored in ideal conditions, place a moisture absorbent material (e.g. silica gel) inside each storage container.
USMMA GMATS
79
11/3/2006
WELDING AND PIPEFITTING HANDOUTS
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
ADVICE FROM MILLER ELECTRIC CO. ON HOW TO IMPROVE STICK WELDING

Q A What type of welding power source works best for all-around use? A welding power source with an AC/DC output. DC welding offers advantages over AC for most Stick wleding applications, including: easier starting and fewer arc outages and sticking; less spatter/better looking welds; easier verical and overhead welding; easier to learn how to weld, and smoother, more stable arc. DC Reverse (electrode positive, work negative) provides about 10 percent more weld penetration at a given amperage than AC, while DC straight polarity (electrode negative, work positive) welds thin metals better. Does AC output offer any advantages? Yes, if you need to weld on material thats become maganetized from friction, or when water constantly runs against a steel part. A DC output wont be stable duel to arc blow, where the magnetic field blows the molten filler metal out away from the weld puddle. Because an AC output power source alternates between polarities, it enables the welder to weld maganitized parts. How much power do I need from a power source? A 225 or 300 ampere power source handles almost any job the average person will encounter. Most Stick welding procedures require less than 200 amps. To weld material thicker than 3/8 inches thick, simply make mulitiple passes. I see the word duty cycle in the product spec label. What does this mean? Duty cycle is the number of minutes out of a 10 minute cycle that a welder can operate at full rated amperage. As an example, a power source rated at 20% duty cycle with a maximum outout of 225 amperes can operate for 2 minutes at 225 amps, and must be allowed to cool down for 8 minutes. Failure to keep within the rated duty cycle can lead to transformer overheating and ulitimate power source failure. Duty cycle and amperage are inversly proportional. Operating at 90 a,ps will allow the power souce to be operated for a linger period of time, ads the duty cycle will increase at the current decreases Q A What electrode type should I use for general work on steel? Common electrodes used for general work include 6011, 6013, 7014 and 7018 type electrodes. Each electrode has specific properties: 6011 electrode pentrate deeply, while 603 electrodes penetrate less. For higher strength and better appearance, use a 7018 electrode. For better penetration on thicker steels, grind a 30 degree bevel inot the weld joint. Start with the first pass (root pass) using a 6011 electrode, then use a 7018 electrodes for the fill and cover passes. The 7014 is perhaps the easiest electrode to use. Also know as a drag rod, this electrodes thick flux will automatically maintain the correct arc length, which allows the welder to drag the electrode directly along the work piece.
Q A
Q A
Q A
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Q A
Does the surface of the metal to be welded need to have the surface clean before Welding? Stick welding tends to be more forgiving on unclean metal surface, but it never hurts to take the extra time to grind or clean the surface befor welding. If the metal surfacr is clean, and you have average ability, you can make a sound weld. However, even great welding skills cannot overcome poor preparation, as it may lead to weld cracking, lack of fusion, porisity,and slag inclusion.
IMPORTANT FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN WELDING 1. Current Stetting The correct current, or amperage, setting will greatly depend on the diameter and type of electrode selected. For example, a 1/8 diameter 6011 rod runs welds at currents up to 120 amps, while a 5/32 7018 rod runs at currents up to 220 amps. Consulting the manufacturers specifications or data sheets, or inked on the box the electrodes are shipped in will usually based upon metal thickness, welding position and desired appearance. 2. Length of Arc The correct arc length varies with each electrod and application. A genral rule of thumb is to keep the arc length equal to the electrode wire diameter. Holding the electrode too close to the work decreases the arc voltage, which will create an erratic arc that may stick to the work. Excessive arc length (too much voltage) will produce spatter, lower deposition rates, and porosity. Many beginners weld with too long of an arc, so they produce rough beads with lost of spatter. Practice will lead to a tight controlled weld arc length that will improve appearace, create a narrower weld bead and reduce spatter. 3. Angle of Travel Stick welding in the flat, horizontal, and overhead positions uses a pulling or backhand welding technique. Hold the electrode perpenducular to the joint, and tilt the electrode approximately 5 to 15 degrees in the direction of travel. When welding in the vertical up position, use a push or forehand technique and tilt the top of the electrode approximately 5 degrees upward. 4. Manipulation Each welding manipulates or weaves the electrode in a manker that is comfortable for them. Wider weld beads tend to be made with a weaving motion, while narrow welds tend to be made using a stringer or drag motion. To create a wider bead, the welder tends to move or weave the electrode from side to side to create a continuous series of partially overlapping circles, or in a Z motion, semi-circular shaped rippless. Limit the width of the weave to 2 times the diameter of the welding electrode. To cover a wide area, use mulitiple passes or depending on your preference, mulitple stringer beads. When welding in the vertical up position, focus on welding the sides of the weld joint, and the middle of the weld will take care of itself. Pause momentarily on each side of the weld, which will allow the puddle to follow and fill in the area of the weld metal tends to sag due to gravity. The finished weld should appear to have a flat, rippled surface. If the weld bead tends to drip, or have undercutting on the edges of the bead, the welding speed was too fast, due to not holding the arc long enough on each side. 5. Speed of Travel The proper peed will produce a weld bead with the desired thickness, height (or crown) and appearance. Adjust the speed so that the weld arc stays within the edges of the weld puddle. Slow travel speeds tend to make the weld bead too wide, with a convex crown,
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
and possibly excessive penetration. Excessive travel speeds will cause a narrow, irregular bead surface and may cause a lack of penetration, with undercutting on the sides, or toes of the weld. A few factors that should also be considered include how you position yourself with respect to the vision you have of the weld puddle. You should position yourself so that you have a good picture of the puddle, the weld joint, and are positioned comforatbly. For safety, keep your head and face out of the plume of smoke, and your hands far enough away from the welding heat so that you will not tend to speed up to aviod a burn.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Difficulties in Metal-Arc Welding

Difficulty Incomplete Penetration Poor Appearance Possible Causes 1. Joint design faulty 2. Welding speed too rapid 3. Insufficient welding current 4. Too large an electrode size 1. Current either too high or too low 2. Improper use of electrode 3. Faulty electrode 1. Current too high 2. Arc length too long 3. Improper manipulation of the electrode 4. Welding speed too rapid 1. Current too high 2. Are length too long 3, Excessive are blow 4. Faulty electrode 1. Magnetic field, created when using d-c, causes the arc to wander Are Blow Possible Corrections 1. Check root opening, root face dimension, included angle 2. Slow down welding speed 3. Increase welding current 4. Decrease electrode size 1. Adjust current values 2. Check welding procedure 3. Dry electrode to remove moisture; change electrode 1. Use lower current 2. Shorten arc length 3. Change angle of holding electrode so that arc force will be used to fill undercut 4. Slow down the welding speed 1. Use lower current 2. Shorten the arc length 3. See remedies for arc blow 4. Replace electrode 1. Use a-c machine 2. Counteract blow with angle of electrode 3. Rearrange or split ground clamp 4. Replace magnetic work bench 5. Use brass or copper back-up bar 1. Remove rust, scale and other foreign matter from edges 1. Proper preparation of groove before each bead is deposited. Avoid contours that are difficult to penetrate with arc 2. Use preheat and obtain higher heat input per unit Slow down welding speed 2. Increase current values 3. Use low-hydrogen electrodes 4. Dry electrodes to remove moisture; replace electrodes 1. Use low-hydrogen electrodes 2. Redesign joint; use preheat and postheat; weave 3. Use slower travel or faster freezing electrode to give a more convex bead 4. Back step to fill craters 5. Preheat and/or postheat 1. Redesign to allow for expansion and contraction forces 2. Use lower current and more efficient chill bars 3. Increase the speed of the arc 4. Improve welding sequence 5. Clamp properly to chill bar L. Use low-hydrogen cr austenitic electrode 2 Use proper preheat and postheat cycles 3. Use austenitic electrodes 4. Shallow penetration by directing arc on weld puddle
Undercutting
Excessive Spatter
Pinholes Slag in Weld
1. Foreign matter in joint 1. Joint design: sharp V-shaped recess 2. High viscosity of molten metal, rapid chilling, too low a weld temperature 1. Welding speed too rapid 2. Current too low 3. High sulfur or other impurities 4. Faulty electrodes 1. Faulty electrode 2. Rigidity of joint; stressed weld 3. Shape of bead 4. Craters 5. Fast cooling rate 1. Improper design of weld 2. Overheating 3. Welding speed too slow 4. Improper welding sequence 5. Faulty clamping 1. Incorrect electrode 2. Incorrect heat treatment 3. Air-hardening deposit 4. Base metal pick-up
Porous Welds
Cracked Welds
Distortion And Warping
Brittle Welds
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
HOW QUALITIES OF WELDS ARE AFFECTED BY WELDING SPEED, ARC LENGTH AND CURRENT
SPEED TOO FAST - Gives narrow stringy bead, relatively thin metal deposit and poor fusion.
SPEED TOO SLOW - Causes deposited metal to pile up, producing wide and high beads.
NORMAL SPEED - Normal travel speed results in nice appearing bead, correct profile, good penetration and fusion.
ARC TOO LONG - Produces wide bead with flatter than normal profile and results in excessive amount of spatter. Also affects surface appearance of bead.
ARC TOO SHORT - Produces slightly humped bead. Penetration and width are less than with normal arc length. Arc is sometimes extinguished.
NORMAL ARC - Normal arc length produces nice appearing bead of correct profile and gets good penetration and fusion.
CURRENT TOO HIGH - Gives excessive penetration and excessive spatter. Also causes undercutting and long craters. Bead appearance and profile are poor. CURRENT TOO LOW - Gives poor penetration, high humped bead, and poor fusion. Arc is easily extinguished.
NORMAL CURRENT Normal current produces nice appearing bead of correct profile, good penetration and fusion.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
ELECTRODES: WHERE TO USE THEM

Job requirements are always the basis of electrode selection. You can simplify the task considerably by following the quick check-list on this page. If these factors are checked carefully, you should have no difficulty picking an electrode which will provide the arc stability, smoothness of bead, easy slag removal, and minimum spatter which are so essential to fast, top quality arc welding. However, to be sure that all possible choices are considered, you should also check the special characteristics of other electrodes in different groups. If more than one electrode appears equally suited, they should be tried on the job. One will reveal its superiority for the particular application. Most arc welding electrodes are classified by means of filler metal specifications prepared by a joint committee of The American Welding Society. The more commonly used of these specifications are: Specifications for Mild Steel Arc Welding Electrodes -1 AWS A 5.1 Specifications for Low Alloy Steel Arc Welding Electrodes - AWS A 5.5 Specifications for Corrosion-Resisting Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Steel Welding Electrodes -AWS A 5.4 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Electrodes - AWS A 5.3 Copper and Copper Alloy Electrodes - AWS A 5.6
Almost every metal known can be welded by one process or another. Electric arc welding using covered electrodes, however, is used primarily on the steels. Steels have many different properties depending on the amount of alloy in them. Welding electrodes should be selected based on the composition of the steel to be welded. In general, steels are classified according to the carbon content, that is, low carbon, medium carbon or high carbon steels. In addition, they are also classified according to the type of alloy employed, such as chrome moly, nickel manganese, etc. Steels are also sold Linder many trade names and specifications. Some of them are: The American Society for Testing Materials (specification is always prefixed by ASTM), The American Petroleum Institute (steel used in pipe), The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (generally uses the same, numbers as the ASTM specifications), Military and Federal Specifications (usually indicated by letters, MIL or QQ), The Society of Automotive Engineers and the American Iron and Steel Institute. The latter has a very complete listing of steels using code: numbers that indicate the steel composition. Stainless steels are generally referred to by their AISI number. The specific electrodes to use with the ASTM steels are given in Table 1. Metallurgists have classified the more common types of stainless steel in use today as martensitic, ferritic or austenitic. The martensitic type is hard and brittle, the ferritic type by
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
contrast is soft and ductile, while austenitic is strong, resistant to impact and ductile. A different welding method is required for each. Check-list for Quick Electrode Selection
What are base metal properties? What is thickness and shape of base metal? Heavy material of complicated design usually requires electrodes of greater ductility. 3. Joint design and, fitup. Deep penetrating rods are required when edges are hot beveled and fitup is tight. Mild penetrating rods are required when gaps are open. 4. Welding position. Welding is most economical in the flat position, then horizontal, then vertical, and least economical in the overhead position. Some electrodes can be used in all positions, but others can be used only in certain positions. 5. Specifications and service conditions. The specifications or codes covering the job may dictate the class of electrode to use. If not, consider the service requirements that the weld will encounter. For example, must, the weld deposit possess corrosion resistance, high tensile strength, ductility, etc.? 6. Production efficiency. High deposition rate rods usually got the job done faster, but can-, not always be used. 7. Environmental job conditions. Is the material clean, rusty, painted or greasy? Are the operators sufficiently skilled to handle a particular electrode in a particular position? 8. Type of welding current available. 1. 2.
The selection of the proper electrode for stainless steel application is in most cases a more critical choice than with mild steel because of the number of types and grades of stainless steel and the varying degrees of severity of heat, corrosive media, etc., to which the weldment will be subjected. Selecting the right electrode for most satisfactory results is a matter of analyzing all the conditions applying to the particular job. Not only must the stainless steel weld metal have sufficient tensile strength and ductility, but it must also have corrosion resistance equivalent to the parent metal. Hence, an electrode having an analysis comparable to the base metal should be used. A large percentage of stainless steel welding is performed on light gauges. Therefore, the electrodes must have the proper penetration to insure a 100% weld without allowing the arc heat to bum away the joint edges. The stainless steel electrode should produce a smooth weld bead which will require a minimum amount of grinding. After polishing, the weld metal should match perfectly with the color of the parent metal.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Table 1 Electrodes for

ASTM Steels Type or Grade AWS-ASTM Class E10016-D2 E310 E312 ASTM Steels Type or Grade A A 1-58T All weights A 238-61 B C, D, E F A&O B, D C, T M S A 3-63 E6018, E7018 A 242-63T A, C & C1 E F1, G H, I, F A 4-63 E6018, E7018 A 243-55 J, K L M N, O A 5-54 E9016-B3 E10016-D2 E310 E312 A245-62aT TP304 TP310 TP316 TP317 TP321, TP347 TP348 T1, T1a, T1b 1&2 3 All AWS-ASTM Class E8016-C1 E8016-B2 E9016-B3 E10016-D2 E11018 E310, E410 E310 E347, E308-ELC E316 E308 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E7016 E9016-B3 E8016-C1 E8016-B2 E9016-B3 E10016-D2 E11018 E502 E6018, E7018
A 2-60
All Classes
E10016-D2 E310 E312
A 240-63
A 7-61T
E6018, E7018
A 249-63T
E308 E310 E316 E317 E347, E308-ELC E7016 E6018, E7018 E7016 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E10016-D2 E309, E310 E6018, E7018 E309, E310 E6018, E7018 E309-Cb E310-Cb E6018, E7018 E310, E6018 E7018 E310, E6018 E7018 E310-Mo, E6018 E7018 E6018, E7018 E7016 E410 E410 E312 E308 E347, E308-ELC E316 E317
A 8-54 A 15-62T A 16-63T A 21-61 A 27-58 A 30-56 All
EE8016-C1 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018
A 259-63T A 252-62T A 253-58 A 254-62T A 261-56 A 263-44T
All All
All 1, 2, 3, 4 5, 6
A 31-55
A&B
E6018, E7018
A 264-44T
8 10 11
A 42-55 A 47-52
E6018 E7018 ENi
A 266-63T A 368-63T
A 48-56
ENi
A 269-63T
1, 2 3 TP-405 TP-410 TP-329 TP-304 TP-321, 347, 348 TP-316 TP-317
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
A 49-55
E10016-D2
A 270-63T
E308
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
A 53-63T
All black All galvanized
E6018 E7018 E6010
A 271-63T
A 56-58T
E6018 E7018
A 276-57
TP-304 TP-321, 347 & 348 302, 304 303 304L 309-309S 310, 310S 316 316L 321, 347, 348 410 420, 430
E308 E347, E308-ELC E308 E308 E308-ELC E309 E310 E316 E316-ELC E347-E308-ELC E410, E309 E310 E309, E310 ENi E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E10016-D2 E502 E6018E, 7018 E9016-B3 E502 E502 E310 E8016-C1 E8016-B2 E502 E9016-B3 E10016-D2 E11018 E502 E6018, E7018 E7016 E8016-B2 E8016-C1 E9016-B3 E10016-D2 E502 E8016-C1 E9016-B3 E10016-D2 E502 E6018, E7018 E8016-C1 E8016-B2 E10016-D2 E309 E308 E502 E308 E316 E347 E308 E309 E310 E312 E309, E310 E410 E309, E310 E309, E310
A 59-49 A 60-49 A 68-49 A 72-62T A 73-60T Black Galvanized A&B
E312, E10016-D2 E312, E10016-D2 E312, E10016-D2 E6018, E7018, E6010 E6018. E7018
A 278-57 A 283-58 A 284-55T A 285-57T A 286-57T
All All All BB BC & BD Class 1 2 3, 4 5, 6, 7 A, B, C A, B, C D, E, F, G Class 1 2, 3 4 5, 6, 7, 8 1 2, 2A 3 4, 5 6 7, 8, 9 1, 2 3, 4 5 6, 7, 8 A1 A2 B1 B2, 3, 4 CF-8 CG-12 CF-20 CF-8M CF-8C CF-16F CH-20 CK-20 CE-30 CA15 CB30 CC50
A 74-42 A 76-58T A 82-62T
ENi E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018
A 288-60T A 289-60T A 290-60T
A 83-63T
A & B Alternate B
E6018, E7018 E7016
A 291-62T
A 84-55
E6018, E7018
A 292-60T
A 86-55
E6018, E7018
A 293-62T
A 94-62T
E9016-B3 E8016-B2
A 294-60T
A 95
Replaced by Spec. A 216
A 296-55
A 105-61T
I & II
E6018, E7018
A 296-55
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
A 106-63T
A&B C 1008-1030 incl. 1035-1095 incl 1109-1120 incl 1137-1151 incl B1010,B1111, B1113 incl 1008-1030 incl. 1035-1095 incl 1115-1118 incl 1137-1151 incl 1211, 1212, 1213 B1010,B1111, B1112, B1113 All
E6018, E7018 E7016
A 257-55
HF HH HI HK HC CA15
E308 E309 E310 E310 E309, E310 E309, E310 E410 E309, E310 E309, E310
A 107-58T
E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018
A 296-55
CB30 CC50
A 108-58T
A 297-5
HF HH HI HK HC
E308 E309 E310 E310 E309, E310 E8016-C1 E8016-B2 E9016-B3 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E-8016-C1 E309, E310 E7016 E8016-B2 E9016-C1 E10016-D2 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E7016 E8016-B2 E8016-C1 E6018, E7018 E6010 E10016-D2 E308 E309 E310 E347, E308-ELC E316 E317
E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 A 299-56 A201, 212 A203, A & D A203, D & E A353 A B
A 109-58T
A 113-58
All
E6018, E7018
A 300-58
A 120-63T
Black Zinc Dipped All A, B & C All A&B
E6018, E7018 E6010 ENi E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018
A 302-56
A 126-42 A 129-56 A 131-61 A 134-63 A 135-63T
A 303-58T A 306-57T A 307-63T A 308-58T A 311-57T
A, B, C 45, 50, 55 60, 65 65, 70 75, 80 A All TP304 TP309 TP310 TP321, 347, 348 TP316 TP317 301, 302, 302B 305, 308 303 309 310 314 316 317 321-347 403, 405, 410, 414 430F, 406, 416 420.430 431 440A, 440B 440C, 446 501, 502
A 139-63
A&B
E6018, E7018
A 312-63
A 141-58
E6018, E7018
A 314-63
E308 E309 E309 E310 E310 E316 E317 E347, E308-ELC E310, 309 E410 E310 E310, 309 E309, E310
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
A 142-59T
ENi
A 319-53
All
ENi
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
80-40 & 80-50 90-60 105-85 120-95 150-125 & 175145 Refer to individual specs. All Low Carbon T1
A 148-58
E8016-B2 E8016-C1 E9016-B3 E10016 E10018 E502
A 320-63T
L7, L43 L9 L10 B8 B8C, B8D, B8T B8F
E502 E8016-C1 E8016-C1 E308 E347, E308-ELC E308 E8016-C1 E10016-D2 E6018, E7018
A 155-63T A 159-58 A 161-63T A 162-39
A 320-58T ENi E6018, E7018 E7016 E6018, E7018 A321-57T A 328-54 A 329-57
A, B, C, D
E309, E310 E502 E309- E310 E502
1, 2, 3, 4 & 7 5&6 A 167-58 8 10 11 1&2 4 5&6
A 176-54
E308 E347 E308-ELC E309 E310 E316 E410 E310, 309 E309, E310 E309, E310 E308
A 332-56
8650, 8650H 8655, 8655H 8660, 8660H
A 333-63T
C 3 5 C 3 5 P1, P15 P2 P3, P3b P5, P5b, P5c P7, P9 P11, P12 P21 P22 F-1 F-2 F-5, F-5a F-6 F-22 F-30 F-31 F-32 F-8 F-8m F-8c, F-8t F-10 F-25
E6018, E7018 E8016-C1 E309, E310 E6018, E7018 E8016-C1 E309, E310 E7016A E8016-B2 E9016-B3 E309, E310 E502 E309, E310 E8016-B2 E310, 309 E502 E9016-B3 E7016 E8016-B2 E309, E310 E502 E309, E310 E410 E9016-B3 E8016-B2 E10016-D2 E309, E310 E502 E308 E316 E308-ELC E347 E309, E310 E310 ENi
A 177-58
A 334-63T
A 178-63T
All
E6018, E7018
A 335-63T
A 179-63T
E6018, E7018
A 366-62T
A 181-61T
I & II
E6018, E7018
A 338-54
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
F1 F5 & F5a F6 F9 & F7 F11 & F12 F22 F304 F316 F321, 347 & 348 F10 F310 A&B
A 182-61T
E7016 E502 E309, E310 E410 E309, E310 E309, E310 E8016-B2 E9016-B3 E308 E316 E347, E308 E309 E310, E312 E310 E6018, E7018 ENi
A 339-55
All
ENi
A 189-58T A 190-47
A 345-55 A 350-61T LF1 LF3 CA15 CF8 CF8M CF8C CH20, CH10 CK20 CT-35 CF-10M-C E6018, E7018 E8016-C1 E309, E310 E410 E308 E316 E347, E308-ELC E309 E310 E316-Cb E330
A 192-63T
E6018, E7018
A 351-63T
B5 B6 A 193-62T B7 & B7A B14 & B16 B8 B8C, B8D, B8T T3b & T4 T5 A 199-63T T7 & T9 T11 T21 T22 T3b & T4 T5 A 200-63T T7 & T9 T11 T21 T22 A 201-61T A 202-56 A 203-56 A&B A B All
E502 E309, E310 E309, E410 E310 E8016-B2 E502 E9016-B3 E502 E308 E308-ELC, E347 E9016-B3 E309, E310 E502 E309, E310 E309, E310 E8016-B2 E502 E309, E310 E9016-B3 E309, E310 E9016-B3 E309, E310 E502 E309, E310 E309, E310 E8016-B2 E502 E309, E310 E9016-B3 E309, E310 E6018, E7018 E8016-B2 E9016-B3 E10016-D2 E8016-C1
A 352-60T
LCB LC1 LC2, LC3
E6018, E7018 E8016-C1
A 353-58
E309, 310
BB A 354-63T BC BD
E309, E310 E10016-D2 E309, E310 E502 E309, E310
A 356-58T A 256-58T A 357-58
1 2 3, 5, 6, 7 4, 8, 10 9
E6018, E7018 E7016 E8016-B2 E9016-B3 E10016-D2 E309, E310
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
E502
USMMA GMATS
10
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
A 204-61
All
E7016
A 358-63T
S M C, T, 348 309 310
A 207-39 A 209-63T A 210-63T
T1, T1a, T1b
E6018, E7018 E7016 E6018, E7018
A 361-58T A 365-58T A 366-58T FP1 FP2, FP11, FP12 FP3b, FP22 FP21, FP5 FP7, FP9
A 211-54
E6018, E7018
A 369-63T
A 212-61T
A&B T2 T3b T5, T5b, T5c T7 & T9 T11, T12, T17 T21 T22 TP304 TP310 TP321, 347, 348 TP316
A 213-63T
A 214-63T A 216-63T WCA WCB WC1 WC4, WC5 WC6 WC9 C5 C12 A 220-55 A 225-56 A 226-63T A WPA & WPB WP1 WP11, WP12 WP22 WP5 E A, C, C1 F, F1 A 235-63T G A, B C, D, E A 236-61 F, G H A, B A 237-63T C, D E
E6018, E7018 E7016 E9016-B3 E502 E309, E310 E309, E310 E8018-B2 E309, E310 E502 E9016-B3 E308 E310 E347, E308-ELC E316 E6018, E7018 E7016 E7016 E7016 E8016-B2 E9016-B3 E309, E310 E502 E309, E310 ENi E8016-C1 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E7016 E8016-B2 E9016-B3 E309, E310 E502 E7016 E6018, E7018 E8016-C1 E8016-B2 E9016-B3 E10016-D2 E6018, E7018 E8016-B2 E8016-C1 E9016-B3 E10016-D2 E10016-D2 E8016-C1 E8016-B2 E9016-B3 E10016-D2 E10016-D2
A 373-58T
E308 E347 E308-ELC E309 E310 E6010 E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018 E7016 E8016-B2 E9016-B3 E309, E310 E502 E309, E310 E6018, E7018
A 374-58T
E6018, E7018
A 375-58T
E6018, E7018
A 217-60T
A 376-63T
TP304 TP321, 347, 348 TP316
E308 E347, E308-ELC E316
A 377-57 A 381-63 A 382-59T
All
ENi E6018, E7018 E6018, E7018
A 234-59T
A 383-61
E6018, E7018 E10016-D2
A 235-55
A 387-61T
A, B, C D E C23 C24
E8016-B2 E90016-B3 E502 E8016-B2 E9016-B3
A 389-60T
A 391-58
E7016
B 190-50
E309
USMMA GMATS
11
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
F G
E11018 E5092
Stainless steel electrodes are furnished with a lime-type coating for use with d-c reverse Polarity, or with a titania-type coating for use with a-c or d-c reverse polarity. The lime coating is referred to as Type 15; titania as Type 16. The d-c type of coating is designed to give good operating characteristics for all-position welding. This type of electrode produces convex beads which are desirable for root passes where the full throat section prevents cracking. The fast setup of weld metal by this coating provides easy operation in both the vertical and overhead positions. The electrode covering produces a slag which completely covers the weld, provides rapid wetting action and produces welds with a minimum amount of spatter. The coating also fluxes the impurities from the weld metal, thereby producing a deposit free from porosity and having mechanical and corrosion resistant properties of the quality expected of the particular type. The 1/8 in. or smaller electrodes are exceptionally well adapted for welding vertically down. The a-c/d-c coating is designed to produce welds of high quality in all positions. These electrodes have very high operator appeal because of the smooth arc action, exceptional bead appearance and very easy slag, removal. These factors, together with the smoother, slightly concave welds produced, usually result in less cleaning, grinding, and polishing time than is required for welds produced by the d-c type of stainless electrode. The a-c/d-c stainless electrode is generally preferred for shops where only one type of coating is stocked. The proper selection of electrode size and welding current is very important in welding chromium nickel alloys due to their high coefficient of expansion. In general, a small diameter electrode and lower current value should be used than on corresponding sizes of mild steel shapes or plates, for this will help reduce the amount of distortion. Keep in mind that the recommended instructions for the electrode should be followed in all cases. The welding of stainless steel is a more critical operation than welding mild steel, and the results of error are costly due to the price of the base metal. Hardfacing is the process of depositing an alloy material on a metallic part by welding to form a protective surface which resists abrasion together with impact, heat, corrosion, or a combination of these factors. There is at present no really adequate and up-to-date specification for hardfacing electrodes. The AWS specification is presently being revised and it is hoped that this will provide a usable classification system. In the meantime, one of the most convenient methods of grouping hardfacing electrodes is by the service condition they are meant to protect against. Selection of the proper alloy necessitates recognition of the service condition causing wear. These can be divided into the following five classifications: 1. 2. 3. Resistance to severe impact. Resistance to very severe abrasion. Resistance to corrosion and abrasion at high temperature.
USMMA GMATS
12
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
4. 5.
Resistance to severe abrasion with moderate impact. Resistance to abrasion with moderate to heavy impact.
In most cases, an application will require only a single product. However, there are some in which two alloys will provide the best results. For example, if a part is extremely worn, a less expensive buildup electrode may be used and followed by the appropriate surface deposit. The buildup metal may be a carbon steel of sufficient strength to resist deformation and still support the surface. Remember, if service conditions are such that impact loading or high temperatures will be encountered, carbon steel will not be adequate for buildup and an alloy buildup material will be necessary. For example, when severe abrasion is encountered in combination with severe impact, a Class 1 buildup metal should be used. This will cushion impact loads and support a hard deposit which will resist abrasion. A tough metal is needed to resist shock loads. Hardfacing alloys for this type of service are Hadfield (14% manganese) steels except for 361, which is austenitic stainless. Deposits from these electrodes work harden when subject to impact. The surface layers harden to about Rockwell, while the subsurface metal remains tough and will cushion heavy blows. The manganese steel welding alloys should be used only on manganese steel base metal or on austenitic stainless. If used on carbon steel a brittle zone will result because of dilution by the base metal. Tungsten carbide is the hardest commercial material known, other than diamond, and is resistant to the severest abrasion. Applications include oil drill bits, stoker screw flights, and various knives and shredders. Tungsten carbide is generally supplied encased in steel tubes. These tubes are available bare for use as filler metal or with a coating for use as electrodes. Loose bulk tungsten carbide may also be purchased. The relative proportions of carbide and steel are essentially the same in the deposit as in the original rod or electrode. The carbide particles are transferred without melting. The deposit consists of tungsten carbide held in place by steel. Some of the smaller particles may dissolve in the puddle, especially if deposited by electrode. If some carbide does dissolve it acts as alloy addition to the steel forming a tungsten tool steel composition. These deposits resist abrasion because the hard carbides protrude slightly beyond the steel matrix and thus resist wear. If the abrasion media is fine and loose, like sand, dissolution of some tungsten into the steel matrix is desirable, as this will harden the steel matrix and prevent its being worn away. At high temperatures corrosion and wear occur much more readily than at low temperatures. The cobalt-based alloys are generally selected for such applications.
USMMA GMATS
13
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Resistance to severe abrasion with moderate impact requires deposits of chrome alloy cast irons. Chrome carbides provide excellent erosion and abrasion resistance. In addition, they provide a high degree of oxidation resistance even at elevated temperatures. Such deposits may develop surface cracks during welding because of the high carbon content. These are not necessarily detrimental, but may usually be eliminated by preheating the base metal to 350F. Single layer deposits are normally sufficient. Less expensive material is normally used to build up excessively worn parts prior to depositing chrome alloys. Resistance to abrasion with moderate to heavy impact is provided by electrodes that deposit a martensitic steel. These deposits may be heat treated. The annealed deposits are readily machineable and may be rehardened. Preheating the base metal to 350 F is usually necessary to prevent cracking. Weld deposits should be limited to less than in thick, otherwise they spall and chip off. Your guide to the relative abrasion and impact resistance of hardfacing electrodes is the carbon content, and secondly the content of chromium and other alloys. Abrasion resistance increases with higher carbon and alloy content, while impact resistance decreases. The last general classification of welding materials is the nonferrous metals. Those used most commercially are copper, brass, bronze, aluminum and lead. Of the several general types of electrodes used to weld the nonferrous metals, some of the most popular are the aluminum bronze, the phosphor bronze, and aluminum. Aluminum requires very little explanation, being used to weld aluminum in various shapes and thicknesses to itself and to other metals. Most aluminum electrode manufacturers have available a very comprehensive table which shows exactly which aluminum electrode to use with various parent metals. Picking the most desirable electrode for bronze welding also requires that you follow the check list given at the beginning of this article. However, here are two general rules to help simplify the job. In overlay welding, the phosphor, silicon, and aluminum bronzes are all suitable for corrosion resistant applications. Your best bet here is to secure a definite recommendation from the supplier. For bearing applications, a bronze electrode should be selected to produce a deposit 50 to 75 points Brinell under that of the mating surface. For severe wear applications, electrodes are usually selected producing a deposit hardness higher than the mating surface. Bronze electrodes and filler rods have been used for many years to join dissimilar metals. Copper-base alloy electrodes are used for this purpose because of their lower melting points which produce a weld bond with the nonferrous alloys and a braze-welded bond with ferrous metals.
USMMA GMATS
14
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Aluminum bronze electrodes are used for welding the phosphor bronzes (copper, tin, phosphorus alloys) or the copper-tin-lead alloys. They produce weld deposits having high strength, high ductility and corrosion resistance. Many of them can be used for welding malleable iron, clean cast iron or steel and are admirably suited to welding dissimilar metals such as cast iron to brass, or steel to malleable iron, or the combination of any two metals which are weldable with aluminum bronze. Some of the popular aluminum bronze electrodes (AWS-ASTM classifications) are: ECuAl-A2 - For welding aluminum, silicon, and manganese bronze; cast and malleable iron; and galvanized, alloy, and stainless steels. It is also suited for welding dissimilar materials. Deposits have high strength, good ductility, and are resistant to corrosion from many acids, mild alkalies, and salt water. ECuAl-B - For use as an overlay on bearing surfaces subject to normal wear, shock and impact. Also may be used for fabrication requiring a bronze electrode with higher mechanical properties than those of ECuAl-A2 ECuA1-C - For overlays on machine parts subject to unusually severe service. Generally yields the highest hardness and tensile strength while retaining good ductility.) ECuAl-D - For overlays on wearing or bearing .surfaces operating under pressure against hardened steel. Yield strength and hardness are higher than ECuAl-C, but the tensile strength and ductility are lower. These characteristics make this electrode deposit suitable for extreme bearing applications where very high pressures are encountered operating against hardened steel surfaces. ECuAl-E - For overlay work, this electrode has the highest yield strength and hardness (average 300 Brinell) of the aluminum bronzes discussed here. The phosphor bronze electrodes (AWS-ASTM ECuSn) are recommended for joining iron-base metals to the tin-bronzes, low strength brasses and copper, and any one of these copper-base alloys to another where the lower strength of a phosphor bronze deposit is satisfactory. The phosphor bronze electrode AWS-ASTM ECuSn-A, is capable of all-position welding of bronzes, brasses, copper, steel, cast and malleable irons. It is quite often chosen for welding dissimilar metals, and it may be used when phosphor bronze overlays are required in bearing and corrosion-resistant applications. Lead bronze bearing metal electrodes, ECuSn-E, are used principally for depositing bearing surfaces, as in locomotive parts. They are not recommended for joining because the lead content causes porosity in the weld deposit. In conclusion, while electrode selection for many welding applications is routine, there are times when it can be quite tricky. The selection process can be simplified considerably in these cases by following the basic principles laid down in this article. Then, if in doubt, consult your electrode supplier.
USMMA GMATS
15
11/3/2006
Welding Process
Shielded metal-arc Submerged-arc Tig welding Mig welding Flash welding Spot welding Gas welding Furnace braze Torch brazing. R R S S R R R R R R S S R R R R S_ Low carbon, mild steel types SAE 1010 and 1020 Medium carbon steel types SAE 1030 and 1050
R - Recommended
USMMA GMATS R R S S R S S NR R R R R R R S R/S -S R S S S S S S S S R S S S S S NR NR
Low alloy steel types SAE 2340, 3145, 4130 and 4340 Austenitic stainless steels types AISI 301, 310, 316 and 347 Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels types AISI 405, 410 and 430 High strength, high temperature alloys types 17-14 CuM, 16-25-6 and 19-9 DL Cast iron and gray iron
S Satisfactory
RECOMMENDED PROCESSES FOR WELDING METALS AND ALLOYS
16
S NR S NR NR NA R NR R S NR R R S R S R R NA NA R S NR S, NR NR NR NR NR R R S S S S R R S R R S R S R R NR NR R S S NR R S R
Aluminum and aluminum alloys
NR - Not recommended
Magnesuim and magnesium alloys
Copper and copper alloys
;Nickel and high nickel alloys
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
NA - Not applicable
11/3/2006
Silver
NR NR R S S S R S R NA NA R S S S NA S S
Gold, platinum and iridium
Titanium and titanium alloys
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
UNDERSTANDING ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATIONS ONE OF THE BIG PROBLEMS of the job shop today is obtaining satisfactory materials with which to work. Not infrequently, the small users of welding ,electrodes and wires find themselves so far down the priority line that they, can not be sure that will have the right electrode for that job at hand. Furthermore, often times the electrode available to them is not fresh from the factory. What might happen if they weld with these aged electrodes? In recent months, many job shop operators have been afforded the opportunity of buying electrodes that have been on the shelf for some time, While these electrodes may be in their Original containers, they may have spent months, or even years, in stock rooms, as surplus. But in the face of current shortages, they once again have reached the market. They are electrodes, but the question is, after all this time, will they still work? There is little doubt that they will weld, but whether or not they will produce acceptable welds is questionable. However, some can be reconditioned so as to produce satisfactory results. Generally, it is thought that electrodes that have been in storage for a long time will pick up moisture, and this can be true. However, electrodes can also dry out: in either case, a porous weld will result. Another problem that confronts a lot of job shop operators today is the fact that they cant get the particular electrode that they are used to using. In the past, they were happy with an AWS 36010 or an AWS 3-6013 electrode, and now, these are hard to come by. What do the numbers mean anyway? Those who go back far enough will remember the days when electrodes were bought only by trade names. And back then, they often were not coated electrodes but simply bare wire. It was not until the development of the flux-coated electrodes that it was possible to make welds having physical properties equal to, or exceeding, those of the parent metal. No STANDARDS for arc welding electrodes existed until 1940, although by that time the, manufacturers were trying to provide similar type electrodes for various welding applications. That year the American Welding Society in conjunction with the American Society for Testing and Materials developed tentative specifications for iron and steel arc welding electrodes, covering those electrodes used to weld mild steels. Since then the AWS has developed specifications for filler metals to cover arc welding of carbon, alloy, stainless and corrosion-resistant steels, copper and copper-based alloys and aluminum alloys. Through these specifications and their classifications, the user is informed that a certain electrode can produce a weld metal having specific mechanical properties. At the same time, the system classifies electrodes for various positions of welding, for their ability to penetrate adequately to the root of the joint, and for power supply, (alternating or direct current). The AWS classification system is extremely important in helping you select the right electrode for each specific job; for example, a particular type of filler metal capable of depositing a highstrength, ductile weld.
USMMA GMATS
17
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Arc welding is by far the most popular welding process and approximately 80% of such welding is done with a manual or stick electrode. This has resulted from development of the flux coated electrode capable of making welds having physical properties equal to or exceeding those of the parent metal. Prior to development of coated electrodes, atmospheric gases in the high-temperature welding zone formed oxides and nitrides with the weld metal. In general, oxides are low in tensile strength and ductility and tend to reduce the normal physical properties of the base metal. Coating materials were added to the electrode to provide an automatic cleansing and deoxidizing action on the molten weld crater. As the coating burns in. the arc, it releases a gaseous, inert atmosphere that protects the molten end of the electrode, as well as the molten weld pool. Thus this atmosphere excludes harmful oxygen and nitrogen from the molten walled area while the burning residue of coating forms a slag to cover the deposited weld metal. The slag also serves to exclude oxygen and nitrogen from the weld until it is cooled to a point where oxides and nitrides will no longer form. In addition, the slag slows the cooling of the deposit metal to produce more ductile welds. Aside from these benefits, there are other advantages to be gained by coating electrodes: improved weld appearance; easier arc striking and maintenance; depth of penetration control; improved weld X-ray qualities and sometimes addition of alloying agents to the weld metal or restoration of lost elements. And the slag from the coating not only protects the weld bead, but even helps shape it. Iron powders have been added to the coating of many basic type electrodes. In the intense arc heat the iron powder is converted to steel, thus contributing additional metal to the weld deposit. When iron powder has been added to the electrode coating in relatively large amounts, the speed of welding is appreciably increased and the weld appearance improved. Its insulation effect, control of welding position and its affect on the arc length and welding voltage are other functions served by the electrode coating. Obviously, to successfully serve all these functions, the composition of an electrode coating is extremely important. Extreme care must be exercised in blending the proper ingredients so that the performance characteristics mentioned may be correctly balanced. In addition, the coating should have a melting point somewhat lower than that of the core wire or the base metal. The resulting slag must have a lower density in order to be quickly and thoroughly expelled from the rapidly freezing weld metal. If the electrode is to be used in overhead or vertical welding positions, the slag formed from the melted coating must solidify quickly. AWS Classifications. As a variety of such electrodes appeared on the market, the American Welding Society established a classification system which became extremely important in
USMMA GMATS
18
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
helping a welder select the right electrode for a specific job: for example, one with a particular type of filler metal which would be capable of depositing a high strength, ductile weld. The difference in operational characteristics of various electrodes may be attributed to the coating. For the most common E60XX series of electrodes, the coil wire is generally from the same wire stock - ASME 1010 carbon steel, having a carbon range of from 0.05 to 0.15%. Surprisingly and unfortunately, there are many people who are not sufficiently familiar with the AWS electrode classification system to be able to identify the various mild steel are welding electrodes. The current filler metal specification covering mild steel electrodes is AWS A5.1-69. Electrodes are identified by a series of four or five digit numbers, prefixed by the letter E. This letter indicates that the filler material is for arc electric metal arc welding. The first two digits in the number designate the minimum tensile strength (stress-relieved) of the deposited metal, in thousands of pounds per square inch. For those materials capable of producing deposits having tensile strength of more than 100,000 psi (142.2kg/mm 2) three digits are involved. (Table 1). The next-to-the-last digit indicates the welding position, and the last digit relates to power supply, type of slag, type of arc, penetration and the presence of iron powder. Table 2 gives further data for the interpretation of these classification numbers. Some electrodes are for direct current (dc) and some are for alternating current (ac) welding. Some dc electrodes are for straight polarity (electrode holder connected to the negative pole work attached to the positive). A few electrodes perform satisfactorily in either polarity. A more detailed interpretation of the last digit in AWS electrode classifications is given in Table 2.
Table 1 AWS Electrode Classification System SIGNIFICANCE EXAMPLE Min. tensile strength E-60xx = 60,000 psi (min) (stress relieved) E-110xx = 110,000 psi (min) Welding position E-xxlx = all positions E-xx2x = horizontal and flat E-xx3x = flat
DIGIT 1st two or 1st three 2nd last
Last
Power supply, type of slag, type of See Table 2 arc, amount of penetration, presence of iron powder in coating Note: Prefix E (to left of a 4 or 5-digit number) signifies arc welding Electrode Table 2: Interpretation of Last Digit in AWS Electrode Classification LAST DIGIT Power supply 0 (a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
AC or DC AC or DC AC or DC DC rev rev AC or DC AC or DC AC or DC rev AC or DC rev polarity polarity polarity polarity
USMMA GMATS
19
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Type of slag
(b)
Organic Digging Deep
Rutile Medium Medium
Rutile Soft Light
Rutie Soft Light
Low Low Low Mineral Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen Medium Medium Medium Medium Soft Medium Medium Medium
Type of Digging arc penetration (c) Iron Powder in Coating Notes:
().10%
1 None
0-10%
0.10%
30-50%
None
None
50%
30-50%
(a) E-6010 is DC reverse polarity; E-6020 is AC or DC (b) E-6010 is organic; E-6020 is mineral (c) E-6010 is deep penetration; E-6020 is medium penetration
Table 3 indicates how a suffix to the AWS electrode number designates the major alloying elements in a particular arc welding electrode. Principle Behind Arc Welding - To the uninitiated, arc welding remains quite a mystery, yet it is easily understood. When the arc electrode is brought in contact with the work piece, a high temperature arc is initiated between them. The heat generated by the arc is controlled by current and the length of the arc. When these two are correct, the tip of the electrode and the base metal beneath it are melted. As the electrode tip melts, globules are pinched off, passing through the arc to be deposited in the molten puddle of the base metal. At the same time, the coating also melts to stabilize the arc and provide a gaseous shield against atmospheric contamination caused by oxygen and nitrogen. The cooling liquefied flux also provides a shield against contamination of the weld bead. The Coated Electrode - It was the development of the coated electrode that has made many of todays outstanding arc welding achievements possible. Prior to the development of coated electrodes, atmospheric gases in the high temperature welding zone formed oxides and nitrides with the weld metal. Oxides, generally, are low in tensile strength and ductility, and tend to reduce the normal physical properties of the base metal. Coating materials were added to electrodes to provide an automatic cleaning and de-oxidizing action in the molten weld crater. As the coating burns in the arc, it releases a gaseous inert atmosphere that protects the molten end of the electrode, as well as the molten weld puddle. The gaseous atmosphere from the coating excludes harmful nitrogen and oxygen from the molten weld area, while the burning residue of the coating forms a slag, to cover the deposited weld metal. The slag also serves to exclude oxygen and nitrogen from the weld until it cools to a point where oxides and nitrides will no longer form. In addition, the slag slows the cooling of the deposited metal to produce a more ductile weld.
USMMA GMATS
20
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
There are other benefits to be gained from the use of coated electrodes aside from those already mentioned. These are: improved weld appearance, easier arc striking and maintenance, better control of the depth of penetration, improved weld x-ray qualities, and (with some electrodes) the addition of alloying agents to the weld metal or the restoration of lost metallic elements. Furthermore, the slag from the coating not only protects the weld bead, but even helps shape it. Iron powders have been added to the coating of many basic type electrodes. In the intense arc heat the iron powder is converted into steel, thus contributing additional metal to the weld deposit. When iron powder has been added to an electrode coating in relative large amounts, the speed of welding is appreciably increased and the weld appearance improved.
Table 3: AWS Designation of Major Alloying Elements in Arc Welding Electrodes ALLOY ELEMENT, SUFFIX TO AWS Mo Cr Mn Va Ni (Nickel) ELECTRODE (Molybdenum) (Chromium) (Manganese) (Vanadium) NO. Al 0.5 B1 0.5 0.5 B2 0.5 1.25 B3 1.0 2.2S B4 0.5 2.0 C1 2.5 C2 3.5 C3 1.0 D1 0.3 D2 0.3 0.3 5 G* 0.2 * Need have minimum content of one element only.
1.5 1.75 1.0
0.1
Other functions served by the electrode coating include an insulation effect, and better control of weld metal deposition and its effect on the arc length and welding voltage. Coating Composition - Obviously, to successfully serve all these functions, the composition of the electrode coating is extremely important. Exacting care must be exercised in blending the proper ingredients so that the performance characteristics mentioned may be correctly balanced. To achieve all of these desired characteristics, the coating should have a melting point somewhat lower than that of the core wire of the base metal. The resulting slag must have a lower density in order to be quickly and clearly expelled from the quick freezing weld metal. If the electrode is to be used overhead or in vertical welding positions, the slag formed from the melting coating must solidify quickly. Thus, the difference in operational characteristics of the various electrodes may be attributed to the coatings. Proper understanding of this by the job shop operator will contribute greatly to his ability-to produce quality welding jobs.
USMMA GMATS
21
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Some electrodes are for direct current (d-c) and some are for alternating current (a-c) welding. Some d-c electrodes are for straight polarity (electrode holder connected to the negative pole) and some are for reverse polarity (electrode holder attached to the positive pole). Still other d-c electrodes perform satisfactorily in either polarity. While at one time the AWS specifications covered both bare and coated electrodes, very few applications employ bare steel electrodes today, so our principal concern is with those carbon, steel electrodes in the E60XX series classification. Alloy steel electrodes - The expanding use of high-alloy steel has precipitated development of coated electrodes capable of producing weld deposits having tensile strength exceeding 100,000 psi. Mechanical properties of this magnitude are achieved through use of alloy steel in the core wire of the electrode. In most electrode designs, the coating is lime-ferritic, typical of the low-hydrogen design and frequently containing iron powder. Hence, these high-tensile electrodes usually have an EXX15, EXX16 or EXX18 classification. The operational characteristics parallel those of the typical E60XX low-hydrogen electrode. The flexible system of electrode identification established by the American Welding Society readily catalogs these electrodes into groups established for the E60XX series. For example, an E11018 electrode has 110,000 psi tensile strength and like the E6018 type will weld all-positions using a-c or d-c reverse polarity power source. It has a low-hydrogen type slag, a medium arc force and penetration. It also has 30% iron powder in its coating. In alloy steel electrodes, the basic four or five digit number designation for an electrode is usually followed by a letter symbol, such as Al, B1, B2, etc. These standard AWS suffixes have been added to indicate specific additions of alloying elements as, indicated by the averages in Table 3. For instance, a low-alloy steel, coated arc welding electrode having a designation E7015-Al is a low-hydrogen, all-position, d-c reverse polarity electrode with a molybdenum content ranging between 0.40 to 0.65% (average 0.5%).
E6010 - Electrodes carrying this classification are designed to produce the best possible
mechanical properties consistent with good usability characteristics in all welding positions d-c reverse polarity. They are best suited for vertical and overhead welding and some sheet metal applications. Their spray-type arc has a digging characteristic to produce deep penetration. This calls for electrode manipulation by the welder to minimize spatter and the tendency to undercut. Fillet welds are relatively flat in profile and have a rather course, unevenly spaced ripple. Where quality of deposit is of prime importance particularly on multi-pass applications in vertical and overhead positions and where radiographic requirements must be met these electrodes are highly
USMMA GMATS
22
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
recommended. The majority of applications for the E6010s is on mild steel; however they may be used to advantage on galvanized plate and some low-alloy steels. The E6010 is excellent for temporary tacking because of its ductility and deep penetration. Its physical properties are excellent, and when properly applied, its deposits will meet the most exacting inspection standards. The thickness of the coating is held at a minimum to facilitate welding in the vertical and overhead position, but is sufficient to develop the shielding characteristics necessary for high quality deposit. The coatings are high in cellulose, usually exceeding 30% by weight. Other materials generally in .the coating include titanium oxide, various types of magnesium and aluminum silicates, metallic deoxidizers such at ferro-manganese and liquid sodium silicate. Some coatings have a small amount (less than 10% by coating weight) of iron power to improve arc characteristics. Because of the coating composition, these electrodes are generally classified as high cellulose sodium type, Generally speaking, the maximum current that can be used with the larger sizes of these electrodes are somewhat limited compared to other electrode classifications due to the high spatter loss that occurs with high currents.
E6011
- These electrodes are some times termed the a-c counterpart of the E6010. Performance characteristics of the two are quite similar; however, the E6011 electrode performs equally well with either an a-c or d-c reverse polarity, power source. These electrodes have a forceful digging arc resulting in deep penetration. While the coating is slightly heavier on the E6011, the resulting slag and weld profiles are quite similar to those of the E6010. The coatings are high in cellulose and are designated as the high cellulose potassium type. In addition to the other ingredients usually found in the E6010 electrode coating, small quantities of calcium and potassium are usually present. As in the case of the E6010s, sizes larger than 3/16-in. diameter are not usually used for all position welding. The current voltage ranges usually recommended are identical to those of the E6010, but similarly, high currents result as well as high spatter losses. Usually the ductility, tensile strength and yield strength of the deposited weld metal from an E6011 electrode is higher than obtained with an E6010.
E6010 and E6011

Electrode diameter, in. 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 7/32 Current, amp 40 to 80 75 to 125 110 to 170 140 to 215 170 to 250 Voltage, arc volts 23 to 25 24 to 26 24 to 26 26 to 30 26 to 30
USMMA GMATS
23
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
1/4 5/16
210 to 320 275 to 425
28 to 34 28 to 34
Obviously, when the electrode is employed in the vertical and overhead positions, currents nearer the lower limit of the range should be used. The ranges of mechanical properties to be expected are: As-welded Stress relieved Tensile strength, psi 62,000 to 70,000 60,000 to 67,000 Yield strength, psi 62,000 to 58,000 47,000 to 54,000 Elongation in 2 in., per cent 22 to 30 28 to 35
E6012 - The E6012s are designed for all purpose welding in all positions, using either d-c
straight polarity or an a-c power source. Although the E6012 is considered an all-position electrode, a far greater tonnage is used in flat and horizontal positions than in vertical or overhead. They are specifically recommended for horizontal and most downhill welding applications. Likewise, they are especially recommended for single pass, high-speed, high-current, horizontal fillet welds. Ease of handling, good fillet weld profile and the ability to withstand high current as well as to bridge gaps under conditions of poor fit-up make them well suited to this type of work. When used for vertical and overhead welding, the electrode diameter is frequently one size smaller than might be used if E6010 or E6011 were used. Since the arc is highly stabilized, welds have a good appearance and are relatively, free from undercut. Fillet welds usually have a convex profile and a smooth even ripple in the horizontal or vertical down position. The E6012s have been used to advantage on many low-alloy steels, particularly the higher carbon varieties. This is probably due to the fact that the penetration obtained, although adequate, is, by no means that achieved with an E6010 or E6011. Hence, the pickup of alloying ingredients is not as great, which undoubtedly has a beneficial effect from a cracking standpoint. These electrodes have a rather quiet arc, with medium penetration and no spatter. Good buildup and no excess penetration make them excellent for welding under poor fit-up conditions. Since the arc is highly stabilized, the welds are of good appearance and relatively free from undercut.
E6012
Electrode diameter, in. 1/16 5/64 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4 5/16 Current amp, 20 to 40 25 to 60 35 to 85 80 to 140 110 to 190 140 to 240 200 to 320 250 to 400 300 to 500 Voltage, arc volts 17 to 20. 17 to 21 17 to 21 18 to 22 18 to 22 20 to 24 20 to 24 20 to 24 22 to 26
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The weld metal deposited by the E6012 electrode is lower in ductility and higher in yield strength and tensile strength than weld metal from either E6010 or E6011 electrodes. As-welded 62,000 to 78,000 52,000 to 65,000 17 to 22 Stress relieved 60,000 to 75,000 50,000 to 60,000 22 to 27
Tensile strength, psi Yield Strength, psi Elongation in 2 in., per cent
Its coating is high in titania usually exceeding 35% by weight, which accounts for these coatings usually being referred to as the titania or rutile type. In addition, coatings usually contain various silicious material such as feldspar and clay, small amounts of cellulose, ferromanganese and sodium silicate as the binder. Also, small amounts of calcium compound may be used to produce satisfactory arc characteristics on straight polarity. While single pass welds may meet radiographic requirements, multi-pass welds fall far short. The slag coverage is complete and slag may be easily removed. When used with a d-c power source, straight polarity is preferred. It is used extensively where appearance and high deposition rates are far more important than maximum ductility. For example, this electrode is particularly suited to making highly satisfactory sheet metal welds. For single pass, welds will meet radiographic requirements. As with the E6010, some designs have a small amount of iron powder in the coating to improve arc characteristics. - Although E6013 electrodes are very similar to the E6012s, they have some worthwhile differences. They are designed for welding in all positions a-c or d-c and have a minimum spatter and minimum tendency to undercut. The beads have a fine ripple and are superior in appearance. Slag removal is somewhat better and the arc can be established and maintained more readily, particularly with the small (1/16, 5/64, 3/32 in.), electrodes, thus permitting satisfactory operations at a lower open-circuit voltage. Hence, the E6013 is ideally suited to welding thin metals; its arc is soft and penetration very light. Mechanical properties are slightly better than the E6012, as are its radiographic qualities. Originally these electrodes were designed specifically for sheet metal work. However, the larger diameters are being used for many applications previously welded with E6012s. While operation of an E6013 is quite similar to the E6012, the arc action is quieter, the bead smoother and the ripple finer.
E6013
E6013
Electrode diameter, in. 1/16 5/64 3/32 1/8 Current, amp 20 to 40 25 to 60 45 to 90 80 to 120 Voltage, arc volts 17 to 20 17 to 21 17 to 21 IS to 22
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5/32 105 to 180 18 to 22 3/16 150 to 230 20 to 24 7/32 210 to 300 21 to 25 1/4 250 to 350 22 to 26 5116 320 to 430 23 to 27 Mechanical properties of weld deposits should range as follows. As-welded Stress relieved Tensile strength, psi 67,000 to 72,000 65,000 to 71,000 Yield strength, psi 55,000 to 60,000 50,000 to 56,000 Elongation in 2 in., per cent 17 to 20 25 to 30
Changing from one manufacturers E6013 to another may result in a change in the molten metal transfer in the arc stream. Some manufacturers compound their coatings so that the globular transfer is obtained while others produce a fine spray transfer. Ordinarily, spray transfer is preferred for vertical or overhead deposits. The amount of spatter from the electrode also varies with different brands. Some of these electrodes are usually recommended for sheet metal application where their ability to weld satisfactorily in a vertical position from top down is an advantage. Others with a more fluid slag are partially replacing E6012s for horizontal fillet welds and other general purpose welding. Rather than the convex contour characteristics of E6012 electrodes, the E6013s produce a flat fillet weld similar to that of the E6020 electrode classification. They are also readily useable for making groove welds because of the concave bead shape and easily removed slag. In addition, the weld metal is definitely freer of slag and oxide inclusions than is E6012 weld metal, and radiographic quality is better. In fact, radiographic quality welds made with the small diameter E6013 often meet the Grade 1 requirements for this specification. The E6013 coating is very similar to that used with the E6012, containing rutile, silicious materials, cellulose, ferromanganese and liquid silicate binders. An important difference, however, is that the easily ionized materials are incorporated in the coating, permitting establishment and maintenance of an arc with a-c at lower welding, currents and low opencircuit voltages. Some manufacturers have also introduced small quantities of iron powder into the E6013 coating. Ordinarily, the high welding current possible with the E6012 cannot be used for E6013. When welding in a vertical overhead position, however, the current and voltage may be very similar.
E7014 As the first two numbers of this designation indicate, this is a 70,000 psi minimum
tensile strength electrode. At one time there was an E6014 designation, but since no manufacturer ever made one for this classification, and most did make electrodes for the E7014 classification, the former was dropped. E7014 electrode coatings are similar to those of the E6013s. However, the coating of this electrode is considerably thicker since it contains substantial iron powder (30% of coating
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weight). The amount of coating and the percentage of iron powder in it are usually less than found in the E7024 electrodes. Characteristics of the E7014 are a compromise between the E6013 and the E7024; deposition rate is higher than the former but not as high as the latter. The presence of iron powder permits higher welding currents and means higher welding speeds. While the electrode is classified for all position welding, the thicker coating does not make it ideally suited for out-of-position production welding in thin-gauge materials. However, it will perform adequately when an occasional job demands it. Its performance characteristics do make it particularly suited for production welding of irregular-shaped products where some out-ofposition welding is encountered. The E7014 is suitable for welding mild and low-alloy steels. Typical weld beads are smooth with fine ripples, and penetration is approximately the same as obtained with the E6012, which is an advantage when welding over gaps due to poor, fit-up. Fillet weld profile tends to be flat to slightly convex. Mechanical properties of the E7014 weld metal are superior to those of E6012 or E6013. Slag removal is very easy; at times almost self-cleaning. General penetration and the rapid solidification characteristics make it well suited for handling poor fitup condition. The useable currents for the E7014 electrodes are higher than for E6012 or E6013s.
E7014
Electrode diameter, in. Current, amp Voltage, are volts 3/32 80 to 125 17 to 21 1/8 110 to 160 18 to 22 5/32 150 to 210 19 to 23 3/16 200 to 275 20 to 24 7/32 260 to 340 21 to 25 1/4 330 to 415 22 to 26 5116 390 to 500 23 to 28 Weld deposit physical following: properties should range within the As-welded Stress -relieved Tensile strength, psi 72,000 to 78,000 68,000 to 74,000 Yield strength, psi 60,000 to 66,000 55,000 to 61,000 Elongation in 2 in., per cent 17 to 21 21 to 27
E7015 - This electrode is commonly referred to as a low-hydrogen electrode. It was the first
d-c reverse polarity, all-position electrode designed for welding of high-sulfur and high-carbon steels, materials which tend to develop porosity and crack under the weld bead.
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INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
These underbead cracks occur in base metal usually just below the weld metal and are caused by hydrogen absorption from arc atmospheres. Elimination of hydrogen with its subsequent underbead cracking permits the welding of difficult-to-weld steels with less preheat than required for non-low hydrogen electrodes, thus making for better welding conditions. Although these cracks do not occur in mild steel, they may occur wherever a non-low hydrogen electrode is used on high tensile steels. When a non-low-hydrogen electrode is used for high-sulfur steels, those steels containing 0.10 to 0.25% sulfur will have badly honeycombed weld deposits. The E7015 can be used to weld these steels with less difficulty. The E7015 coating is high in limestone and other ingredients with low hydrogen content, thereby preventing introduction of hydrogen in the weld. The arc is moderately penetrating, the slag is heavy, friable and easily removed, and the deposit weld metal lies in a flat bead or may even be slightly concave. The E7015s may be used in all positions up to and including 5/32-in. diameter. The larger diameters are useful for fillet welds and horizontal and flat positions. Welding currents are somewhat higher than recommended for same diameter E6010s. Also recommended as short an arc as possible for all welding positions to obtain best results. This reduces the tendency for under bead cracking and the quality of the as-welded deposit should materially reduce the need for weldment preheat and postheat, making for better welding conditions. The E7015 electrode was originally developed for welding hardenable steels, besides its use on alloy, high-carbon and high-sulfur steels. They have been found useful on malleable irons, spring steel and the mild steel sides of clad plates. These electrodes are commonly used for making small welds on heavy weldments since they are less susceptible to cracking than non-lowhydrogen electrodes. Another extensive use has been in welding steels which are subsequently enameled and on all steels which contain selenium. The successful performance of this electrode later led to development of the E7016 and E7018 electrodes which also have a very low moisture content coating.
E7016 - These electrodes have all the characteristics of the E7015, The core wire and
coatings are very similar except for the use of certain amounts of potassium silicate and other potassium salts in the coating to make the electrode suitable with a-c as well as d-c reverse polarity. All that has been stated for the E7015 electrodes applies equally well to the B7016.
E7015 and E7016

Electrode diameter, in. 3/32 1/8 Current, amp 65 to 110 100 to 150 Voltage, arc volts 17 to 22 18 to 22
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5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4 5/16
140 to 200 180 to 255 240 to 320 300 to 390 375 to 475
20 to 24 21 to 25 23 to 27 24 to 28 24 to 28
Mechanical properties of the weld deposits should range as follows: Tensile strength, psi Yield strength, psi Elongation in 2 in., per cent As-welded 72,000 to 78,000 60,000 to 66,000 22 to 28 Stress relieved 68,000 to 74,000 55,000 to 60,000 28 to 34
- Like the E7016, this all, position electrode of low-hydrogen design with a 25 to 40% iron powder coating operates on either a-c or d-c reverse polarity. It has all the desirable low-hydrogen characteristics of producing sound welds on troublesome steels such as the highsulfur, high-carbon and low-alloy grades. As is common with all low-hydrogen electrodes, a short are should be maintained at all times. Fillet welds made in a horizontal or flat position are slightly convex in profile with a smooth, finely rippled surface. Electrodes are characterized by a smooth, quiet arc, low penetration, very low spatter, and can be used at high lineal speeds. The minerals in the low-hydrogen electrode coatings are limited to inorganic compounds such as calcium fluoride, calcium carbonate, magnesium, aluminum-silicate, ferro alloys and such binding agents as sodium and potassium silicate. These electrodes are referred to as the limeferritic because of their general use of lime-type coatings (since this lime is a decomposed product of such compounds as calcium carbonate). Since the coating of these electrodes is heavier than normal, vertical and overhead welding is usually limited to the smaller diameters. Currents used are somewhat higher than for the E6010s of corresponding size.
E7018
E7018
Electrode diameter, in. Current, amp Voltage, arc volt. 3/32 70 to 100 17 to 21 1/8 115 to 165 18 to 22 5/32 150to 220 20 to 24 3/16 200 to 275 21 to 25 7/32 260 to 340 22 to 26 1/4 315 to 400 23 to 27 5/16 375 to 470 23 to 28 The following, range of mechanical properties can he expected from deposited weld metal: As-welded Stress relieved Tensile strength, psi 72,000 to 78,000 68,000 to 74,000 Yield strength, psi 60,000 to 66,000 55,000 to 61,000
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Elongation in 2 in., per cent
22 to 28
28 to 33
Mechanical properties (including impact strength) of a low-hydrogen electrode are superior to those, of the E6010 electrodes that deposit weld metal of similar composition. Use of a lowhydrogen electrode reduces the preheat and postheat of welds; making for better welding conditions and the lowering or eliminating of preheating costs.
E6020 -
These electrodes are designed to produce high quality, horizontal fillet welds at high welding speeds, using either a-c or d-c straight polarity. In the flat position, the E6020 can be used with a-c or d-c of either polarity. The electrodes are characterized by a forceful spray-type arc and heavy slag, which completely covers the deposit and may be easily removed. Penetration is medium at normal welding speeds, but high current and high travel speeds result in deep penetration. Deposits are usually flat or even slightly concave in profile and have a smooth, even ripple. Radiographic qualities are excellent but the weld bead shows medium spatter and a tendency to undercut. The E6020s are essentially mineral coated electrodes having high percentages of iron oxide; manganese compounds and silicates in their mix, along with sufficient deoxidizers to give the deposit the desired composition. The slag coverage is so extensive and the slag-metal reaction of such A nature that the electrodes generally do not depend on gaseous protection. The coatings are such that an iron oxide, manganese oxide, silica slag is usually produced. Other materials such as aluminum, magnesium or sodium may be present to modify this slag. Ferromanganese is used as the main deoxidizer; sodium silicate ii used as a binder. The quantity of basic oxide, acid silica and silicates and deoxidizers must be carefully controlled to produce satisfactory operations and good weld metal. The heavy slag produced will be well honeycombed on the underside, while completely covering the deposit; it can be readily removed. In general, the E6020s are recommended for horizontal fillet and flat position welds where radiographic requirements must be met. Fillet welds tend to have a flat or concave profile and a smooth, even ripple. In many cases the surface of the deposit is dimpled.
F-6020
Electrode diameter, in 1/8 5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4 5/16 Current, amp 100 to 150 130 to 190 175 to 250 225 to 310 275 to 375 340 to 450 voltage, arc volts 24 to 28 26 to 30 30 to 36 30 to 36 30 to 36 32 to 38
The following range of mechanical properties can be expected from the deposited weld metal:
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Tensile strength, psi Yield strength, psi Elongation in 2 in., per cent
As-welded 62,000 to 68,000 52,000 to 58,000 25 to 30
Stress relieved 60,000 to 66,000 47,000 to 53,000 30 to 36
The more restricted the opening in which the metal is deposited, the greater the tendency toward dimples. So dimples may be expected in practically all cases on the first few passes of deep groove welds. As the welding nears completion, this -tendency decreases. Many have noted that a-c tends to promote this dimpled condition to a greater extent than d-c. No undesirable mechanical or physical defects are associated with this surface condition, however High deposition rates can be made in the flat position on such welds as in heavy plate. Usually E6020 electrodes are not used on thin sections due to increased warpage resulting from the higher currents usually employed. For making horizontal fillet welds using the conventional techniques, current values are nearer the lower end of the range indicated if undercutting is to be held to a minimum. If the deep fillet welding technique is used, the higher currents are used.
E6027
- With a 50% iron powder design, these electrodes have arc characteristics which closely duplicate the E6020. They are designed to produce satisfactory fillet or groove welds in flat position with a-c or d-c either polarity, and will produce flat or slightly concave horizontal fillet welds with either a-c or d-c straight polarity. The E6027 has a spray-type metal transfer and deposits metal at a high lineal speed. Penetration is medium and spatter loss is very low. In fact, they are characteristics closely duplicate the E6020, having a very high deposition rate. The slag, though very heavy and honeycombed on the underside, crumbles for easy removal. The E6027 is particularly suited for multi-pass, deep groove welding. Welds produced with the E6027 have a flat to slightly concaved profile with a smooth, fine, even ripple and with good metal wash up the joint sides. The weld metal is apt to vary in radiographic quality and be somewhat inferior to that from E6020. High current can be used with a considerable portion of the electrical energy passing through the electrode being used to melt the coating and the iron powder contained in it. The electrodes are well suited to welding fairly heavy sections. In many respects the E6027s produce high quality weld metal having physical properties closely duplicating those of the E6010. Operating characteristics make this electrode slightly harder to handle than the E6024; however, properly deposited weld beads can have a neater appearance.
E7024
- These electrodes, ideally suited for production fillet welding, are designed for horizontal fillet or flat positions using either an a-c or d-c power source. The E7024 although generally used on mild steel also produces satisfactory welds on many lowalloy, medium and high-carbon steels. These electrodes are particularly well-suited for making
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
fillet welds on mild steel. The welds are slightly convex in profile with a smooth surface and an extremely fine ripple. The electrodes are characterized by a smooth, quiet arc, very low spatter, low penetration and may be used at high lineal speeds. Their 50% iron powder coatings help produce deposition rates and welding speeds considerably higher than those of the E6012, E6013 or B7014 types which have similar performance characteristics. Other than the high percentage of iron powder, the coating ingredients are similar to those commonly used in the E6012 and E6013s.
E7028
- These are the last of the mild steel series and have a low-hydrogen coating containing 50% iron powder. In many respects these electrodes are very much like the E7018s, although they differ in the following respects. The E7018s are all position electrodes, whereas the E7028s are suitable for horizontal fillet and flat position welding only. The coating of the E7028 electrode is much thicker than that of the B7018 because of its higher iron powder content. Hence, on horizontal fillet and flat welding the E7028 has a much higher deposition rate than the B7018 for any given size electrode. Actually, the coating of an E7028 represents about 50% of the weight of the electrode.
E7024 and E7028

Electrode diameter, in Current, amp Voltage, arc volts 3/32 100 to 145* 20 to 24 1/8 140 to 190 21 to 25 5/32 180 to 250 22 to 26 3/16 230 to 305 23 to 27 7/32 275 to 365 23 to 28 1/4 335 to 430 24 to 29 5/16 400 to 525* 24 to 30 *Do not apply for E7028 Approximate mechanical properties are as follows: As-welded Stress relieved Tensile strength, psi 72,000 to 78,000 68,000 to 72,000 Yield strength, psi 60,000 to 66,000 55,000 to 61,000 Elongation in 2 in., per cent 17 to 22* 22 to 27 *For E7024; E7028 elongation in 2 in. is 22 to 28%
The means of metal transfer between the two electrodes differ also. E7028 has a spray-type transfer while the E7018 has a globular-type transfer. These electrodes are capable of producing the physical properties and weld quality typical of low hydrogen electrodes. The ratio of weld metal weight to the weight of core wire consumed is about 1.05 minimum for the E7018 electrodes and about 1.30 minimum for the E7028 electrodes. Apart from these differences, all that has been said about the E7018 applies equally as well to the E7028
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Electrode Coating Secrets

Electrode Type of Coating E6020 E7018 Iron Titania Cellulosic Cellulosic Titania Titania Powder Iron Iron Sodium Potassium Sodium Potassium Iron Oxide Powder Oxide ac: or dcrp ac or derp ac or dcrp ac or dc ac or dc ac: or dc dcrp Chemical Composition (%) 10.5 21.0 5.3 52.7 10.5 6.5 16.0 5.3 6.6 18.9 1.6 36.8 8.3 6.6 3.0 4.0 10.0 8.0 25.0 10.0 39.0 2.7 2.7 12.0 14.3 5.6 18.6 12.3 7.7 10.3 13.8 8.0 10.0 14.0 1.5-4.5 18.0 4.0 18.0 22.0 36.4 4.6 1.8 27.4 6.9 16.6 3.6 2.7 2.6 2.6 21.6 10.3 26.0 2.6 35.3 8.6 E6010 E6011 E6012 E6013 E7014 E7024 Titania Iron Powder ac or dc E6027 Iron Powder Iron Oxide E7028 Iron Powder LOW Hydrogen
Welding Current Constituent Function Primary Secondary Alumina Slag Former Asbestos Slag Former Extrusion Calcium Carbonate Shielding Gas Fluxing Agent Cellulose Shielding Gas Clay Extrusion Slag Former Dolomite Shielding Gas Fluxing Agent Feldspar Slag Former Arc Stabilizer Ferromanganese Alloying Deoxidizer Ferrosilicon Deoxidizer Glycerin Extrusion Iron Oxide Slag Former Contact Iron Powder Deposition Rate Welding Magnesium Oxide Slag Former Manganese Slag Former Alloying Dioxide Mica Extrusion Arc Stabilizer Potassium Silicate Arc Stabilizer Binder Potassium Titanate Arc Stabilizer Slag Former Silica Slag Former Sodium Silicate Binder Fluxing Agent Talc Extrusion Binder Titanium Dioxide Slag Former Arc Stabilizer Zircon Slag Former Arc Stabilizer Zirconia Slag Former Arc Stabilizer
ac or dc, ac or dcrp
1.0 3.3 8.2 5.4 4.4 39.0 7.0 2.7 7.0 22.0 -
4.9 1.0 3.9 10.8 0.7 16.5 32.4 13.8 16.0 -
12.0 4.6 5.0 51.0 1.3 17.7 10.0 3.0 -
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Know Your Arc Welding Electrodes

AWS Class EXX10 Current and Polarity DC, reverse polarity(electrode positive) AC or DC, reverse polarity DC, straight polarity(electrode negative) AC or DC, straight polarity DC, either polarity or AC DC, reverse polarity Welding Positions All Type of Covering High-cellulose sodium High-cellulose potassium High-titania sodium High-titania sodium Iron powdertitanic Low hydrogen sodium Low hydrogen potassium Iron powder low hydrogen High iron oxide Type of Arc Digging Penetration Deep Surface Appearance Flat, wavy Type of Slag Organic Slag Thin
EXX11I E6012
All AII
Digging Medium
Deep Medium
Flat, wavy Convex, rippled
Organic Rutile
Thin Heavy
EXX13 EXX14
All All
Soft Soft
Shallow Medium
EXXI5
All
Medium
Medium
Flat or concave, slight ripple Fiat, slightly convex smooth ripple Fiat, wavy
Rutile Rutile
Medium Easily
Low Hydrogen Low Low Hydrogen Mineral
Medium
EXX16 EXXI8
AC or DC, reverse polarity AC or DC, reverse polarity
All All
Medium Medium
Medium Shallow
Flat, wavy Flat, smooth fine ripple, Flat or concave smooth
Medium Medium
EXX20
EXX24
DC, straight polarity H-fillets and flat or AC for H-fillets; DC, either polarity or AC for flat welds DC, either polarity H-fillets and flat or AC
Digging
Medium
Heavy
Iron powder titanic
Soft
Shallow
EXX27
EXX28
DC, straight polarity H-fillets and flat Iron powder iron or AC for H-fillets oxide DC either polarity or AC for flat welds AC or DC, reverse H-fillets and flat Iron powder low
Soft
Medium
Medium
Shallow
Slightly convex, very smooth, fine ripple Flat to slightly concave, smooth, fine ripple Flat, smooth fine
Rutile.
Heavy
Mineral
Heavy
Low Hydrogen
Medium
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polarity
hydrogen
ripple,
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MILD STEEL ELECTRODE SELECTION CHART

AWS ELECTRODE CLASS (a)
Groove butt welds, flat (> % in.) Groove butt welds, all positions (> 14 in.) Fillet welds, flat or horizontal Fillet welds, all positions Current (c) E6010 4 10 2 10 DCR Thin material (> 1/4 in.) Heavy plate or highly restrained joint High sulfur or off-analysis steel (b) Deposition rate Depth of penetration Appearance, undercutting Soundness Ductility Low-temperature impact strength Low spatter loss Poor fit-up Welder appeal Slog removal 5 8 (b) 4 10 6 6 6 8 1 6 7 9 E6011 5 9 3 9 AC DCR 7 8 (b) 4 9 6 6 7 8 2 7 6 8 E6012 3 5 8 6 DCS AC 8 6 5 5 6 8 3 4 4 6 10 8 6 E6013 8 8 7 7 AC DC 9 8 3 5 5 9 5 5 5 7 8 9 6 E7014 9 6 9 7 AC DC 8 8 3 6 6 9 7 6 8 9 9 10 8 E7016 7 7 5 8 DCR AC 2 10 10 4 7 7 10 10 10 6 4 6 4 E7018 9 6 9 6 DC AC 2 9 9 6 7 10 9 10 10 8 4 8 7 E6020 10 (b) 10 (b) DC AC (b) a (b) 6 a 9 9- 10 8 9 (b) 9 9 E7024 9 (b) 10 W AC DC 7 7 5 10 4 10 8 5 9 10 a 10 9 E6027 10 (b) 9 W AC DC (b) 8 W 10 8 10 9 10 9 10 (b) 10 9 E7028 10 (b) 9 (b) DCR AC (b) 9 9 8 7 10 9 10 10 9 4 9 8
(a) Rating is on a comparative basis of some size electrodes with 10 as the highest value. Ratings may change with size. (b) Not recommended. (c) DCR-direct current reverse, electrode positive. DCS-direct current straight, electrode negative. AC-alternating current. DC-direct current, either polarity. (Courtesy of Airco, Inc.)
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INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Stainless steel electrodes

AWS-ASTM SPEC CLASS ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS AS.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4.62T E308-15 E308-16 E3081-15 E3081-16 E309-15 E309-16 E309Cb-15 E309Cb-16 E309Mo- 16 E309Mo- 16 AISI NO 307 308Mo 308 308HC 308L APPLICATION A high manganese austenitic Cr-Ni stainless steel electrode developed for welding armor plate A moly bearing austenitic Cr-Ni stainless steel electrode developed for welding armor plate. Specially coated Type 308 electrodes for welding austenitic Cr-Ni stainless steels such as AISI 301, 302, 304, 305, 308. Specially coated Type 308 electrodes for welding austenitic Cr-Ni stainless steels. Same as Chromend and Stainlend 308 above except higher carbon Low carbon austenitic Cr-Ni stainless steel electrodes for welding AISI Type 304L. ACI CF-3 and similar alloys. Specially coated Type 309 electrodes for welding stainless steels such as AISI 309, 309S, 405, 410 and 430. ACI CH-20, HH and HI: Cr-Mo steels and air hardening alloy steels when post heat treatment is not specified. Specially coated austenitic stainless steel electrodes for welding Type 309Cb or for the root pass in welding 347 clad. Specially coated Mo-bearing stainless steel electrodes for root pass welding Types 316, 316L, 319 and 319L clad steel. Also used for first layer in depositing Mo-bearing stainless steal overlay on mild or low alloy steel. Specially coated Type 310 electrodes for welding stainless steels such as AISI 310, 310S, 410, 430, 446; AC1 CK-20, HF, HL, HN. Also for welding stainless to mild or low alloy steel or for welding air hardening steels without preheat or postheat treatment. Specially coated electrodes for root pass welding Type 347 clad plates. Mo-bearing coated electrodes for root pass welding Type 316 and 317 clad steel; also for overlaying carbon or low alloy steels when Mobearing stainless steel is required and dilution rates may be high. For DC welding of AC1 CK-20, HIC, HL or HN castings. Supplied in three carbon ranges; 0.14-0.20%, 0.20-0.30%, 0.30-0.40%. Specially coated stainless electrodes for joining dissimilar metals where ductile joints are required. Also used for welding AISI 303, ACI CE-30, CF-16F and HE and for certain super-alloy compositions. Mo-bearing coated stainless electrodes for welding AISI 316 and D319, ACI CF-8 and CF-12M. Used for corrosion resistant weldments which are not annealed after welding Extra low carbon coated electrodes for welding AISI 316L and 319L, ACI CF-3M. Used for corrosion resistant weldments which are not annealed after welding. High Mo (3-4%) chrome-nickel electrodes for welding stainless steels of similar composition such as AISI 317 and ACI CG.8M. Modified Type 316 electrodes containing columbium for welding Type 318 basemetal to assure freedom from intergranular corrosion of weldments which are not annealed after welding. An electrode designed for welding the stainless steels designated by several suppliers as 20 including Carpenter 20. Durimet 20. Alloyco 20 and ACI CN-7M. These alloys are used for handling hot sulfuric acid in concentrations and at temperatures too high for Type 316 and 317 stainless steels. Specially coated 15% chromium. 35% nickel electrode used for welding Type 330 or SAE 30330 plate and ACI HT and HU castings for high temperature service. Higher carbon, controlled carbon content electrode for welding ACI E308-15 E308-16 E308L-15 E308L-16 E309-15 E309-16 E309Cb-15 E309Cb-16 E309Mo-15 E309Mo-16
309
309Cb
309Mo
ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298,62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298 62T AWS A5.4.62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS AS.4-62T
E310-15 E310-16 E310Cb-15 E310Cb-16 E310Mo-15 E310Mo-16 E310HC-15 E312-15 E312-16 E316-15 E316-16 E316L-15 E316L-16 E317-15 E317-16 E318-15 E318-16
310
E310-15 E310-16 E310Cb-16 E310Mo-15 E310Mo-16 E310HC- 15 E312-15 E312-16 E316-15 E316-16 E316L-15 E316L-16 E317-15 E317-16 E318-15 E318-16
310Cb 310Mo 310HC 312
316
316L 317 318
ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T
E320-15
320
E320-15
ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T
E330-15 E330HC-15
330 330HC
E330-15 E330HC-15
USMMA GMATS
37
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5,4.62T ASTM A29-8-62T AWS AS.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A29-8-62T AWS A5.4-62T ASTM A298.62T AWS A5.4-62T E347-15 E347-16 E349-15 E349-16 E410-15 E410-16 E430-15
347
349 410
430
E442. 15 E446-15 E502-15
442 446 502
E502-16
502
E505-15
505
E16-8-2-15
16-8.2
HT and HU castings. Available in either 0.25-0.35% or 0.35-0.45% carbon.. Austenitic Cr-Ni electrodes containing stabilizing elements to overcome loss of corrosion resistance in welded structures. Used for welding AISI 321 and 347, ACI CF-8C and for Type 348 components Superalloy electrodes for welding alloys such as 19/9 DC. 19/9 DX. 19/9 WMo. 19/9 WX where high strength and creep resistance are important. Primarily used in jet engine fabrication. Coated 12% Cr electrodes for welding AISI Types 403, 405, 410; ACI Ca-15. Also used for AISI 414 and 420, and for ACI CA-40. A specially coated chromium steel electrode for welding AISI 430 and also AISI 431, 440A, 4408, 440C, and for ACI CB-30. Recommended for added safety in highly restrained joints or cracksensitive alloys A coated electrode for welding Type 442 (18% Cr) and ACI CB-30 castings. The weld metal has excellent corrosion resistance and is suitable for service at temperatures as high as 2000F. A coated 28% Cr electrode for welding AISI Type 446 and ACI CC 50 and HC castings. Good resistance to sulfur-bearing atmospheres A coated 5% chromium steel electrode for welding Type 501 and 502 usually in the form of pipe or tubing. An air hardening alloy that requires both pre and post heat treatment for welding. A coated 5% chromium steel electrode for welding Type 501 and 502 usually in the form of pipe or tubing. An air hardening alloy that requires both pre and post heat treatment for welding For welding 6-8% and 8- 10% Cr-Mo steel piping. High temperature strength and good corrosion resistance make these alloys suitable for many oil refinery processes. Valves and other should be welded with Chromend 9M electrodes. A specially coated electrode for welding Type 316 stainless steel for high temperature service when resistance to embrittlement through sigma formation is important. Can not be expected to perform as well as 316 or 316L weld metal under severe corrosion. A specially coated electrode for welding Inconel and for weld overlaying of Inconel on carbon and low alloy steel. Also unexcelled for many dissimilar metal joints. Chromend 14/75 welds satisfy even the exacting requirements of nuclear energy service. A specially coated electrode for welding cupro-nickel (70% Cu 30% Ni) used in marine condensers and in vessels for storing or conveying alkaline solutions in chemical plants. Specially coated electrodes for crack-free welding of Monel. Monelclad steel, and for deposition of Monel overlay in steel. Capable of depositing X-ray quality weld metal.
E347-15 E347-16 E349-15 E349-16 E410-15 E410-16 E430-15
E442-15 E446-15 E502-15
E502-16
E505-15
E16-8-2-15
ASTM B295-62T AWS A5.11-62T
E4N1A E4N1A
E4N1A E4N1A
ASTM B225-62T AWS A5.6-62T ASTM B295-54T AWS A5.11-54T
ECuNi E3N10 E4N10 E8N10
ECuNi E3N10 E4N10 E8N10
USMMA GMATS
38
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Difficulties in Metal-Arc Welding

Difficulty Incomplete Penetration Poor Appearance Possible Causes 1. Joint design faulty 2. Welding speed too rapid 3. Insufficient welding current 4. Too large an electrode size 1. Current either too high or too low 2. Improper use of electrode 3. Faulty electrode 1. Current too high 2. Arc length too long 3. Improper manipulation of the electrode 4. Welding speed too rapid 1. Current too high 2. Are length too long 3, Excessive are blow 4. Faulty electrode 1. Magnetic field, created when using d-c, causes the arc to wander Are Blow Possible Corrections 1. Check root opening, root face dimension, included angle 2. Slow down welding speed 3. Increase welding current 4. Decrease electrode size 1. Adjust current values 2. Check welding procedure 3. Dry electrode to remove moisture; change electrode 1. Use lower current 2. Shorten arc length 3. Change angle of holding electrode so that arc force will be used to fill undercut 4. Slow down the welding speed 1. Use lower current 2. Shorten the arc length 3. See remedies for arc blow 4. Replace electrode 1. Use a-c machine 2. Counteract blow with angle of electrode 3. Rearrange or split ground clamp 4. Replace magnetic work bench 5. Use brass or copper back-up bar 1. Remove rust, scale and other foreign matter from edges 1. Proper preparation of groove before each bead is deposited. Avoid contours that are difficult to penetrate with arc 2. Use preheat and obtain higher heat input per unit Slow down welding speed 2. Increase current values 3. Use low-hydrogen electrodes 4. Dry electrodes to remove moisture; replace electrodes 1. Use low-hydrogen electrodes 2. Redesign joint; use preheat and postheat; weave 3. Use slower travel or faster freezing electrode to give a more convex bead 4. Back step to fill craters 5. Preheat and/or postheat 1. Redesign to allow for expansion and contraction forces 2. Use lower current and more efficient chill bars 3. Increase the speed of the arc 4. Improve welding sequence 5. Clamp properly to chill bar L. Use low-hydrogen cr austenitic electrode 2 Use proper preheat and postheat cycles 3. Use austenitic electrodes 4. Shallow penetration by directing arc on weld puddle
Undercuttin g
Excessive Spatter
Pinholes Slag Weld in
1. Foreign matter in joint 1. Joint design: sharp V-shaped recess 2. High viscosity of molten metal, rapid chilling, too low a weld temperature 1. Welding speed too rapid 2. Current too low 3. High sulfur or other impurities 4. Faulty electrodes 1. Faulty electrode 2. Rigidity of joint; stressed weld 3. Shape of bead 4. Craters 5. Fast cooling rate 1. Improper design of weld 2. Overheating 3. Welding speed too slow 4. Improper welding sequence 5. Faulty clamping 1. Incorrect electrode 2. Incorrect heat treatment 3. Air-hardening deposit 4. Base metal pick-up
Porous Welds
Cracked Welds
Distortion And Warping
Brittle Welds
USMMA GMATS
39
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
HOW QUALITIES OF WELDS ARE AFFECTED BY WELDING SPEED, ARC LENGTH AND CURRENT
SPEED TOO FAST - Gives narrow stringy bead, relatively thin metal deposit and poor fusion.
SPEED TOO SLOW - Causes deposited metal to pile up, producing wide and high beads.
NORMAL SPEED - Normal travel speed results in nice appearing bead, correct profile, good penetration and fusion.
ARC TOO LONG - Produces wide bead with flatter than normal profile and results in excessive amount of spatter. Also affects surface appearance of bead. ARC TOO SHORT - Produces slightly humped bead. Penetration and width are less than with normal arc length. Arc is sometimes extinguished. NORMAL ARC - Normal arc length produces nice appearing bead of correct profile and gets good penetration and fusion.
CURRENT TOO HIGH - Gives excessive penetration and excessive spatter. Also causes undercutting and long craters. Bead appearance and profile are poor.
CURRENT TOO LOW - Gives poor penetration, high humped bead, and poor fusion. Arc is easily extinguished.
NORMAL CURRENT Normal current produces nice appearing bead of correct profile, good penetration and fusion.
USMMA GMATS
40
11/3/2006
WELDING AND PIPEFITTING HANDOUTS ASTM Spec A1-58 A 2-54 A 5-54 A 47-52 A 48-56 A 59-49 A 60-49 A 68-49 A 74-42 A 126-42 A 142-38 A 148-58 A 159-58 Type or Grade All Weights All classes AWSASTM Designation E312 E312 E312 Preheat (Pr) Or Postheat (Po) Pr Pr Pr, Po Pr Pr Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr Pr Pr, Po Pr, Po E308 E347 E308L E309 E310 E316 E410 E309 E430 E309 E442 E309 E446 E309 E308 A 190-47 Notes and Comments ASTM Spec
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS Type or Grade AWSASTM Designation E502 E502 E309 E410 E309 E305 E309 E308 E308L E310 E316 E316L E347 or E308L E309 E502 E502 E309 E410 E309 E502 E502 E308 E347 or E308L E308-15 E502 E502 E309 E505 E309 E502 E502 E309 E309 Preheat (Pr) Or Postheat (Po) Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Notes and Comments 3 4 4 4
1,2 1,2 A 182-58 1 1 F5&F5a
E312 E312 E312 All 150-125, 175-145 All 1,2,3,4&7 5&6 8 10 11 1&2 4
B5
A 167-58
B6 Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po A 193-58 4 4 4 4 T7&T9 A 199-58 T21 B8 B8C, B8D & B8T B8F T5 B7 & B7a
Pr Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po
1 3 4 4 3
A 176-54
5 6
A 177-58
Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po
3 4 4 3 4 4
USMMA GMATS
41
11/3/2006
WELDING AND PIPEFITTING HANDOUTS ASTM Spec Type or Grade T3b & T4 T5 AWSASTM Designation E309 E502 E502 E309 E505 E309 E502 E309 E309 E502 E502 E309 E505 E309 E502 E309 E308 E310 E347 or E308L E316 E502 E502 E309 E505 E309 E502 E502 E309 Preheat (Pr) Or Postheat (Po) Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Notes and Comments 4 3 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 A 243-55 A 240-58 ASTM Spec
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS Type or Grade 302, 304 304L & 305 309S 310S 316 316L 317 317L 321, 347 & 348 405 AWSASTM Designation E308 E309 E310 E316 E316L E317 E317L E347 or E308L E410 E309 E410 E430 E502 E502 E308 E308L E309 E310 E316 E316L E317 E347 or E308L E305 E308 E347 E309 E310 E316 Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Preheat (Pr) Or Postheat (Po) Notes and Comments
A 200-58
T7&T9 T21
T5, T5b, T5c
T7 & T9 A 213-58 T21
410 & 410S 430A & B N&O TP304 TP304L TP309 TP310 TP316 TP316L TP317 TP321, 321H 347 & 348 1, 2, 3 & 4 5&6 8 10 11
TP304 TP321, 347 &348 TP316 C5 A 217-58 C12 A 220-55 WP5 A 234-58a
Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po
3 4 4 1 3
A 249-58
A 263-44
A 264-44
5 5 5 5 5
USMMA GMATS
42
11/3/2006
WELDING AND PIPEFITTING HANDOUTS ASTM Spec Type or Grade TP405 TP410 TP430 TP443 TP446 TP329 TP304 TP304L TP316 TP316L TP317 TP327, 347 & 348 TP304 TP321, 347 & 348 302 & 302B & 304 303, 303Se 304L 308 309, 309S 310, 310S 314 316 316L 321, 347 & 348 403&4410 405 414, 416 & 416Se 420 & 430 430F & AWSASTM Designation E410 E309 E410 E430 E442 E446 E312 E308 E308L E316 E316L E317 E347 or E308L E308 E308 E347 or E308L E308 E308-15 E308L E308 E309 E310 E310 E316 E316L E347 or E308L E410 E410 E309 E310 E430 E310 A 297-55 Preheat (Pr) Or Postheat (Po) Pr Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Notes and Comments ASTM Spec
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS Type or Grade 430FSe 431 440A, B & C A 278-57 A 286-57 A 288-57 A 289-55 A 290-55 A 291-55 A 294-57 BO Class 5,6 & 7 AB&C D, E, F & G 5, 6, 7 & 8 B4 CF8 & CF20 CG-12 CF-8M CF-8C CF-16F CH-20 CK-20 CE-30 CA-15 CB-30 CC-50 HF HH HI HK HR 4 TP304 TP304L TP309 TP310 TP316 TP316L TP317 TP321, 347 & 348 AWSASTM Designation E431 Preheat (Pr) Or Postheat (Po) Pr, Po Pr Pr Pr, Po Pr Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Notes and Comments
7 1
A 268-58
A 269-58
A 270-58 A 271-58
A 296-5
A 276-57
A 300-58 Pr, Po Pr Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po 6 A 312-58
E502 E502 309 E502 E502 E502 E308 E309 E316 E347 E310 E309 E310 E312 E410 E309 E442 E309 E446 E309 E308 E309 E310 E310 E312 E309 E308 E308L E309 E310 E316 E316L E317 E347 or E308L 11/3/2006
Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po
4 4 4
Pr
USMMA GMATS
43
WELDING AND PIPEFITTING HANDOUTS ASTM Spec Type or Grade 202, 302, 302S, 304, 305 & 308 303, 303Se 309, 309S 310, 310S 314 316 316ELC 317 321, 347 & 348 403 & 410 405 414, 416 & 416Se 420 & 430 430F & 430FSe 431 440 A, B & C 446 501 & 502 AWSASTM Designation E308 Preheat (Pr) Or Postheat (Po) Notes and Comments ASTM Spec
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS Type or Grade P5, P5b & P5c E502 E309 E505 E309 E502 E502 E309 E502 E502 E309 E410 E309 E502 E502 E309 E308 E316 E347 or E308L E310 Pr Pr CA15 CF8 CF8M CF8C A 351-58 CH8, CH10 & CH20 CK20 CF35 CF10MC E410 E309 E308 E316 E347 or E308L E309 E310 E330 E318 Pr, Po Pr, Po 4 1, 2 1, 2 AWSASTM Designation Preheat (Pr) Or Postheat (Po) Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Notes and Comments 3 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 4 3
A 314-58
E308-15 E309 E310 E310 E316 E316L E317 E347 or E308L E410 E309 E410 E310 E430 E310 E431 E446 E309 E502 E502 E309 E502 E502 E308 E347 or E308L E308-15
A 335-55
P7 & P9 P21
F5, P5a
F6 Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po 7 Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr Pr, Po Pr, Po 4 3 4 1 3 A 338-54 A 339-55 6 4 6 A 336-57 F8 F8m F8c, F8t F10 & F25 F32
A 319-53
All L7 & L43 B8 B8C, B8D & B8T B8F
A 320-58
USMMA GMATS
44
11/3/2006
WELDING AND PIPEFITTING HANDOUTS ASTM Spec A 353-58 A 354-58 Type or Grade A&B BD 304 316 321, 347 & 348 309 310 FP5 AWSASTM Designation E309 E502 E53 E308 E316 E347 or E308L E309 E310 E502 E502 E309 E505 E309 E308 E316 E347 or E308L E502 E502 E309 E330 Preheat (Pr) Or Postheat (Po) Pr, Po Pr, Po Notes and Comments 3
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
A 357-56
A 369-55 FP7 & FP9 TP304 TP316 TP321, 347 & 348 E
Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po Pr, Po
3 4 4
Notes: 1. Recommended for repair welding or surfacing only. 2. Weld zone not matteable. 3. Preheat and postheat can be lower than those for the standard higher carbon 502 grade, and in some cases can be eliminated entirely. 4. Preheat and postheat required for benefit of base metal only. 5. To compensate for dilution effects, transition passes between carbon or low alloy steel and stainless steal clad should be a grade higher than that shown as recommended for subsequent or final passes. Mild steeel or low hydrogen electrodes generally used for carbon steel side of the joint. 6. Not usually welded but best results will probably be obtained with a lime type coating. 7. Welding not recommended.
A 376-56 A 377-57 A 387-57 B 150-50 B 207
Pr Pr, Po Pr, Po
1 3
USMMA GMATS
45
11/3/2006
WELDING AND PIPEFITTING HANDOUT
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
OXYGEN AND ACETYLENE CYLINDERS - Hazards are always present when gases are compressed, stored, transported, and used under very high pressures. Oxygen and acetylene are delivered to the user- under high pressure in steel cylinders. These cylinders are made to rigid specifications. Cylinders are built, filled and transported according to interstate commerce commission regulations. Before transporting, all cylinders must be secured in an upright position and cylinder caps must be in place. A simple demonstration of the effects of compressing gas can be shown with an ordinary toy balloon. When the balloon is blown up and held tightly at the neck so the air cannot escape, it resembles the compressed gas cylinder. What happens if the balloon is punctured, heated, or suddenly released? The explosive burst when punctured or heated, or the sudden flight of the balloon when released shows that compressed gas, even the small amount in a toy balloon, has considerable force. The double-seating valve is designed to seal OXYGEN CYLINDERS - The most common size off any oxygen that might leak around the of oxygen cylinder, when fully charged with gas, valve stem. When the valve is fully open there contains 244 cubic feet of oxygen. This oxygen is at a is no leakage. pressure of 2,200pounds per square inch when the temperature is 70 degrees F. (21 degrees C). The steel walls of these cylinders are only slightly more than one-quarter inch thick, .260 inch. Dropping such a cylinder, hitting it with heavy or sharp tools, or striking an electric arc on it can cause the cylinder to explode with enough force to cause serious injury and death. The general size and shape of an-oxygen cylinder is indicated in figure 2-1. As a safety precaution, the cylinder valve is protected by a removable steel cap. This cap must be on the cylinder at all times when it is being stored or transported. The cylinder valve should always be-closed when not in use, even when the cylinder is empty. The oxygen cylinder valve is designed to handle the highly compressed oxygen gas safely. The essential parts of the valve are shown in figure 2.2. The threads on the nozzle must be protected at all times. The bursting disc and safety cap are designed to allow the gas in the cylinder to escape if the cylinder is subjected to undue heat and the pressure in the tank begins to rise.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
ACETYLENE CYLINDERS - The acetylene cylinder is a welded steel tube. It is filled with a spongy material such as balsa wood or some other absorptive material, which is saturated with a chemical solvent called acetone. Acetone absorbs acetylene gas in much the same manner as water absorbs ammonia gas to produce common household ammonia. Some cylinders are equipped with a valve which can only be opened with a special wrench. Safety regulations require this type of valve on all containers carrying flammable, explosive, or toxic gases. The wrench must be in place whenever the cylinder is in use. Acetylene cylinders are also equipped with a number of fusible plugs designed to melt at 220 degrees F. These melt and release the pressure in the event the cylinder is exposed to excessive heat. Figure 2.3 is a cross section of a common acetylene cylinder. The construction details may vary from one manufacturer to another, but all acetylene cylinders are made to very rigid specifications. Acetylene cylinders are usually charged to a pressure of 250 pounds per square inch; the large size contains about 275 cubic feet. The steel walls of these cylinders are .175 inch thick. The precautions set forth for oxygen cylinders should be observed with acetylene cylinders. Escaping acetylene mixed with air forms a highly explosive mixture. Never operate acetylene cylinders in a horizontal position.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
WELDING AND PIPEFITTING HANDOUT KASS
INSTRUCTOR JOE
METAL COMBINATIONS AND FILLER METALS

Al & Al alloys Al & Al alloys Mg & Mg. alloys Cu & Cu alloys Carbon & low alloy steels Cast iron Stainless steel NI & Ni alloys T, & T alloys, BAISi x x BAISi x BAlSi x SAISi BMg x x x x x x x x BAg, BAu, BCuP RBCuZn BAg, BAu, BAg, BAu, BCu, RSCuZn. RBCuZn BNi BAg, BAu, BAg. RSCuZn RBCuZn BAg, RBCuZn BNI, BAg, BAu, BAg, BAu, BAg, BAu, BCu, BNI BCu, BNi BAg, BAu BAg, BAu BCu, BAg, BCu RSCuZn, RSCuZn BNI, RSCuZn-, BAg BAg BAg BAg BAg BAg, BNi BAg, BCu, BNi BAg. BNi BAg, BCu BNI, Mg & Mg alloys Cu & Cu alloys Carbon & low alloy steels Cast Iron Stainless steels Ni & Ni-alloys
BAg, BAu BCu, BNi, BAg, BAu, BCu, BNi BAg BAg, BNi BAg, BCu, BNi
BAg, BAu BCu,BN1,
Be, Zr& alloy s x BAISi (reactive metals) (Be) W, Mo, Th Cb & alloys, x (refractory metals)
BAg, BNI BAg, BCU, BNi
BAg, BAu, BAg, BAu, BAg, BAu, BAg, BAu Bcu, BAg, BAu, Tool steels x x RBCuZn RSCuZn, BCu, RBCuZn, BNI BCu, BNi BNi, BN1 RBCuZn, BNi *Filler metals: BAISi -Aluminum silicon BAu Gold base BCuP - Copper phosphorous BMg - Magnesium base BA9 . Silver base BCu Copper RBCuZn - Copper zinc BNi - Nickel base
This table may be used if you are brazing two different metals. Find one metal in the left column and the other on the top line of the chart. Where the vertical and horizontal lines for these two metals intersect, the suggested filler metal ma be found. X indicates that brazing this combination is not recommended.
USMMA 3 GMATS 11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
THE OXYACETYLENE WELDING FLAME - The flame is the actual tool of oxyacetylene welding. All of the welding equipment merely serves to maintain and control the flame. The flame must be of the proper size, shape, and condition in order to operate with maximum efficiency. The oxyacetylene flame differs from most other types of tools in that it is not ready-made. The operator must produce the proper flame each time the torch is lit. Once the operator masters the adjustment of the flame, the operators ability as a welder increases in direct proportion to the amount of practice the operator has. TYPES OF FLAMES - The oxyacetylene flame can be adjusted to produce three distinctly different types of flame. Each of these types has a very marked effect on the metal being fused or welded. In the order of their general use, the flames are neutral, carburizing, and oxidizing. Figure 7-1 illustrates their shapes and characteristics. The neutral flame, figure 7-2, is one in which equal amounts of oxygen and acetylene combine in the inner cone to produce a flame with a temperature of 5,900 degrees F. The inner cone is light blue in color. It is surrounded by an outer flame envelope produced by the combination of oxygen in the air and superheated carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases from the inner cone. This envelope is usually a much darker blue than the inner cone. The advantage of the neutral flame is that it adds nothing to the metal and takes nothing away. Once the metal has been fused, it is chemically the same as before welding.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
The carburizing flame (reducing flame), figure 7-3, is indicated by streamers of excess acetylene fromthe inner cone. These streamers are usually called feathers of acetylene, or simply the acetylene feather. The feather length depends on the amount of excess acetylene. The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame and is usually much brighter in color. This excess acetylene is very rich in carbon. When carbon is applied to red-hot or molten metal, it tends to combine with steel and iron to produce the very hard, brittle substance known as iron carbide. This chemical change leaves the metal in the weld unfit for many applications in which the weld may need to be bent or stretched. While this type of flame does have its uses, it should be avoided when fusion welding those metals which tend to absorb carbon. The carburizing flame in figures 7-1 and 7-3 shows the relation of the acetylene streamers to the inner cone. Job conditions sometime require an excess of acetylene in terms of the length of the inner cone. The oxidizing flame, figure 7-4, which has an excess of oxygen, is probably the least used of any of the three flames. In appearance, the inner cone is shorter, much bluer in color, and usually more pointed than a neutral flame. The outer flame envelope is much shorter and tends to fan out at the end. The neutral and carburizing envelopes tend to come to a sharp point. The excess oxygen in the flame causes the temperature to rise as high as 6,300 degrees F. This temperature would be an advantage if it were not for the fact that the excess oxygen, especially at high temperatures, tends to combine with many metals to form hard, brittle, low-strength oxides. For this reason, even slightly oxidizing flames should be avoided in welding.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
SETTING UP EQUIPMENT AND LIGHTING THE TORCH - Oxyacetylene welding equipment, figure 8-1, must be set up frequently and. it must be done efficiently. Since hazards are present, each, step must be performed correctly. The proper sequence must be followed to insure maximum safety to personnel and equipment. The cylinder caps are removed and put in their proper place. The cylinders should be fastened to a wall or other structure with chains, straps or bars, to prevent them from being tipped over. To use oxygen and acetylene cylinders and equipment without this safety precaution is to invite damage to the equipment and injury to the operator. Procedure 1. Aim the cylinder nozzle so it does not blow toward anyone. Crack the valve on each cylinder by opening the valve and closing, it quickly. This blows any dust or other, foreign material from the nozzle. 2. Attach the regulators to the cylinder nozzles. Note: All oxygen regulators in commercial use have a standard right-hand thread and fit all standard oxygen cylinders. Acetylene regulators may have right- or left hand threads and may have either a male or female connection, depending on the company supplying the gas. Adapters of various types may be needed to fit the existing regulators to different acetylene cylinders.
3. Attach the hoses to the regulators. Note: Oxygen hoses are green or black; acetylene hoses are red. All oxygen hose connections have right-hand threads; all acetylene hose connections have left-hand threads. The acetylene hose connection nuts are distinguished from the oxygen nuts by a groove machined around the center of the nut, figure 8-2. Check valves should be placed between the hoses and torch to prevent gases and fire from backing into hoses and regulators
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
4. Attach the torch to the other end of the hoses noting that while the hose connections may be a different size at the torch than at the regulators, they still have right-and left hand threads. Note: Use only the wrenches provided for attaching hoses and regulators. These wrenches are designed to give the proper leverage to tighten the joints without putting undue strain on the equipment. If the joints cannot be properly tightened, something is wrong. Never use sealer on threads, 5. Select the proper tip and mixing head and attach it to the torch. Position the tip so that the needle valves are on the side or bottom of the torch when the tip is in the proper welding position. 6. Back off the regulator screws on both units until the screws turn freely. This is necessary to eliminate a sudden surge of excessive pressure on the working side of the regulator when the cylinder is turned on. 7. Be sure both torch needle valves are turned off (clockwise). This is an added safety precaution to make sure excessive pressure cannot be backed through the mixing head and into the opposite hose. 8. Open the acetylene cylinder valve to turn. Open the oxygen cylinder valve all the way. 9. Open the acetylene needle valve one full turn. Turn the adjusting screw on the acetylene regulator clockwise until gas comes from the tip. Light this gas with a spark lighter.
10. Adjust the regulator screw until there is a gap of about inch between the tip and the flame. This is the proper pressure for the size of tip being used regardless of the gage pressure shown on the working pressure gage. 11. Open the oxygen needle valve on the torch one full turn. Turn the oxygen regulator adjusting screw clockwise until the flame changes appearance as oxygen is mixed with the acetylene. 12. Continue to turn the adjusting screw until the feather of acetylene just disappears into the end of the inner cone. This produces a neutral flame which is used in most welding This procedure for adjusting the oxyacetylene flame is the safest method of insuring the proper working pressures in both hoses and tip. Working pressure gauges are delicate and easily get out of
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
calibration. If this happens, excessive pressure can be built up in the hoses before it is discovered. However, if the pressures are adapted to the flame as indicated, there are equal pressures in both hoses which eliminates the possibility of backing gas from one hose to the other to form an explosive, mixture. With the regulators properly adjusted, minor flame adjustments are made with the torch needle valves. When the welding or cutting operation is finished, close the torch acetylene valve first, then the torch oxygen valve. To shutdown the equipment for an extended period of time, such as overnight, it should be purged. Use the following procedure: 1. 2. 3. 4. Close the oxygen cylinder valve. Open the torch oxygen valve to release all pressure from the hose and regulator. Turn out the pressure adjusting screw of the oxygen regulator. Close the torch oxygen valve. Follow the same sequence for purging acetylene.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
TROUBLE-SHOOTING TIPS FOR BRAZING

1. 2. 3. Increased amount of flux. Roughened surfaces produced by shot blasting, pickling. Etc Removing surfaces of cold-drawn and cold-rolled bar stock by machining or grinding Pickling parts to remove surface oxides. Placing the assembly in a different position, such as on an incline, to encourage brazing alloy to run into joints.
IF BRAZING ALLOY DOESNT WET SURFACES, BUT BALLS UP INSTEAD OF RUNNING INTO THE JOINT TRAY:
4. 5.
IF BRAZING ALLOY DOESNT CREEP THROUGH THE JOINT EVEN THOUGH IT MELTS AND FORMS A FILLET, TRY
Look for: Impurities in the acid used for pickling, grit from shot blasting, lubricant from various machining operations,, etc. 1. More time for beating. 2. Higher temperature. 3. A looser fit, or a tighter one 4. Flux applied to both alloy and parent metals within and around joint. 5. More thorough cleaning of parts before assembly. Look for: 1. Interruption of capillarity within the joint, such as by a gap. 2. Line contact within the joint instead of a uniform fit. 3. Freezing of brazing alloy caused by excessive pick-up of the parent metal. 4. Flux breakdown due to too much beat. 5. Improper or insufficient cleaning. 1. Excessively tight press fit, which stretches outer member beyond its elastic limit. 2. High coefficient of expansion. 3. Unequal expansion of parts due to unlike metals or sections. 4. Release of residual stresses (stresses from cold-working) in certain parts. 5. An unsupported section which might sag at high temperatures. 6. Porosity in parent metals caused by -burning through it when tack welding parts together. 1. Coating the brazing alloy with flux before using and applying flux generously to parent metals within and around the joint. 2. Mechanically or chemically cleaning the brazing alloy, if noticeably oxidized before using 1. Providing a reservoir at the joint into which brazing alloy can flow. 2. Placing the assembly in a different position, such as on an incline, to encourage brazing alloy to run into joints. 3. Placing brazing alloy in a strategic position above the joint if axis is vertical, or against the shoulder if axis is horizontal, so it will creep into the joint. 4. A light copper plating on surfaces Look for: 5. Burrs at edges of punched holes, or other obstacles over which the brazing alloy might not creep.
IF JOINT OPENS DURING BRAZING, ALTHOUGH IT WAS TIGHT WHEN ASSEMBLED, LOOK FOR
IF BRAZING ALLOY MELTS BUT RETAINS ITS ORIGINAL FORM WITHOUT FLOWING, TRY
IF BRAZING ALLOY FLOWS AWAY FROM, INSTEAD OF INTO, THE JOINT, TRY:
(Information courtesy of United Wire & Supply Corp.)
USMMA GMATS
10
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
FLAME CUTTING - One of the fastest ways of cutting mild steel is by the use of the oxyacetylene torch. Other advantages of this cutting method are 1. A relatively smooth cut is produced. 2. Very thick steel can be cut. 3. The equipment is portable. 4. Underwater cutting is possible with some adaptations. 5. The equipment lends itself- to automatic processes in manufacturing. The terms cutting and burning are used interchangeably to describe this process. THE CUTTING PROCESS - Oxyacetylene flame cutting is actually a burning (rapid -oxidation) process in which the metal to be cut is heated on the surface to the kindling temperature of steel (1,600-1,800 degrees F.). A small stream of pure oxygen is then directed at the work. The oxygen causes the metal to ignite and burn to produce more heat. This additional heat causes the nearby metal to burn so that the process is continuous once it has started. Only those ferrous metals which oxidize rapidly can be flame-cut. These metals include all the straight carbon steels and many of the alloys. Stainless steels and most of the so-called high-speed steels cannot be flame-cut. EQUIPMENT - Cutting is performed with a manual torch, figure 9-1 and with different machine torches figure 9-2 and. figure 9-3. Tips for these torches are interchangeable so that they can be adapted to cut a wide variety of metal thicknesses. The torches and tips are constructed so that they can preheat the work to the kindling temperature. The manual torch also includes a lever for starting and stopping the stream of high-pressure cutting oxygen as required. Most cutting tips are made of copper which is soft., If the tip of a manual torch is used as a hammer, lever or crowbar, permanent damage is done. COMPARISON CHARTS - Because cutting torch tips are interchangeable, chart 9-1 may be used for the torch tips of all major manufacturers.
USMMA GMATS
11
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
CHART 9-1
COMPARISON GUIDE FOR CUTTING TIP SIZES 00 Tip Size 000 Orifice Size CUTTING TIPS Material Thickness 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 .046 .055 .055 .063 .063 .073 .082 .082 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 .039 .058 .058 .073 .073 .089 .089 .106 0 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 .040 .045 .045 .063 .063 .076 .082 .082 1 1 2 3 3 5 5 6 .046 .058 .063 .063 .082 .082 .098 .098 0 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 .032 .043 .043 .055 .055 .067 .078 .093 4 5 6 6 8 8 8 8 .040 .058 .058 .058 .081 .081 .081 .081 4 5 5 5 7 7 7 9 .040 .052 .052 .070 .070 .070 .089 .089 62 56 56 53 53 51 46 42 .038 .046 .046 .058 .058 .062 .081 .093 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 .045 .055 .055 .070 .070 .082 .082 .100 0 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 .040 .046 .058 .058 .070 .082 .100 .100
Tip Name Airco Dockson Harris KG Meco Oxweld Purox Rego Smith Victor 1/8 00 .031 0 .036 000 .031 00 .031 00 .032 2 .020 3 .031 68 .031 000 .025 000 .026 0 .038 1 .039 00 .036 0 .038 0 .032 3 .031 3 .031 68 .031 0 .038 00 .032 3/8 0 .038 1 .039 00 .036 1 .046 0 .032 3 .031 4 .040 62 .038 0 .038 0 .040
6 6 .096 5 .106 4 .106 6 .098 5 .093 10 .100 9 .110 42 .093 5 .100 5 .120
7 6 .096 6 .116 5 .110 6 .098 6 .110 10 .100 9 .110 35 .110 5 .100 5 .120
8 7 .111 6 .116 5 .128 7 .110 6 .110 10 .100 9 .110 35 .110 5 .100 5 .120
9 7 .111 7 .140 6 .128 7 .110 6 .110 10 .100 9 .110 35 .110 6 .120 6 .140
10 8 .128 7 .140 6 .128 7 .110 7 .128 10 .100 9 .110 30 .128 6 .120 6 .140
Data is subject to change by manufacturer When cleaning tips, it is recommended that the tip cleaner be one size smaller than the orifice size.
USMMA GMATS
12
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
CHART 9-2
GAS PRESSURES AND KERF WIDTHS FOR CUTTING VARIOUS THICKNESSES Approximate Gauge Material Approximate Gage Approximate Width of Pressure Thickness(inches) Pressure Oxygen (P.S.I.) Kerf (inches) Acetylene(P.S.I) 1/8 20-30 3-5 .075 1/4 20-30 3-5 .075 3/8 30-40 4-5 .095 1/2 30-50 45 .095 3/4 40-60 5 .110 1 40-60 5-7 .110 1 1/2 40-75 5-7 .130 2 40-75 5-8 .130
HAZARDS - The operator must protect his eyes at all times with goggles fitted with proper lenses, usually shade 5 or 6. Gauntlet-type gloves and any other equipment necessary to give protection from the molten iron oxide should be worn. Since the high-pressure stream of cutting oxygen can throw small bits of molten oxide, at a temperature of 3,000 degrees F. and up, for distances of 50-60 feet, the operator should check before starting the burning operation to be sure that all flammable and explosive materials have been removed to a safe place. The operator should, insure that all personnel in the area are warned of the shower of molten metal that will occur so that they may take the necessary precautions. The International Acetylene Association and the Underwriters Laboratories recommend that an additional workman with fire-fighting equipment be assigned to each unit during cutting and for 2 hours after completion of cutting to guard against fires. CUTTING AND GOUGING PROCESSES
Process Oxyfuel gas Metal powder Air arc Oxyarc Metal arc Carbon arc Application Cutting and gouging Cutting only Gouging and cutting Gouging and cutting Gouging and cutting Cutting Material Mild steels, alloy steels (e.g., less than 5% chromium , S iron (using special technique); not used with aluminum or other nonferrous materials High alloy steel (e.g., more than 5% chromium); cast iron; aluminum and aluminum alloys~ copper and alloys; nickel and alloys Satisfactory method of gouging most materials, particularly mild steel, alloy steel; useful for severance cutting, but thickness is a limitation Satisfactory method of gouging most materials, particularly mild steel and alloy steels; useful for severance cutting, but thickness is a limitation Used for rough, severance cuts; it is strictly limited in its applications regarding (a) range of material and jb) depth o gouging Used on materials that can be welded without a postheat treatment
USMMA GMATS
13
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Notes: 1. Copper is very difficult to gouge. 2. The alloys of copper are likely to lose certain elements when cutting or gouging are attempted. 3. (a) In its field of application, the oxyfuel gas process achieves the greatest depth of cut. (b) For gouging the oxyfuel gas process is fast and controllable. 4. Powder processes have an upper limit of 30-in. (0.76-m) thickness when cutting stainless steel. It is possible to use the powder process to a thickness of 70 in. (1.78 m), but it is uneconomical. The process is used to a limited extent.
USMMA GMATS
14
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
WELDING TIPS - The purpose of all welding tips is to provide a safe, convenient method of varying the amount of heat supplied to the weld. They also provide convenient method of directing the flame and heat to the exact place the operator chooses. SELECTION OF SIZES - To provide for different amounts of heat, welding tips are made in various sizes. The size is determined by the size of the orifice in the tip. As the orifice size increases, greater amounts of the welding gases pass through and are burned to supply a greater amount of heat. However, the temperature of the neutral oxyacetylene flame always remains at 5,900 degrees F., regardless of the quantity of heat provided. The choice of the proper tip size is very important to good welding. All manufacturers of welding torches supply a chart of recommended sizes for various thicknesses of metal. They also recommend oxygen and acetylene pressures for various types and sizes of tips, chart 6-1. CARE OF TIPS - All welding tips are made of copper and maybe damaged by careless handling. Dropping, prying, or hammering the tips on the work may make them unfit for further use. It is imCHART 6-1 MATERIAL THICKNESSES AND GAS PRESSURES
Plate Thickness Gage 32 28 26 22 16 13 11 8 Inches .010 .016 .019 1/32 1/16 3/32 1/8 3/16 3/8 5/8 1 Gas Pressure in P.S.I. Injector-type torch Equal pressure Torch Acetylene Oxygen Acetylene Oxygen 5 5-7 1 1 5 7-8 1 1 5 7-10 1 1 5 7-18 2 2 5 8-20 3 3 15-20 4 4 5 12-24 4 4 5 16-25 5 5 5 20-29 6 6 5 24-33 7 7 5 29-34 8 8 5 30-40 9 8 5 30-40 10 10 5 30-42 12 12
USMMA GMATS
15
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
CHART 6-2
COMPARISON GUIDE FOR WELDING TIP SIZES 00 Tip Size 000 Orifice Size Tip Name 0.15 28 Ga 00 .020 1 .016 0 Harris .021 00 KG .020 00 Meco .013 Oxweld 2 Purox .022 79 Rego .014 000 Smith .016 000 Victor .021 .030 22 Ga 0 .025 1 .016 1 .026 0 .025 0 .020 4 .036 4 .036 76 .020 00 .020 000 .021 .048 18 Ga 0 .025 2 .024 2 .035 0 .025 1 .028 4 .036 6 .042 72 .025 1 .026 00 .028 .060 16 Ga 1 .031 2 .024 3 .042 1 .031 2 .035 6 .042 6 .042 68 .031 2 .029 0 .035 3/32 13 Ga 2 .038 3 .033 4 .052 2 .038 3 .043 6 .042 9 .052 62 .038 4 .037 1 .040 WELDING TIPS Material Thickness 1/8 5/32 3/16 11 8 Ga 6 Ga Ga 3 3 4 5 .04 .06 .047 .055 7 7 4 5 5 6 .04 .06 .052 .052 2 3 5 5 6 7 .05 .07 .059 .067 9 6 3 4 4 5 .04 .06 .055 .055 6 7 4 4 5 5 .05 .06 .052 .063 2 3 9 15 15 15 .05 .05 .059 .059 2 9 15 15 15 30 .05 .08 .059 .059 9 2 58 55 53 50 .04 .07 .052 .059 2 0 5 6 7 8 .04 .06 .046 .055 3 3 2 3 3 4 .04 .07 .059 .059 6 3
5/16 6 0.76 7 .076 8 .082 6 .076 6 .078 30 .082 30 .082 46 .081 9 .073 5 .089
7/16 7 .086 9 .096 9 .089 7 .086 7 .093 30 .082 30 .082 42 .093 9 .073 5 .089
5/8 8 .09 8 11 .11 6 10 .09 8 8 .09 8 8 .11 0 55 .11 3 55 .11 3 36 .10 6 11 .09 8 6 .10 6
9 .11 0 12 .12 8 13 .11 0 9 .11 0 9 .12 8 55 .11 3 55 .11 3 31 .12 0 11 .09 8 7 .12 8
1 10 .11 0 14 .14 7 15 .12 0 10 .12 8 10 .14 0 70 .12 8 70 .12 8 25 .14 9 12 .11 1 7 .12 8
1 & Ove r 10 .128 15 .154 19 .144 10 .128 11 .157 100 .152 100 .152 20 .161 13 .128 7 .128
Airco Dockso n
Data is subject to change by manufacturer. When cleaning tips, It is recommended that the tip cleaner be one size smaller than tip orifice size.
USMMA GMATS
16
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
GAS CUTTING AND GOUGING Equipment - Special additional is as follows: Regulators - Most cylinder or manifoldtype regulators can be used for welding, cutting, or gouging operations. The equipment must have a working pressure capacity for oxygen of above 150 psi (1034 kPa) and for acetylene of up to 15 psi (103 kPa). Pressure requirements for natural gas and propane will vary from that of acetylene, but regulators capable of working pressures of 20-25 psi (138-172 kPa) should be used. Outlet pressure gauges - For oxygen, the outlet pressures should read up to 150 psi (1034 kPa); for acetylene, they should read up to 15 psi (103 kPa). Contents indicators - Pressure gauges may be used to indicate the content of oxygen in the cylinder. Gauges used for this purpose should have a reading of not less than 4000 psi (27,579 kPa). Cutting and/or gouging torches - Torches for use with propane or acetylene fuel gases may be either of the injector-type or tipmixer design. The torch may be constructed solely for cutting purposes or the handle of a welding torch may be adapted by the fitting of a cutting attachment. Oxygen and fuel gas are mixed (as in the welding torch) to produce the preheating flame. A separate supply tube with an additional control valve conveys the additional oxygen required for the cutting operation. Gas-cutting torches are either: (i) Equal pressure, when the gases are generally mixed-in the cutting tip. or (ii) Low pressure, when an injector system is used.
USMMA GMATS
17
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Oxyfuel equipment - The oxyfuel torch is designed to deliver mixed gas to the tip (nozzle) to provide a preheating flame and to provide the correct proportions of oxygen in the form of a concentrated stream to the reaction zone. The oxygen reacts with the hot iron in the metal, rapidly oxidizing, and blows the molten reaction from the joint. This reaction (oxygen with iron) is the principal basis for oxyfuel cutting. The reaction When oxygen of high purity is combined with iron that has been raised to its ignition temperature of 1600-F (870-C), the iron is rapidly oxidized by high-purity oxygen and heat is liberated by the reaction. Equal-pressure versus injector-type torches - Generally, if the gases are supplied to the torch at an appreciable pressure and if the fuel and oxygen for the preheating flames are mixed in the tip, you are using an equal-pressure torch. If, however, the fuel and oxygen are mixed by means of an injector within the torch body, you are using an injector-type torch. The advantage the injector-type torch has over the equal-pressure torch is that the fuel can be supplied at a low pressure (such as natural gas) and is drawn into the torch with the aid of the injector.
USMMA GMATS
18
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Cutting tips 1. Tips for use with each type of cutting torch will vary with every manufacturer. Never attempt to intermix manufacturers tips with different cutting torches. 2. Certain tipes of bps are made in two pieces. 3. Sheet-metal cutting tips have a single preheat flame orifice preceding the cutting oxygen orifice. It is -important when cutting or gouging to: a. Use a multistage regulator for closer and more accurate pressure control. b. Avoid long runs of hose that may result in a drop in the gas pressure or compensate for this by increasing the outlet pressure. c. Avoid dirt on or in the tip as this will divert the gas stream. d. Always use the correct tip size .as wrong selection will produce a faulty cut. e. Avoid dirt on the workpiece as this will result in the waste of gas. f. Use only sufficient oxygen to sustain ignition.
USMMA GMATS
19
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Types of tips 1. Acetylene tips are generally of one piece construction. 2. Propane tips are of two piececonstruction, comprising copper outer nozzle with recessed brass-fluted inner nozzle, The cutting oxygen flows through the central hole in the tip, while the preheat gases flow through the smaller holes or flutes that surround the cutting oxygen orifice. Tip sizes are indicated by the diameter of the central orifice. 3. Gouging tips are cutting tips of a shape appropriate to the cutting of grooves to the width and depth required. . Notes: (i) The tip number indicates the size of the cutting orifice. (ii) The groove widths vary according to the tip size. The size of tip affects the speed of gouging. (iii) Ensure the orifices are unobstructed using the correct tipcleaning tools. (iv) 4iv) Do not damage the tip seating. Store in a safe place. (v) Select a tip suitable for the intended gouge.
Maintenance of tips 1. Tip ends must not be damaged. 2. The tip orifice must ONLY be cleaned with a special tip cleaner of correct size and used concentrically to the tip bore. 3. If the end of the tip becomes damaged, rub with a piece of fine emery cloth that has been laid on a piece of plate glass. Hold the tip at right angles to the glass so that the edge of the orifice when rubbed on the emery cloth becomes sharp and square. Remove orifice burrs with a suitable tool
USMMA GMATS
20
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Cutting-torch guides 1. In the form of a single support, cutting-torch guides may be of the spade or wheel type and are usually provided with vertical adjustment to obtain correct tip-to-plate distance. The support rides on the plate to be cut. 2. The double support or roller guide is used for-long cuts. It also provides vertical adjustment for the tip height. Bevel cutting may be obtained either by setting the wheels of the double support at different levels or by using a slotted clamping attachment. Note: In (1) and (2), a straight edge may be used as a guide for straight cuts. 1. Small circles may be cut by clamping a pivot on to the gas tubes of the torch. For large circles, a radius bar attachment is used. This bar is fitted with a wheel support and adjustable pivot.
USMMA GMATS
21
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Hand-operated cutting machines - The simplest form of cutting machine is one in which the torch is attached to a saddle riding on a lead screw. The lead screw is operated by a handwheel that controls the rate of longitudinal travel. In, out, upward, and downward adjustments of the torch are by means of cross shafts on the saddle. A hose-protecting device should be fitted to the hoses.
Note: All threaded connections conform to the rule: 1. Right-hand screw thread for oxygen (green hose) and other noncombustible gases (black hose). 2. Left-hand screw thread for acetylene and other combustible gases (red hose). Nuts on oxygen and other noncombustible gas connectors are plain hexagons. Nuts on acetylene and other combustible gas connectors are chamfered and/or grooved to indicate lefthand threading.
USMMA GMATS
22
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
FLAME CUTTING DATA - HAND AND MACHINE Table No. 1-Hand Flame Cutting Table for 1/8 In. to 12-In. Thickness For Clean Mild Steel - Not Preheated - Type No. 1 Cutting Only
Thickness Of Steel, in. 3/8 1 1 2 .1 4 5 6 8 10 12*** Diameter of Oxygen cutting Orifice. Pressure, lb. in. per sq. in. 0.0380 0.0400 0.0380 0.0595 0.0380 0.0595 0.0465 0.0595 0.0465 0.0595 0.0465 0.0595 0.0595 0.0810 0.0670 0.0810 0.0670 0.0810 0.0810 0.0860 0.0810 0.0860 0.0980 0.0995 - 0.0995 - 0.0995 .1200 15 - 23 11 - 20 17 - 25 20 - 30 24 - 35 23 - 40 - 40 22 - 50 33 - 55 42 - 60 53 - 70 45 - 80 60 - 77 73 - 96 69 - 96 Cutting Speed, in. per min** 20 - 30 16 - 26 15 - 24 12 - 22 12 - 20 9 - 18 66 - 13 4 - 10 4- 8 3.5 - 6.4 3.0 - 5.4 2.6 - 4.2 1.9 - 3.2 1.4 - 2.6 185 - 231 240 - 290 293 - 388 347 - 437 400 - 567 505 - 615 610 - 750 720 - 880 16 - 20 19 - 23 21 - 26 24 - 29 27 - 32 31.5 - 38.5 36.9 - 45.1 423 - 51.7 3.55 - 6.16 5.80 - 12.00 9.70 - 14.64 13.66 - 19.93 21.00 - 26.70 29.30 - 38.84 46.90 - 64.20 67.70 103.00 0.31 - 0.53 0.464.95 0.65 - 1.05 0.91 - 1.37 1.19 - 1.80 1.93 - 2.42 2.57 - 3.84 3.98 - 6.05 GAS CONSUMPTIONS* Per Hour Per Linear FootAcetylene cu. Acetylene cu. Oxygen cu. ft. Oxygen cu. ft. ft. ft; 45 - 55 50 - 93 60 - 1.15 66 - 125 117 - 143 130 - 1.60 7- 9 9 - 11 10 - 12 .10*43 12 - IS 13 - 16 0.37 - 0.45 0.63 - 0.72 0.90 - 0.96 1.10 - 1.14. 1.43 - 1.95 1.78 - 2.89 0.06 - 0 - 07 0.09 - 0.11 0.10 - 0.13 0.12 - 0.17 0.15 - 0.20 0.18 - 0.29
*As the pressure of acetylene for the preheating flames is more a function of blowpipe or torch design thin of the thickness of the part being cut, the pressure data, therefore, have been omitted from this table. For acetylene pressure data, see cutting apparatus manufacturers charts. **Lowest speeds and highest gas consumptions per linear foot are for inexperienced operators, short cuts, dirty or poor material. Highest speeds and lowest gas consumptions per linear foot are for experienced operators long cuts, clean and good material. ***Beyond 12-in. thickness, the critical data of manual cutting practices are greatly affected by the condition of the metal and the skill of the operator, resulting in wide ranges of data. In view of this, the table has been terminated at the 12-in. thickness. The reader is referred to Table No. 2 below giving data on Machine Cutting wherein the thickness range has been extended to 20 in.
USMMA GMATS
23
11/3/2006
INSTRUCTOR JOE KASS
Table No. 2-Machine Flame Cutting Table for 1/8-In. to 20-In. Thickness For Mild Steel - Not Preheated - Type No. 1 Cutting Only***
Thicknes Oxygen Diameter of Cutting Speed, s of Pressure, lb. cutting Orifice, in. in. per min.** Steel, in. per sq. in. 1/8 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/2 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0.0250 - 0.0400 0.0310 - 0.0595 0.0310 - 0.0595 6.0310 - 0.0595 0.0380 0.0595 0.0465 - 0.0595 0.0670 - 0.0810 0.0670 - 0.0810 0.0810 - 0.0860 0.0810 - 0.0860 0.0810 - 0.0860 0.0980 - 0.0995 0.0980 - 0.099S 0.0995 - 0.1100 0.0110 - 0,1200 0.0110 - 0.1200 0.1285 - 0,1600 0.1495 - 0.1600 0.1610-027000 15 - 23 11 - 35 17 - 40 20 - 55 24 - 50 28 - 55 - 55 22 - 60 33 - 50 42 60 53: 65 45 - 65 60 - 90 75 - 90 69 - 105 - 105 - 110 - 120 - 135 22 - 32 20 - 28 19 - 26 17 - 24 15 - 22 14 - 19 12 - 15 10 - 14 8 - 11 6.5 - 9 5.5 - 7.5 4.5 - 63 3.7 - 4.9 2.9 - 4.0 2.4 - 3.S 2.0 - 3.2 1.8 - 3.0 1.7 - 3.0 1.5 - 3.0 GAS CONSUMPTIONS* Per Hour Oxygen cu. ft. 40 - 5S 45 - 93 82 - 115 105 - 125 117 - 159 130 - 174 - 240 185 - 260 240 - 332 293 - 394 347 - 411 400 - 490 505 - 625 610 - 750 720 - 880 930 - 1045 935 - 1360 1045 - 1680 1155 - 2050 Acetylene cu. ft. 7-9 8 - 11 9 - 12 10 - 13 12 - 15 13 - 16 14 - 18 10 - 20 18 - 23 21 - 26 23 - 29 26 - 32 31 - 39 37 - 45 42 - 52 48 - 59 57 - 70 65 - 83 75 - 99 Per Linear Foot** Oxygen Acetylene cu. ft. cu. ft. 0.34 0.36 0.05 - 0.06 0.45 - 0.66 0.07 - 0.08 0.86 - 0.89 0.09 - 0.09 1.04 - 1.24 0.11 - 0.12 1.45 - 1.56 0.14 - 0.16 1.93 - 1.96 0.17 - 0.19 3.20 023 - 0.24 3.70 - 3.72 0.29 - 0.32 6.00 - 6.04 0.42 - 0.45 8.53 - 9.02 0.58 - 0.65 10.97 - 12.62 0.77 - 0.94 15.10 - 17.78 0.98 - 1.16 25.52 - 27.30 1.59 - 1.68 37.50 - 42.10 2.25 - 2.55 49.70 - 60.00 2.97 - 3.50 65.20 - 83.00 3.69 - 4.80 90.60 - 104.00 4.67 - 6.33 112.10 - 123.00 5.53 - 7.65 136.70 - 154.00 6.60 - 10.00
*As the pressure of acetylene for the preheating flames is more a function of blowpipe or torch design than of the thickness of the part being cut, the pressure data, therefore, have been omitted from this table. For acetylene pressure data, see cutting apparatus manufacturers charts. **Lowest speeds and highest gas consumptions per linear foot arc for inexperienced operators, short cuts, dirty or poor material. Highest speeds and lowest gas consumptions per linear foot are for experienced operators long cuts, clean and good material. ***The apparent inconsistencies which will be noted in some of the columns in the table arc due to the fact that there does not exist a straight-line relationship between elements of pressure, speed and orifice sizes for the r. of apparatus data from which this table was devised.
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Selection of appropriate fuel gas - To ensure economy in the use of materials, it is important that the correct process is selected for cutting or gouging: (a) Ferrous materials. (b) Nonferrous materials. The table below indicates the application of processes relevant to types of material. FUEL GASES USED IN CUTTING AND GOUGING
Gas Acetylene Cutting Used in cutting carbon steels and low-alloy steels; hand-cutting cast iron using special techniques; powder-cutting processes; improves cutting speeds on thin materials due to high flame temperature Used in cutting carbon steels and low-alloy steels of all thicknesses; it is preferred for heavy cutting because of safety and handling Used in cutting carbon, steels; has good availability and a greater heat value than natural gas; for proper combustion it requires 4 to 4 times its volume of preheat oxygen May be used with Propane tips on a lowpressure system; at an adequate gas flow, it is efficient as a preheat gas for cutting Used for underwater cutting of straight-carbon and low-alloy steels Liquefied, stabilized acetylene like fuel that can be stored and handled similarly to liquid propane; requires a ratio of 2.5 to 3.5 parts of oxygen to 1 part MPS Gouging Plain-carbon steels; low-alloy steels; it is often preferred for a quick start Gouges carbon and low-alloy steels, but initiation is slow compared with acetylene
Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) Propane
Natural gas Hydrogen Methylacetylene propadiene stabilized (MP8)
Note: 1. Low-alloy steel contains less than 5% chrome. 2. A number of proprietary gases are available that, in general, consist of mixtures of varying percentages of liquid petroleum gas and natural gas. 3. Use only the tip/nozzle designed for the gas being used. Preheating and postheating - The cutting of high-carbon and high-alloy steels at ambient temperatures may result in hardening accompanied by cracking of the cut face. This may be overcome by Preheating the workpiece to 250-300F (120-150C). Preheat to the minimum amount and proceed to make the cut without delay. With certain materials, postheating of the face may be necessary. Temperatures may be measured by thermo couples or temperature-measuring crayons.
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THE OXYACETYLENE FLAME - AND ITS APPLICATIONS The three types of oxyacetylene flame may be used for welding a great number of materials. Aided by the accompanying chart it is possible to determine the preferred flame type. When an engineer specifies oxy acetylene welding or a welder undertakes an oxy acetylene welding job, both should be aware that the work can be undertaken using either of three types of oxy acetylene flames. The engineer is usually unaware of this flexibility of the oxyacetylene flame, consequently, neutral carburizing and oxidizing flames mean little if anything to him. A welder knows if the three flame types but often does not know which is the preferred flame for use on a material with which he is unfamiliar. These two common lacks of complete understanding of oxy acetylene welding account for the accompanying diagrams of the oxy acetylene flame and its applications. The chemical characteristics of the oxy acetylene flame and its resultant effect on molten metal may be varied considerably by only a slight adjustment of the oxygen-acetylene mixture ratio. When the ratio of oxygen to acetylene is one to one a neutral flame is produced. It is this flame that is used for most oxy-acetylene welding applications. By increasing the amount of acetylene in the mixture, the flame becomes carburizing because of the excess of acetylene. A flame of this type is often used for welding steels and for hard-facing applications. Had the oxygen ratio been increased instead of the acetylene, the flame would become an oxidizing flame a flame preferred-for-brazing operations on brasses and bronzes. Editors Note: We are indebted to the international Acetylene Association for much of the information presented on this data sheet.
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Recognition of cutting and gouging defects, their causes, prevention, and permissible methods of rectification 1. In a correct cut, the top of the cut is both sharp and clean the drag lines are almost invisible, producing a smooth side. Oxide is easily removed the cut is square and the bottom edge clean and sharply defined. Drag lines should be vertical for profiles. A small amount of drag is allowed on straight cuts. 2. Because of melting, the top edge has become rounded. Gouging is pronounced at the bottom edge, which is also rough. Scale on the cut face is difficult to remove. To rectify: traverse at recommended speed. Increase the oxygen pressure. 3. The top edge may not be sharp; there is a possibility of beading. To rectify: slow down the traverse to the recommended speed. Leave the oxygen pressure as set. 4. Excessive rounding and melting of the top edge. To rectify: adjust the stand-off distance between the tip and the plate. 5. Lightly beaded and rounded top edge, cut will be flared and out of square. To rectify: correct the stand-off distance by lowering the tip to the recommended height. 6. The edge has a regular bead. The kerf is wider at the top with undercutting just beneath it. To rectify: set the oxygen at the recommended pressure (on thinner steel it can cause a taper cut likely to give the impression that the torch is set wrongly in relation to the plate) 7. Due to excessive heat, the preheat flame has caused the top edge to melt and become rounded. The kerf tapers from just below the top edge to the bottom or the cut face.
To rectify: set a preheat flame as recommended, use the correct tip at the recommended gas pressures.
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8. In a correct gouge the groove is: a. Of uniform width and depth. b. Free of oxide and scale, both in the groove and surrounding plate. c. Has a clean metallic appearance. 9. A groove of varying width and depth caused by holding the gouging tip at the wrong angle, that is: a. Too steep an angle increases depth and removes too much metal. g. Too shallow an angle gives a superficial gouge. 10. A shallow groove with heavy oxide deposits caused by failing to present the gouging tip axially in line with the direction of gouging, owing to: a. Working too quickly. b. Using incorrect gas pressures. or c. Using incorrect tip. Note: Gouging defects may be corrected by rewelding the surface, using a filler material of suitable composition.
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201.0, 206.0, 224.0
356.0, A356.0, 319.0, 333.0, 357.0, A357.0, 354.0, 355.0, 413.0, 443.0, C355.0 A444.0
Base Metal
1060, 1070, 1080, 1350 1100, 3003, Alc 3003 2014, 2036 2219 3004, Alc 3004 5005, 5050 5052, 5652i 5083 5086 5154, 5254i 5454 5456 ER4145 ER4145 ER4145c ER2319a ER4145 ER4145 ER4145c ER4145c ER4043b ER4043b ER4043b ER4043b ER4043a,b ER4043a,b ER4145 ER4145b,c ER4043b ER4043b ER4043f ER5356c,d ER5356c,d ER4043f ER4043f ER5356c,d
511.0, 512.0, 513.0, 514.0, 535.0
7004, 7005, 6005, 6061, 7039, 6009, 6010, 6063, 6101, 710.0, 6070 6151, 6201, 712.0 6351, 6951
5456
5454
ER5356c,d ER5356c,d ER4043a,b ER5356c,d ER5356c,d ER4043a,b ER4043 ER5356f ER5356f ER5356f ER5356d ER5356d ER5356f ER5356f ER5356d ER4043 ER5356f ER5356f ER5356f ER5183d ER5356d ER5356f ER5356f ER5556d ER4145 ER4043a,b ER4043b ER4043b ER4043b ER4043b
ER4043b ER4043b ER4145 ER4043a,b ER4043b,f ER4043b,f ER5356c,f ER5356d ER5356d ER5356f ER5356c,f ER5356d
ER5356d ER4043b,d ER5356d ER4043b,d ER4043b
ER5356d ER5356f ER5356d ER5356f ER5356f ER5356f ER5183d ER5356d ER5356d ER5356d ER5356f ER5356f ER5556d ER5356f ER5554c,f
6005, 6061, 6063, ER4145 6101, 6151, 6201, 6351, 6951 6009, 6010, 6070 ER4145 7004, 7005, 7039, 710.0, 712.0 511.0, 512.0, 513.0, 514.0, 535.0 356.0, A356.0, 357.0, A357.0, 413.0, 443.0, 444.0 319.0, 333.0, 354.0, 355.0, C355.0 201.0, 206.0, 224.0
ER4145b,c
ER4043b,f,g
ER5356c,f ER5356c,f ER4043a,b,g ER4043b,f,g
ER4145b,c ER4043b
ER4043a,b,g ER4043b,f
ER4043 ER5356f
ER4043 ER5356d
ER4043a,b,g
ER4043f
ER5356f
ER4145
ER4145b,c
ER4043b,h
ER4145c
ER4145b,c,h
ER2319a,h
70
5154, 5254i
5086
5083
5052, 5652i
5005, 5050
3004, Alc. 3004
2219
2014, 2036
1100 3003 Alc. 3003
1060, 1070, 1080, 1350
Base Metal
1060, 1070, 1080, 1350 1100, 3003, Alc. 3003 2014, 2036 2219 5005, 5050 5052, 5652i 5083 5086 5154, 5254i ER5356c,d ER5356d ER5356d ER4043b,d ER5356c,d ER5356d ER5356d ER4043b,d ER4043 ER5356f ER5356f ER5356d ER5356d ER5654f,i ER4043b ER1100b,c ER4043b,d ER4145b,c ER4145 ER1100b,c ER4043b,d ER4145b,c ER4145 ER4145 ER4145 ER4145e ER4145e ER1100b,c ER1188b,c,h,j ER1100b,c
ER4043a,b ER4043a,b ER2319a ER5356c,f ER5356c,f ER5356c,f
3004, Alc. 3004 ER5356f
ER5356d ER5356d ER5356c,f ER5356d ER5356d ER5356c,d ER5356d ER5356d ER5654c,f,i ER5356d ER5183d ER5356d
NOTES: 1. Service conditions such as immersion in fresh or salt water, exposure to specific chemicals, or a sustained high temperature (over 150F (66C)) may limit the choice of filler metals. AFM ER5183, ER5356, ER5556, and ER5654 are not recommended for sustained elevated temperature service. 2. Recommendations in this table apply to gas shielded arc welding processes. For oxyfuel gas welding, only AFM ER1188, ER1100, ER4043, ER4047, and ER4145 filler metals are ordinarily used. Where no filler metal is listed, the base metal combination is not recommended for welding. AFM ER4145 may be used for some applications. AFM ER4047 may be used for some applications. AFM ER4043 may be used for some applications. AFM ER5183, ER5356, or ER5556 may be used. AFM ER2319 may be used for some applications. It can supply high strength when the weldment is postweld solution heat treated and aged. AFM ER5183, ER5356, ER5554, and ER5654 may be used. In some cases, they provide (1) improved color match after anodizing treatment, (2) highest weld ductility, and (3) higher weld strength. AFM ER5554 is suitable for sustained elevated temperature service. AFM ER4643 will provide high strength in 1/2 in. (12mm) and thicker groove welds in 6XXX base alloys when postweld solution heat treated and aged. Filler metal with the same analysis as the base metal is sometimes used. The following wrought filler metals possess the same chemical composition limits as cast filler alloys: ER4009 and R4009 as RC355.0; ER4010 and R4010 as R-A356.0; and R4011 as R-A357.0. Base metal alloys 5254 and 5652 are used for hydrogen peroxide service. AFM ER5654 filler metal is used for welding both alloys for service temperatures below 150F (66C). AFM ER1100 may be used for some applications.
3. a. b. c. d. e. f.
g. h.
i. j.
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AFM ER4047
AWS/SFA A5.10 AFM ER4047 12% Silicon Aluminum brazing rod is recommended for torch brazing and dip or furnace brazing of the following grades of wrought aluminum: 1060, 1100, 3003, 5005, 6061, 6063, and cast alloys A612 and C612 for lap or tee joints, rather than butt joints when used with the proper aluminum brazing flux.
AFM ER5356
AWS/SFA A5.10 AFM ER5356 wires and rods are generally recommended for welding 5050, 5052, 5083, 5154, 5356, 6061, and 6063 aluminum alloys. This wire is to be employed in all types of structural aluminum fabrication where post heat treatment is not feasible as a method of producing higher strength welded joints. The tensile properties of the base materials of the aluminummagnesium type are not as drastically affected by the heat of the welding arc as are the heat-treated high strength aluminum alloys. Excellent for color match application. Examples of applications which utilize ER5356: Diesel Engine Bases Gun Mount Bases Truck Frames Ship Superstructures Architectural Structures Cargo Tanks Armored Vehicles
AFM ER1100
AWS/SFA A5.10 AFM ER1100 wires and rods are generally recommended for welding 1100 and 3003 aluminum sheets, plates and shapes. It can be used on: Window Frames Food Processing Equipment Heat Exchangers Electrical Bus Bars Railroad Tank Cars Liquid Oxygen Containers Pressure Vessels Plating Racks Storage Tanks Food Containers Chemical Processing Towers
AFM ER5556
AWS/SFA A5.10 AFM ER5556 wires and rods are generally recommended for welding 5083, 5086 and 5456 high tensile aluminum alloys. This wire is to be employed in all types of structural aluminum fabrication where post heat treatment is not feasible as a method of producing higher strength welded joints. The tensile properties of the base materials of the aluminum-magnesium type are not as drastically affected by the heat of the welding arc as are the heat treated high strength aluminum alloys. Examples of applications which utilize ER5556: Diesel Engine Bases Gun Mount Bases Truck Frames Ship Superstructures Bridges Storage Tanks
AFM ER4043
AWS/SFA A5.10 AFM ER4043 wires and rods are generally recommended for welding 2014, 5052, 6061, and 6101 (in various conditions of heat treatment and 6063 sheets, plates and shapes). It is typically used on: Truck Bodies Structural Members Pressure Vessels Electrical Bus Bars Petroleum Distribution Equipment
AFM ER5183
AWS/SFA A5.10 AFM ER5183 is the optimum wire and rod for both strength and ductility, stronger than AFM ER5356 with similar ductility, not quite as strong as AFM ER5556 but has better ductility. AFM ER5183 is most frequently used on 5083 base plate. It is also used to weld 6061, 6063, 5086, 7005 and 7039 alloys. The most common applications are liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen containers.
Other Types of AFM Aluminum Available upon Request:

355.0 356.0 4145 (716) 2319 4047 (718) 5154 5554 5654
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Aluminum Welding Wires Chemical Compositions

Alloy 1100 2319 4043 4047 5356 5183 5554 5556 4145 Al 99.0 min. rem rem rem rem rem rem rem rem Mg 0.02 0.05 0.10 4.5-5.5 4.3-5.2 2.4-3.0 4.7-5.5 0.15 Fe & Si .095 max Fe 0.30 0.80 0.80 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.80 Si 0.20 4.5-6.0 11.0-13.0 0.25 0.40 0.25 0.25 9.3-10.7 Cu 0.05-0.20 5.8-6.8 0.30 0.30 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 3.3-4.7 Mn 0.05 0.20-0.40 0.05 0.15 0.05-0.20 0.50-1.0 0.50-1.0 0.50-1.0 0.15 Zn 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.20 Ti 0.10-0.20 0.20 0.06-0.20 0.15 0.05-0.20 0.05-0.20 Cr 0.05-0.20 0.05-0.25 0.05-0.20 0.05-0.20 0.15 Be
Standard Diameters and Packages

Package 1-Lb Spool 13-Lb Spool 10 Lb Tube 36 .030 (0.8) X X .035 (0.9) X X 3/64 (1.2) X X 1/16 (1.6) X X X 3/32 (2.4) X X 1/8 (3.2) 5/32 (4.0)
44 Lb spools, 88 Lb reels and 15 Lb coils are also available upon request.
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REFRIGERATION & AIR CONDITIONING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
1. Basic operating Cycle 2. Components compressor, condenser, receiver, thermo-expansion valve, evaporator, solenoids 3. Definition of terms BTUs, superheat, latent heat, sensible heat, saturation temperature 4. Proper operation of refrigeration cycles-temperatures and pressures 5. Defrost cycles 6. Montreal Accords 7. New refrigerants and oils 8. Universal Certification 9. Fan operation/filtration 10. Routine Maintenance and recording of refrigeration plant 11. Trouble shooting a refrigeration cycle 12. Plenums and ductwork 13. Reheaters and room control of temperature 14. Glossary
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1.. BASIIC OPERATIING CYCLE 1 BAS C OPERAT NG CYCLE

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS Various types of refrigerating systems are used for shipboard refrigeration and air conditioning. The system that is used most often for refrigeration purposes is the vapor compression cycle with reciprocating compressors. Figure 1 is a simple drawing of the vapor compression refrigeration cycle. As you study this system, try to understand what happens to the refrigerant as it passes through each part of the cycle. In particular, be sure you understand why the refrigerant changes from liquid to vapor and from vapor to liquid and what happens in terms of heat because of these changes of state. We will trace the refrigerant through its entire cycle, beginning with the thermostatic expansion valve (TXV). Liquid refrigerant enters the expansion valve, which separates the high-pressure side of the system and the low-pressure side of the system. This valve regulates the amount of refrigerant that enters the cooling coil. Because of the pressure differential, as the refrigerant passes through the TXV, some of the refrigerant flashes to a vapor (changes state from a liquid to a gas). From the TXV, the refrigerant passes into the cooling coils or evaporator. The boiling point of the refrigerant under the low pressure in the evaporator is usually maintained at about 20F lower than the temperature of the space in which the cooling coil is installed. As the liquid boils and vaporizes, it absorbs latent heat of vaporization from the space being cooled. The refrigerant continues to absorb latent heat of vaporization until all the liquid has been vaporized. By the time the refrigerant leaves the cooling coils, it has not only absorbed its latent heat of vaporization but has also picked up some additional (sensible) heat. In other words, the vapor has become SUPER HEATED. As a rule, the amount of superheat is 8 to 12F. The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as low-pressure superheated vapor. The remainder of the vapor compression cycle serves to carry this heat away and convert the refrigerant back into a liquid state. In this way, the refrigerant can again vaporize in the evaporator and absorb the heat. The low-pressure superheated vapor flows out of the evaporator to the compressor, which provides the mechanical force to keep the refrigerant circulating through the system. In the compressor cylinders the refrigerant is compressed from a low-pressure, low-temperature vapor into a high-pressure vapor, and its temperature rises accordingly. The heated high-pressure refrigerant vapor is discharged from the compressor into the condenser, which is simply a heat exchanger that uses water or air as a coolant. Here the refrigerant condenses, giving up its superheat (sensible heat) and latent heat of condensation. The cooled refrigerant, still at high pressure, is now a liquid again. From the condenser, the refrigerant flows into a receiver, which serves as a storage place for the liquid refrigerant in the system. From the receiver, the refrigerant goes to the TXV and the cycle begins again.
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This type of refrigeration system has two pressure sides. The LOW-PRESSURE SIDE extends from the TXV up to and including the intake side of the compressor cylinders. The HIGHPRESSURE SIDE extends from the discharge valve of the compressor to the TXV.
FIGURE 1 - A REFRIGERATION CYCLE
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2.. COMPONENTS 2 COMPONENTS

MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN R-12 REFRIGERATION SYSTEM - The primary components of the system are the TXV, the evaporator, the compressor, the condenser, and the receiver. Additional equipment required to complete the plant includes piping, pressure gauges, thermometers, various types of control switches and control valves, strainers, relief valves, sightflow indicators, dehydrators, and refrigerant charging connections.
FIGURE 2 - THE HIGH-PRESSURE SIDE OF A SYSTEM AS IT IS INSTALLED ABOARD SHIP In this chapter, we will discuss the refrigerant system as though it had only one evaporator, one compressor, and one condenser. You should realize, however, that a refrigeration system might include more than one evaporator. It may also include an additional compressor and other condenser units. We will discuss the main components and their functions. THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE (TXV) - We mentioned earlier that the TXV regulates the amount of refrigerant to the cooling coils. The amount of refrigerant needed in the coils depends, of course, on the temperature of the space being cooled. The thermal control bulb, which controls the opening and closing of the TXV, is clamped to the evaporator coil near the outlet. The substance in the thermal bulb will vary depending on the
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refrigerant used. Pressure to the diaphragm will change due to expansion and contraction as a result of temperature change. Warming of the thermal control bulb causes the diaphragm to be moved downward, opening the valve and allowing more refrigerant to enter the cooling coil. When the temperature at the control bulb falls, the pressure above the diaphragm decreases and the valve tends to close. Thus, the temperature near the evaporator outlet controls the operation of the TXV.
FIGURE 3 DIAGRAM OF A REFRIGERATION SYSTEM EVAPORATOR - The evaporator consists of coils of copper, aluminum, or aluminum alloy tubing installed in the space to be refrigerated. Figure 4 shows some of this tubing. As mentioned before, liquid refrigerant enters the tubing at a reduced pressure and, therefore, with a lower boiling point. As the refrigerant passes through the evaporator, the heat flowing to the coils from the surrounding air causes the rest of the liquid refrigerant to boil and vaporize. After the refrigerant has absorbed its latent heat of vaporization (that is, after it is entirely vaporized), the refrigerant continues to absorb heat until it becomes superheated. The amount of superheat is determined by the amount of liquid refrigerant admitted to the evaporator. The amount of liquid refrigerant, in turn, is controlled by the spring adjustment of the TXV.
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A range of 8 to 12F of superheat is considered desirable because it increases the efficiency of the plant by ensuring that all of the liquid entering has changed state to a vapor before it leaves the evaporator. Evaporation of all the liquid prevents any liquid carry-over into the compressor. Remember, the compressor is designed to pump a gas-not a liquid.
FIGURE 4 - EVAPORATOR TUBING COMPRESSOR - The compressor in a refrigeration system is essentially a pump. The compressor pumps heat "uphill" from the cold side to the hot side of the system. The compressor also keeps the refrigerant circulating and maintains the required pressure difference between the high-pressure and low-pressure side of the system. The heat absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator must be removed before the refrigerant can again absorb latent heat. The only way the vaporized refrigerant can be made to give up the latent heat of vaporization, it absorbed in the evaporator, is by cooling it and causing it to condense. Because of the relatively high temperature of the available cooling medium, the only way to make the vapor condense is by first compressing it. When we raise the pressure, we also raise the temperature. By doing so, we have raised its condensing temperature, which allows us to use readily available seawater as a cooling medium in the condenser. Many different types of compressors are used in refrigeration systems. The designs of compressors vary depending on the application of the refrigerants used in the system. Figure 5 shows a motor-driven, single acting, two-cylinder, reciprocating compressor, such as those commonly used.
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LUBRICATION - Compressors used in refrigerant systems may be lubricated either by splash lubrication or by pressure lubrication. Splash lubrication, which depends on maintaining a fairly high oil level in the compressor crankcase, is usually satisfactory for smaller compressors. Highspeed or large capacity compressors use pressure lubrication systems. SHAFT SEALS - Where the crankshaft extends through the crankcase, a crankshaft seal assembly prevents the refrigerant from escaping and air from entering the crankcase when the pressure in the crankcase is lower than the surrounding atmospheric pressure. There are several designs of seals used, such as the rotary seal, the stationary bellows, the rotating bellows, and the diaphragm.
FIGURE 5 - RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR The rotary seal, shown in Figure 6, consists of a stationary cover plate and gasket and a rotating assembly, which includes a carbon ring, a neoprene seal, a compression spring, and compression washers. The sealing points are (a) between the crankshaft and the rotating carbon rings and sealed by a neoprene ring, (b) between the rotating carbon ring and the cover plate and sealed by lapped surfaces, and (c) between the cover plate and the crankcase and sealed by a metallic gasket. Adding or removing metal washers, between the crankshaft shoulder and the shaft seal compression spring, adjusts the seal.
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FIGURE 6 - ROTARY SEAL A stationary bellows seal is illustrated in Figure 7. It consists of a bellows clamped to the compressor housing at one end to form a seal against a rotating shaft seal collar on the other end. The sealing points are (a) Between the crankcase and the bellows and sealed by the cover plate gasket, (b) Between the crankshaft and the shaft seal collar and sealed by a neoprene gasket, and (c) Between the surface of the bellows nose and the surface of the seal collar and sealed by lapped surfaces. The stationary bellows seal is factory set for proper tension. You should not alter this seal.
FIGURE 7 - STATIONARY BELLOWS SEAL
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The rotating bellows seal in Figure 8 consists of a bellows clamped to the crankshaft at one end to form a seal against a stationary, removable shaft seal shoulder on the other end. The sealing points are located (a) Between the crankshaft and bellows and sealed by a shaft seal clamping nut, (b) Between the removable shaft seal shoulder and the crankcase and sealed by a neoprene gasket, and (c) Between the bellows nosepiece and the shaft seal collar and sealed by lapped surfaces. This seal is also factory set.
FIGURE 8 - ROTATING BELLOWS SEAL The diaphragm seal in Figure 9 consists of a diaphragm clamped to the crankcase at its outer circumference and to a fulcrum ring at its center. The shaft seal collar is locked to the shaft with the steel ball and, therefore, rotates with the shaft. All other parts in the seal assembly are stationary. The fulcrum ring forms a seal collar that is locked to the diaphragm. The sealing points are located (a) Between the outer circumference of the diaphragm and the crankcase and sealed by a copper ring gasket, (b) Between the fulcrum ring and the diaphragm-sealed at the factory and not to be broken (c) Between the fulcrum ring and the rotating shaft seal collar and sealed by lapped surfaces, and (d) Between the shaft seal collar and the crankshaft shoulder and also sealed by lapped surfaces. You can adjust the tension in a diaphragm seal to obtain the specified deflection by adding or removing diaphragm-to-crankcase gaskets. For more information on handling, cleaning, and replacing shaft seal assemblies, consult the technical manual or the directions enclosed with the new seal.
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FIGURE - 9 DIAPHRAGM-TYPE SEAL CAPACITY CONTROL SYSTEM - Most compressors are equipped with an oil pressure operated automatic capacity control system. The capacity control system unloads, or cuts cylinders out of operation, following any decrease in the refrigeration load requirements of the plant. A cylinder may be unloaded by a mechanism that holds the suction valve open so that no gas can be compressed. Since oil pressure is required to load or put cylinders into operation, the compressor will start with all controlled cylinders unloaded. But as soon as the compressor is brought up to speed and full oil pressure is developed, all cylinders will become operative. After the temperature pull down period, the refrigeration load imposed on the compressor should decrease, and the capacity control system will unload the cylinders accordingly. Unloading of the cylinders results in reduced power consumption. In designs where numerous cooling coils are supplied by one compressor, the capacity control system will prevent the suction pressure from dropping to the low-pressure cutout setting. This action will prevent the compressor from stopping before all solenoid valves are closed. Several designs of capacity control systems are in use. One of the most common is shown in Figure 10. The capacity control system consists of four major elements: 1. 2. 3. 4. A capacity control valve A step control hydraulic relay A power element A valve lifting mechanism.
We will briefly discuss each of these components.
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FIGURE 10 - CAPACITY CONTROL SYSTEM CAPACITY CONTROL VALVE - The function of the capacity control valve is to raise or lower control oil pressure to the hydraulic relay piston in response to changes in refrigerant suction pressure. An increase in suction pressure increases the control oil pressure in the hydraulic relay. HYDRAULIC RELAY - The function of the hydraulic relay is to feed the lubrication oil from the oil pump at full pressure in sequence to one or more power elements. The hydraulic relay is activated by the control oil pressure from the capacity control valve. POWER ELEMENT -In brief, the power element supplies the force required to operate the valve lifting mechanism. VALVE LIFTING MECHANISM - The valve lifting mechanism consists of a sleeve and pushpin assembly mounted around each controlled cylinder. The valve lifting mechanism either holds the suction valve open or allows it to remain in a normal operating position. The position
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of the valve depends on the action of the valve lifting mechanism, which, in turn, depends on actuation by the power element. We will now explain the operation of the capacity control system and how the four major components work together to provide for changes in refrigerant load requirements of the plant. Follow along as we discuss how the system operates under both a loaded condition and an unloading condition. LOADED OPERATION - When a compressor is started with a warm load on the refrigeration system, the following events occur. A rise in the suction pressure increases the pressure against the capacity control valve bellows, compressing the range adjustment spring. The compression of the range adjustment spring allows the valve spring to move the pushpins and needle point of the valve toward the valve seat. The flow of control oil to the crankcase through the oil drain is throttled. Control oil pressure rises as oil enters the capacity control circuit through the orifice from the compressor oil pump circuit. Then increased control oil pressure advances the hydraulic relay piston (against the spring), which feeds oil at full pressure to one or more controlled cylinder power elements, depending upon the position of the control valve. The pump oil pressure in the unloader power elements forces the piston upward, pivoting the lifting fork(s) downward. The lifter pins then drop, allowing the suction valve(s) to seat and load the cylinder(s). UNLOADING OPERATION - A drop in suction pressure decreases the pressure against the control valve bellows. The range adjustment spring presses against the pushpins, compressing the valve spring. This moves the needle valve off the seat. Control oil bleeds from the hydraulic relay and control valve to the crankcase relieving oil pressure on the hydraulic piston. The piston retracts, preventing transmission of pressurized oil to the controlled cylinder power element(s) and to the oil drains to the crankcase. As oil pump pressure to the power element drops, the piston moves downward. The lifting fork(s) is (are) pivoted upward, moving the lifting pins upward; the suction valves are raised from their seats; and the controlled cylinders are then unloaded. CONDENSER - The condenser receives the high-pressure, high-temperature refrigerant vapor from the compressor. In the condenser, the refrigerant vapor flows around tubes through which seawater is flowing. As the vapor gives up its superheat (sensible heat) to the seawater, the temperature of the vapor drops to the condensing point. The refrigerant then changes to a liquid and is sub cooled slightly below its condensing point. This is done at the existing pressure to ensure that the liquid refrigerant will not flash into vapor. A water-cooled condenser for a refrigerant refrigeration system is shown in Figure 11. Circulating water is obtained through a branch connection auxiliary care pump. The purge connection, shown in Figure 11, is on the refrigerant side. It removes air and other noncondensable gases that are lighter than the refrigerant vapor.
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FIGURE 11 - CUTAWAY VIEW OF A WATER-COOLED CONDENSER FOR AN R-12 REFRIGERATION SYSTEM Most condensers used for shipboard refrigeration plants are of the water-cooled type. However, some small units have air-cooled condensers. Air-cooled condensers consist of tubing with external fins to increase the heat transfer surface. Most air-cooled condensers have fans to ensure positive circulation of air around the condenser tubes.
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RECEIVER - The receiver shown in figure 12, acts as a temporary storage space and surge tank for the liquid refrigerant. The receiver also serves as a vapor seal to keep vapor out of the liquid line to the expansion valve. Receivers may be constructed for either horizontal or vertical installation.
FIGURE 12 RECEIVER ACCESSORIES OF A REFRIGERATION SYSTEM - In addition to the five main components we have just described, a refrigeration system requires several controls and accessories. We will briefly describe the most important ones. DEHYDRATOR - A dehydrator, or dryer, containing silica gel or activated alumina, is placed in the liquid refrigerant fine between the receiver and the TXV. In older installations, bypass valves allow the dehydrator to be cut in or out of the system. In newer installations, the dehydrator is installed in the liquid refrigerant line without any bypass arrangement. MOISTURE INDICATOR - A moisture indicator is located either in the liquid refrigerant line or is built into the dehydrator as shown in Figure 13. The moisture indicator contains a chemically treated element that changes color when there is an increase of moisture in the refrigerant. In a refrigerant system, the indicator shows pink when the moisture level is too high; it shows blue when the moisture level is satisfactory. The color change is reversible and should change back to a DRY (blue) indication after the moisture have been removed from the refrigerant. If excessive moisture or free water comes into contact with the moisture indicator element, the indicator will no longer register pink for wet, but will be light gray in color. It will no longer change color and must be replaced.
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FIGURE 13 - REFRIGERATION DEHYDRATOR WITH MOISTURE INDICATOR SOLENOID VALVE AND THERMOSTATIC CONTROL SWITCH - A solenoid valve is installed in the liquid line leading to each evaporator. Figure 14 shows a solenoid valve (view A) and the thermostatic control switch (view B) that operates it. The thermostatic control switch is connected by long flexible tubing to a thermal control bulb that is located in the refrigerated space. When the temperature in the refrigerated space drops to the desired point, the thermal control bulb causes the thermostatic control switch to open. This action closes the solenoid valve and shuts off all flow of liquid refrigerant to the TXV. When the temperature in the refrigerated space rises above the desired point, the thermostatic control switch closes, the solenoid valve opens, and liquid refrigerant once again flows to the TXV. The solenoid valve and its related thermostatic control switch maintain the proper temperature in the refrigerated space. You may wonder why the solenoid valve is necessary if the TXV controls the amount of refrigerant admitted to the evaporator. Actually, the solenoid valve is not necessary on units that have only one evaporator. In systems that have more than one evaporator, where there is wide variation in load, the solenoid valve provides additional control to prevent the spaces from becoming too cold at light loads. In addition to the solenoid valve installed in the line to each evaporator, a large refrigeration plant usually has a main liquid line solenoid valve installed just after the receiver. If the compressor stops for any reason except normal suction pressure control, the main liquid solenoid valve closes. This action prevents liquid refrigerant from flooding the evaporator and from flowing to the compressor suction. Extensive damage to the compressor can result if liquid is allowed to enter the compressor suction.
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FIGURE 14 - SOLENOID VALVE AND THERMOSTATIC CONTROL SWITCH EVAPORATOR PRESSURE REGULATING VALVE - In some installations one compressor maintains several refrigerated spaces of varying temperatures. In these cases, an evaporator pressure-regulating (EPR) valve is installed at the outlet of each evaporator EXCEPT the evaporator in the space in which the lowest temperature is to be maintained. The EPR valve is set to keep the pressure in the coil from falling below the pressure corresponding to the lowest evaporator temperature desired in that space. The EPR valve is used mostly on water coolers, on units where high humidity is required (such as fruit and vegetable stowage spaces), and in installations where two or more rooms are maintained at different temperature by the use of the same refrigeration unit. A cross section of a common EPR valve is shown in figure 15. The tension of the spring above the diaphragm is adjusted so that when the evaporator coil pressure drops below the desired minimum, the spring will shut the valve.
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FIGURE 15 - EXPLODED VIEW OF A TYPICAL EVAPORATOR PRESSUREREGULATING (EPR) VALVE The EPR valve is not really a temperature control that is, it does not regulate the temperature in the space. It is only a device that prevents the temperature from becoming too low. LOW-PRESSURE CUTOUT SWITCH - The low-pressure cutout switch is also known as a suction pressure control switch. It is the control that causes the compressor to go on or off as required for normal operation of the refrigeration plant. This switch is connected to the suction side of the compressor and is actuated by pressure changes in the suction line. When the solenoid valves in the lines to the various evaporators are closed so that the flow of refrigerant to the evaporators is stopped, the pressure of the vapor in the compressor suction line drops quickly. When the suction pressure has dropped to the set pressure, the low-pressure cutout switch causes the compressor motor to stop. When the temperature in the refrigerated spaces has risen enough to operate one or more of the solenoid valves, refrigerant is again admitted to the cooling coils, and the compressor suction pressure builds up again. At the desired pressure, the low-pressure cutout switch closes, starting the compressor again and repeating the cycle.
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HIGH-PRESSURE CUTOUT SWITCH - A high-pressure cutout switch is connected to the compressor discharge line to protect the high-pressure side of the system against excessive pressure. The design of this switch is essentially the same as that of the low-pressure cutout switch. However, the low-pressure cutout switch is made to CLOSE when the suction pressure reaches its upper normal limit. The high-pressure cutout switch is made to OPEN when the discharge pressure is too high. As mentioned before, the low-pressure cutout switch is the compressor control for normal operation of the plant. The high-pressure cutout switch on the other hand, is a safety device only and does not have control of compressor operation under normal conditions. OIL FAILURE SWITCH - An oil failure switch is provided with high-speed compressors. This differential pressure switch is designed to prevent operation of the compressor in the event of low oil pressure. The switch has one bellows connected to the discharge oil line of the compressor oil pump and the other connected to the compressor crankcase suction refrigeration pressure. The switch is set to open the electrical circuit and to stop the compressor when the oil pressure drops to a low-pressure set point. The switch closes the electrical circuit and starts the compressor when the oil pressure reaches the reset set point. To start the compressor after it has been stopped and the contacts of the oil failure switch have opened, a time delay mechanism works in conjunction with the compressor motor controller. The time delay switch should open 10 to 30 seconds after the compressor motor has started. The oil pressure will normally build up within this time interval. The oil pressure switch will have made contact to keep the compressor motor electrical circuit energized after the time delay switch opens. If the oil pressure has not built up within about 30 seconds after the compressor is started, the contacts of the oil pressure differential switch will not have closed. The compressor will stop because the time delay relay switch is open. WATER FAILURE SWITCH - A water failure switch stops the compressor in the event of failure of the cooling water supply for the condenser. This is a pressure-actuated switch. It is generally similar to the low-pressure cutout switch and the high-pressure cutout switch previously described. If the water failure cutout switch fails to function, the refrigerant pressure in the condenser will quickly build up to the point that the high-pressure switch stops the compressor. Figure 16 illustrates the general type of pressure-actuated control switch that is used in most installations. (In the illustration. the cover to the switch has been removed.) These switches are designed to operate at various pressure ranges. Some switches have manual reset buttons to prevent automatic restoration of power after the event of a high-pressure shutdown, such as high compressor discharge pressure. The oil pressure failure switch we discussed earlier has two bellows instead of one as shown in Figure 16.
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SUCTION STRAINER - Because of the cleaning action of refrigerant, any particles of grit, scale, dirt, or metal that the system may contain are readily circulated through the refrigerant lines. As a precaution against damage to the compressor from foreign matter, a strainer is installed in the compressor suction connection.
FIGURE 16 - PRESSURE-ACTUATED CONTROL SWITCH
FIGURE 17 - LIQUID REFRIGERANT STRAINER
LIQUID STRAINER - A liquid strainer of the type shown in Figure 17 is installed in the liquid line leading to each evaporator. These strainers protect the solenoid valves and the TXV. SPRING-LOADED RELIEF VALVE - A spring-loaded relief valve is installed in the compressor discharge line as an additional precaution against excessive pressures. The relief valve is set to open at approximately 225 psig. Therefore, it functions only in case of failure or improper setting of the high-pressure cutout switch. If the relief valve opens, it discharges highpressure vapor to the suction side of the compressor. WATER REGULATING VALVE - A water-regulating valve controls the quantity of cooling water flowing through the refrigerant condenser. The refrigerant pressure in the top of the condenser actuates the water-regulating valve. This pressure acts upon a diaphragm (or, in some valves, a bellows arrangement), which transmits motion to the valve stem. The primary function of the water-regulating valve is to maintain a constant refrigerant condensing pressure. Basically, two variable conditions exist: (1) the amount of refrigerant to be condensed and (2) changing water temperatures. The valve maintains a constant refrigerant
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condensing pressure by controlling the water flow through the condenser. By sensing the refrigerant pressure, the valve permits only enough water through the condenser to condense the amount of refrigerant vapor coming from the compressor. The quantity of water required to condense a given amount of refrigerant varies with the water temperature. Thus, the flow of cooling water through the condenser is automatically maintained at the rate actually required to condense the refrigerant under varying conditions of load and temperature. PRESSURE GAUGES AND THERMOMETERS - A number of pressure gauges and thermometers are used in refrigeration systems. Figure 18 shows a compound refrigerant gauge. The temperature markings on this gauge show the boiling point (or condensing point) of the refrigerant at each pressure; the gauge cannot measure temperature directly. The fixed pointer (usually red) can be set manually to indicate the minimum or maximum allowable working pressure. A water pressure gauge is installed in the circulating water line to the condenser to indicate the circulating water supply pressure. Standard liquid-in-glass or bimetallic thermometers of appropriate range are installed at strategic points within the refrigerant system.
FIGURE 18 COMPOUND PRESSURE GAUGE REFRIGERANT PIPING - Refrigerant piping in modern naval installations is made of seamless copper tubing, which is good for this purpose because 1. It does not become corroded by refrigerants, 2. The internal surface of the tubing is smooth enough to minimize friction 3. Copper tubing is easily shaped to meet installation requirements. The piping of refrigeration systems is covered with insulation after all joints have been checked for leaks. The insulation prevents condensation from forming on and dripping off the cold piping
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on the low-pressure side of the system. On the high-pressure side, insulation reduces heat stress conditions and protects personnel from being burned by hot piping. PACKLESS VALVES - Nearly all hand-operated valves in large refrigeration systems are packless valves of the type shown in Figure 19. In this type of valve, the upper part is sealed off from the lower part by a diaphragm. An upward-seating ball check in the lower valve stem makes it possible for the spring to lift the lower stem regardless of pressure differences developed while the valve was closed. Thus, the valve will operate properly regardless of direction of flow. By back seating the valve, you can change the diaphragm without placing the system or unit out of operation.
FIGURE 19 PACKLESS VALVE FOR A REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
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3.. DEFIINIITIION OF TERMS 3 DEF N T ON OF TERMS

FUNDAMENTALS OF REFRIGERATION - Refrigeration is a general term. It describes the process of removing heat from spaces, objects, or materials and maintaining them at a temperature below that of the surrounding atmosphere. To produce a refrigeration effect, the material to be cooled needs only to be exposed to a colder object or environment. The heat will flow in its NATURAL direction that is, from the warmer material to the colder material. Refrigeration, then, generally means an artificial way of lowering the temperature. Mechanical refrigeration is a mechanical system or apparatus that transfers heat from one substance to another. You will find the concept of refrigeration easier to understand if you know the relationships among temperature, pressure, and volume, and how pressure affects liquids and gases. HEAT - The purpose of refrigeration is to maintain spaces at low temperatures. Remember, you cannot cool anything by adding coolness to it; you have to REMOVE HEAT from it. Therefore, refrigeration cools by removing heat. HEAT AND TEMPERATURE - It is important to know the difference between heat and temperature. HEAT is a form of energy. TEMPERATURE is a measure of the intensity of heat. The quantity or amount of heat energy in a substance is measured in BRITISH THERMAL UNITS (BTUs). At atmospheric pressure, 1 Btu is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of pure water 1F. In the opposite case, when 1 Btu is removed from 1 pound of water, the temperature of the water will drop 1F. Temperature, as you know, is measured in degrees. The degrees indicate the intensity of the heat in a given substance. Temperature does not indicate the number of BTUs in the substance. For example, lets consider a spoonful of very hot water and a bucketful of warm water. Which has the higher temperature? Which has more heat? The heat in the spoonful of hot water is more intense; therefore, its temperature is higher. The bucketful of warm water has more BTUs (more heat energy), but its heat is less intense. SENSIBLE HEAT AND LATENT HEAT - In the study of refrigeration, you must be able to distinguish between sensible heat and latent heat. SENSIBLE HEAT is the heat absorbed or given off by a substance that is NOT in the process of changing its physical state. Sensible heat can be sensed, or measured, with a thermometer, and the addition or removal of sensible heat will always cause a change in the temperature of the substance.
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SPECIFIC HEAT - Substances vary with respect to their ability to absorb or lose heat. The ability of a substance to absorb (or lose) heat is known as the SPECIFIC HEAT of the substance. The specific heat of water is 1.0 (1 Btu/lb/F), and the specific heat of every other substance is measured in relation to this standard. Thus, if it takes only 0.5 Btu to raise the temperature of 1 pound of a substance 1F, the specific heat of that substance is 0.5 or one half the specific heat of water. HEAT FLOW - Heat flows only from objects of higher temperature to objects of lower temperature. This was described earlier as the natural flow of heat. When two objects at different temperatures are placed near each other, heat will flow from the warmer object to the cooler one until both objects are at the same temperature. Heat flows at a greater rate when there is a large temperature difference. As the temperature difference approaches zero, the rate of heat flow also approaches zero. Heat transfer will occur between two materials of different temperature. Heat will flow from the high-temperature body to the low-temperature body. However, all materials do not conduct heat at the same rate. Some materials, such as metals, conduct heat readily. Other materials, such as wood and cork, offer considerable resistance to the conduction of heat. The relative capacity of a material to conduct heat is known as its THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY. Heat flow may take place by radiation, conduction, convection, or some combination of these methods. RADIATION - Heat transfer by radiation from one body to another occurs in the form of a wave motion similar to that of a light wave or radio wave. No intervening matter is required for heat transfer to take place by radiation. For example, the sun transmits great amounts of heat energy to the earth by radiation across the vacuum of space. By standing close to a fire, you can readily feel the heat radiated by the fire. Heat transfer by radiation-will occur between any two bodies that are visible to one another and that exist at different temperatures. CONDUCTION - Heat transfer by conduction occurs when energy is transferred by direct contact between molecules of a single body or among molecules of two or more bodies in physical contact with each other. Conduction takes place from the area of the higher temperature to that of the lower temperature. For example, if you hold an iron bar in one hand and place the other end of the bar in a bed of hot coals, the heat will pass from the coals to the bar, and then along the bar to your hand. Physical contact is made in each instance the coals to the bar, and the bar to your hand. CONVECTION - Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of a substance (gas or liquid) through a space. Examples of heat transfer by convection include a current of warm air in a room and warm air rising from hot water. REFRIGERATION TON - The unit of measure for the amount of heat removed is known as the REFRIGERATION TON. The capacity of a refrigeration unit is usually stated in refrigeration tons. The refrigeration ton is based on the cooling effect of 1 ton (2,000 pounds) of ice at 32oF melting in 24 hours. The latent heat of fusion of 1 pound of ice (or water) is 144 BTUs. Therefore, the number of BTUs required to melt 1 ton of ice is 144 x 2,000 = 288,000.
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The standard refrigeration ton is defined as the transfer of 288,000 BTUs in 24 hours. On an hourly basis, a refrigeration ton is equivalent to 12,000 BTUs per hour (288,000 is divided by 24). The refrigeration ton is the standard unit of measure that designates the heat flow capacity of a refrigeration unit. It is NOT a measure of the ice-making capacity of a machine, since the amount of ice that can be made depends on the initial temperature of the water and other factors. PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND VOLUME - We said earlier that it is important that you understand some of the ways in which pressure affects liquids and gases and some of the relationships between pressure, temperature, and volume in gases. The boiling point of any liquid varies according to the pressure on the liquid; the higher the pressure, the higher the boiling point. You should remember that condensing a gas to a liquid is just the reverse process of boiling a liquid until it vaporizes. The same pressure and temperature relationship is required to produce either change of state. Water boils at 212F at the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia, at 80 under a vacuum of 29 inches of mercury, and at 489F at a pressure of 600 psig. Refrigerants used in vapor compressor cycle equipment usually have much lower boiling points than water under any given pressure. However, these boiling points also vary according to pressure. At atmospheric pressure, for example, the refrigerant R-12 boils at - 21.6F. At 30 psig, R-12 boils at 32F, which is the freezing point of water. You should see that refrigerant couldnt exist as a liquid at ordinary temperatures. It must be confined within a container or closed space. When the temperature of a liquid is raised to the boiling point corresponding to its pressure and if application of heat is continued, the liquid will begin to boil and vaporize. The vapor that is formed will remain at the same temperature as the boiling liquid as long as it is in contact with the liquid. A vapor CANNOT be superheated as long as it is in contact with the liquid from which it is being generated. Boyles law, Charless law, and the general gas law or equation expresses the pressuretemperature-volume relationships of gases. We will briefly discuss each of these laws. BOYLES LAW states that the volume of any dry gas varies inversely with its absolute pressure provided the temperature remains constant. This law may also be expressed as the formula
V1P1 = V2P2
Wherein V1 is the original volume of the gas, P1 is its original absolute pressure, V2 is its new volume, and P2 is its new absolute pressure. CHARLESS LAW states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature provided the pressure is kept constant. The equation for Charless law is
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V1T2 = V2T1
THE GENERAL GAS EQUATION combines Boyles law and Charless law. It expresses the interrelationship of the volume, the absolute pressure, and the absolute temperature of gases. The general gas law is expressed by the formula
P1V1 = P2V2 T1 T2
In Boyles law, Charless law, and the general gas law, the equations indicate the nature of the interrelationship of the pressure, the volume, and the temperature of any gas. You probably will not find it necessary to use the equations themselves, but you should have a thorough understanding of the principles they express. Lets summarize them: 1. When TEMPERATURE is held constant, increasing the pressure on a gas causes a proportional decrease in volume. Decreasing the pressure causes a proportional increase in -volume. 2. When PRESSURE is held constant, increasing the temperature of a gas causes a proportional increase in volume. Decreasing the temperature causes a proportional decrease in volume. 3. When the VOLUME is held constant, increasing the temperature of a gas causes a proportional increase in pressure. Decreasing the temperature causes proportional decrease in pressure. In discussing the effects of pressure on a gas, we have pointed out that the volume and the temperature of gas are different AFTER the pressure has been changed. It is important to note, however, that a temperature change normally occurs in a gas WHILE the pressure is being changed. Compressing a gas raises its temperature; allowing a gas to expand lowers its temperature. As you will see, these two facts are important to your understanding of the operating principles of the refrigeration cycle.
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HUMIDITY -Humidity is the vapor content of the atmosphere; it has a great influence on human comfort. The common expression "It isnt the heat, its the humidity," indicates discomfort produced by moisture-laden air in hot weather. Extremely low moisture content also has undesirable effects on the human body. The measurement and control of moisture in the air is an important phase of air conditioning. To understand this phase, you should become familiar with the meaning of saturated air, absolute and specific humidity, and relative humidity. SATURATED AIR - Air can hold varying amounts of water vapor. It depends on the temperature of the air at a given atmospheric pressure. As the temperature rises, the amount of moisture the air can hold increases (assuming no change in atmospheric pressure). But for every temperature there is a definite limit to the amount of moisture the air can hold. When air contains the maximum amount of moisture it can hold at a specific temperature and pressure, it is said to be saturated. The temperature at which air becomes saturated with water vapor is called the DEW POINT. If the temperature of air falls below its dew point, some of the vapor in the air must condense to water. An example is the dew that appears on decks and bulkheads in the early morning. This normally happens when there is a drop in temperature. Another is the "sweating" of cold water pipes as water vapor from the relatively warm air condenses on the cold surface of the pipes. ABSOLUTE AND SPECIFIC HUMIDITY - The amount of water vapor in the air is expressed in terms of the weight of the moisture. The weight is usually given in grains (7,000 grains = 1 pound). ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY is the weight in grains of water vapor per cubic foot of air. SPECIFIC HUMIDITY is the weight in grains of water vapor per pound of air. (The weight of water vapor refers only to moisture that may be present in the liquid state, such as rain or dew.) RELATIVE HUMIDITY - Is the ratio of the weight of water vapor in a sample of air to the weight of water vapor the same sample of air would contain if saturated at the existing temperature. This ratio is usually stated as a percentage. For example, when air is fully saturated, the relative humidity is 100 %. When air contains no moisture at all, its relative humidity is 0 %. If air is half-saturated, the relative humidity for humans is between 50 %. The normal comfort range of relative humidity for humans is between 30 % and 70 %. The deciding factor in human comfort is the relative humidity not the absolute or specific humidity. Just as heat flows from a higher temperature to a lower temperature, moisture always travels from areas of greater wetness to areas of lesser wetness. If the air above a liquid is saturated, the two are in balance and no moisture can travel from the liquid to the air; that is, the liquid cannot evaporate. If the air is only partially saturated, some moisture can travel to the air; that is, some evaporation can take place. When the temperature of the air is 76oF and the relative humidity is nearly 90 %, the air is nearly saturated. At such a relative humidity, the body may perspire freely but the perspiration does not evaporate rapidly; thus a general feeling of discomfort results.
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However, when the temperature of the same air is 86oF the air is capable of holding more water vapor than it can hold at 76oF. The body is now able to evaporate its excess moisture and the general feeling is much more agreeable, even thought the temperature of the air is 10 o higher. (The cooling effect on the body is brought about by the absorption of latent heat during the evaporating process). In both examples, the specific humidity is the same, but the ability of the air to evaporate liquid is quite different at the two temperatures. The ability to evaporate moisture is directly indicated by the relative humidity. This is the reason the control of relative humidity is on extreme importance in air conditioning. HEAT OF AIR - The total heat content of air is the sum of two parts: 1. Sensible heat and 2. Latent heat. Sensible Heat is the amount of heat which, when added to or removed from air, changes the temperature of the air. Temperature changes caused by sensible heat can be measured by the common (dry-bulb) thermometer. Air always contains some water vapor. Any water vapor in the air contains LATENT HEAT OF VAPORATION, which means the heat necessary to cause the water to change state from a liquid to a gas (heat added). The opposite case is called LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION, which refers to the heat that must be removed to cause the water to change state from a gas back into a liquid. (The amount of latent heat present has no effect on temperature, and it cannot be measure with a dry-bulb thermometer). Any mixture of air and water vapor contains both sensible heat and latent heat. The sum of the sensible heat and the latent heat in any sample of air is called the TOTAL HEAT of the air. TEMPERATURES - To test the effectiveness of air-conditioning equipment and to check the humidity of a space, we must consider two different temperatures. These are the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES - The DRY-BULB TEMPERATURES is the temperature of the sensible heat of the air, as measured by an ordinary liquid-in-glass thermometer. Such a thermometer in air conditioning is referred to as a dry-bulb thermometer because its sensing bulb is dry, in contrast with the wet-bulb type described next. The WET-BULB TEMPERATURE is best explained by a description of a wet-bulb thermometer. (Refer to fig. 20). It is also a liquid-in-glass thermometer with a loosely woven cloth sleeve or wick placed around its bulb, which is then wet with distilled water. The water in the sleeve or wick is forced to evaporate by a current of air (see next paragraph) at high velocity. This evaporation withdraws heat from the thermometer bulb, lowering the temperature by several degrees. The difference between the dry-bulb and the wet-bulb temperatures is called the WET-BULB DEPRESSION. When the wet-bulb temperature is the same as the dry-bulb
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temperature, the air is saturated (that is, evaporation cannot take place). This condition of saturation is unusual, however, and some value of wet-bulb depression is normally expected. The wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers are usually mounted side by side on a frame that has a handle and a short chain attached. This allows the thermometers to be whirled in the air, thus providing a high-velocity air current to promote evaporation. This device known as a SLING PSYCHROMETER, is shown in Figure 21. When using the sling psychrometers, whirl it rapidly-at least four times per second. Observe the wet-bulb temperature at intervals. The point at which there is no further drop in temperature is the wet-bulb temperature for that space.
FIGURE 20 - DRY BULB AND WET BULB THERMOMETERS
FIGURE 21 - TEMPERATURE MONITORING DEVICES
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Another variation of this device, known as a MOTORIZED PSYCHROMETER, is shown in Figure 22. Motorized psychrometers are provided with a small motor-driven fan and dry-cell batteries. Motorized psychrometers are generally preferred and are gradually replacing sling psychrometers.
FIGURE 22 - EXPOSED VIEW OF A MOTORIZED PSYCHROMETER 1. Sliding door 4. Water bottle 7. Thermometer holder 10. Exhaust ports 2. Spring contact 5. Bottle compartment 8. Wet bulb wick 11. Sliding air intake 3. Battery compartment 6. Hinge pin 9. Knob
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4.. PROPER OPERATIION OF REFRIIGERATIION CYCLES--TEMPERATURES AND 4 PROPER OPERAT ON OF REFR GERAT ON CYCLES TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURE PRESSURE
OPERATING PROCEDURES FOR A REFRIGERANT SYSTEM - You will need some very specific training before you become a good refrigeration system operator. First, you need a lot of practical experience on the systems. Second, you need to pay close attention to the procedures followed by qualified personnel. Your first responsibility with a refrigerant system will probably require you, to check temperatures and pressures, maintain the plant-operating log, detect symptoms of faulty operation, and check conditions in the spaces or units being cooled. The intervals of time between plant inspections will vary depending on the purpose of the plant. The temperatures and pressures throughout the system and the oil level in the compressor crankcase must be checked every hour. The results should be recorded unless watch-standing instructions specify otherwise. These checks allow operating personnel to determine whether the plant is operating properly. One of the best methods for checking is to compare the existing temperatures and pressures with those recorded when the plant was known to be operating properly, under conditions similar to the present conditions, or to read the operating manual. AUTOMATIC OPERATION OF AN REFRIGERANT REFRIGERATION PLANT After you have obtained the prescribed operating pressures and temperatures with the compressor running in MANUAL, place the selector switch in the AUTOMATIC position. A refrigeration compressor should NEVER be left unattended when in the MANUAL mode of operation. You should remember from our discussion that the suction-pressure control (low-pressure cutout switch) is connected electrically to start and stop the compressor automatically on the basis of load conditions. If the automatic control valves and switches are in proper adjustment, the operation of the plant, after proper starting, should be entirely automatic. When you set the selector switch for automatic operation, the water failure switch, the highpressure cutout switch, or the low-pressure cutout switch will close and energize their respective control circuits. In some installations, the supply of condenser cooling water comes directly from a centrifugal pump or from the fire and flushing main. If cooling water in your system comes from the fire and flushing main, you must open the pump controller switch manually. The water failure switch must remain closed regardless of the source of condenser cooling water. In systems that are not equipped with water regulating valves, normal operating conditions will generally produce condensing pressures of less than 125 psi. This happens because the condensing water temperature is usually less than 85F. If your system does have these valves, you should adjust them to maintain the condensing pressure at 125 psi. With the valves adjusted properly, the quantity of cooling water will decrease rapidly with decreasing circulating water temperatures. In systems equipped with air-cooled condensers, condensing pressures may exceed 125 psi when the temperature of the surrounding air is higher than normal. Only one compressor should serve a cooling coil circuit. When compressors are operated in parallel on a common cooling circuit, lubricating oil may be transferred from one compressor to another. This may cause serious damage to all compressors on the circuit.
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A refrigerant compressor should not remain idle for an extended period of time. When a plant has two or more compressors, you should operate them alternately. You should make certain that the total operating time on each of the compressors is approximately the same. (An idle compressor should be operated at least once a week) CHARACTERISTIC OF REFRIGERANTS - Pure refrigerant (CC12F2) is colorless. It is odorless in concentrations of less than 20 % by volume in air. In higher concentrations, its odor resembles that of carbon tetrachloroethylene (dry-cleaning fluid). It has a boiling point of 21.6oF at atmospheric pressure. At a room temperature of 70 o, refrigerant is a liquid, provided it is kept at a pressure of at least 90 psig. In either the liquid or vapor state, refrigerant is nonflammable and non-explosive. It will not corrode the metals commonly used in refrigerating systems. Because it does not decompose, refrigerant is a stable compound capable of undergoing the physical changes required of it in refrigeration service. It is an excellent solvent and has the ability to loosen and remove particles of dirt, scale, and oil with which it comes in contact within a refrigerating system. Other refrigerants, such as R-22 (CHC1F2) and R-11 (CCC3F), are colorless, non-explosive, and nonpoisonous. These refrigerants have many properties in common with refrigerant; however, their operating characteristics are different. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - Personnel working with refrigerants may be injured or killed if proper precautions are not taken. HALOCARBONS - Refrigerants are halocarbons, which are organic chemical compounds containing hydrogen and one or more atoms of carbon, fluorine, bromine, chlorine, or iodine. These substances may be present in various combinations in the compound. Familiar brand names of refrigerants includes Freon, Gentron, Gension D., or Frigen. Working with these compounds regularly aboard ship will make it easy for you to gain a false sense of security. This may tempt you to forget about the potential hazards of halocarbon refrigerants. Remember: Halocarbon refrigerants are especially dangerous when used in high concentrations in confined or poorly ventilated spaces. HANDLING OF REFRIGERANT CYLINDERS (BOTTLES) - Refrigerants are furnished in cylinders for use in shipboard refrigeration systems. The following precautions must be observed in the handling, use, and storage of these cylinders: 1. NEVER drop cylinders or permit them to strike each other violently. 2. NEVER use a lifting magnet or a sling (rope or chain) to handle cylinders. (A crane may be used if a safe cradle or platform is provided to hold the cylinders.)
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3. Caps on refrigerant cylinders are provided for valve protection. Always keep the caps on the cylinders except when the cylinders are being used. 4. Whenever refrigerant is discharged from a cylinder, always weight the cylinder immediately and record the weight of the refrigerant remaining in the cylinder. 5. NEVER attempt to mix gases in a cylinder. 6. NEVER put the wrong refrigerant into a refrigeration system! No refrigerant except the one for which a system was designed should ever be introduced into the system. Check the equipment nameplate or the technical manual to determine the proper refrigerant type and charge. 7. Putting the wrong refrigerant into a system can cause a violent explosion. 8. When a cylinder has been emptied, close the cylinder valve immediately to prevent the entrance of air, moisture, or dirt. Also, be sure to replace the valve protection cap 9. NEVER use cylinders for any purpose other than their intended purpose. Do NOT use cylinders as rollers and support. 10. DO NOT tamper with the safety devices in the valves or cylinders. 11. Open cylinder valves slowly. NEVER use wrenches or other tools except those provided by the manufactures. 12. Be sure the threads on regulators or other connections are the same as those on the cylinder valve outlets. NEVER force connections that do not fit. 13. ALWAYS use the correct pressure gauges and regulator with the gas cylinders for which they were intended. 14. NEVER attempt to repair or alter cylinders or valves. 15. NEVER fill refrigerant cylinders beyond 85 % capacity. 16. Store cylinders in a cool, dry place, in an UPRIGHT position. If the cylinders are exposed to excessive heat, a dangerous increase in pressure will occur. If cylinders must be stored in the open, make sure they are protected against extremes of weather. 17. NEVER allow a cylinder to be subjected to temperatures above 130F. 18. NEVER allow refrigerant to come in contact with a flame or red-hot-metal! When exposed to excessively high temperatures, (approximately 1,000 F or above) refrigerant breaks down into phosgene gas, an extremely poisonous substance. If refrigerant comes in contact with the skin, it may cause frostbite. This injury should be treated as any other cause of frostbite. Immerse the affected part in a warm bath for about 10 minutes, and then dry carefully. Do not rub or massage the affected area. Generally, mixtures of refrigerant vapor and air, in all proportions, are not irritating to the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. The refrigerant will not contaminate or poison foods or other supplies with which it may come in contact. The vapor, too, is nonpoisonous. However, if refrigerant concentrations become excessive, unconsciousness or even death may result from lack of oxygen to the brain.
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AIR CONDITIONING - Air conditioning is a field of engineering that deals with the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of equipment used to establish and maintain desirable indoor air conditions. It is used to maintain the environment of an enclosure at any required temperature, humidity, and air quality. Simply stated, air conditioning involves the cooling, heating, dehumidifying, ventilating, and cleaning of air. This chapter deals with that process. THE PURPOSES OF AIR CONDITIONING AND RELATED FACTORS - One of the chief purposes of air conditioning aboard ship is to keep the crew comfortable, alert, and physically fit. None of us can long maintain a high level of efficiency under adverse environmental conditions. We have to maintain a variety of compartments at a prescribed temperature with proper circulation. They must have proper moisture content, the correct proportion of oxygen, and an acceptable level of air contamination (dust, airborne dirt, and so forth). The comfort and fitness of the crew is only one purpose of air conditioning. Mechanical cooling or ventilation must also be provided in ammunition spaces to prevent deterioration of ammunition components and in gas storage spaces to prevent excessive pressure buildup in the metal bottles and contamination of the space by gas leakage. Finally, we must provide cooling and ventilation in electrical/electronic equipment spaces. This is done to maintain the ambient temperature and humidity as specified for the equipment. Proper air conditioning must consider the humidity, total heat of the air, temperature, body heat balance, effect of airflow, and physical sensation of comfort. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TEMPERATURES - You should clearly understand the definite relationships of the three temperatures-dry-bulb, wet-bulb, and dew point. 1. When air contains some moisture but is not saturated, the dew-point temperature is lower than the dry-bulb temperature; the wet-bulb temperature lies between them. 2. As the amount of moisture in the air increases, the difference between the dry-bulb temperature and the wet-bulb temperature becomes less. 3. When the air is saturated, all three temperatures are the same. 4. By using both the wet-bulb and the dry-bulb temperature readings, you, can determine the percent of relative humidity and the dew-point temperature by using a psychometric chart. (See fig. 3.) The dry-bulb temperatures are equally spaced vertical lines. The wet-bulb temperature lines are angled across the chart. The dewpoint temperature lines are horizontal straight lines across the chart, as are the lines labeled GRAINS OF MOISTURE PER POUND OF DRY AIR. Find where the wetbulb and dry-bulb lines cross and interpolate the relative humidity from the nearest curved relative humidity lines to the temperature-line crossing point. Then find the dew point by following the straight dew-point line closest to the intersection across to the left of the chart. Now read the dew-point temperature. We will use the following example to help you learn how to use a psychometric chart to determine the percent of relative humidity and the dew-point temperature. Use the following conditions: the dry-bulb temperature is 95F and the wet-bulb temperature is 70F. Locate the line for 95F along the bottom of the chart
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Next, locate the wet-bulb temperature of 70F on the curved line marked with values of temperature 2. Use the intersection of these two lines 3. To determine the percent of relative humidity. As shown in the figure, the point of intersection occurs between two curved lines labeled 20% and 30%. Since the point is closer to the 30% line, we can interpolate and estimate a value of about 28% relative humidity. To determine the dew-point temperature, follow over to the left in a straight line from the point of intersection. This line intersects the curved line labeled WETBULB AND DEW-POINT TEMPERATURES at a point between 55F and 60F 4. Since the intersection is closer to 55F, we can interpolate again and estimate that the air must be cooled to a temperature of about 57F to cause the water vapor in the air to condense into a liquid (which will cause the air to dry out).
FIGURE 23 - SIMPLIFIED PSYCHOMETRIC CHART BODY HEAT BALANCE - Ordinarily the body remains at a fairly constant temperature of 98.6F. It is very important that this body temperature be maintained and, since there is a continuous heat gain from internal body processes, there must also be a continuous loss to maintain body heat in balance. Excess heat must be absorbed by the surrounding air or lost by radiation. As the temperature and humidity of the environment vary, the human body automatically regulates the amount of heat it gives off. However, the bodys ability to adjust to varying environmental conditions is limited. Furthermore, although the body may adjust to a certain (limited) range of atmospheric conditions, it does so with a distinct feeling of discomfort.
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The following discussion will help you understand how atmospheric conditions affect the bodys ability to maintain a heat balance. BODY HEAT GAINS - The human body gains heat 1. By radiation 2. By convection 3. By conduction 4. As a by-product of the physiological processes that take place within the body (for example, the conversion of food into energy). Heat gain from radiation comes from our surroundings. However, heat always travels from areas of higher temperature to areas of lower temperature. Therefore, the human body receives heat from those surroundings that have a temperature higher than body surface temperature. The greatest source of heat radiation is the sun. Some sources of indoor heat radiation are heating devices, operating machinery, and hot steam piping. Heat gain from convection comes only from currents of heated air. Such currents of air may come from a galley stove or an operating diesel engine. Heat gain from conduction comes from objects with which the body comes in contact. Most body heat comes from within the body itself. Heat is produced continuously inside the body by the oxidation of food, by other chemical processes, and by friction and tension within muscle tissues. EFFECTS OF AIR MOTION - In perfectly still air, the layer of air around a body absorbs the sensible heat given off by the body and increases in temperature. The layer of air also absorbs some of the water vapor given off by the body, thus increasing in relative humidity. This means the body is surrounded by an envelope of moist air that is at a higher temperature and relative humidity than the ambient air. Therefore, the amount of heat the body can lose to this envelope is less than the amount it can lose to the ambient air. When the air is set in motion past the body, the envelope is continually being removed and replaced by the ambient air, thereby increasing the rate of heat loss from the body. When the increased heat loss improves the heat balance, the sensation of a breeze is felt; when the increase is excessive, the rate of heat loss makes the body feel cool and the sensation of a draft is felt. SENSATION OF COMFORT - From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that the three factors-temperature, humidity, and air motion-are closely interrelated in their effects upon the comfort and health of personnel aboard ship. In fact, a given combination of temperature, humidity, and air motion will produce the same feeling of warmth or coolness as a higher or lower temperature in conjunction with a compensating humidity and air motion. The term given to the net effect of these three factors is known as the EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE. Effective temperature cannot be measured by an instrument, but can be found on a special psychrometric chart when the dry-bulb temperatures and air velocity are known.
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The combinations of temperature, relative humidity, and air motion of a particularly effective temperature may produce the same feeling of warmth or coolness. However, they are NOT all equally comfortable. Relative humidity below 15 % produces a parched condition of the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and lungs, and increases susceptibility to disease germs. Relative humidity above 70 % causes an accumulation of moisture in clothing. For the best health conditions, you need a relative humidity ranging from 40 % to 50 % for cold weather and from 50 % to 60 % for warm weather. An overall range from 30 % to 70 % is acceptable. EFFECTS OF HEAT STRESS - People who are required to work in hot, humid spaces must be aware of heat stress. To ensure this awareness, some companies have established programs to prevent incidents of heat stress. This program requires that any circumstances that result in a case of heat exhaustion or heatstroke be reported to higher authority. People are required to work in hot spaces with stagnant, moisture-laden air, the environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, and airflow) are such that the heat load in the human body builds up. As the bodys internal temperature rises and the rate of heat buildup cannot be balanced by the evaporation of perspiration, the human body becomes stressed. A person who continues to work in this environment may experience heat cramps (painful muscle spasms). Heat cramps are an early symptom of a more serious problem called HEAT EXHAUSTION. Similar to the symptoms of physical shock to the body, the signs and symptoms of a person suffering from heat exhaustion are dizziness, headache, and nausea. The skin will appear gray in color and will feel cold and clammy. Correct treatment for this condition is the IMMEDIATE removal of the person to a cooler environment. Loosen the clothing and apply cool wet cloths to the head, groin, and ankles. Lightly fan the victim. If the person is conscious, you should make him or her drink cool water. (DO NOT administer more liquid if the victim begins to vomit.) The victim should be transported to a medical facility as soon as possible. A less common, but far more serious, condition of heat stress is known as HEAT-STROKE. Heatstroke is fatal in about 20 % of all cases. With heatstroke, the bodys temperature control system completely malfunctions and is unable to rid itself of excess heat. Bodily temperatures may rise as high as 105 F (a high fever), and prolonged high body temperatures can result in failure of vital organs such as the kidneys, liver, and brain. Although the early symptoms of heatstroke appear to be similar to those of heat exhaustion, the symptoms of heatstroke are distinct. In a victim of heatstroke, breathing becomes shallow, almost absent, as the, heat builds up within the body. The skin will appear flushed or reddened and will feel dry and hot. The pupils of the eyes will be constricted to pinpoints, and the pulse will be fast and very strong. Please understand that HEATSTROKE IS A TRUE LIFE-AND-DEATH EMERGENCY. Proper treatment of heatstroke requires immediate action to cool the victims body by moving it to a cooler place and dousing the body with cool water. Remove as much clothing as possible. A conscious victim should be made to drink cool water. Every case of heatstroke must be transported to a medical facility as soon as possible. An important part of a heat stress awareness and prevention program is the constant monitoring of environmental conditions in workspaces, where liquid-inglass (dry-bulb) thermometers are located at key watch and work stations. The temperature at each work site must be read and
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recorded at least once per watch. When the temperature in any workspace rises to the point where work must be slowed down or curtailed for personnel to avoid heat stress (usually 100F), a heat survey must be taken. Safe stay time limits must then be determined and imposed for people who must continue to work in the space.
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5. DEFROST CYCLES DEFROST CYCLES

DEFROSTING - Pumping hot discharge gas from the compressor directly into the cooling coil circuit to be defrosted performs hot gas defrosting. The hot gas is cooled and condensed, and the frost melts off the coils. The resulting liquid refrigerant is expanded and evaporated in a second coil through a hand expansion valve. During defrosting, the plant should be under normal operation. To defrost a coil by hot gas, proceed as follows: DEFROSTING INTERVALS - The necessity for periodically defrosting air-cooling evaporators which operate at temperatures low enough to cause frost to collect on the evaporator surface has already been established. How often the evaporator should be defrosted depends on the type of evaporator, the nature of the installation, and the method of defrosting. Large, baretube evaporators, such as those employed in breweries, cold storage plants, etc., are usually defrosted only once or twice a month. On the other hand, finned blower coils are frequently defrosted as often as once or twice each hour. In some low temperature installations defrosting of the evaporator is continuous by brine spray or by some antifreeze solution. In general, the length of the defrost period is determined by the degree of frost accumulation on the evaporator and by the rate at which heat can be applied to melt off the frost. For the most part, the degree of frost accumulation will depend on the type of installation, the season of the year, and the frequency of defrosting. As a general rule, the more frequently the evaporator is defrosted the smaller is the frost accumulation and the shorter is the defrost period required. METHODS OF DEFROSTING - Defrosting of the evaporator is accomplished in a number of different ways, all of which can be classified as either natural defrosting or supplementaryheat defrosting according to the source of the heat used to melt off the frost. Natural defrosting, sometimes called shut-down or off-cycle defrosting, utilizes the heat of the air in the refrigerated space to melt the frost from the evaporator, whereas supplementary-heat defrosting is accomplished with heat supplied from sources other than the space air. Some common sources of supplementary heat are water, brine, electric heating elements, and hot gas from the discharge of the compressor. All methods of natural defrosting require that the system (or evaporator) be shut down for a period of time long enough to permit the evaporator temperature to rise to a level well above the melting point of the frost. The exact temperature rise required and the exact length of time the evaporator must remain shut down in order to complete the defrosting vary with the individual installation and with the frequency of defrosting. However, in every case, since the heat to melt the frost comes from the space air, the temperature in the space must be allowed to rise to whatever level is necessary to melt off the evaporator frost, which is usually about 37 to 40F. For this reason, natural defrosting is not ordinarily practical in any installation when the design space temperature is below 34F. The simplest method of defrosting is to shut the system down manually until the evaporator warms up enough to melt off the frost, after which the system is started up again manually. When several evaporators connected to the same condensing unit are located in different spaces or fixtures, the evaporators can be taken out of service and defrosted one at a time by manually
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closing a shut-off valve located in the liquid line of the evaporator being defrosted. When defrosting is completed, the evaporator is put back into service by opening the shut-off valve. If automatic defrosting is desired, a clock timer can be used to shut the system down for a fixed period of time at regular intervals. Both the number and the length of the defrost periods can be adjusted to suit the individual installation. As a general rule, natural convection evaporators are defrosted only once a day, in which case the defrost cycle is usually started around midnight and lasts for several hours. On the other hand, unit coolers should be defrosted at least once every 3 to 6 hr. Since it is usually undesirable to keep the system out of service for any longer than is necessary, the length of the defrost period should be carefully adjusted so that the system is placed back in service as soon as possible after defrosting. In one variation of the time defrost, the defrost cycle is initiated by the defrost timer and terminated by a temperature or pressure control that is actuated by the evaporator temperature or pressure. With this method, the defrost period is automatically adjusted to required length, since the evaporator temperature (or pressure) will rise to the cut-in setting of the control as soon as defrosting is completed. The most common method of natural defrosting is the off-cycle defrost. As described in an earlier chapter, off-cycle defrosting is accomplished by adjusting the cycling control so that the evaporator temperature rises to 37F or 38F during every off cycle. If the system has been properly designed, the evaporator will be maintained relatively free of frost at all times, since it will be completely defrosted during each off cycle. WATER DEFROSTING - For evaporator temperatures down to approximately minus 40F, brine or some antifreeze solution should be substituted for the water. A typical water defrost system is illustrated in figure 24. Although water defrosting can be made automatic, it is often designed for manual operation. Ordinarily, the following procedure is used to carry out the defrosting: 1. A stop valve in the liquid line is closed and the refrigerant is evacuated from the evaporator, after which the compressor is stopped ant the evaporator fans are turned off so that the water spray is not blown out into the refrigerated space. If the evaporator is equipped with louvers, these are closed to isolate further the evaporator and prevent fogging of the refrigerated space.
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FIGURE 24 - TYPICAL WATER DEFROST SYSTEM 2. The water spray is turned on until the evaporator is defrosted, which requires approximately 4 to 5 minutes. After the sprays are turned off, several minutes are allowed for draining of the water from the evaporator coils and drain pan before the evaporator fans are started and the system put back in operation. To eliminate the possibility of water freezing in the drain line, the evaporator should be located close to an outside wall and the drain line should be amply sized and so arranged that the water is drained from the space as rapidly as possible. A trap is installed in the drain line outside the refrigerated space to prevent warm air being drawn into the space through the drain line during normal operation. In some instances, a float valve is employed in the drain pan to shut off the water spray and prevent overflowing into the space in the event that the drain line becomes plugged with ice. When brine or an antifreeze solution replaces the water spray, the defrosting solution is returned to a reservoir and re-circulated, rather than wasted. Unless the reservoir is large enough so that the addition of heat is not required, some means of reheating the solution in the reservoir may be necessary. Since the water from the melting frost will weaken the solution, the defrost system is equipped with a concentrator to boil off the excess water and return the solution to its initial concentration.
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One manufacturer circulates a heated glycol solution through the inner tube of a double-tube evaporator coil. The principal advantage gained is that the glycol is not diluted by the melting frost. ELECTRIC DEFROSTING - Electric resistance heaters are frequently employed for the defrosting of finned blower coils. An evaporator equipped with defrost heaters is shown in figure 25. Ordinarily, the drain pan and drain line are also heated electrically to prevent refreezing of the melted frost in these parts.
FIGURE 25 - EVAPORATOR EQUIPPED FOR ELECTRIC DEFROSTING. HEATER ELEMENTS ARE INSTALLED THROUGH THE CENTER OF THE TUBES. INSET SHOWS DETAILS OF MECHANICAL SEALING OF THE HEATER ELEMENTS. The electric defrost cycle can be started and stopped manually or a defrost timer may be used to make defrosting completely automatic. In either case, the defrosting procedure is the same. The defrost cycle is initiated by closing a solenoid valve in the liquid line causing the evaporator to be evacuated, after which the compressor cycles off on low pressure control. At the same time, the heating elements in the evaporator are energized and the evaporator fans turned off so that the heat is not blown out into the refrigerated space. After the evaporator is defrosted, the heaters are de-energized and the system put back in operation by opening the liquid line solenoid and starting the evaporator false. HOT GAS DEFROSTING - Hot gas defrosting has many variations, all of which in some way utilize the hot gas discharged from the compressor as a source of heat to defrost the evaporator. One of the simplest methods of hot gas defrosting is illustrated in figure 26. A by-pass equipped with a solenoid valve is installed between the compressor discharge and the evaporator. When
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the solenoid valve is opened, the hot gas from the compressor discharge by passes the condenser and enters the evaporator at a point just beyond the refrigerant control. Defrosting is accomplished as the hot gas gives up its heat to the cold evaporator and condenses into the liquid state. Some of the condensed stays in the evaporator while the remainder returns to the compressor where it is evaporated by the compressor heat and recirculated to the evaporator.
FIGURE 26 - SIMPLE HOT GAS DEFROST SYSTEM This method of hot gas defrosting has several disadvantages. Since no liquid is vaporized in the evaporator during the defrost cycle, the amount of hot gas available from the compressor will be limited. As defrosting progresses, more liquid remains in the evaporator and less refrigerant is returned to the compressor for recirculation, with the result that the system tends to run out of heat before the evaporator is completely defrosted. Another, and more serious, disadvantage of this method is the possibility that a large slug of liquid refrigerant will return to the compressor and cause damage to that unit. This is most likely to occur either at the beginning of the defrost cycle or immediately after defrosting is completed. Fortunately, both these weaknesses can be overcome by providing some means of re-evaporating the liquid, which condenses in the evaporator before it is returned to the compressor. The particular means used to re-evaporate the liquid is the principal factor distinguishing one method of hot gas defrosting from another.
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RE-EVAPORATOR COILS - One common method of hot gas defrosting employs a reevaporator coil in the suction line to re-evaporate the liquid, figure 27. During the normal running cycle the solenoid valve in the suction line is open and the suction vapor from the evaporator by passes the re-evaporator coil in order to avoid an excessive suction line pressure loss. At regular intervals (usually 3 to 6 hr) the defrost timer starts the defrost cycle by opening the solenoid in the suction by-pass line. At the same time, the evaporator fans are stopped and the re-evaporator fan is started. The liquid condensed in the evaporator is re-evaporated in the reevaporator coil and returned as a vapor to the compressor, where it is compressed and recirculated to the evaporator. When defrosting is completed, the defrost cycle may be terminated by the defrost timer or by an evaporator-temperature actuated temperature control. In either case, the system is placed back in operation by closing the hot gas solenoid, opening the suction solenoid, stopping the re-evaporator fan and starting the evaporator fans.
FIGURE 27 HOT GAS DEFROST SYSTEM EMPLOYING RE-EVAPORATOR COIL DEFROSTING MULTIPLE EVAPORATOR SYSTEMS - When two or more evaporators are connected to a common condensing unit, the evaporators may be defrosted individually, in which case the operating evaporator can serve as a re-evaporator for the refrigerant condensed in the evaporator being defrosted. A flow diagram of this arrangement is illustrated in figure 28.
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FIGURE 28 - HOT GAS DEFROST MULTIPLE EVAPORATOR SYSTEM. REVERSE CYCLE DEFROSTING - By employing the reverse cycle (heat pump) principle, the condenser can be utilized as a re-evaporator coil to re-evaporate the refrigerant that condenses in the evaporator during the defrost cycle. An automatic expansion valve is used to meter the liquid refrigerant into the condenser fro re-evaporation. Flow diagrams for normal operation and defrosting are shown in figure 29 (a) and (b), respectively. Modern practice replaces valves A, B, C, and D of figure 29 with a single four-way valve as illustrated in figure 30.
FIGURE 29A - REVERSE CYCLE HOT GAS DEFROST SYSTEM (DEFROST CYCLE) FIGURE 29B -REVERSE CYCLE HOT GAS DEFROST SYSTEM (NORMAL OPERATION)
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FIGURE 30A - REVERSE CYCLE HOT GAS DEFROST NORMAL OPERATION FIGURE 30B - REVERSE CYCLE HOT GAS DEFROST DEFROST CYCLE HEAT BANK DEFROSTING - The Thermo-bank* method of hot gas defrosting employs a water bank to store a portion of the heat ordinarily discarded at the condenser when the evaporator is being refrigerated. During the defrost cycle, the heat stored in the water bank is used to re-evaporate the refrigerant condensed in the defrosting evaporator. During normal operation (figure 31a), the discharge gas from the compressor passes through the heating coil in the water bank first and then goes to the condenser, so that a portion of the heat ordinarily discarded at the condenser is stored in the bank water. Notice that the suction vapor by passes the holdback valve and bank during the refrigerating cycle in order to avoid unnecessary suction line pressure loss and superheating of the suction vapor by the bank water. Also, to control the maximum water bank temperature, a by-pass is built into the water bank heating coil. The by-pass is so sized that a greater portion of the discharge gas by passes the heater coil and flows directly to the condenser as the temperature of the bank water increases.
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FIGURE 31 THERMOBANK HOT GAS DEFROSTING When the frost reaches a predetermined thickness, the defrost cycle (figure 31b) is initiated by an electric timer which opens the hot gas solenoid valve, closes the suction solenoid valve, and stops the evaporator fans. Hot gas is discharged into the evaporator where it condenses and defrosts the coil. The condensed refrigerant flows to the holdback valve that acts as a constant pressure expansion valve and feeds to the re-evaporator coil immersed in the bank water. In this process, the bank water actually freezes on the outside of the re-evaporator coil. The heat stored in the bank is transferred to the refrigerant, which evaporates completely in the re-evaporator coil. Thus both sensible and latent heat are abstracted from the bank water, making available vast heat quantities for fast defrost and the refrigerant returns to the suction inlet of the compressor completely evaporated. Defrost is completed in approximately 6 to 8 min. This is followed by a post-defrost period lasting a few minutes after the closing of the hot gas solenoid valve. During post-defrost any liquid refrigerant in the coil and suction line is re-evaporated. The timer then returns the system to normal operation. When normal operation is resumed, the bank water is promptly restored to its original temperature by the hot gas passing through the heating coil.
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24 24
6. MONTREAL PROTOCOL 24 MONTREAL PROTOCOL

EARLY CONCERNS AND REGULATIONS - The 1974 Molina-Rowland theory that man made CFCs and bromine emitted into the atmosphere are responsible for ozone depletion caused considerable debate and controversy. As a result of this theory, subsequent evidence, and wide spread public concern; the United States banned the use of CFCs in non-essential aerosols in 1978. MONTREAL PROTOCOL - In September 1987, the United States and 22 other countries signed the Montreal Protocol to control releases of ozone depleting substances. The protocol contains provisions for countries not originally signing, and eventually bans imports and exports of regulated CFCs and products containing CFCs from non-signatory nations. CHEMICALS (CFCS) INCLUDED IN THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL Group I Fully-Halogenated Chlorofluorocarbons o CFC 11 o CFC 12 o CFC 113 o CFC 114 o CFC 115 Group II Halons o Halon 1211 o Halon 1301 o Halon 2401 NOTE: Halons are chemicals used in industrial and commercial applications. Computer room fire suppression systems use halons to suffocate combustion. Halons are extremely high ozone depleting chemicals. The protocol froze production of Group I refrigerants back to 1986 levels starting in 1989 and Group II substances beginning in 1992. The protocol also reduces production of each group by 20 percent in 1993, followed by an additional 30 percent in 1997. REASSESSMENTS AND UPDATES TO THE PROTOCOL - Since the research and assessment of ozone depletion is continuous, provisions for scheduled meetings and updating of the protocol were outlined. The first occurred in June of 1990, in London, where 56 nations signed an agreement that strengthened the 1987 agreement as follows: Accelerated phaseout of CFCs, with complete phaseout by 2000. NOTE: Canada and some of the European nations signed a separate agreement that would accelerate the phaseout to a 1997 total phaseout. President Bush ordered a 1995 phaseout for the U.S.
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Reduced production levels of CFCs (from 1986 levels, and the 1987 protocol) to a 50% reduction in 1995, an 85% reduction in 1997, followed by 100% in the year 2000, with each of these taking place on January 1. Germany also pledged to stop production by the end of 1996. Methyl chloroform to be reduced 30% in 1993, 70% in 2000, and 100% by 2005.
The November 1992 Protocol meeting in Copenhagen, Denmark resulted in the first-ever phaseout schedule of HCFCs and accelerated the Protocol phaseout of CFCs. The United States representation consisted of government, industry and associations who collectively proposed and agreed with the outcomes of the meeting that will allow sufficient time for industry to develop long term alternatives to HCFCs. This agreement was signed by 93 nations and resulted in the following: Parties are encouraged to recover, recycle and reclaim controlled substances. The multilateral fund for technology transfer from developed to developing countries was made permanent with an approved budget through 1994. Methyl bromide consumption is frozen in 1995 to 1991 levels. Methyl bromide is a widely used agricultural chemical. Eliminates the use of CFCs as of January 1, 1996, except for essential uses, which must be agreed upon by the parties of the protocol. HCFC consumption will be limited or capped at a percent of historic usage beginning in 1996. The cap will incrementally decrease and ultimately eliminate world wide consumption of HCFCs in the year 2030.
EPA, industry and associations estimate that this phaseout will allow sufficient time for development and transition to long-term alternatives to HCFCs.
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7. NEW REFRIIGERANTS AND OIILS NEW REFR GERANTS AND O LS

It should be recognized that there is no ideal refrigerant and that, because of the wide differences in the conditions and requirements of the various applications, there is no one refrigerant that is universally suitable for all applications. To be suitable for use as a refrigerant, a fluid should be chemically inert to the extent that it is nonflammable, non-explosive, and nontoxic both in the pure state and when mixed in any proportion with air. The fluid should not react unfavorably with the lubricating oil or with any material normally used in the construction of refrigerating equipment. It also should not react unfavorably with moisture, which despite stringent precautions is usually present at least to some degree in all-refrigerating systems. The search for a completely safe refrigerant led to the development of the fluorocarbon refrigerants. Other refrigerants and oils are: OLDER REFRIGERANTS 1. AMMONIA this is the only refrigerant outside of the fluorocarbon group that is being used to any great extent at the present time. The negative aspects of ammonia are that it is toxic and somewhat flammable and explosive under certain conditions. The positive aspects of ammonia are that it has excellent thermal properties and has the highest refrigerating effect per pound of any refrigerant. 2. SULFUR DIOXIDE The negative aspects are that it is highly toxic and not widely used any more. The positive aspects are that it is nonflammable and non-explosive. 3. CARBON DIOXIDE The negative aspects are that it needs high operating pressures and requires the use of extra heavy piping and equipment. The positive aspects are that it is odorless, nontoxic, nonflammable, non-explosive and non-corrosive. This is one of the oldest types of refrigerants. 4. METHYL CHLORIDE It was widely used in the past because it was non-toxic but it is moderately flammable and is corrosive to aluminum, zinc and magnesium. 5. Methylene Chloride (Carrene 1) It is non-toxic and non-flammable but dissolves natural rubber. CURRENT REFRIGERANTS/NEWER REFRIGERANTS 1. REFRIGERANT 11 This is a fluorocarbon that is non-corrosive, nontoxic and nonflammable. 2. REFRIGERANT 12 This is the most widely used refrigerant and is currently being replaced by Refrigerant 22. R-12 is completely safe; it is nontoxic, nonflammable, and non-explosive and highly stable. 3. REFRIGERANT 13 This refrigerant was specifically designed to be used in ultra low temperature applications. 4. REFRIGERANT 22 Has all the benefits of R-12 but requires only 60% of the compressor displacement, which means the refrigerating capacity, is roughly 60% greater. R-22 also absorbs moisture considerably greater than R-12. 5. REFRIGERANT 113 a safe refrigerant used mainly in comfort air conditioning systems. 6. REFRIGERANT 114 also a safe refrigerant mainly used in large and commercial a/c systems.
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7. REFRIGERANT 500 commonly known as Carrene 7 and is a common substitute for R-12.
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8.. UNIIVERSAL CERTIIFIICATIION 8 UN VERSAL CERT F CAT ON

Section 608 of the Federal Clean Air Act requires that all persons who maintain, service, repair, or dispose of appliances must be certified by November 14, 1994, Failure to comply can cost you and your company as much as $25,000 per day, per violation: and there is a bounty of up to $10,000 for providing information and/or services concerning violations to the EPA. THERE ARE FOUR (4) CATEGORIES OF TECHNICIAN CERTIFICATION: TYPE I - Persons who maintain, service or repair small appliances must be certified as Type I technicians. TYPE II - Persons who maintain, service, repair or dispose of high or very high-pressure appliances, except small appliances and motor vehicle air conditioning systems, must be certified as Type II technicians. TYPE III - Persons, who maintain, service, repair, or dispose of low-pressure appliances must be certified as Type III technicians. UNIVERSAL - Persons who maintain, service or repair low and high-pressure equipment, including small appliances, must be certified as Universal technicians. TEST FORMAT - The test contains four (4) sections, A - I - II- III each section contains twenty-five (25) multiple-choice questions. A technician MUST achieve a minimum passing score of 70 percent in each group in which they are to be certified. For instance a technician seeking Universal certification must achieve a minimum score of 70 percent, or 18 out of 25 correct, on each of the Sections of the test. If a technician fails one or more of the Sections on the first try, he may retake the failed Section(s) without retaking the Section(s) on which he earned a passing score. In the meantime the technician will be certified in the Type in which he received a passing score. There is one exception; a technician MUST achieve a minimum passing score on Section A to receive any Type of certification. Section A consists of 25 general knowledge questions concerning stratospheric ozone depletion, rules and regulations of the Clean Air Act, the Montreal Protocol, the Three Rs, recovery devices, substitute refrigerants and oils, recovery techniques, dehydration, recovery cylinders, safety, and shipping. Section I contains 25 sector specific questions pertaining to TYPE I certification. Section II contains 25 sector specific questions pertaining to TYPE II certification. Section III contains 25 sector specific questions pertaining to TYPE III certification.
Technicians seeking a Type I certification must complete and achieve a passing score on Section A and Section I. Technicians seeking a Type II certification must complete and achieve a passing score on Section A and Section II.
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Technicians seeking a Type III certification must complete and achieve a passing score on Section A and Section III. Technicians seeking a Universal certification must complete and achieve a passing score on Section A, Section I, Section II and Section III. The law requires the test to be a closed book exam. The only outside materials allowed are calculators. Although there is no time limit for completing the test, the average technician completes a Section in 30 to 45 minutes.
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9.. FAN OPERATION//FILTRATION 9 FAN OPERATION FILTRATION

VENTILATION EQUIPMENT -Proper circulation of air is necessary for all ventilating and air-conditioning systems and related processes. Therefore, we will first consider methods used aboard ship to circulate air. In the following sections, you will find general information on shipboard equipment used to supply, circulate, and distribute fresh air, and to exhaust used, contaminated, and overheated air from shipboard working and living spaces. Shipboard ventilation systems normally use two-speed electric motors to drive intake fans and exhaust fans. For proper operation, the speed settings must be the same. This is because the exhaust fans have a higher air-handling capacity in cubic feet per minute (cfm) than the intake fans. When the fans are operated at different speeds, problems occur. For example, when the exhaust is on high and the intake is on low, a partial vacuum is caused and it will be difficult to open watertight doors to gain entry to the space. When the opposite condition occurs (high intake, low exhaust), the watertight doors will be difficult to close. Fans used in Marine application in conjunction with supply and exhaust systems are divided into two general classes-axial flow and centrifugal. Most fans in duct systems are of the axial-low type because they generally require less space for installation. Centrifugal fans are generally preferred for exhaust systems that handle explosive or hot gases. The motors of these fans, being outside the air stream, cannot ignite the explosive gases. The drive motors for centrifugal fans are subject to overheating to a lesser degree than are motors of vane-axial fans. VANE-AXIAL FANS - Vane-axial fans, such as the one shown in figure 32, are generally installed in duct systems. They have vanes at the discharge end to straighten out rotational air motion caused by the impeller. The motors for these fans are cooled by the air in the duct and will overheat if they are operated with the air supply to the fan shut off. TUBE-AXIAL FANS - Tube-axial fans are low-pressure fans, usually installed without ductwork. However, they do have sufficient pressure for a short length of duct.
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FIGURE 32 VANE AXIAL VENTILATING FAN (CUTAWAY VIEW) CENTRIFUGAL FANS - Centrifugal fans, such as the one shown in figure 33, are used primarily to exhaust explosive or hot gases. However, they may be used in place of axial-flow fans if they work better with the arrangement or if their pressure-volume characteristics suit the installation better than an axial-flow fan. Centrifugal fans are also used in some fan-coil assemblies, which are discussed later in this chapter.
FIGURE 33 CENTRIFUGAL FAN, CUTAWAY VIEW
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PORTABLE FANS - Portable axial fans, such as the example in figure 34, are used with flexible air hoses aboard ship for ventilating holds and cofferdams. They are also used in unventilated spaces (voids) to clear out stale air or gases before personnel enter and for emergency cooling of machinery. Most portable fans are the axial-flow type, driven by electric, explosion-proof motors. On ships carrying gasoline, a few air turbine-driven centrifugal fans are normally provided. You can place greater confidence in the explosion7proof characteristics of these fans.
FIGURE 34 PORTABLE AXIAL FAN, CUTAWAY VIEW WATERPROOF VENTILATOR - The waterproof ventilator, shown in figure 35 consists of an outer housing, an inner ventilator shaft extending up to the other housing, and a bucket-type closure supported over the ventilator shaft by a compression spring. The bucket has drain tubes that extend into a sump between the ventilator shaft and the outer housing. The sump has scupper valves that drain onto the weather deck. The ventilator operates automatically and is normally open. Small amounts of water, which enter the ventilator, fall into the bucket and drain out through the drain tubes and scuppers. In heavy seas, when water enters the bucket faster than it drains out, the weight of the water forces the bucket down against the top of the ventilator shaft. Thus, a watertight seal is formed and maintained until sufficient water drains out to permit the force of the spring to raise the bucket to the open position. Normally, some provision is made so that the ventilator can also be closed manually. With slight variations in construction, ventilation of this type may be used for both the supply and exhaust of air.
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FIGURE 35 - WATERPROOF VENTILATOR (CUTAWAY VIEW) BRACKET FANS - Bracket fans are used in hot weather to provide local circulation. These fans are normally installed in living, hospital, office, commissary, supply, and berthing spaces. Where air-conditioning systems are used, bracket fans are sometimes used to facilitate proper circulation and direction of cold air. EXHAUSTS - Local exhausts are used to remove heat and odors. Machinery spaces, laundries, and galleys are but a few of the spaces aboard ship where local exhausts are used. Most exhausts, are mechanical (contain an exhaust fan), although natural exhausts are sometimes used. MECHANICAL COOLING EQUIPMENT - Almost all working and living spaces on newer installations are air-conditioned. The cooling equipment used on these ships was carefully tested to see which types would best dehumidify and cool compartments. Two basic types of equipment have been found most effective and are now in general use. They are chilled water circulating systems and self-contained air conditioners.
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CHILLED WATER CIRCULATING SYSTEMS - Two basic types of chilled water air conditioning systems are now in use. They are a vapor compression unit and a lithium bromide absorption unit. In the vapor compression unit, the primary refrigerant cools the secondary refrigerant (chilled water) that is used to cool the spaces. This type uses the vapor compression cycle and R-11, REFRIGERANT, R-22, or R- 114 as the primary refrigerant. The type of primary refrigerant depends on the size and type of compressor. The lithium bromide unit operates on the absorption cycle and uses water as the primary refrigerant. Lithium bromide is used as an absorbent. We will discuss only the vapor compression cycle in this section. VAPOR COMPRESSION UNITS - The vapor compression chilled water circulating system differs from a refrigerant circulating (direct expansion) air-conditioning system in this way: The air is conditioned by use of a secondary refrigerant (chilled water) that is circulated to the various cooling coils. Heat from the air-conditioned space is absorbed by the circulating chilled water. Heat is then removed from the water by the primary refrigerant system in the water chiller. In large tonnage vapor compression systems, the compressor is a centrifugal type that uses R- 11 or R-114 as the primary refrigerant.
FIGURE 36 - VAPOR COMPRESSOR (CENTRIFUGAL UNIT)
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The operating cycle of the centrifugal refrigeration plant shown in figure 36 is basically the same as other refrigeration plants except for the method of compression. In this type of plant, the refrigerant gas is pressurized by a centrifugal turbo-compressor. Then, the gas is discharged into the condenser where it changes state from a gas to a liquid by means of cool seawater circulating through the condenser tubes. The condensed liquid refrigerant drains to the bottom of the condenser into high-pressure liquid orifice chambers. When the refrigerant level is high enough, a float-operated valve opens. (NOTE: In some R-11 units, which originally used a float valve, an orifice has been installed.) The action of these orifices allows the liquid high-pressure refrigerant to flow to the bottom of the water chiller (evaporator) at a controlled rate. Water to be chilled flows through the tubes of the water chiller. As the refrigerant from the condenser boils around and over the tubes, the water within the tubes is chilled or cooled by the vaporization (boiling) of the liquid refrigerant. The vaporized refrigerant then reenters the suction side of the compressor to start the cycle again. The load on the air-conditioning plant is determined by the temperature and flow of the returning chilled water. The compressor load is changed by either an increased or decreased demand of the chilled water. Upon demand, the load is changed by the use of adjustable pre-rotation vanes, which are located on the suction side of the compressor. The vanes act as dampers to increase or decrease the flow of refrigerant vapor through the inlet of the compressor. This throttling action at the compressor suction allows an increase or decrease of the capacity of the compressor without a change in the compressor speed. Figure 37 shows a centrifugal compressor with the inlet piping removed. Note that the prerotation vanes are in the fully open position. The vane position is normally controlled automatically through an electro-pneumatic control system. The control system senses and maintains the chilled water outlet temperature of the chiller at a preset value by varying the position of the vanes.
FIGURE 37 -SUCTION END OF A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR SHOWING PRE-ROTATION VANES
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In some plants, the electric motor that drives the compressor is hermetically sealed and is cooled by a flow of refrigerant through it. The compressor is lubricated by a forced feed lubrication system. This system normally consists of an auxiliary oil pump, an attached oil pump (integral with compressor), oil cooler, and a set of oil filters. The auxiliary oil pump is used when starting and securing the plant. Several automatic controls are built into the centrifugal compressor control system. These devices increase the reliability of the plant by automatically shutting down the compressor if a hazardous situation develops. Some of these conditions are high condenser pressure, low compressor lube oil pressure, and loss of seawater to the condenser, loss of chilled water, low refrigerant temperature, low chilled water temperature, and high compressor discharge temperature. A heater warms the oil in the sump of the compressor during plant shutdown. If the oil is not kept heated, it absorbs large amounts of refrigerant. This results in excessive oil foaming when the unit is started. The heaters in most plants are connected so that they are automatically turned on when the compressor is off and automatically turned off when the compressor is on. Figure 38 shows a centrifugal compressor air-conditioning unit. This particular plant has a 150ton capacity and uses R-114 as the refrigerant. The gauges and controls for the plant are on the control panel.
FIGURE 38 - CENTRIFUGAL CHILLED WATER AIR-CONDITIONING PLANT
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FAN-COIL UNIT COOLERS - Fan-coil unit coolers use chilled water for the air conditioning of spaces. These assemblies are known as spot coolers. Chilled water is piped through the cooling coils of the units, and a fan forces air over the coils. One type of fan-coil assembly is shown in figure 39. Note the chilled water connections, the vent cock at the top, and the condensate collection tray at the bottom of the unit.
FIGURE 39 - FAN COIL UNIT COOLER The condensate collection tray collects the moisture condensed out of the air. The condensate is generally piped to the bilge or a wastewater drain system. It is important that the drain for the collection tray be kept clear. If the condensate cannot drain out of the tray, it collects and may promote the growth of harmful bacteria. When the condensate evaporates, it leaves impurities that rapidly lead to corrosion of the tray, SELF-CONTAINED AIR CONDITIONERS - Ships without central air conditioning may use self-contained air-conditioning units. A self-contained air-conditioning unit is simply the type of air conditioner you see installed in the windows of many homes. All that is required for installation is to mount the proper brackets for the unit case and provide electrical power. These units use non-accessible hermetically sealed compressors (motor and compressor are contained in a welded steel shell). For this reason, shipboard maintenance of the motorcompressor unit is impractical. The type of thermal expansion valve used in these units is preset and nonadjustable. However, a thermostat and fan speed control is normally provided for comfort adjustment. HEATING EQUIPMENT - Ventilation heaters are installed in ventilation ducting to heat spaces in cold weather and to control humidity. In marine applications heating a space is accomplished either by steam or by electric duct heaters, convection heaters, or unit heaters. Duct heaters are installed in mechanical supply ducts air preheaters or reheaters, and in
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recirculation ducts as reheaters. (Figure 40 illustrates a steam duct heater.) Convection heaters figure 41 are generally used in spaces that are not served by mechanical supply systems or recirculation systems. Unit heaters (heating coils with their own fan) are used where the heat load is larger than can be adequately handled by convection heaters. All of these heaters can be used with steam pressures up to 150 psi. Electric heaters are simply banks of heating elements installed in the airflow of a ventilation system.
FIGURE 40 - STEAM VENTILATION HEATER
FIGURE 41 - CONVECTION HEATER (CUTAWAY VIEW)
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10.. ROUTIINE MAIINTENANCE AND RECORDIING OF REFRIIGERATIION PLANT 10 ROUT NE MA NTENANCE AND RECORD NG OF REFR GERAT ON PLANT
MAINTENANCE OF VENTILATION EQUIPMENT - Ventilation equipment that fails to perform properly may jeopardize the health or life of crewmembers. Therefore, the individuals responsible for inspection and maintenance must be thoroughly familiar with the common hazards that can prevent normal operation of ventilation equipment. GUARDING AGAINST OBSTRUCTIONS ON VENTILATION - Items such as swabs, deck cleaning gear, and trash stowed in fan rooms or ventilation trunks restrict airflow and increase dirt and odors taken inboard. Ventilation terminals must NEVER be used for stowage. Wet clothing secured to ventilation terminals increases the moisture content of the compartment air and restricts airflow. Stowage arrangements should be such that weather openings for a ventilation system are NEVER restricted. KEEPING THE SYSTEM CLEAN - Dirt accumulation in a ventilation system restricts airflow and creates a serious fire hazard. In a clean duct, the cooling effect of the metal tends to act as a flame arrester, but an accumulation of foreign matter within a duct is a potential source of combustion. One method of reducing the amount of dirt and combustible matter which may be carried into a ventilation system is to wet down the deck areas near the air intakes before sweeping. Since a large volume of air passes through or over the elements of a ventilation system, dirt collects in various units in spite of all pre-cautionary measures. Therefore, periodic inspections and consistent regular service procedures are necessary to keep the system clean. Filters help keep ventilation systems free of dust and dirt. Standard air filters have pressure taps on each side of the filter bank. By using a portable differential pressure gauge, you can quickly read the pressure drop across the filter. When the pressure drop increases to three times that of a clean filter, replace the filter. Ships carry spare filters so that a clean one may be substituted for the dirty one. Special cleaning sinks are installed in ships with enough filters to justify the space, expense, and weight. These sinks are either of two types-steam or ultrasonic. In the steam type, steam is used to heat and agitate the water. In the ultrasonic type, cleaning is done by vibration caused by sound waves passing through the cleaning fluid. TESTING SUCTION AND DISCHARGE VALVES - Faulty compressor valves may be indicated by either a gradual or a sudden decrease in the normal compressor capacity. Either the compressor will fail to pump, or the suction pressure cannot be pumped down to the designed value, and the compressor will run for abnormally long intervals or continuously. You may get a rapid buildup of suction (crankcase) pressure during an off cycle. This causes the compressor to start after a very short off-period and indicates leaking discharge valves.
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If the refrigeration plant is not operating satisfactory, you should first shift the compressors and then check the operation of the plant. If the operation of the plant is satisfactory when the compressors have been shifted, the trouble is in the compressor and not in the system. To test the compressor discharge valves, pump down the compressor to 2 psig. Then stop the compressor and quickly close the suction and discharge line valves. If the discharge pressure drops at a rate in excess of 3 pounds in a minute and the crankcase suction pressure rises, this is evidence of compressor discharge valve leakage. If you must remove the discharge valves with the compressor pumped down, open the connection to the discharge pressure gauge to release discharge pressure on the head. Then remove the compressor top head and discharge valve plate. Be careful not to damage the gaskets. If the discharge valves are defective, replace the entire discharge valve assembly. Any attempt to repair them would probably involve relapping and would require highly specialized equipment. Except in an emergency, such repair should never be undertaken aboard ship. You can check the compressor internal suction valves for leakage by following these steps: 1. Start the compressor by using the manual control switch on the motor controller. 2. Close the suction line stop valve gradually to prevent violent foaming of the compressor crankcase lubricating oil charge. 3. With this stop valve closed, pump a vacuum of approximately 20 in.Hg. If this vacuum can be readily obtained, the compressor suction valves are satisfactory. Do not expect the vacuum to be maintained after the compressor stops, because the refrigerant is being released from the crankcase oil. Do not check the compressor suction valve efficiency of operation for at least 3 days. It may be necessary for the valves to wear in. However, if any of the compressor suction valves are defective, you can pump down the compressor, open it, and inspect the valves. Replace defective valves or pistons with spare assemblies. CRANKCASE SEAL REPAIRS - There are several types of crankcase seals, depending on the manufacturer. On reciprocating compressors, the crankshaft extends through the compressor housing to provide a mount for the pulley wheel or flexible coupling. Now the shaft must be sealed to prevent leakage of lubricating oil and refrigerant. The crankshaft seal is bathed in lubricating oil at a pressure equal to the suction pressure of the refrigerant. The first indication of crankshaft seal failure is excessive oil leaking at the shaft. When the seal must be replaced or when it shows signs of abnormal wear or damage to the running surfaces, a definite reason can be found for the abnormal conditions. Make an inspection to locate and correct the trouble, or the failure will recur. Seal failure is very often caused by faulty lubrication, usually because of the condition of the crankcase oil. A dirty or broken oil seal is generally caused by one or both of the following conditions:
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Dirt or foreign material is in the system or system piping. Dirt frequently enters the system at the time of installation. After a period of operation, foreign material will accumulate in the compressor crankcase, tending to concentrate in the oil chamber surrounding the shaft seal. When the oil contains grit, it is only a matter of time until the highly finished running faces become damaged, causing failure of the shaft seal. Moisture is frequently the cause of an acid condition of the lubricating oil. Oil in this condition will not provide satisfactory lubrication and will cause failure of the compressor parts. Use a refrigerant dehydrator when the compressor is put into operation if you suspect that moisture may be a problem. Anytime foreign material is found in the lubricating oil, thoroughly clean the entire system (piping, valves, and strainers).
REMOVING A SHAFT SEAL -If a shaft seal must be removed, proceed as follows: If the seal is broken to the extent that it permits excessive oil leakage, do NOT attempt to pump the refrigerant out of the compressor. If you do, air-containing moisture will be drawn into the system through the damaged seal. Moisture entering the refrigerant system may cause expansion valves to freeze. This can cause acid formation and other problems. If oil is leaking excessively, close the compressor suction and discharge valves and relieve the pressure to the recovery tank. Next, drain the oil from the compressor crankcase. Remove the compressor flywheel (or coupling) and carefully remove the shaft seal assembly. INSTALLING A SHAFT SEAL - Clean and replace the entire seal assembly according to the manufacturers instructions. Wipe the shaft clean with a linen or silk cloth; do not use a dirty or lint-bearing cloth. Be careful not to touch the bearing surfaces with your hands as you unwrap the seal. Rinse the seal in an approved solvent and allow it to air-dry. (Do NOT wipe the seal dry!) Dip the seal in clean refrigerant oil. Follow the instructions found in the manufacturers technical manual to insert the assembly. Bolt the seal cover in place and tighten the bolts evenly. Replace the flywheel and belts or coupling and check and correct the motor and compressor shaft alignment. To test the unit for leaks, open the suction and discharge valves and use a leak detector. MAINTENANCE PRECAUTIONS - If a compressor cannot be pumped down and is damaged to the extent that it has to be opened for repairs, it is necessary first to close the suction and discharge valves and then following all safety precautions, to allow all the refrigerants in the compressor to be pumped to a recovery unit. When it becomes necessary to remove, replace, or repair any internal parts of the compressor, observe the following precautions: 1. Carefully disassemble and inspect while removing all parts, noting their correct relative position so that errors will not be made when reassembling. 2. Inspect all parts that become accessible after the removal of those parts requiring repair or replacement.
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3. Make certain that all parts and surfaces are free of dirt and moisture. 4. Apply clean compressor oil freely to all bearing and rubbing surfaces of the parts being replaced or reinstalled. 5. If the compressor is not equipped with an oil pump, make certain that the oil dipper on the lower connecting rod is in the correct position for dipping oil when the unit is in operation. 6. Position the ends of the piston rings so that alternate joints come on the opposite side of the piston. 7. Take care not to score the gasket surfaces. 8. Renew all gaskets. 9. Clean the crankcase and renew the oil following correct procedures. EVACUATING THE COMPRESSOR - In all but emergency situations it is desirable to evacuate the compressor with a recovery unit rather than with the compressor itself. CLEANING SUCTION STRAINERS -When putting a new unit into operation, the suction strainers should be cleaned after a few hours of operation. Refrigerants have a solvent action and will loosen any foreign matter in the system. This foreign matter will eventually reach the suction strainers and after a few days of operation, the strainers will need cleaning. Strainers should be inspected frequently during the first few weeks of plant operation, and then cleaned as found necessary. CONDENSERS - The compressor discharge line terminates at the refrigerant condenser. In shipboard refrigeration installations, these condensers are usually of the multi-pass shell-andtube type, with water circulating through the tubes. The tubes are expanded into grooved holes in the tube sheet so as to make an absolutely tight joint between the shell and the circulating water. Refrigerant vapor is admitted to the shell, and condenses on the outer surfaces of the tubes. Any air or non-condensable gases, which may accidentally enter the refrigeration system, is drawn through the piping and eventually discharged into the condenser with the gas. The air or non-condensable gases accumulated in the condenser are lighter than the refrigerant gas and rise to the top of the condenser when the plant is shut down. A purge valve, for purging the refrigeration system (when necessary), is installed either at the top of the condenser, or at a high point in the compressor discharge line.
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CLEANING CONDENSER TUBES - In order to clean the condenser tubes properly, it is necessary first to drain the cooling water from the condenser and then disconnect the water connections and remove the condenser heads. When you remove the condenser heads, be careful not to damage the gaskets between the tube sheet and the waterside of the condenser heads. Tubes should be inspected as often as practical and be cleaned when necessary, by using any approved method. Use rubber plugs and an air or water lance when it is necessary to remove foreign deposits. Although it is essential that the tube surfaces be kept clear of particles of foreign matter, care must be taken not to destroy the thin protective coating on the inner surfaces of the tubes. When the tubes become badly corroded, they should be replaced in order to avoid the possibility of losing the refrigerant charge and admitting salt water into the system. CLEANING AIR-COOLED CONDENSERS - Although the large plants are equipped with water-cooled condensers, the auxiliary units are commonly provided with air-cooled condensers. The use of air-cooled condensers eliminates the necessity for circulating water pumps and piping. The exterior surface of the tubes and fins on a condenser should be kept free of dirt and any matter that might obstruct heat flow and air circulation. Brush the finned surface clean with a stiff bristle brush as often as necessary. Use low-pressure air to remove dirt in hard to reach places on the condenser. When installations are exposed to salt spray and rain through open doors or hatches, take care to minimize corrosion of the exterior surfaces. TESTING FOR LEAKS - To prevent serious loss of refrigerant through leaky condenser tubes, test the condenser for leakage every year. Any condenser that has not been in use for the preceding 6 months should also be tested. To test for leaky condenser tubes, drain the waterside of the condenser and let stand for 12 hours, then insert the exploring tube of the leak detector through one of the drain plug openings. If this test indicates that gas is present, you need to detect the exact location of the leak in the following manner: 1. 2. 3. 4. Remove the condenser heads. Clean and dry the tube sheets and the ends of the tubes. Start at the top and work your way down the tube sheet. Check both ends of each tube with a leak detector. Mark the tubes, which show an indication of leakage. If you cannot determine if the tube is leaking internally or around the tube sheet joint, plug the suspected tube with a cork or a similar device and again check around the tube sheet joint. Mark adjacent tubes, if necessary, to isolate the suspected area. 5. To locate or isolate very small leaks in the condenser tubes, hold the exploring tube at one end of the condenser tube for about 10 seconds to draw fresh air through the tube. Then drive a cork in each end of the tube. Repeat this procedure with all the tubes in the condenser. Allow the condenser tubes to remain plugged for 4 to 6 hours; then, remove the plugs one at a time and check each tube for leakage. If a leaky tube is detected, replace the plug immediately to reduce the amount of refrigerant escaping. Make appropriate repairs, or mark all leaky tubes for later repairs.
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CHECKING CONDENSER PERFORMANCE - An overall check for water-cooled condenser performance may be used after, AND ONLY AFTER, the condenser has been properly purged. After the condition of the condensing surface has been determined, prepare the system as outlined in the procedure used to check for non-condensable gases discussed earlier in the chapter. Then proceed as follows: 1. While the compressor is in operation, record the condensing temperature that corresponds to the pressure in the condenser. 2. Record the temperature of the water leaving the condenser. 3. Subtract the temperature of the water leaving the condenser from the condensing temperature. (The temperature of the water leaving the condenser should be several degrees below the condensing temperature of the refrigerant.) 4. If the difference between the temperature of the water leaving the condenser and the condensing temperature is 5 to 10 F above the temperature difference obtained when the condenser was in good condition and operating under similar heat loads, and if this difference is not caused by an overcharge of refrigerant or noncondensable gases, clean the water side of the condenser. THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVES - When the thermostatic expansion valve is operating properly, the temperature at the outlet side of the valve is much lower than that at the inlet side. If there is no such temperature difference when the system is in operation, the valve seat is probably dirty and clogged with foreign matter. Once a valve is properly adjusted, further adjustment should not be necessary. Any major trouble can usually be traced to moisture or dirt collecting at the valve seat and at the orifice. TESTING AND ADJUSTMENT - Thermostatic expansion valves used in most shipboard systems can be adjusted by means of a gear and screw arrangement, (superheat to adjustment), maintain a superheat ranging approximately from 4 to 12 F at the cooling coil outlet. The proper superheat adjustment varies, of course, with the design and the service operating conditions of the valve, and the design of a particular plant. Increased spring pressure increases the degree of superheat at the coil outlet; decreased pressure on the other hand, has the opposite effect. Many thermostatic expansion valves are initially adjusted by the manufacturer to maintain a predetermined degree of superheat, and no provisions are made for further adjustments in service. When the expansion valves are adjusted to give a high degree of superheat at the coil outlet, or when a valve is stuck shut, the amount of refrigerant admitted to the cooling coil is reduced. With an insufficient amount of refrigerant, the coil is "starved" and operates at a reduced capacity. Compressor lubricating oil carried with the refrigerant tends to collect at the bottom of the cooling coils, thus robbing the compressor crankcase, and providing a condition whereby slugs of lubricating oil are drawn back to the compressor. If an expansion valve is adjusted for too low a degree of superheat, or if the valve is stuck open, the liquid refrigerant may flood from the cooling coils back to the compressor. Should the liquid refrigerant collect at a low point in the suction line or coil, and be drawn back to the compressor intermittently in slugs, there will be danger of injury to the moving parts of the compressor.
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In general, the expansion valves for air conditioning and water cooling plants (high temperature installations) are adjusted for higher superheat than the expansion valves for cold storage refrigeration and ships service store equipment (low temperature installations). If it is impossible to adjust expansion valves to the desired settings, or if it is suspected that the expansion valve assembly is defective and requires replacement, make appropriate tests. (First make sure that the liquid strainers are clean, that the solenoid valves are operative, and that the system is sufficiently charged with refrigerant.) REPLACEMENT OF A VALVE - When an expansion valve is defective, it must be replaced. Some valves used on ships have replaceable assemblies and it is possible to replace a faulty power element or other part of the valve without having to replace the entire assembly. When replacement of an expansion valve is necessary, replace the unit with a valve of the same capacity and type. ADDITIONAL SYSTEM MAINTENANCE - In addition to the maintenance of the components described above, there are other parts of the system that will need periodic maintenance to keep the plant operating properly. Vibration may cause leakage in the piping system, allowing air and moisture to be drawn in or there may be a loss of the refrigerant charge. If this happens, the plant will operate erratically and inefficiently until the cause of trouble is corrected. HALOCARBON SAFETY - Warnings, hazards, and cautions in technical and training publications are usually benign. The labeling of containers and storage areas are consistently inadequate. The procedures for the disposal of halocarbon waste are not well known nor are they followed. Most people do not know the physiological effects of high concentrations of halocarbons on humans or the recommended first aid by both medical and non-medical personnel. Anyone who handles or uses halocarbons must be aware of the hazardous properties of halocarbons. The greatest hazards have been associated with Freon 113 refrigerant and Genetron 113 (a fluorocarbon compound), with the chemical name of TRICHLOROTRIFLUOROETHANE, which is used in large quantities for cleaning refrigeration, hydraulic, air and oxygen systems, and as a solvent for removing oil and grease from machinery. Trichlorotrifluoroethane is a heavy, colorless liquid at room temperature, and has an odor similar to drycleaning fluid. Because of its low boiling point it evaporates rapidly at room temperature. Its vapor is several times heavier than air and tends to collect in low places. Trichlorotri-fluoroethane should always be treated as a toxic solvent. Exposure to it can cause headache, rapid heartbeat, light-headedness, and tingling of fingers or toes. Any of these symptoms is a warning to leave the area immediately. In higher concentrations the solvent has an anesthetic effect (causing un-coordination and stumbling); it can affect the heartbeat (causing irregular beats or even stoppage) and can cause tremors, convulsions, and DEATH. Refrigerant
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gases such as Freon 12 and 22 have properties similar to the ones described above except that they are practically odorless and can cause freeze burns. CHARGING THE SYSTEM - The amount of refrigerant charge must be sufficient to maintain a liquid seal between the condensing and the evaporating sides of the system. When the compressor stops, under normal operating conditions, the receiver of a properly charged system is about 85% full of refrigerant. The proper charge for a specific system or unit can be found in the manufacturers technical manual or on the ships blueprints. A refrigeration system should not be charged if there are leaks or if there is reason to believe that there is a leak in the system. The leaks must be found and corrected. A system should be checked for leaks immediately following, or during, the process of charging. A refrigeration system must have an adequate charge of refrigerant at all times; otherwise its efficiency and capacity will be impaired. PURGING THE SYSTEM - To determine if there are non-condensable gases in the system, close the liquid line stop valve. By-pass all evaporator pressure regulator valves and allow the system to pump down one or more times. Stop the compressor. By-pass the water regulating valve and circulate cooling water through the condenser. When discharge pressure stops dropping, convert the pressure to temperature and from this subtract the temperature of the injection or overboard. (They both should be equalized.) A variation of over 5 F will indicate that air and non-condensable gases are present in the system. Crack open the purge valve for 2-3 seconds at 2 to 3 minute intervals until the temperature is within 5 F. Use the recovery unit! CLEANING LIQUID LINE STRAINERS - Where a liquid line strainer is installed, it should be cleaned at the same intervals as the suction strainer. If a liquid, line strainer becomes clogged to the extent that it needs cleaning, a loss of refrigeration effect will take place. The tubing on the outlet side of the strainer will be much colder than the tubing on the inlet side. To clean the liquid line strainer, secure the receiver outlet valve and wait a few minutes to allow any liquid in the strainer to flow to the cooling coils. Evacuate the strainer with the recovery unit to ensure no loss. Close the strainer outlet valve. Very carefully loosen the cap that is bolted to the strainer body. (Use all appropriate safety gear.) When all of the pressure is bled out of the strainer, remove the cap and lift out the strainer screen. Clean the strainer screen with a small brush, using an approved solvent. Reassemble the spring and screen in the strainer body. Replace the strainer cap loosely. Purge the air out of the strainer, by blowing refrigerant through it to the recovery unit then tighten the cap. After assembly is complete, test the unit for leaks. CLEANING OIL FILTERS AND STRAINERS - Compressors arranged for forced feed lubrication are provided with lubricating oil strainers in the suction line of the lube oil pump and an oil filter installed in the pump discharge line. A gradual decrease in lubricating oil pressure indicates that the units need cleaning. Cleaning is accomplished in much the same manner as described for cleaning suction strainers.
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When cleaning is necessary, the lubricating oil in the crankcase should be drained from the compressor and a new charge of oil, equal to the amount drained, should be added before restarting the unit. When the compressor is put back into operation, the lube oil pressure must be adjusted to the proper setting by adjustment of the oil pressure regulator. MAINTAINING COOLING COILS - Cooling coils should be inspected regularly and cleaned as required. The cooling coils should be defrosted as often as necessary to maintain the effectiveness of the cooling surface. Excessive build up of frost on the cooling coils will result in reduced capacity of the plant, low compressor suction pressure, and a tendency for the compressor to short-cycle. The maximum time interval between defrosting depends on such factors as refrigerant evaporating temperature, condition of door gaskets, moisture content of supplies placed in boxes, how frequently the doors are opened and atmospheric humidity. Cooling coils should be defrosted before the frost thickness reaches three-sixteenths of an inch. When defrosting, do not scrape or break off the frost, as this may cause damage to the coils. EVACUATING AND DEHYDRATING THE SYSTEM - The major cause of system failures is moisture (H2O), which is brought in through air leaks. Good engineering practice dictates that evacuation, dehydration and fixing all air leaks will in the long term prevent an acid attack upon the system. Where moisture accumulation must be corrected, the system should first be evacuated of refrigerant and air. The time required for these processes will depend upon the size of the system and the amount of moisture present. It is good engineering practice to circulate heated air through a large dehydrator for several hours, or as long as the dehydrator drying agent remains effective, before proceeding with the evacuation process. If possible, the dehydrated air should be heated to about 240F. Large dehydrators, suitable for preliminary dehydration of refrigeration systems, are usually available at shipyards and some refrigeration contractors. After the preliminary dehydration, the remaining moisture is evacuated by means of a two-stage high-efficiency vacuum pump. (These vacuum pumps are available aboard tenders and repair ships.) A vacuum indicator figure 41 is attached to the two-stage high efficiency pump. It consists of an insulated test tube containing a wet bulb thermometer with its wick immersed in distilled water. This indicator is connected to the vacuum pump suction line, which in turn, is connected to the refrigeration system. The refrigerant circuit should be closed to the atmosphere and the charging connection should be opened to the vacuum pump.
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FIGURE 41 DEHYDRATOR VACUUM INDICATOR Two-stage pumps are started for operation in PARALLEL so that maximum displacement may be obtained during the initial pump-down stages. When the indicator shows a temperature of about 55F (0.43 inch Hg, absolute), the pumps are placed in SERIES operation (wherein the discharge from the first step enters the suction of the second step pump). The dehydration process will be reflected in the temperature drop of the vacuum indicator figure 42. Readings will initially reflect ambient temperatures. Then they will show rapidly falling temperatures until the water in the system starts to boil.
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FIGURE 42 VACUUM INDICATOR READINGS PLOTTED DURING DEHYDRATION Absolute Pressure Inches Mercury Temperature F Absolute Pressure Inches Mercury 60 0.521 55 0.436 50 0.362 45 0.300 40 0.248 35 0.204 32 0.181 When most of the evaporated moisture has been evacuated from the system, the indicator will show a decrease in temperature. As soon as the temperature reaches 35 F (0.2 inch Hg, absolute), admit dry air through a chemical dehydrator into the system at a point farthest from the pump. As the pump continues operating, the dry air will mix with and dilute any remaining moisture. Secure the opening that feeds the dry air to the system. The system must continue evacuating until the indicator again shows a temperature of 35 F. At this time, the dehydration process is complete. Close the valves and disconnect the vacuum pump. Sometimes it is impossible to obtain a temperature as low as 35 F in the vacuum indicator. The probable reasons for this and the corrective procedures to take are as follows:
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1. Excess moisture is present in the system. Because of the acid being formed, the dehydration procedure should be conducted for longer periods. 2. Absorbed refrigerant is present in the lubricating oil contained in the compressor crankcase. Remove the lubricating oil from the crankcase before proceeding with the dehydration process. 3. Air is leaking into the system. The leak must be found and stopped. It will be necessary to repeat the procedure required for detecting leaks in the system. 4. Inefficient vacuum pump or defective vacuum indicator. The defective unit(s) should be repaired or replaced. Immediately after each period of use, or after the system has been opened for repairs, the drying agent in the dehydrator should be replaced. If a replacement cartridge is not available, the drying agent can be reactivated and used until a replacement is available. Re-activation is accomplished by removing the drying agent and heating it, for 12 hours, at a temperature of 30 F to bake out the moisture. The drying agent may be placed in an oven, or a stream of hot air may be circulated through the cartridge. These methods are satisfactory for reactivating commonly used dehydrating agents such as activated alumina and silica gel. However, when special drying agents are employed they should be reactivated in accordance with the specific instructions furnished by the manufacturer. After reactivation, the drying agent should be placed back in the dehydrator shell and sealed as quickly as possible, in order to prevent absorption of atmospheric moisture. When the drying agent becomes fouled or saturated with lubricating oil, it must be replaced with a fresh charge, or with a dehydrator cartridge, taken from a sealed container. Remember that the dehydrators that are permanently installed in refrigeration systems of naval ships are designed to remove only the minute quantities of moisture unavoidably introduced in the system. Extreme care must be taken to prevent moisture, or moisture-laden air, from entering the system. CLEANING THE SYSTEM -Systems may accumulate dirt and scale as a result of improper procedures used during repair or installation of the system. If such dirt is excessive and a tanktype cleaner is available, connect the cleaner to the compressor suction strainer. Where such a cleaner is not available, insert a hard wool felt filter, about 5/16 inch thick, in the suction strainer screen. The plant should then be operated with an operator in attendance, for at least 36 hours or until cleaned, depending upon the size and the condition of the plant. AIR CONDITIONING CONTROL - Most of the information presented to this point applies to the refrigeration side of a system, whether it is used for a refrigeration plant or for air conditioning. The compressor controls for both type systems are nearly identical, however, the devices used to control space temperatures differ. A two-position control, sometimes called the on/off control, is used for the automatic control of most shipboard air conditioning systems.
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TWO-POSITION CONTROL -This control may be used on three types of systems: 1. Systems employing a simple thermostatically controlled single-pole switch to control flow of refrigerant to the cooling coil. 2. Systems using re-heaters, employing a thermostatic element actuating two interlocked switches. 3. Systems using re-heaters in the same manner as in item 2 with control of humidity added, where specified. The type 1 system above is the most commonly used and requires little explanation. A thermostat consisting of a temperature sending element: actuating a single-pole, single-throw switch, opens and closes a magnetic valve to start and stop the flow of refrigerant-chilled water or commercial refrigerant. This type of control is similar to thermostatic control for the refrigeration plant. Although the type 1 system requires single-pole thermostats, the 2PD used in type 2 and type 3 systems can be used. The cooling switch would then be connected in the normal manner with the heating switch inoperative. The use of the type 2 system has greatly increased, due to the present effort to make living and working spaces more comfortable. Such spaces often use a common cooling coil serving several different spaces. Assume that three spaces are being cooled by a common coil. Since the load changes seldom occur simultaneously, electric or steam re-heaters are installed in the cooling air ducts and the cooling thermostats of the various spaces are connected in parallel so that any one may open the cooling coil valve. Suppose space "B" (figure 43) has a load change and spaces "A" and "C" do not. These spaces would become too cold for comfort with the coil operating to take care of space "B". In order to prevent this condition, the thermostat would close the heating switch and energize the re-heaters for spaces A and C. The type 3 system is identical to the type 2 system, except that a humidistat is wired in parallel with the thermostatic heating switch. This type system is used mostly in weapons and electronic spaces. The humidistat is set for the relative humidity condition desired. In most installations, it is only necessary to prevent the humidity from exceeding 55%. Where the humidistat is installed, an increase in temperature beyond the thermostat setting will close the thermostat cooling switch and an increase in relative humidity beyond the humidistat setting will close the heating switch, energizing the re-heaters.
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FIGURE 43 TYPICAL AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM MAINTENANCE - Proper attention to maintenance checks will often allow you to detect developing troubles in time to take corrective action. Since most breakdowns often occur at the most inopportune time, periodic checks and maintenance will prove to be well worthwhile to avoid malfunctions. The two-position control system can easily be checked out in a reasonably short time. The checkout period should be at least every three months or more often if it proves to be necessary. Inspection and checks should be conducted at the beginning of the cooling season and about mid-way. The same should be done for the heating season. Sensing elements should be inspected and any dust accumulations removed. Thermostatic sensing elements should have dust and dirt removed with a soft brush, and the sensing elements in humidistats should be blown off gently with air so as not to damage the elements. Magnetic valves should be checked for operation. Be sure that the valves are opening and closing completely. Set points of the thermostats and humidistats should be checked with a calibrated thermometer and a reliable humidity indicator. When servicing the two-position control system there are three possible areas where trouble may occur: 1. The sensing element and its associated mechanism. 2. The magnetic valves that control the flow or refrigerant. 3. The wiring system, which connects the sensing elements to the solenoids of the magnetic valves and the controller of the electric heaters. Safety Precautions - The following precautions are general in nature. They apply to typical reciprocating compressor systems.
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1. Inspect compressor oil level and check oil pressure periodically. Typical oil level is from one-half to three-quarters up on the sight glass. The typical oil pressure is 45 to 55 psi above the suction pressure. 2. Do not start a compressor without ensuring that shutoff valves between the compressor and the condenser are open. 3. Do not jack or turn the compressor by hand when the power is on. 4. Monitor compressor operation carefully during initial start-up. Check for proper lubrication, liquid flood-back, severe vibration, or unusual noise. 5. Do not attempt to add oil to compressor crankcase while compressor is in operation. 6. Do not bypass or jump any protective device because it is operating improperly. Find the trouble and make the necessary corrections. 7. Do not wipe down near moving parts. 8. Open circuit switch in case of electrical fire, and extinguish with C02 (never use water). 9. Be sure power is turned off before working on electrical equipment and circuits. Tag circuit breaker to prevent accidental energizing of circuit. 10. Evacuate sections of piping of liquid refrigerant prior to opening for repairs. Clockout/Tag-out. Close the inlet valve, wait until the piping warms indicating liquid refrigerant removal, and then close the outlet valve. 11. Do not open any part of the system which is under a vacuum, or air and moisture will be drawn in. 12. Drain the cooling water system to prevent a freeze-up during system shutdown in freezing weather. 13. Expel all air from the system section. 14. Do not use a torch on a line that has not been bled of refrigerant since R-12 and R-22 decompose into phosgene, a highly toxic gas, when exposed to high temperatures (above 100 F (538 C)). The area should be well ventilated, and all isolation valves closed securely. 15. Always wear goggles when handling refrigerant. 16. Treat as if the skin had been frostbitten if liquid refrigerant comes in contact with the skin. 17. Use care in handling and storing refrigerant cylinders. Dont subject cylinders to high temperatures. Take precautions to prevent mechanical damage. Starting To start up a system that has been secured, proceed as follows: 1. Check oil level in compressor crankcase. 2. Line up condenser seawater circulating system. Open valves in suction and discharge lines and close condenser water vents and drains. 3. Line up refrigerant system valves for normal system operation. Leave compressor suction stop valve closed. 4. Start seawater circulating through condenser. Vent air from condenser water-heads. 5. Start fans in refrigerated compartments (or pumps in brine or chilled water systems). 6. Check electrical power supply to compressor and solenoid valves. 7. Open compressor suction stop valve one full turn. 8. Start compressor in Auto mode. 9. Open suction valve slowly to prevent rapid pumping down of low pressure side to avoid oil foaming. If there is evidence of liquid flood back, throttle suction valve. If the
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compressor develops a knock, secure for five minutes, and restart with suction valve throttled. 10. Observe system operation carefully for five to ten minutes. Operation 1. Follow carefully the "Preventive Maintenance Schedule" below, including a regular check of all pressures, temperatures, and crankcase oil level. 2. Adjust seawater flow to maintain proper discharge pressure. 3. Check for an open hand expansion valve and thermostatic valves for proper operation if frosting occurs. Frost on compressor cylinders and crankcase is caused by liquid refrigerant flood back. 4. Crack valves and open gradually to avoid liquid flood back if hand expansion valves must be used to permit inspection or repair. 5. Change over to standby compressor at least weekly during normal plant operation. Securing - To secure a condensing unit, proceed as outlined below: 1. Close main liquid line stop valve. 2. Let compressor run until it cuts out on low-pressure switch. 3. Depress compressor motor controller Stop button. 4. Close compressor suction and discharge stop valves. 5. Secure condenser seawater circulating system. 6. Close appropriate refrigerant valves. Defrosting - Pumping hot discharge gas from the compressor directly into the cooling coil circuit to be defrosted performs hot gas defrosting. The hot gas is cooled and condensed, and the frost melts off the coils. The resulting liquid refrigerant is expanded and evaporated in a second coil through a hand expansion valve. During defrosting, the plant should be under normal operation. To defrost a coil by hot gas, proceed as follows: 1. Close cutout valve on outlet side of thermal expansion valve for coil to be defrosted. 2. Allow sufficient time for all liquid refrigerants in coil being defrosted to be pumped out by the compressor. Close coil outlet valve. Open hot gas supply valve for coil to be defrosted. 3. Stop compressor. Throttle condenser inlet valve, and open hot gas supply valve connecting compressor discharge to hot gas defrosting line. Throttling of condenser inlet valve should be regulated so as not to unduly prolong defrosting and also not to starve coils not involved in the defrosting. 4. Start compressor and slowly open hand expansion valve between coil being defrosted and coil used for expansion. Adjust hand expansion valve to prevent liquid refrigerant return to compressor. Close cutout valve on outlet of thermal expansion for coil used for expansion. 5. Stop compressor when coil is defrosted. Close hot gas supply valve, and open condenser inlet valve fully. 6. Restart compressor. 7. Close hand expansion valve when all liquid refrigerants from defrosted coil has been removed and expanded.
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8. Open coil outlet valve and both thermal expansion valve cutout valves. Refrigerant Charge The initial refrigerant charge for the system will be given in the system instruction manual. This quantity, however, is an estimate, and the actual quantity must be determined by trial and error. A refrigerant overcharge is indicated by high head pressure. A refrigerant undercharge is indicated by one or more of the following: low head pressure, low receiver level, vapor bubbles in the liquid line sight glass, compressor running continuously, short cycling, and hissing at control valves. Test for leaks if a loss of refrigerant occurs during normal operation. Charging Refrigerant - To add refrigerant to an operating system, proceed as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. Close drier bypass and inlet valves. Check to see that solenoid valves are open. Weigh refrigerant drum. Connect refrigerant drum to charging valve with flexible charging line. Crack drum liquid valve before tightening line to blow out air. If drum is not fitted with separate liquid and vapor valves, tilt drum with valve end down. Close main liquid line valve and pump down system. Open charging valve and carefully open liquid valve on refrigerant drum. Liquid refrigerant will flow into the system. Start compressor. Continue charging until required amount of refrigerant has been charged. Check scale reading and observe liquid level in receiver. Close charging valve, close drier outlet valve, and open drier bypass valve. Open main liquid valve and observe liquid flow through sight glass. Bubbles indicate the need for further charging. If charge is complete, close drum valve, and disconnect charging line and drum. Store empty refrigerant drums for reuse.
5. 6. 7. 8.
Removing Refrigerant - With all refrigerant system valves in their normal operating positions, proceed as follows: 1. Shut off liquid supply to evaporators. Close drier bypass valve, open drier inlet valve, and check that drier outlet valve is closed. 2. Weigh empty refrigerant drum. Place on deck at an angle slightly above horizontal with drum valves at high end. 3. Connect drum to system drain valve with a flexible line and purge of air to recovery unit. 4. Open drum valve and drain valve with compressor operating automatically. Liquid refrigerant will flow into drum. Weigh drum while filling. Do not overfill. 5. Close drain valve and drum valve when required amount of refrigerant has been removed. Loosen drain line connections, allow any liquid refrigerant in drain line, to evaporate, and remove line. Open liquid supply to evaporators. Store refrigerant drum. Evacuation And Dehydration - After initial installation or following extensive repairs, evacuation and dehydration of the system is required to prevent later troubles. Moisture in the system causes oil sludge and corrosion, and it is likely to freeze up the expansion valves of a low
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temperature system. Tests and field experience have shown that most troubles with seals and internal valves are caused by moisture in the system. Proper dehydration requires a vacuum pump capable of producing a vacuum of .02 inches Hg absolute (69 Pa) and an electronic vacuum gauge. Ambient temperature must be above 60F (15.5C) for proper dehydration. To evacuate and dehydrate a system proceed as follows: 1. Pressure-test the system to be sure it is free of leaks. Drain oil from the compressor crankcase. Replace with new oil after dehydration. 2. Release all refrigerant pressure from the system. Connect a tee to system-charging valve. Connect vacuum pump to one side of tee and vacuum gauge to the other. Provide shutoff valves in branch lines. 3. Open compressor stop valves and all line stop valves in system. Close all valves and connections to atmosphere. Be sure to open hand expansion valves, coil return valves, and any other line valves which will connect the high and low sides of the system and allow the pump to draw a vacuum on the entire system. If necessary, install a "jumper" line between the high and low sides of the system. 4. Open shutoff valve in vacuum pump suction line, start vacuum pump, and slowly open charging valve. 5. Open shutoff valve in gauge line occasionally and take a reading. Continue dehydrating until vacuum gauge indicates 1,500 microns (207 Pa). The operation will probably take 18 to 72 hours depending on system size and amount of moisture in the system. Failure to achieve a reading of 1,600 microns (207 Pa) may be due to one or more of the following problems: (a) Leak in system or connecting tubing; (b) Closed line valves; (c) Defective vacuum pump; (d) Defective vacuum gauge; and (e) Ambient temperature below 60 F (15.5 C). 6. Close refrigerant charging valve and vacuum gauge and pump valves, and stop the vacuum pump. Disconnect vacuum line from charging valve, and connect a drum of system refrigerant. Raise system pressure to 10 psig (69 Pa). 7. Disconnect refrigerant drum, and use recovery unit to drain system. Reconnect vacuum line gauge, and pump to charging valve. Repeat steps 4 and 5. Dehydrate system to 500 microns (69 Pa) instead of 1,500 microns (207 Pa). Close vacuum pump shutoff valve and stop pump. 8. Monitor vacuum gauge for 15 minutes to ensure system maintains vacuum. If system holds a vacuum, repeat step 6. The system is now ready for charging. Testing For Non-Condensable Gases - Air and non-condensable gases, if present in the system, are pumped through the system and discharged by the compressor into the condenser. These gases are trapped in the condenser and cause excessive condensing pressures. In order to check the condenser for the presence of air or non-condensable gases, it is essential that gauges and thermometers be accurate and that the system has sufficient charge so that the liquid refrigerant pressure in the receiver will seal the liquid line connection. To check for non-condensable gases, proceed as follows: 1. Close liquid line valve and allow system to pump down. 2. Shut off compressor and close suction line valves.
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3. Determine the actual condensing temperature. A service gauge should be installed in the compressor discharge connection if a discharge pressure gauge is not already provided. An approximation of the actual condensing temperature will be reached when no further decrease is noted in the discharge pressure. The reduction in pressure can be accelerated on water-cooled condensers by permitting circulation of cooling water until discharge pressure is reduced. The thermometer in the liquid line at the receiver provided on most vessels will then indicate the actual condensing temperature. If a thermometer is not installed in an air-cooled condenser application, a thermometer should be placed near the condenser to record the ambient temperature at that location. When the pressure and temperature of the air-cooled condenser have lowered to the ambient temperature, a reading of the thermometer will approximate the actual condensing temperature. 4. Record the condensing pressure. Refer to a table of properties for the system refrigerant, and look up the saturation temperature that corresponds to the condensing pressure. 5. Subtract the temperature recorded in Step 3 from the temperature recorded in Step 4. If the difference between these two temperatures is more than 6 F (2.8 C), it is necessary to purge. Purging Non-Condensable Gases - If the above test indicates the presence of non-condensable gases, proceed as follows: 1. Stop the compressor for 10 to 15 minutes. Leave all valves in their normal position. 2. Open purge valve on top of condenser, and slowly release gases through recovery unit. 3. Since it is difficult to tell if excessive refrigerant is being purged with the noncondensables, purge slowly and check the condenser continually for the presence of noncondensable gases as explained above to minimize refrigerant loss while purging. Compressor Oil Level - A certain amount of compressor oil will always circulate through the system because oil is miscible in refrigerant. To allow an oil circulation, systems requiring a large refrigerant charge will need the addition of oil in excess of the normal compressor crankcase oil charge. When the system is first placed in operation, closely observe the oil level in the crankcase. Add oil whenever the oil level drops below normal (halfway up on the bulls-eye sight glass). Allow sufficient time for the system to balance after adding oil, since some of the circulating oil may return to the compressor. Then, again check oil level. Generally, the addition of one quart of oil for every fifty pounds of refrigerant charge will be an adequate allowance for oil circulation. After adding oil, if the oil level in the crankcase still falls below normal, oil is not returning to the compressor. The oil is probably being trapped in the cooling coils by, an improperly adjusted thermal expansion valve. After the compressor has been stopped for several minutes, the oil level in the compressor crankcase should be about halfway up on the bulls-eye sight glass. During operation, the oil level will be slightly lower but will appear higher when oil is foaming. Check the oil level hourly. Add or remove oil to bring the level in the crankcase to the middle of the sight glass during steady operating conditions. Adding Oil - The method of adding oil given below, if properly followed, will prevent air and moisture from entering the system. Since refrigerant gas is heavier than air, and the crankcase is loaded with this gas, the position of the oil-charging hole is located to prevent the admission of
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air. Only clean oil from sealed containers should be used., Check the manufacturers manual for the proper type of oil for the system. 1. Close the liquid line valve and pump down the system. 2. Remove oil filler plug slowly. 3. Add oil to center of bulls-eye sight glass using a clean, well-dried funnel or an oil pump and suitable connector. 4. Replace oil filler plug tightly. 5. Restart system. Removing Oil - Proceed as follows to remove oil from a compressor crankcase: 1. Close liquid line valve and pump down the system. 2. Loosen crankcase drain plug. Since crankcase is under light pressure, do not fully remove drain plug. Allow required amount of oil to be drained to seep slowly around the threads of loosened plug. 3. Retighten drain plug. 4. Restart system. Oil Pressure - Correct oil pressure will insure adequate compressor lubrication and satisfactory operation of the compressor capacity control system. Compressors with a forced lubrication system are typically designed to operate with a normal oil pressure of 45 to 55 psi (310 to 379 kPa) above suction pressure. For example, if the compressor suction gauge reading is 40 psig (276 kPa), the oil pressure gauge reading should be 85 to 95 psig (586 to 655 kPa). During startup, observe the oil pressure gauge to be sure that oil pressure develops during the first few minutes. Always check oil pressure when starting. The oil pressure should be normal after steady operating conditions have been reached, and oil has stopped foaming. Oil foaming may last fifteen minutes or longer. Do not allow compressor to run longer than one minute if oil pressure of at least 15 psig (103 kPa) over suction pressure does not develop. Reasons for low oil pressure include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Insufficient oil in crankcase. Oil pressure regulator not seating properly. Oil filter screen in bottom of crankcase clogged with dirt. Oil pump worn or defective or rotating in wrong direction. Faulty oil piping. Rapid pull-down of suction pressure on start-up causing excessive oil foaming.
Compressor Overhaul And Repair - Consult the manufacturers manual for detailed disassembly and reassembly procedures. The following are general procedures to be followed in any compressor overhaul: 1. Be sure that faulty operation of the plant is not caused by trouble in some other part of the system before dismantling a compressor. 2. Dismantle only the part of the compressor necessary to correct the fault. 3. Sweep clean the deck in the vicinity of the compressor prior to any dismantling. Remove from the area any spare parts, fittings, or tools not to be used.
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4. Obtain clean buckets or boxes in which to place disassembled components. Have on hand a supply of clean rags, as lint free as possible. 5. Spread clean canvas or heavy paper on the deck to put out the larger parts (cylinder heads, crankshaft, etc.). 6. Maintain cleanliness during the overhaul. Clean all parts with an approved solvent after disassembly. Use a stiff brush to remove dirt from grooves and crevices. Do not use carbon tetrachloride for cleaning. Coat all moving parts with compressor oil before reassembly. 7. Dip dismantled parts to be left overnight in clean compressor oil, and wrap them in oilsoaked rags to prevent rusting. 8. Use special tools furnished by the compressor manufacturer for the particular operation involved to dismantle or reassemble a compressor. 9. Avoid damage to gaskets or gasket-seating surfaces when disassembling the compressor. These gaskets or new gaskets of identical thickness and material must be employed when reassembling. The use of discharge valve plate and compressor cylinder gaskets of proper thickness is particularly important since the thickness of these gaskets determines the clearance between the top of the pistons and discharge valve plate. 10. Mark carefully when disassembling compressor parts, so that each part removed will be replaced in its original position when reassembling. 11. Avoid filing, scraping, and grinding wherever possible when making compressor repairs or adjustments because of the danger of introducing emery or metal particles into the compressor. 12. Place pistons upon reassembly on the proper rods facing the same direction as originally. 13. Make certain that the oil dipper on lower connecting rod bearing of splash lubricated compressors is in correct position for dipping up oil when machine is in operation. 14. 13.Stagger the position of the ends of the piston rings so that all joints do not come on one side of the piston. 15. Clean compressor crankcase and provide fresh charge of proper oil. Analysis Of Faulty Compressor Valves - Before opening a compressor for valve inspection or replacement, it should be definitely determined that the faulty operation of the system is due to the improper functioning of the valves and not to some other problem. Before assuming that compressor valves must be serviced, carefully check the system for all other possible causes of faulty operation. Faulty compressor valves may be indicated by either a gradual or a sudden decrease in the normal compressor capacity. Either the compressor will fail to pump or the suction pressure cannot be pumped down to the designed value. This will cause the compressor to run for abnormally long intervals or even continuously. Short shutdown periods may indicate leaky compressor valves provided the faulty operation is not due to some other fault in the system. Testing Compressor Discharge Valves - The compressor discharge valve may be checked for leakage as follows: 1. Close liquid line valve and pump down system. 2. Stop compressor, and quickly close suction and discharge line valves.
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3. If discharge pressure drops at a rate in excess of 3 psi per minute and crankcase (suction) pressure rises, there is evidence of discharge valve leakage. It may be necessary to pump down several times to remove refrigerant mixed with crankcase oil in order to obtain a true test. If the discharge valves are found to be defective in any way, it is advisable to replace the entire valve assembly with a spare. If valve operation is faulty, chances are the discharge plate requires re-lapping. This process generally requires highly specialized machinery to produce a satisfactory surface and should not be attempted aboard ship except in an emergency. Testing Compressor Suction Valves - The compressor suction valves may be checked for leakage as follows: 1. Start the compressor under manual control. 2. Close the suction line stop valve gradually, exercising care to prevent violent oil foaming. 3. With the suction line stop valve finally closed, if a vacuum of approximately 20 inches Hg (34 kPa abs.) can be readily pumped, the suction valves may be considered satisfactory. Do not expect the vacuum to be maintained after the compressor stops due to the release of refrigerant from the oil. New valve assemblies may require a break-in period of several days before being checked. If the test indicates a possible problem, the compressor should be pumped down, opened, and the valves inspected. Defective valves should be replaced with spare assemblies. Be sure all small pieces of a broken valve are accounted for. If any pieces are not removed, the compressor may be damaged when put back in operation. Before installing a new suction valve assembly, the piston should be checked for damage. If marred, the piston must be replaced as well as the suction valve. Alignment Of Compressor Coupling - Couplings on direct drive units should be checked for proper alignment after repair or replacement. Both parallel and angular misalignment should be checked. Parallel misalignment in direct drive units is shown in figure 44 and angular misalignment is shown in figure 45. Angular Misalignment can be checked with a feeler gauge or by clamping a dial indicator to the motor flange and adjusting it so the stem will contact the inside face of the compressor flange. Rotate the motor flange through 360 and record readings at 90 intervals. To check parallel misalignment, use a steel rule held against the coupling periphery, or a dial indicator clamped to the motor coupling with the stem adjusted to run on the compressor-coupling periphery. Shim motor feet and shift motor position as necessary to correct the misalignments. Tighten all hold-down bolts and recheck.
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FIGURE 44 - PARALLEL MISALIGNMENT IN A DIRECT DRIVE UNIT
FIGURE 45 - ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT IN A DIRECT DRIVE UNIT
Belt Drive Adjustment - The belt drive must be aligned so that there is no angular or parallel misalignment. Both alignments can be checked with a straightedge or string. Parallel misalignment in belt drive units is shown in figure 46, and angular misalignment is shown in figure 47. Correct parallel misalignment by sliding the motor pulley on its shaft. Correct angular misalignment by loosening motor hold-down bolts and turning the motor frame. Check belt tension by depressing a single belt at the center of the span with one finger. A heavier belt with a 24-inch (61 cm) span should deflect to 3/4 inch (1.2 to 2 cm). Lighter belts or longer spans should deflect proportionally more. Belts should always be replaced in sets, not singly.
FIGURE 46 - PARALLEL MISALIGNMENT IN A BELT DRIVE
FIGURE 47 - ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT IN A BELT DRIVE
UNIT
UNIT
Preventive Maintenance Schedule - Mechanical equipment can best be kept in good repair and operating at top efficiency by strict adherence to a planned maintenance schedule. A systematic check of operation and condition of refrigeration systems should be maintained. A recommended preventive maintenance schedule is outlined below. This schedule is intended only as a guide. It is not intended co replace the recommendation of the equipment manufacturer, and may be altered to suit operating and maintenance conditions peculiar to the individual installation.
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Hourly1. Enter all operating temperatures and pressures in a log. The log should contain columns for recording: (a) The time the check is made; (b) Machinery room ambient temperature; (c) Refrigerant suction pressure and temperature; (d) Refrigerant discharge pressure and temperature; (e) Oil pressure; (f) Bulls-eye oil level (i.e., low, normal, high); (g) Crankcase temperature (i.e., warm, cold, normal); (h) Compressor noise (i.e., normal, knock, or other); (i) Condenser seawater supply pressure; (j) Condenser seawater entering and leaving temperatures; (k) Liquid refrigerant temperature; (l) Liquid refrigerant condition at sight glass (i.e., normal or vapor bubbles); and (m) temperature of refrigerated compartments. (m)Check motors for overheating. Get accustomed to the motor temperature by the way it feels to the hands. Daily - Review hourly operating log. Note any significant changes in plant performance and take corrective action, if necessary. Weekly 1. Test refrigerant system for leaks. 2. Check for non-condensable gases in condenser. Purge, if necessary. 3. Check operation of all solenoid valves. 4. Check glands on circulating pumps. Monthly 1. Lubricate motor bearings, if necessary. 2. Blow dust out of motors and check lint screen. 3. Check contact points in motor controllers and control switches. Clean as required. 4. Check operation and settings of operating and safety control switches. Adjust as required. 5. Clean seawater strainers. 6. Check condenser zincs. Clean or replace as required. 7. If brine is used, check brine density. Quarterly 1. Clean condenser waterside. 2. Check all motors and starters.
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11.. TROUBLESHOOTIING A REFRIIGERATIION CYCLE 11 TROUBLESHOOT NG A REFR GERAT ON CYCLE

DETECTING AND CORRECTING TROUBLES - Faulty operation of the refrigerating and air conditioning plants is indicated by various definite symptoms. Information in the tables indicate some possible troubles that may been encountered, the possible causes of these troubles, and the corrective action which may be taken. But remember always consult the manufacturers technical manual before attempting any repair or adjustment on your equipment.
Trouble
High condensing pressure
Possible Cause
Air on non-condensable gas in system. Inlet water warm. Insufficient water flowing through condenser Condenser tubes clogged or scaled. Too much liquid in receiver, condenser tubes submerged in liquid refrigerant Too much water flowing through condenser Water too cold. Liquid refrigerant flooding back from evaporator Leaky discharge valve.
Corrective Measure
Purge air from condenser. Increase quantity of condensing water. Increase quantity of water Clean condenser water tubes. Draw off liquid into service cylinder.
Low condensing pressure
Reduce quantity of water Reduce quantity of water. Change expansion valve adjustment, examine fastening of thermal bulb. Remove head, examine valves. Replace any found defective. Regulate expansion valve, check bulb attachment. Remove head, examine valve and replace if worn. Pump down, remove, examine and clean screen. Check refrigerant charge Check for too much oil in circulation. Remove oil. Adjust valve to give more flow. Replace expansion valve power element. Locate and repair leaks. Charge refrigerant. Adjust, repair or replace thermal expansion valve. (a) Clean strainer (b) Remove moisture or dirt (Use system dehydrator). ( c) Replace power element
High suction pressure
Overfeeding of expansion valve. Leaky suction valve.
Low suction pressure.
Restricted liquid line and Expansion valve or suction screens. Insufficient refrigerant in system. Too much oil circulating in system. Improper adjustment of expansion valves. Expansion valve power element dead or weak. Low refrigerant charge. Thermal expansion valve not feeding properly. (a) Dirty strainers. (b) Moisture frozen in orifice or orifice plugged with dirt. (c) Power element dead or weak. Water flow through evaporators
Compressor short cycles on low pressure control
Remove restriction. Check water flow. Clean
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restricted or stopped. Evaporator coils plugged, dirty, or clogged with frost. Defective low pressure control switch Shortage of refrigerant. Leaking discharge valves. Insufficient water flowing through condenser, clogged condenser. Defective high pressure control switch. Seized compressor. Cut-in point of low pressure control switch too high. High pressure control switch does not cut-in. 1. Defective switch. 2. Electric power cut off. Service or disconnect switch open. Fuses blown. Over-load relays tripped. Low voltage. Electrical motor in trouble. Trouble in starting witch or control circuit. Compressor motor stopped by oil pressure differential switch. coils or tubes.
Compressor runs continuously. Compressor short cycles on high pressure control switch.
Repair or replace low pressure control switch. Repair leak and recharge system. Replace discharge valves. Determine if water has been turned off. Check for scaled or fouled condenser. Repair or replace high pressure control switch. Repair or replace compressor Set L.P. control switch to cut-in at correct pressure. Check discharge pressure and reset H.P. control switch. 1. Repair or replace switch. 2. Check power supply. Close switches. Test fuses and renew if necessary. Re-set relays and find cause of overload. Check voltage (should be within 10 percent of nameplate rating). Repair or replace motor. Close switch manually to test power supply. If OK check control circuit including temperature and pressure controls. Check oil level in crank-case. Check oil pump pressure. Adjust or replace expansion valve. Set hand operating stem to automatic position Adjust or repair pressure regulating valve.
Compressor will not run.
Compressor will not run.
Sudden loss of oil from crankcase Capacity reduction system fails to unload cylinders. Compressor continues to operate at full or partial load. Capacity reduction system fails to load cylinders. Compressor continues to operate unloaded. TROUBLE Space temperature higher than thermostat setting and thermostat contacts are open.
Liquid refrigerant slugging back to compressor crank case. Hand operating stem of capacity control valve not turned to automatic position. Pressure regulating valve not opening. Broken or leaking oil tube between pump and power element. Pressure regulating valve not closing. POSSIBLE CAUSE Bad location of thermostat.
Repair leak. Adjust or repair pressure regulating valve. TEST REMEDY Relocate thermostat to a place more representative of average space temperature. Clean, adjust, or replace the thermostat. Replace solenoid coil. Clean valve or adjust pilots.
Carefully read temperature at the sensing element.
Thermostat out of adjustment or sticking. Cooling coil magnetic valve not opening.
Calibrate with good thermometer. Solenoid Valve. Valve sticking.
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Space temperature thermostat lower than thermostat setting and contacts are closed. Space temperature lower than thermostat setting and thermostat contacts are open. Bad location of thermostat (this will also effect cooling). Cooling coil magnetic valve stuck in open position. Heating coil magnetic valve stuck or bad solenoid. Sensing element fouled with lint and dirt.

Test with reliable thermometer at location. Move thermostat to a better location.
Stuck valve.
Disassemble and clean.
Test solenoid. Test Valve. Examine.
Replace solenoid coil. Clean the valve. Clean.
Thermostat or humidistat time constant too long, causing wide deviation from set point. Electric heater does not cut out. Electric heater does not cut out.
Controller contacts stuck.
Use test lamp to determine. Place test lamp across.
Overheat protection not reset or defective.
Replace contacts, springs or other parts as found defective. Repair or replace.
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12.. PLENUMS AND DUCTWORK 12 PLENUMS AND DUCTWORK

The most common shapes for ducts are round and rectangular cross sections, but any shape could be used. The most efficient shape for conveying air is the round cross section. This carries the most air in the smallest perimeter resulting in less material, less friction, and less heat loss. Most ducts are made of steel or aluminum and sometimes copper. The ducts are not all the same size, nor do they run in a straight line. Therefore, transformation pieces and fittings are required to reduce or increase the size, and fittings are needed to change the direction of the air. OUTLETS - The air is admitted to a room through supply outlets or grilles, and after it has done its cooling or heating job within the space, it leaves through return grilles. These supply outlets and return grilles may be: ceiling diffusers, wall grilles, floor outlets, baseboard outlets or under the window grilles. The pattern of air flow leaving an outlet can be controlled by directional vanes. If the vanes are set straight out, the air has a long throw with a narrow spread. As the vanes are fanned outward from the center, the air steam has a greater spread and a shorter throw. With the vanes parallel and facing in one direction, the air steam follows the general direction of the vanes. Another factor that affects the performance of an outlet is the way the outlet is connected to the duct. If an opening is merely cut into the side of a duct, the air comes out of the opening with a forward direction. If an outlet is placed in this opening, the air has a similar pattern, but you can turn the vanes to the direction you want. The selection of return and exhaust grilles is much simpler than for supply outlets. Since most of the room air motion is created by induction of the supply air, about all the return must do is provide sufficient opening for the air to be removed.
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13.. RE--HEATERS AND ROOM CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE 13 RE HEATERS AND ROOM CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE
PERFORMANCE - An outlet is used to distribute air in the right quantities and at the proper velocities. In this way, the air motion around the occupants is regulated to prevent drafts or stuffiness without creating objectionable noise. If the systems serves spaces that are maintained at a specified temperature (generally 65oF) a reheater is also provided. In re-circulating cooling systems re-heaters are usually provided to maintain specified space temperatures during cold weather operation. The pre-heater has a thermostatic control arranged to prevent freezing of the coil and to maintain a certain duct air temperature. Steam is supplied through two regulating valves, either in a single body or as separate valves. Pre-heaters supply either single spaces or zones. Zones are made up of spaces that are expected to have similar heat loads. Re-heaters are controlled by room thermostats. In re-circulating cooling systems on newer vessels, the re-heaters are supplied from constant steam lines and reheat air to any zone that would be overcooled.
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14.. GLOSSARY 14 GLOSSARY

This glossary has been prepared to define certain terms used in the ACCA/FSU Refrigerant Transition and Recovery Certification Manual. Some of the terms can be further explained by illustrations in the manual. ABRASION A scrape or other damage on an objects surface. ACRONYM Letters that stand for a phrase. HVACR stands for Heating, Ventilation, Air conditioning and Refrigeration; CFC stands for Chlorofluorocarbon. ALKYLBENZENE An organic lubricant thats made from the raw chemicals propylene, a colorless hydrocarbon gas, and benzene, a colorless liquid hydrocarbon. AMBIENT TEMPERATURE Temperature of the air around an object. Ambient comes from a Latin word that means to surround. ANALOGOUS From the word analogy a comparison of two different things that are alike in some way. ANALYSIS Separating the parts of a thing to study them separately. If someone analyzes iron ore they can find iron. ANTICIPATE To look forward to, or to expect. From a Latin word that means to take before. ANTIDOTE A remedy that counteracts the effects of a poison. APERTURE A service connection used to access a sealed refrigeration system, like a clampon piercing valve. APPLIANCE A broad term used for electrical devices, including air-conditioning and refrigeration units a refrigerator, freezer, central air conditioner, walk-in cooler, or centrifugal chiller. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The pressure caused by the weight of the air above a certain point. Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 15 pounds per square inch. ATOM The smallest unit of a chemical element. Every atom is made up of a positively charged nucleus and a set of negatively charged electrons that revolve around the nucleus. The nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and neutrons that have no charge. Atoms link together to from molecules. ATTRITION A natural rubbing away or wearing down. From a Latin word that means to rub against.
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AZEOTROPE A constant-boiling mixture. A mixture of two liquids that boils at constant composition the vapors composition is the same as the liquids. When the mixture boils, at first the vapor has a higher proportion of one component than is present in the liquid, so this proportion in the liquid falls over time. Eventually, maximum and minimum points are reached, at which the two liquids distill together with no change in composition. An azeotropes composition depends on pressure. BINARY Anything made up of two parts. From a Latin word meaning two by two. BOIL To change from a liquid to a vapor. CALIBRATE To systematically adjust the graduations of a measuring instrument. CHLORINE MONOXIDE A molecule made of one oxygen atom and one chlorine atom. Its found in the stratosphere when ozone depletion is taking place. By measuring chlorine monoxide, scientists can determine the degree of ozone depletion. CHLOROFLUOROCARBON (CFC) Any of several compounds made up of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. CFCs were used as aerosol propellants and refrigerants until they were found to be harmful to the earths protective ozone layer. COMPATIBLE Capable of orderly, efficient integration and operation with other elements in a system. COMPLY To act in accord with a rule, standard, or law. COMPOUND In chemistry, a substance that contains two or more elements in definite proportions. Only one molecule is present in a compound. CONDENSE To change from a vapor to a liquid. From a Latin word that means to thicken. CONFIGURATION An arrangement of elements or parts in a system. CONSTITUENTS Parts of a whole. CONTAMINANTS Dirt, moisture, or any other substance that is foreign to a refrigerant. CONTINGENT Depends on conditions or events that might or might not happen; conditional. CORRESPONDING Agreeing or conforming, as in degree or kind. CRITICAL TEMPERATURE The highest temperature a gas can have and still be condensable by pressure. DEFICIENT Lacking an essential element; incomplete.
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DEMINIMUS Minimum. The smallest quantity, number, or degree possible or permissible. DIELECTRIC A material that conducts electricity little or not at all. If a voltage is applied to a dielectric, atoms in the material arrange themselves to oppose the flow of electric current. Glass, wood, and plastic are common dielectrics. Dielectric strength is a measure of resistance that materials such as oil have to electric current. DISPOSE To get rid of something. DISPOSABLE CYLINDER A one-trip refrigerant cylinder not to be refilled. DISTILL The process of separating constituents of a liquid by boiling it then condensing the vapor thats produced. Distillation can be used to purify water and other substances, or to remove one component from a mixture, as when gas is distilled from crude oil. ELLS Prebent tubing, factory-designed as soldered or flared fittings that let refrigerant lines be routed between components. ENTITY Something that exists as a single unit. Refrigerant owned by an entity would be the property of one person or corporation. EQUALIZER VALVE A device that regulates the flow of gases or liquids. Its used to balance pressure on either side of some recovering machines. ESTER OIL An oil used with hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants. EVACUATE To remove air (gas) and moisture from a refrigeration or air conditioning system. EXCERPT A selected passage from an article or book. EXCISE TAX An internal tax such as the tax levied on those who produce chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). EXPANSION VALVE A metering device used in refrigeration and air-conditioning applications that separates the systems low and high sides. FIVE-CARBON NEOPENTYL ALCOHOLS An alcohol compound with a five-carbon molecular structure. FLOC POINT The temperature at which wax separates out (precipitates) from a mixture of 10 percent oil and 90 percent refrigerant (R-12). The floc point is a measure of an oils relative tendency to separate wax when mixed with a soil-soluble refrigerant. FLUOROCARBON A molecule that contains fluorine and carbon atoms.
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11/3/2006
QMED QMED
FRACTIONATION When one or more refrigerants of the same blend leak a t a faster rate than other refrigerants in the blend, changing the composition of the blend. Fractionation is possible only when liquid and vapor exist at the same time. FRANGIBLE DISK A circular (round and dished) device used on some refrigeration equipment to provide pressure release for safety purposes. The frangible disk suddenly breaks when a certain pressure is reached. FULLY HALOGENATED CFC When all the hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon molecule are replaced with chlorine or fluorine atoms. GIRTH STEAM A welded or bolted connection between a tubes lower and upper halves, placed near the center or widest diameter. GLOBAL WARMING Often called the greenhouse effect. In global warming, tropospheric pollutants like CFCs, HCFCs, HFC, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide absorb and reflect the earths infrared radiation. This causes reradiation back to the earth, and a gradual increase in the earths, average temperature. HALOGEN any of the five chemically related nonmetallic elements that include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. HALOGENATE To cause some other element to combine with a halogen. HERMETIC Totally sealed, especially against the escape or entry of air. In HVACR applications, it means sealed by gaskets or welds, as in refrigeration compressors. HERMETICALLY SEALED Any object or substance confined in a gas- (or air-) tight container. A refrigeration system is hermetically sealed. HIGH-PRESSURE APPLIANCE An appliance that uses a refrigerant with a boiling point between 50 degrees C and 10 degrees C at atmospheric pressure. HYDROCARBON A molecule that contains hydrogen and carbon atoms. HYDROCHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (HCFCS) Molecules created when some of the hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon molecule are replaced with chlorine or fluorine atoms. Because they have a shorter life than CFCs, HCFCs are less harmful than CFCs to stratospheric ozone. HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION Lubrication that deals with the motion of fluids and the behavior of solid bodies immersed in them. HYDROFLUOROCARBONS (HFCS) Molecules created when some of the hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon are replaced with fluorine. Because HFCs contain no chlorine, they dont destroy ozone but they contribute to global warming.
USMMA GMATS
94
11/3/2006
QMED QMED
HYDROSTATICALLY TESTED A process used to test the bursting points of cylinders or tanks (pressure vessels). Theyre filled with fluid, tightly closed, then subjected to a calibrated pressure. HYDROSCOPIC Readily absorbs and retains moisture, as from the atmosphere. INCOMPATIBLE Not suited to be used together; not in harmony or agreement. INCORPORATE To thoroughly blend or combine into an existing thing. From a Latin word that means to form into a body. INDUSTRIAL-PROCESS REFRIGERATION Complex, custom appliances used in the chemical, pharmaceutical, petrochemical, and manufacturing industries. INERT An inert chemical is one that shows no chemical activity except under extreme conditions. For example, CFCs are inert; they have a long life and are broken up into chlorine, fluorine, and carbon atoms only when theyre exposed to ultraviolet light in the stratosphere. INTERIM Short term or temporary. From a Latin word for in the meantime. ISOMERS Molecules that have the same numbers of the same atoms, but the atoms are arranged differently in their structure. Even though isomers of the same compound have equal numbers of atoms of the same elements, they have very different physical properties. KING VALVE A liquid-receiver outlet service valve. LATENT HEAT Heat that cant be measured with a thermometer. Latent heat is hidden heat thats generated when substances change states. LOW-LOSS FITTING Any device that connects hoses, appliances, or recovery or recycling machines, and that is designed to close automatically or to be closed manually when its disconnected. LOW-PRESSURE APPLIANCE An appliance that uses a refrigerant with a boiling point above 50 degrees F at atmospheric pressure. MALIGNANCY Abnormal mass of new tissue growth that serves no function in the body and that threatens life or health. MISCIBLE Capable of being mixed in all proportions. MIXTURE A blend of two or more components that dont have a fixed proportion to each other and that, however well-blended, keep their individual chemical characteristics. Unlike compounds, mixtures can be separated by physical methods like distillation. One example is a near-azeotropic blend of refrigerant.
USMMA GMATS
95
11/3/2006
QMED QMED
MOISTURE INDICATOR An instrument used to measure a refrigerants moisture content. MOLECULE A stable configuration of atoms held together by electrostatic and electromagnetic forces. A molecule is the simplest structural unit that display a compounds characteristic physical and chemical properties. MONTREAL PROTOCOL An agreement signed in 1987 by the United States and 22 other countries, and updated several times since then, to control releases of several times since then, to control releases of ozone-depleting substances like CFCs and HCFCs, and eventually phase out their use. NEAR-AZEOTROPIC BLEND A blend that acts like an azeotrope, but has a small volumetric composition change and temperature glide as it evaporates and condenses. NOMENCLATURE A system of special terms or symbols, like those used in science. Nomenclature comes from the Latin word nomenclator, a slave who accompanied his master to tell him the names of people he met. NONCONDENSABLE GAS Gas that doesnt change to a liquid at operating temperatures and pressure. NONMISCIBLE When two substances, such as oil and water, are incapable of mixing. NONPOLAR A system or substance without opposite extremes, as of magnetism or electric charge. OBSOLETE No longer in use; outmoded in style, design, or construction. ORGANIC Something derived from living organism. OXIDATION Any chemical reaction where a substance gives up electrons- as when a substances combines with oxygen. Burning is an example of slow oxidation. OXIDIZE A corrosive chemical reaction caused by exposure to oxygen gas, like rust (iron oxide) or copper oxide (which forms on or inside copper tubing). OZONE DEPLETION Happens when ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere breaks CFC and HCFC refrigerants into their atomic elements chlorine, fluorine and hydrogen atoms. Chlorine atoms react with and destroy stratospheric ozone, which protects earths human and other life forms from the suns harmful ultraviolet radiation. PARTIALLY HALOGENATED HCFC When not every hydrogen atom in a hydrogen molecule is replaced with chlorine or fluorine atoms. PARTICLE A tiny piece or part; speck.
USMMA GMATS
96
11/3/2006
QMED QMED
PERMEABILITY An objects or substances ability to be penetrated. PHENOMENON An event or fact directly perceptible by the senses. PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTION A chemical reaction caused by light or ultraviolet radiation. PHYTOPLANKTON AND LARVAE Plants, organisms, and newly hatched insects that float on the oceans surface and are a source of food for fish and other marine life. PLACARD An easily seen tag or label that usually indicates warming or caution. POLAR Molecules that have a positively charged end and a negatively charged end, each of which attracts its opposite. POLYALKYLENE GLYCOLS (PAGS) A very hygroscopic (moisture-absorbing) refrigeration lubricant used with HFC refrigerants. Often used in automotive air-conditioning systems with HFC refrigerants. PAGs are incompatible with chlorine and have high molecular weights. POLYOLESTER A wax-free, ester-based oil thats a popular synthetic lubricant used with HFC refrigerants. Polyolesters have been used for years a jet-engine lubricants. PRESSURE VESSEL A holding device that maintains a certain force per unit of area. PROCESS STUB A tube that extends from the compressor or filter drier of a hermetic system. Its used to gain access to the sealed system. PROPRIETARY Sole ownership of property, a business, an item of labor, or an object that extends legal ownership rights. From Latin words that mean property and ones own. QUICK-DISCONNECT FITTINGS Fittings used on refrigerant hoses that seal automatically when removed from an appliance. Quick-disconnect fittings will help reduce refrigerant losses when removing hoses. REAM To scrape, cut, or otherwise clean the inside of pipe or copper tubing. Reaming eliminates ridges or raised surfaces that come from cutting the pipe or tubing. RECLAMATION Restoring to usefulness REFRIGERANT RECEIVER A refrigeration system component installed in the liquid line. Its designed to make a space for liquid refrigerant flow due to the closing action of a selfregulating metering device. REGULATORY AUTHORITY The right, as for a government agency, to control an industrial process or mechanism in agreement with a rule.
USMMA GMATS
97
11/3/2006
QMED QMED
RESIDUE A substance left over at the end of a process. For example, residual oil is the lowgrade oil product left after gasoline is distilled. RETROFIT To furnish with new equipment or parts that werent available when a device or system was first manufactured. REVOKE To cancel or take back a permission or contract. From a Latin word that means to call back. SATURATED PRESSURE The force in a pressure vessel that matches the temperature of a certain contained gas at a condition where any removed heat would cause condensation, and added heat would cause evaporation. SATURATION TEMPERATURE The temperature at which a liquid turns to vapor or a vapor turns to a liquid. SCHRADER VALVE Valves that use a valve core, like a tire-valve stem, to gain access to a sealed system. Schrader valves help HVACR technicians recover refrigerant. SILKSCREEN A stencil-producing method where a design is imposed on a screen of silk. Blank areas are coated with an impenetrable substance, and ink is forced through the cloth onto the printing surface. SOLUBLE A substance that can be dissolved in a given liquid. SPECIFIC DENSITY In reference to a refrigerant, a statement of mass per unit of volume measurement (pounds per cubic foot). SPECIFIC VOLUME In reference to refrigerant, a corresponding but reversed value of specific density (cubic feet per pound). SPRING-LOADED RELIEF A calibrated spring-operated pressure release device thats designed to relieve pressure for safety purpose. STRATOSPHERE The atmosphere between 7 and 30 miles above the earth where a layer of ozone filters out harmful ultraviolet light. SUBCOOLING A liquid below its saturation temperature for a certain saturation pressure. SUPERHEAT A vapor above its saturation temperature for a certain saturation pressure. SYMMETRY Having balanced, evenly distributed parts. SYNTHETIC Produced artificially. In chemistry, forming a compound from its parts.
USMMA GMATS
98
11/3/2006
QMED QMED
SYSTEM-DEPENDENT RECOVERY EQUIPMENT Equipment that makes use of an appliances own components to remove refrigerant from the appliance. TECHNICAL BULLETINS Published industrial statements above newsworthy items. TECHNICIAN Anyone who performs maintenance, service, or repair operations that could reasonably be expected to release Class I or Class II substances from appliances into the atmosphere. Technicians may be installers, contractor employees, in-house service personnel, or owners. TEMPERATURE GLIDE A range of condensing or evaporating temperatures for one pressure. TERMINATE To bring to an end. TERNARY Having three elements, parts, or divisions. TOTAL EQUIVALENT WARNING IMPACT (TEWI) A unit of measurement that assesses the total effect CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs have on global warming. THERMODYNAMICS The branch of physics devoted to the study of heat and other forms of energy. All thermodynamic properties of matter can be described in terms of the motion of atoms and molecules. THROTTLE To slowly obstruct flow. TOXICOLOGY The study of poisons, their effects and antidotes. TRANSITION The process of changing from one state or form to another. TROPOSPHERE The lowest level of the atmosphere from the ground to seven miles above the earth where ultraviolet rays from the sun react with pollution and smog to from ozone. ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION Radiation in the part of the electromagnetic spectrum where wavelengths are shorter than visible violet light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation causes cancer. VAPOR PRESSURE Pressure applied to a saturated liquid. VEHICLE A device- like a car or truck for moving passengers and all kinds of goods and products from one place to another. VERIFY To prove accuracy by observing, testing, and presenting evidence. VERY HIGH PRESSURE APPLIANCE An appliance that uses a refrigerant with a boiling low point below 58 degrees F at atmospheric pressure.
USMMA GMATS
99
11/3/2006
QMED QMED
VIRGIN REFRIGERANT New, original, nonrecycled refrigerant. VOLATILE Vaporizes easily. A liquids flash point the temperature and pressure at which a liquid turns to gas. ZEOTROPE Refrigerant blends that change volumetric composition and saturation temperatures as they evaporate or condense at constant pressures. Zeotropes have a temperature glide as they evaporate and condense. Zeotrope and nonazeotrope mean the same thing.
USMMA GMATS
100
11/3/2006
QMED
ADJUSTMENT OF TEV VALVE
ALCO CONTROLS DIVISION EMERSON ELECTRIC CO.
TEMPERATURE- PRESSU RE CHART

Regular type = Vapor (PSIG) Bold type = Liquid (PSIG)
F -50 -48 -46 -44 -42 -40 -38 -36 -34 -32 -30 -28 -26 -24 -22 -20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 R-12 15.4 14.6 13.8 12.9 11.9 11.0 10.0 8.9 7.8 6.7 5.5 4.3 3.0 1.6 0.3 0.6 1.3 2.1 2.8 3.7 4.5 5.4 6.3 7.2 8.2 9.2 10.2 11.2 12.3 13.5 14.6 15.8 17.1 18.4 19.7 21.0 22.4 23.8 25.4 26.9 28.5 30.1 31.7 33.4 35.2 36.9 38.8 40.7 R-22 6.2 4.8 3.4 2.0 0.5 0.5 1.3 2.2 3.0 4.0 4.9 5.9 6.9 7.9 9.0 10.1 11.3 12.5 13.8 15.1 16.5 17.9 19.3 20.8 22.4 24.0 25.6 27.3 29.1 30.9 32.8 34.7 36.7 38.7 40.9 43.0 45.3 47.6 49.9 52.4 54.9 57.5 60.1 62.8 65.6 68.5 71.5 74.5 R-5.02 0.2 0.7 1.5 2.3 3.2 4.1 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.1 9.2 10.3 11.5 12.7 14.0 15.3 16.7 18.1 19.5 21.0 22.6 24.2 25.8 27.5 29.3 31.1 32.9 34.9 36.9 38.9 41.0 43.2 45.4 47.7 50.0 52.5 54.9 57.5 60.1 62.8 65.6 68.4 71.3 74.3 77.4 80.5 83.8 87.0 R-134A 18.4 17.7 17.0 16.2 15.4 14.5 13.7 12.8 11.8 10.8 9.7 8.6 7.7 6.2 4.9 3.6 2.3 0.8 0.3 1.1 1.9 2.8 3.6 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.6 10.8 12.0 13.1 14.4 15.7 17.0 18.4 19.9 21.4 22.9 24.5 26.1 27.8 29.5 31.3 33.2 35.1 37.0 39.1 AZ-50 (R-507) 0.9 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.6 8.7 9.9 11.1 12.4 13.7 15.0 16.4 17.8 19.3 20.9 22.5 24.1 25.8 27.6 29.4 31.3 33.2 35.2 37.3 39.4 41.6 43.8 46.2 48.5 51.0 53.5 56.1 58.8 61.5 64.3 67.2 70.2 73.3 76.4 79.6 82.9 86.3 89.8 93.4 97.0 MP-39 (R-401) 18.5 17.7 17.0 16.0 15.0 14.5 13.5 12.5 11.5 10..6 9.0 8.3 7.0 6.0 4.5 3.5 2.0 0.5 0.4 1.4 2.2 3.1 3.9 4.8 5.7 6.7 8.0 8.8 9.9 11.0 12.2 13.4 14.6 15.9 17.2 18.6 20.0 21.5 23.0 24.6 26.2 27.9 29.6 31.3 33.2 35.0 37.0 39.0 HP 62 (R-404A) 0.0 0.87 1.6 2.5 3.4 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.6 9.7 10.8 12.0 13.2 14.5 15.8 17.1 18.5 20.0 21.5 23.0 24.6 26.3 28.0 29.8 31.6 33.5 34.8 37.4 39.4 41.6 43.7 46.0 48.3 50.7 53.1 55.6 58.2 60.9 63.6 66.5 69.4 72.3 75.4 78.5 81.8 85.1 88.5 91.9 HP-80 (R-402A) 1.2 2.1 2.9 3.9 4.9 5.9 6.9 8.0 9.2 10.3 11.6 12.8 14.1 15.5 16.9 18.4 19.9 21.5 23.1 24.8 26.5 28.3 30.2 32.1 34.1 36.1 38.1 40.4 42.6 44.9 47.3 49.7 52.2 54.8 57.5 60.2 63.0 65.9 68.9 72.0 75.1 78.3 81.6 85.0 88.5 92.1 95.7 99.5
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 150
42.7 44.7 46.7 46.7 54.0 53.2 55.4 57.7 60.1 62.5 65.0 67.6 70.3 72.9 75.6 78.4 81.3 84.2 87.2 90.2 93.3 96.5 99.8 103.1 106.5 110.0 113.5 117.2 120.9 124.7 128.5 132.4 136.4 140.5 144.7 148.9 153.2 157.7 162.2 166.7 171.4 176.2 181.0 185.9 191.0 196.0 201.3 206.6 212.0 217.5 223.1 228.8 234.6
77.6 80.7 84.0 87.3 90.8 94.3 97.9 101.6 105.4 109.3 113.2 117.3 121.4 125.7 130.0 134.5 139.0 143.6 148.4 153.2 158.2 163.2 168.4 173.7 179.1 184.6 190.2 195.9 201.8 207.7 213.8 220.0 226.4 232.8 239.4 246.1 252.9 259.9 267.0 274.3 281.6 289.1 296.8 304.6 312.5 320.6 328.9 337.3 345.8 354.5 363.3 372.3 381.5
90.4 93.9 97.4 101.0 104.9 108.6 112.4 116.4 120.4 124.6 128.8 133.2 137.5 142.2 146.8 151.5 156.3 161.2 166.2 171.4 176.6 181.9 187.4 192.9 198.6 204.3 210.2 216.2 222.3 228.5 234.9 241.3 247.9 254.6 261.5 268.4 275.5 282.7 290.1 297.6 305.2 312.9 320.8 328.9 337.1 345.4 353.9 362.6 371.4 380.4 389.5 398.9 408.4
41.1 43.3 45.5 47.7 50.1 52.3 55.0 57.5 60.1 62.7 65.5 68.3 71.8 74.2 77.2 80.3 83.5 86.8 90.2 93.6 97.1 100.7 104.4 108.2 112.1 116.1 120.1 124.3 128.5 132.9 137.3 142.8 146.5 151.3 156.1 161.1 166.1 171.3 176.6 182.0 187.5 193.1 198.9 204.7 210.7 216.8 223.0 229.4 235.8 242.4 249.2 256.0 263.0
100.8 104.6 108.6 112.6 116.7 121.0 125.3 129.7 134.3 139.0 143.7 148.6 153.9 158.7 163.9 169.3 174.7 180.3 186.0 191.9 197.8 203.9 210.2 216.6 223.1 229.8 236.6 243.5 250.6 257.9 265.3 272.9 280.6 288.6 296.6 304.9 313.3 321.9 330.7 339.7 348.9 358.2 367.8 377.6 387.5 397.7 408.1 418.7 429.6 440.6 451.9 462.0 475.2
41.1 43.1 45.3 60.0 62.0 65.0 68.0 70.0 73.0 76.0 79.0 82.0 85.0 89.0 92.0 95.0 99.0 102.0 106.0 109.0 113.0 117.0 121.0 125.0 129.0 133.0 138.0 142.0 146.0 151.0 156.0 160.0 165.0 170.0 175.0 180.0 185.0 191.0 196.0 202.0 207.0 213.0 219.0 225.0 231.0 237.0 243.0 250.0 256.0 263.0 269.0 277.0 283.0
95.5 99.2 102.9 109.0 113.0 117.0 121.0 125.0 130.0 134.0 139.0 144.0 149.0 153.0 158.0 164.0 169.0 174.0 180.0 185.0 191.0 197.0 203.0 209.9 215.0 222.0 229.0 235.0 242.0 249.0 256.0 264.0 271.0 279.0 286.0 294.0 302.0 311.0 319.0 328.0 336.0 345.0 354.0 364.0 373.0 383.0 392.0 402.0 413.0 423.0 434.0 444.0 449.0
103.4 107.3 111.4 120.0 124.0 129.0 133.0 138.0 142.0 147.0 152.0 157.0 163.0 168.0 173.0 179.0 184.0 190.0 193.6 202.0 208.0 214.0 220.0 227.0 234.0 240.0 247.0 254.0 261.0 269.0 276.0 284.0 292.0 299.0 307.0 316.0 324.0 332.0 341.0 350.0 359.0 368.0 377.0 387.0 394.6 406.0 416.0 426.0 436.0 447.0 458.0 468.0 479.0
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTAL ELECTRICAL THEORY FUNDAMENTAL ELECTRICAL THEORY

INTRODUCTION - Electricity and its distribution is indispensable to the successful operation of modern vessels. To begin to comprehend complex electrical systems, one must first understand the fundamental concepts of electrical theory. This chapter will examine basic electrical terms, definitions, and concepts. In addition, the generation of alternating current and the transformation of chemical energy into electrical energy will be discussed. Like steam, electricity transports energy. Steam carries the thermal energy produced in the ship's boilers to the turbines, where the energy is expended in doing work. Electric current carries the electrical energy produced by the generators to the electric motors and other electrical components, where the energy is expended in doing work and performing other useful functions. ELECTRICAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Current - Current is defined as the flow of electric charges (electrons) through a conductor or circuit per increment of time. The unit of current, called the ampere (I), specifies the rate at which the electric charges are flowing. In other words, the amperage of a circuit is a measure of the number of charged particles passing a point each second. (Electrical current is analogous to the rate of flow of water through a pipe.) Electromotive Force (emf) - Before an electric current can flow through a wire, there must be a source of electric "pressure," just as there must be a pump to build up water pressure before water will flow through a pipe. Electric pressure (E) is known as electromotive force (emf, potential difference, or voltage (V). Generators and batteries are the most common sources of voltage. Increased voltage in a circuit increases the current flow, just as increased pressure on water in a pipe increases water flow. Resistance (R) - Electrical resistance is an electrical circuit's opposition to the flow of current through it. The unit of measure of resistance is the ohm (). Conductor - All materials will conduct electricity, but at varying resistances. Some metals such as silver, copper, aluminum, and iron, for instance, offer little resistance to current flow and therefore are called good conductors. Insulator: Some substances among them wood, paper, porcelain rubber, iron, and plastics-offer a high resistance to current flow, and are called insulators. Electric circuits throughout a ship are made of copper wires covered with rubber or some other good insulator. The wire offers little resistance to current flow and thus acts as the conductor, while the insulation keeps the current from passing to the steel structure of the ship. Direct Current (DC) - When a current flow is unidirectional and of constant magnitude, it is called direct current (DC). Batteries, for example, produce only direct current. See Figure 1.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
ELECTRICAL
FIGURE 1 DIRECT CURRENT Alternating Current (AC) - In an AC circuit, the magnitude and direction of current flow are periodically changing. If these changes were plotted, they would describe a sine curve (Figure 2). Starting from zero, the current builds up to a maximum in one direction, then falls back to zero and builds up to a maximum in the other direction, and then returns to zero ready to start the sequence again. Each such current sequence, is called a cycle. The frequency of an AC circuit is the number of such cycles per second. The unit of frequency measurement is the hertz (Hz): where 1 Hz = 1 cycle/sec. The most common shipboard electrical frequency is 60 Hz.
FIGURE 2 ALTERNATING CURRENT

DEFINITIONS Ambient Temperature - The temperature of the surrounding area or space.
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
ELECTRICAL
Alternating Current (AC) - Produced by alternators. The frequency of Alternating Current is its number of cycles per second, (i.e., the number of times per second the current changes direction and the returns to its original direction). Cycles are now called Hertz (hz). Ampere - Unit of electrical flow. It is commonly called an Amp. Capacitance - The tendency of electrical circuits to resist a change in voltage, and is produced by capacitors. Across a capacitor Alternating Current (AC) leads voltage by a 90* phase angle. Direct Current (DC) - Flows in one direction only. It is produced by batteries and DC generators. Drip Proof - Enclosures that protect from falling liquid. Electromagnet - Is produced when DC current passes through an electrical coil wound around a soft iron core. Explosion Proof - Electrical equipment can be made this way, which means it is built strong enough to contain an explosion and keep it from spreading outside its enclosure. Ground - An electrical connection between the circuit and the frame, housing or other paths to the earth. Grounded Circuits - Some electrical systems are designed to use the hull of the ship (or body of the car) as part of the circuit. Horsepower 1HP = 746 watts electrical power. Inductance - The tendency of electrical circuits to resist a change in current. It is produced in coils conducting Alternating Current (AC) and results in a counter ElectroMotive Force (EMF). OHMS - Units for measuring electrical resistance. Open - A break in a circuit. It may be accidental when the circuit burns out, or intentional as when a switch is turned off. Rectifier - A device that changes Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). Short Circuit - An accidental path of low resistance which results in high current. Torque - Force applied in a twisting (i.e., rotary) direction. Volt - Unit of electrical force (or in a manner of speaking, pressure). Watt - Unit of electrical power. One thousand (1,000) watts make one kilowatt (KW). Wet Or Damp Locations - Machinery spaces and the galley, are considered wet or damp locations for shipboard electrical installation.
QMED
ELECTRICAL
ELECTRICAL RELATIONSHIPS - In the early part of the nineteenth century, G. S. Ohm proved by experiment that relationship exists among current, voltage, and resistance. This classic relationship is called Ohm's Law and is stated as follows: The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the circuit resistance. This fundamental law of electricity is expressed by the following equation: E = IR Where E = voltage in volts I = current in amperes R = resistance in ohms By definition, power (P) is the rate at which work is done. In an electrical circuit, power is expressed as follows: P = PR = EI Where power has the unit of measure called the watt (W). ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION - In 1831, in England, one of the most important discoveries in electricity and magnetism was made by Michael Faraday. Faraday's experiments showed that an emf (electromotive force) is induced in a conductor if a bar magnet passes by the conductor. This happens because the motion of the magnet relative to the conductor causes the magnet's magnetic lines of flux (electromagnetic force) to be cut. Suppose that the experiment shown in Figure 3 is performed. When the north pole of the magnet enters the coil, the galvanometer (G) registers a current in one direction. If the magnet is then pulled back, the galvanometer will register a current in the opposite direction. It follows that the production of a voltage by electromagnetic induction requires a magnetic field, a conductor, and relative motion of the two. Note that when the conductor is moved through a magnetic field to cut the magnetic lines of flux (see Figure 3); a voltage is also induced in the conductor. As before, if the conductor is connected to a voltmeter or galvanometer, the voltage is measured by a deflection on the meter. If the conductor is moved in the opposite direction through the field, the voltage will cause the needle to be deflected in the opposite direction because of the reversed direction of the induced current flow. Thus the same result occurs whether the conductor is held stationary and the magnetic field is moved relative to it, or vice versa. The voltage developed in the conductor by electromagnetic induction is known as an induced emf, and the resulting current is called induced current. The induced emf exists only so long as there is relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic field. There is a definite relationship between the direction of flux, the direction of motion of the conductor, and the direction of the induced emf. When two of these directions are known, the third can be determined. The magnitude of the induced current can be increased by increasing the strength of the magnetic field, by increasing the velocity of the motion of the magnetic field and the conductor relative to each other, or by positioning the magnetic field and the conductor so that a greater number of magnetic lines of flux are cut by the conductor.
QMED
ELECTRICAL
The North Pole of a Magnet is negative (-), the South is positive (+). Flow of electrons is from North negative to South Positive
FIGURE 3 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
FIGURE 4 - ELECTROMAGNET. Permanent magnets are not the only means by which a magnetic field can be generated and in fact permanent magnets provide too small a magnetic field to induce sufficient current for practical applications. The most common method of magnetic field generation is by the use of an electromagnet. The electromagnet (illustrated in Figure 4) consists of coil of wire wrapped around a ferrous metal core. Direct current is passed through the wire and a magnetic field is produced. The magnitude of field (B) is determined by the number of turns of wire (N) and the magnitude of the direct current (IDC):
USMMA GMATS
11/3/2006
QMED
ELECTRICAL
B = (constant) NIDC A magnetic field is present whenever electric charges are caused to move. Furthermore, as shown in figure 1-11(A) the magnetic field or flux as it is called, completely surrounds the current that causes it and is perpendicular to it. The direction of the magnetic flux around the current may be determined by using the left-hand thumb rule: Grasp the conductor with the left hand so that the thumb points in the direction of electron flow; the fingers will then point in the direction of the flux. The presence of this magnetic field and its perpendicularity relative to the current can be detected with a magnetic compass as shown in Figure 1-11(B) FIGURE 1-11 DETERMINING THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD THAT SURROUNDS AN ELECTRON CURRENT (A) USING THE LEFT HAND RULE; (B) USING A MAGNETIC COMPASS SIMPLE GENERATORS - The machine used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy is called a generator. A generator comprises the essentials of Faraday's Law: a conductor, a magnetic field, and a relative motion. In its simplest form it consists of a magnet (either a permanent one or an electromagnet), a coil of conducting wire that rotates between the distinct poles of the magnet, and brush contacts (slip-rings) on the wire coil so that a connection can be made between the coil and an external circuit, as shown in Figure 5. The generator is one of the most useful and widely employed applications of magnetic induction. It results in the production of vast quantities of electric power from mechanical sources. The sources of mechanical energy may be provided by a number of different prime movers, including gasoline engines, diesel engines, water turbines, steam turbines, and gas turbines.
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FIGURE 5 SIMPLE GENERATORS
ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) GENERATORS - Most electrical power used on board vessels is generated by alternating current (AC) generators. AC generators are constructed in many different sizes, depending on their intended use. For example, any one of the several generators at Boulder Dam can produce millions of watts, while generators used on aircraft may produce only a few thousand watts. Regardless of size, all generators operate on the same basic principle: a magnetic field cutting through conductors (or conductors passing through a magnetic field). All generators have two distinct sets of conductors: a group of conductors in which the output voltage is induced, and a second group of conductors through which direct current is passed to produce the electromagnetic field. The conductors in which the output voltage is induced are called the armature windings (armature). The conductors used to produce the electromagnetic field are called the field windings (field). For voltage to be induced there must be motion of the armature and the field relative to each other. To provide this motion, generators are constructed of two major mechanical assemblies: the stator and the rotor. The stator is the stationary housing of the generator, and the rotor rotates, inside the stator. The rotor is driven by the prime mover; thus motion of the stator and the rotor relative to each other is produced. Two variations in the construction of AC generators are used today; the only difference between them is the ways the armature and the field are arranged with respect to the stator and the rotor. REVOLVING ARMATURE - In the revolving-armature AC generator, the stator provides a stationary electromagnetic field and the rotor acts as the armature revolving in the field. As the
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armature cuts the lines of magnetic flux, current is induced in the conductors of the armature. The current is transferred out of the rotor through sliding contacts (slip-rings and brushes). See Figure 6. The revolving-armature AC generator is seldom used, because of the requirement to transmit the output power through sliding contacts. These contacts are subject to sparking and frictional wear and may arc over at high output voltages. Consequently, this generator is limited to low-power, low-voltage applications.
FIGURE 6 REVOLVING-ARMATURE AC GENERATOR REVOLVING FIELD - The revolving field AC generator is the most widely used type. It passes a small direct current, from a separate source, through the field windings on the rotor (by means of slip-rings and brushes) to produce an electromagnetic field of fixed polarity on the rotor (similar to a rotating bar magnet). The magnetic lines of flux from this rotating magnetic field extend outward from the rotor and cut the armature windings mounted in the surrounding stator. As the rotor turns, an alternating current is induced in the armature, because magnetic fields of first one polarity and then the other move through the armature windings. (See Figure 7) Since the output power is taken from stationary armature windings, the output may be connected through fixed terminals. This is advantageous, because there are no sliding contacts in the output circuit and the whole circuit is continuously insulated. This minimizes the danger of arc-over. Slip-rings and brushes are used on the rotor to supply the small amounts of direct current to the field. Slip-rings and brushes are adequate for this purpose, because the power level in the field is much lower than in the armature circuit. In order to maintain a constant 60 Hz output frequency from a rotating field generator, the speed of rotation of the field must be kept constant. As shown in Figure 7, when the polarity of the magnetic field reverses, the direction of induced current flow also reverses (convention has it
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that the North Pole produces positive current flow). A constant-speed governor is used on the prime mover to maintain the rpm of the rotor (thus the field) at a constant speed, regardless of the load on the generator. The required speed of rotation is the speed necessary to produce output AC power at 60 Hz. The only practical way to regulate the voltage output of a constant-speed AC generator is to control the strength of the rotating magnetic field. The strength of the electromagnetic field may be varied by changing the amount of direct current flowing through the field windings. Thus voltage in an AC generator is regulated by varying the field current (IDC). This allows a relatively large AC voltage to be controlled by a much smaller direct current.
FIGURE 7 REVOLVING-FIELD AC GENERATOR VOLTAGE PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL ACTION - Chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy within the cells of a battery. On naval ships electricity from this source supplies power for emergency lighting (with dry-cell batteries) and the starting of small engines (with wet-cell batteries). The most common dry-cell battery consists of a cylindrical zinc container, a carbon electrode and an electrolyte of ammonium chloride and water in paste form. The zinc container is the negative electrode of the cell; it is lined with a non-conducting material to insulate it from the electrolyte. When a circuit is formed, the current flows from the negative zinc electrode to the positive carbon electrode. In a common wet-cell storage battery, the electrodes and the electrolyte are altered by the chemical action that takes place when the cell delivers current. Such a battery may be restored to its original condition by forcing an electric current through it in the direction opposite to that of discharge.
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The most common wet-cell storage battery in use is the lead-acid battery, having an emf of 2.2 volts per cell. In the fully charged state, the positive plates are lead peroxide, and the negative plates are lead immersed in a diluted sulfuric-acid electrolyte. See Figure 8.
FIGURE 8 - WET -CELL BATTERY. When a circuit is formed, the chemical action between the ionized electrolyte and dissimilar metal plates converts chemical energy to electrical energy. As the storage battery discharges the sulfuric acid is depleted by being gradually converted to water and both positive and negative plates are converted to lead sulfate. This chemical reaction is represented by the following equation, the reversibility of which depends on the addition of electrical energy during the charging cycle: Discharging Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 Charging
2PbSO4 + 2H20
The capacity of a battery is measured in ampere-hours. The capacity is equal to the product of the current (in amperes) and the time (in hours) during which the battery supplies this current to a given load. The capacity depends upon many factors, the most important of which are (1) the area of the plates in contact with the electrolyte (liquid acid) in the battery, (2) the quantity and specific gravity of the electrolyte, (3) the general condition of the battery, and (4) the final limiting voltage. Large wet cell batteries of the lead-acid type are used to provide emergency power on nuclear submarines.
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MISCELLANEOUS ELECTRICAL DEVICES - Two of the most common electrical devices found on board a ship are transformers and rectifiers. Transformers - A transformer is a device without moving parts that transfers energy from one circuit to another by electromagnetic induction. The energy is transferred without a change in frequency, but usually with changes in voltage and current. A step-up transformer receives electrical energy at one voltage and delivers it at a higher voltage; a step-down transformer receives electrical energy at one voltage and delivers it at a lower voltage. Since a transformer neither increases nor decreases the electrical energy in the circuit, an increase in voltage results in a decrease in amperage, and vice versa. A typical transformer has two windings, which are electrically insulated from each other and mounted on opposite sides of a ring made of a ferromagnetic material. This ring is called the core. The winding that receives the energy from the AC source is called the primary winding, and the winding that delivers the energy to the load is called the secondary winding. See Figure 9. In a step-up transformer, the primary winding has fewer turns of wire than the secondary, and in a step-down transformer the primary winding has more turns of wire than the secondary. For Step-Up: V I For Step-Down: V I
FIGURE 9 SIMPLE TRANSFORMER Since a transformer operates on electromagnetic-induction principles, all of the following elements must be present: a conductor, a magnetic field, and relative motion. The secondary windings satisfy the first condition, and the current through the primary windings satisfies the second. But if the transformer has no moving parts, how can relative motion be obtained? The answer: through the use of alternating current. As the current constantly fluctuates from zero to a positive maximum to zero to a negative maximum, the magnetic flux constantly reverses. This
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reversing of the lines of force provides the relative motion between field and conductor. For obvious reasons, transformers cant be used for direct current, since there is no reversal of current flow in direct current. Rectifying Devices - A rectifying device converts alternating current into direct current. It is designed so that it has a very small resistance to current flow in one direction and a very large resistance to current flow in the opposite direction. This allows the device to act as a conductor for the positive half of the AC cycle and as an insulator for the negative half of the cycle. Figure 10 shows the output of a rectifying device with an AC input. The output of this circuit is essentially DC power. Rectifying devices themselves are semi-conductor devices commonly called diodes or rectifiers.
FIGURE 10 - OUTPUT OF SIMPLE RECTIFYING DEVICE.
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BASIC ELECTRICAL SAFETY BASIC ELECTRICAL SAFETY

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS - Probability - More deaths aboard Navy ships occur from electrical shock than from any other accidents. WHAT IS ELECTRICAL SHOCK? - It is the flow of electrical current through the body, causing damage to the body. FACTORS INVOLVED A. How much current and for how long. B. Where in the body the current flows; nerve contact and voltage. C. If a 60 cycle current pass from hand to hand, or hand to foot. 1. .001 AMP perceptible (1MA) 2. .01(10MA) intense enough to prevent voluntary control of muscles (you cant let go). 3. .1 AMP (100MA), fatal of it lasts for more than 1 second. 1. SHOCK PREVENTION a. Stay away from shock hazard area whenever possibly. b. Do not work on live circuits unless absolutely necessary. (Assume live circuit). c. When working on live equipment use only one hand. Watch out for long hair, neck jewelry etc. d. Work with a buddy if possible. Let someone know where you are and what you are doing. e. Work on a rubber mat and wear rubber gloves. f. Report / repair all hazards immediately g. Have a safety training program h. Use common sense i. Make sure metal cased protable tools (hand drills etc) are electrically grounded (plugs & receptiables) i. 3 prong plug ii. check the power cord for frayed or cracked insulation j. Do NOT touch someone who is on contact with live wires i. Turn of power source ii. Use dry wood pole/chair or any non-conducting object to remove victom from wires (or wires from victim) k. Learn CPR l. Do provide safety checks (meggur test of insulation) 2. CAUSES OF ELECTRICAL SHOCK a. Failure to observe common sense precautions b. Failure to observe posted safety precautions. c. Use of unauthorized equipment or unauthorized modifications to equipment (jumping out interlocks, use of man-killers d. Failure to routinely check equipment test and electrical equipment and other equipment. (Look for frayed insulation).
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WHEN WORKING ON LIVE ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT (GET PERMISSION FIRST) A. Make sure person working is not grounded: wear rubber soles and gloves. Check soles of shoes and gloves for cracks and dirt. Even thick dry paper is a good insulator. B. Dont wear watches, rings or any jewelry etc. NO metal chains. C. Dry clothing and shoes must be worn D. Good illumination is critical. E. Use non-conducting, wrenches and tools, (tape with electrical tape), keep clean and dry. F. Wear rubber gloves G. Work with one hand. H. Be sure that connections test leads will not come loose I. Tag-out equipment J. Never use extension light without a guard.
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BASIC ELECTRICAL INTRODUCTION: SHIPBOARD Power Supply. What is electricity? - It is a form of energy/power. Electrical sources are generators powered by diesel, steam/gas turbine or batteries
Electrical Sources Convert one form of energy to electrical energy. Electrical power (watts (w)or kilowatts (kw)) is both voltage and current together at the same time.
1.
Generators covert mechanical power from the Prime Mover - Amount of mechanical power the generator takes is just enough to power the load replacement. Generators also are rated by Power: 1 mw = 1000 kw (1250 kva) - 1000 kw x
1000kw 1HP = HP 1kw 746 of Turbine or Diesel
Voltage: Frequency:
460 Volts (typical) 60 cycles (hz) (typical)
If generator is rated at 1000kw, 480, 60hz it may put out between 0kw to 1000kw (whatever the load demands: but it must always be 480v and 60 hz)
2. Another source of power is the chemical battery (cell). Batteries produce limited electrical power. (DC) 1. Dry cell - 1.5 V, 9V - Limited energy supply, use and dispose 2. Storage batteries - Have more energy in them than do simple dry cells and can be recharged. To be recharged means to replace the used up energy. Storage battery types a. Alkaline Battery: flat plate nickel-cadium, b. Lead Acid: many types and designs (hydro-cloric used) danger of freezing and explosion.
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NOTE: Alkaline last longer than lead-acid. Uses of storage cells: Emergency lighting (general and engine room) Emergency ____ Power (UPS - Uninterrupted Power Supply) Emergency steering Starting emergency generators Used in life boats Bells, whistles Distress call Apparatus Telephones Fire detection
3. Batteries are rated by voltage level and Ampere-hour. Voltage rating for storage batteries (lead acid) is 12 volts
Be careful of polarity connections
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ELECTRICAL LOADS 1. Electrical motors: create a type of electrical load (which are a function of the driven mechanical load.)
Motors are rated by: Power - Horse power (varies with services) - From 1HP to 1500 HP - 1HP = 746 Watts = .746 kw - 1 HP or 746 Watts is the total of 12.4 60-watt light bulbs - 100HP is needed for 1240 60-watt light bulbs! Speed RPM (revolutions per minute) For a/c motors typically between 900 RPM and 3600 RPM Torque a twisting force.
Torque Formula PH.P. = (lb ft ) n( RPM ) = (100 HP) (5252 = 292 LB FT 5252 1800
100HP Motor @1800RPM MOTOR FREQUENCY - This is a function of the AC generator speed and will be constant for all plant AC electrical equpiment. MOTOR VOLTAGE - This varies as a function of load or required power. Small motors for light duty service usually operate at 110V. Motors of 220V and 480V are typically supplied for larger loads and heavy duty service.
B.
Lighting Load: There are both interior and exterior lights. Lights typically use 120v, 60hz sources, but ship generators @ 480v. So a transformer is needed to change voltage level from 480v to 120v. Lighting load centers are fed electrical power via transformers and switch gear. Illuminate passageways, work centers and living spaces etc.
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C.
Above deck / weather deck lighting 1. Running lights 2. Underway ops lighting Red lighting
Control Power Load: Typically very low voltage D.C Needs rectified A.C. power
ELECTRICAL POWER AND DISTRIBUTION VIA CABLES AND SWITCHBOARD Switch GeAr . A. Cables: these are conductors at electrical currents and power they are of copper and can be solid (single strand) or multi-strand conductor.
Conductors are sized by their diameter: Area = d
d is given in circular mil (c.m.) .001 inch = 1 c.m. inch = .250 inch = 250 c.m. The larger the diameter, the more current and power the cable can carry. Wire and cables are sized (numbered) according to a table known as the American Wire Gage (AWG).
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WIRE GAUGE STANDARD SOLID COPPER (american Wire Gauge)

Gauge Number 0000 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Diameter (mile) 460.0 410.0 365.0 325.0 289.0 258.0 229.0 204.0 182.0 162.0 144.0 128.0 114.0 102.0 91.0 81.0 72.0 64.0 57.0 51.0 45.0 40.0 36.0 32.0 28.5 25.3 22.6 20.1 17.9 Cross Section Circular Square mile inches 212,000.0 0.166 168,000.0 .132 133,000.0 .105 106,000.0 .0829 83,700.0 .0657 66,400.0 .0521 52,600.0 .0413 41,700.0 .0328 33,100.0 .0260 26,300.0 .0206 20,800.0 .0164 16,500.0 .0130 13,100.0 .0103 10,400.0 .00815 8,230.0 .00647 6,530.0 .00513 5,180.0 .00407 4,110.0 .00323 3,260.0 .00256 2,580.0 .00203 2,050.0 .00161 1,620.0 .00128 1,290.0 .00101 1,020.0 .000802 810.0 .000636 642.0 .000505 509.0 .000400 404.0 .000317 320.0 .000252 21 Ohms per 1,000 ft 25C 65C (=77F) (=149F) 0.0500 0.0577 .0630 .0727 .0795 .0917 .100 .116 .126 .146 .159 .184 .201 .232 .253 .292 .319 .369 .403 .465 .508 .586 .641 .739 .808 .932 1.02 1.18 1.28 1.48 1.62 1.87 2.04 2.36 2.58 2.97 3.25 3.75 4.09 4.73 5.16 5.96 6.51 7.51 8.21 9.48 10.4 11.9 13.1 15.1 16.5 19.0 20.8 24.0 26.2 30.2 33.0 38.1 Ohms per mile 25C (=77F) 0.264 .333 .420 .528 .665 .839 1.061 1.335 1.685 2.13 2.68 3.38 4.27 5.38 6.75 8.55 10.77 13.62 17.16 21.6 27.2 34.4 43.3 54.9 69.4 87.1 109.8 138.3 174.1 Pounds per 1,000 ft. 641.0 508.0 403.0 319.0 253.0 201.0 159.0 126.0 100.0 79.5 63.0 50.0 39.6 31.4 24.9 19.8 15.7 12.4 9.86 7.82 6.20 4.92 3.90 3.09 2.45 1.94 1.54 1.22 0.970 11/3/2006
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26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 15.9 14.2 12.6 11.3 10.0 8.9 8.0 7.1 6.3 5.6 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.1 254.0 202.0 160.0 127.0 101.0 79.7 63.2 50.1 39.8 31.5 25.0 19.8 15.7 12.5 9.9 .000200 .000158 .000126 .0000995 .0000789 .0000626 .0000496 .0000394 .0000312 .0000248 .0000196 .0000156 .0000123 .0000098 .0000078 41.6 52.5 66.2 83.4 105.0 133.0 167.0 211.0 266.0 335.0 423.0 533.0 673.0 848.0 1,070.0 48.0 60.6 76.4 96.3 121.0 153.0 193.0 243.0 307.0 387.0 488.0 616.0 776.0 979.0 1,230.0 220.0 277.0 350.0 440.0 554.0 702.0 882.0 1,114.0 1,404.0 1,769.0 2,230.0 2,810.0 3,550.0 4,480.0 5,650.0
ELECTRICAL
0.769 0.610 0.484 0.384 0.304 0.241 0.191 0.152 0.120 0.0954 0.0757 0.0600 0.0476 0.0377 0.0299
Wire and cables are insulated to prevent shorting of electricity. The limit of wire current carrying capacity is effected by cable heating due to current flow. Excessive current and resulting heat will burn the insulation. When conductors carry current they heat-up (temperature increases).
heat = (current)2 x resistance x time *Note Current squared
Heat depends on how much current2 for how long a time. If insulation gets too hot, it will break down.
Insulated or resistance - Resistant to leakage currents. Poor conductor. (Check old or worn wire for cracks) Dielectric strength Insulations ability to withstand break down by voltage. (What is it made of and how thick) Insulation rubber, varnish, plastics, organic materials
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B. Switches: Circuit Breakers/fuses 1 Circuit breakers connect leads to sources. They act like light switches in the home. But the also act like fuses in the home as well. So circuit breakers are circuit protection devices as well as simple off on switches.
Circuit breakers are rated by voltage, interrupt capacity and interrupt time. Breakers open to stop currents. These currents can be normal load currents or extremely high fault currents due to shorts of grounds. 5000 A or greater in a fraction of a second. Indicative currents are the worse kind because they create arc. Fuses also protect the circuit in the event of shorts, grounds (faults) and over current conditions.
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TYPICAL FUSES AND SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS
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TYPICAL FUSES AND SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS
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ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES - Ohm, Amphere (Amp), Volt and Watt A. Ohm - Opposition to the flow of electricity. The opposition is called resistance.
Schematic Symbol Schematic is an electrical circuit diagram made up of electrical symbols.
Therefore temperature is always the enemy of electrical equipment.
Conductors are to have O (very low) Insulation re to have very high of resistance. Check most resistors and conductors with the ohmmeter. Check very high insulator resistance with a megger.
B. Current - The flow of charges (electrons) (I)
Current Flows - Current has direction (usually out of the negative high potential side of the source) and magnitude (how much). For current to flow, we need:
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1. 2. 3.
Electrical source of power/energy Conductors provide a complete path and free electrons An electrical load that requires electrical power
C. Voltage (volt) The electrical push that makes charges more through conductors and resistors (loads). The voltage of a source is an energy (potential energy) difference between two points.
There is a voltage at the teminals of the source Note Voltage does NOT flow or move. Voltage gives energy to charges (current) that moves.
When high energy current goes into load (resister) it drops energy and creats a voltage across the R D. Electrical Power - Electrical power is measured or calculated in watts. For a light bulb P= 60 watts
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Explain power as the rates of using (transforming) energy. P=

work time joules = watts sec
Work = Force x distance Try not to confuse them High-powered devices are usually larger (have greater surface area) than do low power devices.
Power dissipation heat and temperature V2 For d/c circuits P=V.I = = I2 R R Use of a multimeter to measure R, V and I Ohmmeter DMM and S-260 in lab a. b. d-c / a-c voltmeter DDM and s-260 in lab CAUTION! c. D-c / a-c Ammeter- clip on and S-260 in lab CAUTION!
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TYPICAL MULTIMETER
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ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS & OHM'S LAW The material a conductor is made of will determine whether it is considered a conductor (i.e., with low resistance) or an insulator (i.e., with high resistance). An example of a conductor is a copper wire. A conductor's resistance to the flow of electricity varies directly with its length and its temperature. A conductor's resistance varies inversely with its cross sectional area. For example, the resistance of a wire with a large cross section is less than if the % of arc had a smaller cross section. American wire gauge (AWG) tables use the circular mil as the unit of cross sectional area. One circular mil is the area inside a circle with a diameter of 1/1000 of an inch. You can indirectly measure the resistance of a conductor by measuring the voltage drop across it and the Amperage through it and applying Ohm's Law to calculate its resistance. Series circuits have all components connected so electricity flows in a straight line through all components. In batteries this means the positive (+) pole of one battery, is connected to the negative (-) pole of the next battery. In series circuits the voltages and resistances are added while the same current flows through all components. Parallel circuits have branches. In batteries this means that all positive (+) poles are connected together and all negative (-) poles are connected together. All circuit components in a parallel circuit have the same voltage across them. The current through each component is added to give the total circuit current. The total resistance (R in ohms) is less than the resistance of the lowest component, as follows:
1 1 1 1 = + + .... + R1 r1 r2 rn
also R1 =
1 1 1 1 + + .... + r1 r2 rn
A resistor in parallel aids in regulating the voltage output. Ohm's Law explains the relationship between voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R) with these formulas: which can be summarized, To use this diagram cover the characteristic required - the relationship of the other two is given.
V=IxR I = V/R R = V/R
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Apparent power (P) equals voltage times current. P (watts) = I (amps) x V (volts) Impedance is the name for total electrical resistance and is equal to resistance plus impedance plus capacitance
BATTERIES Lead-acid batteries are composed of several 2-volt cells connected in series to give their rated voltage. You can measure the specific gravity of the sulfuric acid electrolyte with a hydrometer to determine the charge of a lead-acid battery. (Vocabulary: Electrolyte = the liquid in a battery.) A fully charged lead-acid battery will have a specific gravity of 1.280 to 1.300. A hydrometer will give an inaccurate reading immediately, after you add water to a battery. When charging a battery, you can tell it is fully charged when the electrolyte reaches the proper specific gravity range and does not increase over a period of 1 to 4 hours. To mix electrolyte for a battery, you should pour sulfuric acid into distilled water in a glass container. It is safer to splash mostly water rather than concentrated sulfuric acid when you begin pouring. A fully charged battery (i.e., one with high specific gravity) freezes at a lower temperature (i.e., has a lower freezing point) then a dead battery. Battery capacity is rated in ampere - hours (i.e., the amps delivered times the number of hours.) When salt-water mixes with sulfuric acid it produces a gas that is a respiratory irritant that can be fatal.
Routine maintenance of lead-acid batteries includes keeping the terminals clean, providing a protective covering for the cable connections and keeping the battery under a trickle charge. Battery rooms must be ventilated since lead-acid batteries produce hydrogen gas which is explosive. When charging, remember that hydrogen is a highly explosive gas that rises above the batteries and may be trapped beneath the overhead. Local action refers to the loss of an electrical charge over a period of time when a battery not being used. Nickel Cadmium batteries contain a potassium hydroxide electrolyte. This type of battery must be tested with a voltmeter. MOTORS The primary function of an electric motor is to provide torque (i.e., a force that produces rotation). DC motors provide an easier and a wider range of speed control than AC motors. Some DC motors have smaller field poles located between the main field poles of the stator (i.e., housing). They are called interpoles (or commutator poles) and reduce sparking at the commutator.
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To change the direction of rotation of a DC motor you should either: Reverse the polarity of the field poles or; Reverse the current to the brushes. However, if you reverse both the polarity and the current, the motor rotation will remain the same. A series wound motor has a very high starting torque and is often used as a starter motor and for other uses that require high torque. The field windings and armature are in series in this motor. When not under load, a series wound motor will run away and its speed will increase until it damages itself. In a shunt wound motor the field is in parallel with the armature. When you apply a load to this motor, it tends to slow down slightly. A compound wound motor has field coils both in parallel and in series with the armature. Universal motors operate on both AC and DC. They have brushes and commutators. They are used to power portable tools, small fans and other fractional horsepower applications. To change the direction of rotation of a three-Phase induction (AC) motor switch any two of the phase leads to the stator. An induction motor that operates at a fixed frequency can provide several different speeds only if you reconnect the stator windings (i.e., field windings) to provide a different number of poles. Synchronous speed is the speed of the rotating field. 60 cycle current provides approximately 3600 RPM in a two pole induction motor. To find the synchronous speed of any induction motor divide the number of poles by 2 and then divide that number into 3600. A four pole motor: 4 2 = 2; 3600 2 = 1800. With a synchronous speed of 1800 RPM the induction motor must turn somewhat slower* to provide the slip to produce the induction which causes the torque. Depending on the load, most four pole induction motors actually rotate in the 1720 to 1780 range. (Less a few RPM for slip.) The starting winding on a split-phase induction motor is not designed to carry current when the motor is running. If the cut-out switch for this winding does not operate (i.e., fails to open,) the winding will probably burn out. A capacitor in series with a winding splits the phase and provides a rotating field for starting purposes. Synchronous motors often have a cage rotor winding which is used to start the motor as if it were an induction motor. After starting, this winding is shorted and the rotor locks into step (i.e., synchronizes) with the rotating field. In a synchronous motor, the DC creates electromagnets on the rotor. These electromagnets electrically lock onto the rotating field produced by the stator. You can change the speed of a synchronous motor by changing the frequency of the current to the stator and the number of poles in the stator. A dynamic brake is used to slow or stop a DC motor. AC motor name plates contain information on the temperature rise the motor is designed for.
MOTOR STARTERS AND CONTROLLERS Across-the-line starters provide high starting torque.
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Shading coils reduce vibration and noise (i.e., such as that caused by contact chatter) in starters, controllers and contactors. Chattering or humming in a circuit breaker, relay or controller may be caused by low operating coil voltage or dirt on the faces of the magnets. A motor surface controller seldom develops a ground since its components are mounted on a non-conducting panel. Accidentally-welded contacts may prevent a relay from dropping out (i.e., opening) when it loses coil voltage. A low voltage release allows any connected equipment to restart automatically as soon as you restore the proper voltage. A low voltage protection device must be reset manually when you restore the proper voltage. It is used in places where it is dangerous to have the equipment automatically, re-activate (i.e., re-start), such as on a boiler fuel oil service pump. Controllers often have electric strip heaters to prevent moisture from condensing in them. A Run or Start button starts an electric motor. The motor will keep running after you release the button. A Jog button will only run a motor when it is held down. USCG Regulations require that a wiring diagram be posted inside all motor controller doors.
GENERATORS AND ALTERNATORS The amount of voltage induced (i.e., produced by induction in a rotating machine*) varies with (i.e., depends directly upon) the o Turns in the armature (i.e., number of conductors in series in the armature's winding). o Speed of rotation o Strength of the magnetic field cutting the armature. (*A machine could be a motor, a generator or an alternator.) Both AC and DC rotating machines produce alternating current in the armature. In a DC machine the commutator changes the alternating current produced in the armature to a pulsating DC current. This current is carried off, by the brushes, to an outside circuit. An exciter produces the electricity which powers the electromagnets to produce the required magnetic field. If the exciter fails, the machine will not build up line voltage. In a rotating field AC machine (which has no brushes), the AC produced in the exciter is changed into DC by a solid state (i.e., a semi-conductor) rectifier mounted on the exciter armature. A full wave rectifier requires four diodes. If only one diode is defective (i.e., burned out or in an open condition), then a rectified half wave will be produced. The most common marine AC machine has a stationary armature (where the electricity is produced) and a rotating electromagnetic field. The torque to turn an electricity-producing machine (i.e., a generator or an alternator) is provided by a mechanical prime mover such as a diesel engine or a steam turbine. You can regulate the output voltage of a three phase (AC) generator by changing the strength of the magnetic field if you change the DC voltage to the field.
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The frequency produced by an AC machine is controlled (i.e., determined) by the speed of rotation of the magnetic poles in relation to the armature windings. To increase frequency, simply increase the speed of the prime mover. When paralleling generators and alternators, the machine coming on-line must have a slightly higher voltage so that it picks up some of the load when it is placed on the board by closing the circuit breaker. If machines are not in phase (i.e., synchronized) when they are paralleled, severe cross currents will occur and may cause damage. The maximum a machine can be out of phase is 180. Machines operating in parallel are both on line and sharing the load. However, they must have the same frequency, number of phases and phase rotation to do this. When connected they are electronically locked together When paralleling, if the synchronizing lamps are dark and the synchroscope is at 12 o'clock (i.e., the 0 position), it indicates the on-coming alternator is in phase with the bus. To place an alternator on line, adjust the on-coming machine's speed until the synchroscope revolves slowly in the fast direction. Then close the circuit breaker when the synchroscope is at the 12 o'clock (i.e., 0 position). The on-coming alternator should have slightly higher frequency than the on-line or bus frequency to: 1. Assume its load immediately 2. Not float on the line 3. Not motorize and activate the reverse power relay. After closing the circuit breaker to parallel the two machines, you should balance the loads (kilowatts) between the two machines by adjusting the governor settings, A darkened ground detector lamp indicates a grounded phase. If you lose a paralleled alternator operating near its rated load, (over 60%) immediately strip the board of (i.e., turn off) all non-vital circuits. If a paralleled machine loses excitation, it will lose its load and tend to overspeed.
ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS A galvanometer measures the flow of very small amounts of electrical current or voltage. A multi-meter (i.e., a volt-ohm-milliammeter) tests for voltage, current, resistance, grounds, and continuity (i.e., a continuous circuit with no breaks or opens in the circuit). A multi-meter uses internal batteries to measure for resistance. When measuring for a resistance, clip the two leads together and calibrate the instrument by adjusting the needle to 0 ohms with the adjusting knob. If you cannot adjust the zero reading, then you should replace the internal batteries. After adjusting a multi-meter to measure resistance, you must select the proper resistance range or you may damage the meter. If you have no idea what the resistance is start by using the highest range; then work down to the range where a valid reading falls as nearly as possible in mid-range. You must connect an ammeter (i.e., a current measuring device) in series with a circuit to measure all the current passing through the current. Most of the current passes through a shunt, which is built into the ammeter to protect the delicate meter mechanism. The shunt
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is designed to carry a large, fixed proportion of the current while the meter is calibrated to read the entire current that passes through the meter mechanism including its built-in shunt. A megohm is 1,000,000 ohms. A megohmmeter is commonly called a megger. It measures very high resistances and is most commonly used to measure the resistance of wire insulation. A series of slight kicks downscale by the needle on your megger indicates that current is leaking somewhere along the surface of a wires dirty insulation. When reading an instrument that measures resistance, be sure to note, which end of the scale is zero and which is the highest reading. Also be careful that you understand the units you are using. In meggers, one side of the scale is often in thousands of ohms while the other end is in megohms (i.e., millions of ohms). A DC generator is prevented from motorizing by a reverse current relay. An AC generator, more properly called an alternator, uses a reverse power relay to protect against motorization. The torque for the timing elements of a reverse power relay is provided by electromagnets. A synchroscope compares the phases of the oncoming machine to the bus (i.e., on-line) phases. If the synchroscope's needle revolves in the slow direction (i.e., counterclockwise) it indicates that the oncoming machine has a lower frequency (hence a lower RPM) than the bus frequency A properly operating synchroscope indicates synchronization when the needle is at the 12 o'clock position. Synchronizing lamps indicate synchronization when all lamps are dim or out. If one or more lamps remain lit when the scope is at 12 o'clock, the synchroscope is either defective or broken. Ground detection lamps for a grounded phase remain either dim or out when you operate the test button or switch.
CIRCUIT PROTECTION, POWER DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSFORMERS Fuses and circuit breakers are safety devices that should open when overloaded. Fuses are rated in amps and volts. A fuse blows when its rating in amps is exceeded. A time delay (i.e., delayed action) fuse allows a momentary overload without melting (i.e., opening) the fuse. Time delay fuses are common in motor circuits. Cartridge fuses have their metal fuse material in a fiber tube. Electrical cables that pass through a watertight boundary (i.e., either a bulkhead or a deck) must utilize a device to maintain their water-tightness. The device is normally a tube, which uses packing in a stuffing box type arrangement. Accidentally grounding one line of an ungrounded power distribution system will not cause a system outage, but it may damage some electrical equipment. You may close a shore power circuit breaker only after taking the generators off the bus (i.e., off-line). Feeder circuits are inputs into distribution panels. Transformers operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Electric power is the same on both the primary and secondary side of a transformer. However, the voltage (V) and the amperage (I) change inversely.
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A three phase, open-delta connected transformer provides two phase power with line current equal to phase current When replacing a transformer, re-connect the polarity marks the same way as before to ensure that the equipment runs as it did before (i.e., that the motors rotate properly, etc.) Transformers are classed according to how they change the voltage. If the voltage on a transformer's secondary windings is higher than on its primary windings, it is called a step-up transformer. If the secondary voltage is lower than the primary voltage, it is a step-down transformer. You can determine the ratio of change in voltage by comparing the number of turns on the transformer's primary windings to the number of turns on the secondary. The change in current is inversely related to this ratio of turns. For example, if the secondary voltage is tripled (i.e., multiplied 3 times), the secondary amperage will be reduced to one-third the amperage of the primary.
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ELECTRICAL SAFETY
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ELECTRICAL TROUBLESHOOTING, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
In order to do logical troubleshooting you must first understand and recognize how a piece of equipment normally operates. Before working on any electrical component you should secure (i.e., open) and tag switches leading to its power supply. The preferred way to clean dust and foreign matter from electrical equipment is by vacuum suction. You should remove dirt encrusted inside electrical equipment with a fiber scraper since this is least likely to damage electrical components and insulation. Electrical tape should overlap itself on each turn when wrapping an electrical splice To prevent moisture from damaging electrical apparatus during periods of lay up, place heat lamps in the housings. Only use rosin flux when you solder electrical wiring. Grounded probes from a water level control switch can cause an auxiliary boiler feed pump to fail. Since a capacitor may still hold an electrical charge that can shock you, be sure to short out all capacitors, even in a de-energized circuit, before you touch them. If a motor won't start, first check its fuse or circuit breaker. Check fuses on an energized circuit with a voltmeter. To check a fuse using a voltmeter, place one lead downstream of the fuse you are checking and the other lead on the load side of a different fuse. Repair accidental grounds as soon as possible since they damage insulation and may cause outages. To locate grounds, open (i.e., turn off) switches on the distribution system until the ground detection lamps indicate there are no grounds (i.e., when the dim light goes on). An electric motor bearing containing foreign matter may fail in service if you don't clean it before repacking. It also may fail from misalignment or over-lubrication. Periodically wipe a brushless generator clean with a dry rag. A properly operating DC motor's commutator will be chocolate brown in color.
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Global Maritime and Transportation School

at the United States Merchant Marine Academy

1.. INTRODUCTION TO THE DIESEL ENGINE 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE DIESEL ENGINE

2.. BASIC ENGINE COMPONENTS 2 BASIC ENGINE COMPONENTS

FIGURE 1 - SECTIONAL VIEW OF A LIQUID-COOLED DIESEL ENGINE.

STANDARD CONNECTING RODS

ARTICULATED CONNECTING ROD FORK AND BLADE CONNECTING ROD

7 - NUT 8 - STOP PIN 11 - BODY 12 - CAP 13 - FITTED BOLT

LINER WITH INTEGRAL WATER JACKET

FIGURE 3 - EXPLODED VIEW OF A K-MODEL CYLINDER-BASED COMPONENTS

COMPOSITE PISTON WITH NODULAR CAST IRON SKIRT

PROFILES OF INTAKE AND EXHAUST CAMS

TYPES OF CAMS AND CAM FOLLOWERS

3.. CYCLE OPERAITON 3 CYCLE OPERAITON

FIGURE 6 TWO-STROKE CYCLE

FIGURE 8 - ONE WORKING CYCLE OF A TWO-CYCLE ENGINE

FIGURE 10 - ONE WORKING CYCLE OF A FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE

COOLING WATER SYSTEM COOLING WATER SYSTEM

FIGURE 16 COOLING SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND COOLING FLOW

MAINTAINING COOLING SYSTEMS - Quite often, operations and mechanics restrict

FIGURE 19 SECTIONAL VIEW OF A COOLANT PUMP

FIGURE 22 WATER-COOLED TURBOCHARGER TURBINE HOUSING

FIGURE 23 SECTIONAL VIEW OF A RAW-WATER PUMP

FIGURE 25 KEEL COOLING SYSTEM

FIGURE 26 FLOW OF GASES THROUGH AN ENGINE

FIGURE 30 - AIR-TO-AIR AFTERCOOLER COMPONENTS

FIGURE 34 - ROOTS TYPE BLOWER

FIGURE 37 GAS FLOW IN THE TURBOCHARGER

FIGURE 38 WASTE GATE FOR BOOST PRESSURE CONTROL

FIGURE 41 TURBOCHARGER OIL-LINE LEAKS

FIGURE 42 RESTRICTED OIL RETURN LINE

CLEANING COMPRESSOR HOUSING AND COMPRESSOR WHEEL - If there is

TOLERANCE CHECKS - In order to determine the condition of the bearing(s) and/or

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS

American Bosch CAV Caterpillar Robert Bosch Stanadyne 6. Diesel Kik

FIGURE 43 DIAGRAMMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF A SHIPS RESIDUAL FUEL SYSTEM.

FIGURE 44 - FUEL PUMP AND INJECTOR, PIELSTICK PA6-280 ENGINE.

FIGURE 45 - HIGH-PRESSURE FUEL PUMP DESIGNED FOR RESIDUAL FUEL OPERATION.

FIGURE 47 CONSTANT BEGINNING OF INJECTION

FIGURE 49 EFFECT OF VARIABLE BEGINNING OF INJECTION WITH VIT

LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM

Protect metal surfaces from corrosion - especially cylinder liner

FIGURE 78 - VIEW OF A TYPICAL PRESSURE LIBRICATION SYSTEM

FIGURE 79 - MAIN ENGINE LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM

FIGURE 81 - LUBRICATING OIL PURIFICATION SYSTEM (ALFA LAVAL)

FIGURE 84 SULZER LUBE OIL SYSTEM

FIGURE 2 - WIRING DIAGRAM FOR SYNCHROZING MOTOR

OUTLINE DRAWING OF TYPICAL UG 8 DIAL CONTROL GOVERNOR

FIGURE 13 11. Remove eight panel screws and washers.

FIGURE 1 CUTAWAY VIEW OF A D-TYPE BOILER

FIGURE 2 STEAM DRUM, WATER DRUM AND HEADER

FIGURE 3 DOWNCOMMER TUBES

FIGURE 4 GENERATING TUBES AND FURNACE AREA

FIGURE 5 NATURAL CIRCULATION (ACCELERATED TYPE)

FIGURE 6 ARRANGEMENT OF INTERNAL FITTINGS IN A SINGLE-FURNACE BOILER

FIGURE 7 DIAGRAM OF A SUPERHEATER

FIGURE 8 VERTICAL SUPERHEATER

FIGURE 9 RELATIVE POSITION OF DESUPERHEATER TUBES

FIGURE 13 FUEL OIL BURNER ASSEMBLY

FIGURE 14 RETURN FLOW ATOMIZER

FIGURE 15 TODD LVS ATOMIZER

BASIC STEAM CYCLE BASIC STEAM CYCLE

(1) (2) (3) (4)