1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General
Soil nailing is a technique to reinforce and strengthen the existing soil slopes, excavations or retaining walls by the insertion of relatively slender elements normally steel reinforcing bars.The bars are usually installed into a pre-drilled hole and then grouted into place or drilled andgrouted simultaneously. They are usually installed untensioned at a slight downward inclination.A rigid or flexible facing or isolated soil nail heads may be used at the surface. Soil nailing has now gained acceptance as a tool to enable the construction of overstep excavations in soils, or the remediation of failing oversteep slopes. Soil nailing has been widely used during the last two decades, to stabilize steep excavated slopes in several countries. Soil nailing is typically used to stabilize existing slopes or excavations where top-to bottom construction is advantageous compared to other retaining wall systems. It is an effective and economical method of constructing retaining wall for excavation support, support of hill cuts, bridge abutments and high ways. This process is effectively used in cohesive soil, broken rock, shale or fixed face conditions. Also nowadays it is proposed that soil nailing can be used in soft soils and also to control erosion, preventing landslides etc.

1.2 History of Soil Nailing

Soil nail technology was first used in France to build a permanent retaining wall cut in soft rock. The project, undertaken in 1961, was the first where steel nails were used to reinforce a retaining wall. The first soil nail wall to use modern soil nailing techniques was built near Versailles for a railroad widening project in 1972 where an 18-m high cut-slope in sand was stabilized using soil nails. The technique included installing high-density, grouted soil nails into a 60-ft.-high wall and facing it with reinforced concrete. Also research work is going on in various new applications of soil nailing such as erosion control, usage along with geotextiles to prevent landslides, application of soil nailing in soft soils (clay) etc.,
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1.3 Basic Concepts behind Soil Nailing

The methods used in soil nail analysis are similar to those used in slope stability. In a simplified version of the method of analysis, once a failure plane is assumed, driving forces in front of the plane can be compared to resisting cohesion and friction forces of the soil behind the plane. A required number of soil nails are then added across the failure plane in order to tip the balance in favour of the resisting forces, thus creating a comfortable factor of safety. The role of the nails is one that would add resisting forces to the equation. This force, however, is passive; it does not exist until there is movement along the failure plane, initiating tension in the nails. Because of the inherent uncertainty in the resisting forces in the soil, and the generated forces in the soil nails, the resisting forces are then divided by factor of safety.Lateral displacement due to stress relief of excavated steep soil nailed slope/ wall is about 0.1-0.3%H. When lateral deformation exceed 0.5%H, excessive bending and shear in soil nails may happen, resulting in excessive creep and tension cracks in upslope or eventual slope failure, if left unattended. Soil nails need to extend to sufficient length beyond the active zone or any plane of weakness to overcome external stability including overturning, sliding, bearing and overall slope instability, modes of failure. Three internal failure modes must be checked to ensure an adequate factor of safety, i.e. nail pull-out resistance, nail material tensile capacity and nail head/ facing capacity.

2 BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SOIL NAIL WALL

Figure 1. Main components of a typical soil nail

2.1 Nail Bars:

The solid steel reinforcing bars are the main component of the soil nail wall system. These elements are placed in pre-drilled drillholes and grouted in place. Tensile stress is applied passively to the nails in response to the deformation of the retained materials during subsequent excavation activities. Steel reinforcing bars used for soil nails are commonly threaded and may be either solid or hollow. Bars with lower grades are preferred for soil nailing because they are more ductile, less susceptible to corrosion, and readily available.

2.1.1 Nail Types Nail installation techniques can be classified as:

Driven Soil Nails Generally small-diameter nails (15-46 mm) with a relatively limited length made of mild steel that are closely spaced in the wall (two to four nails per square meter). Nails with an axial channel can be used to permit the addition of grout sealing. Driven nails are the quickest (four to six per hour) and most economical to install (with a pneumatic or hydraulic hammer).

Drilled and Grouted Soil Nails Steel bars, with diameters ranging from 15 to 46 mm, stronger than driven nails. Grouted nails are inserted into boreholes of 10-15 cm and then cement-grouted. Ribbed bars are also used to increase soil adhesion. These are approximately 100- and 200-mm diameter nail holes drilled in the foundation soils. These holes are typically spaced about 1.5 m apart.

Self-Drilling Soil Nails These soil nails consist of hollow bars that can be drilled and grouted in one operation. In this technique, the grout is injected through the hollow bar simultaneously with the drilling. The grout fills the annulus from the top to the bottom of the drillhole. Rotary percussive drilling techniques are used with this method. This soil nail type allows for a faster installation than that for drilled grouted nails and, unlike, driven soil nails, some level of corrosion protection with grout is provided.

Jet-Grouted Soil Nails In this technique, jet grouting is performed to erode the ground and allow the hole for the nail (subsequently installed) to be advanced to the final location. In a second step, the bars are typically installed using vibro-percussion drilling methods. This method has been shown to increase the pullout resistance of the composite, and the nails are corrosion-resistant.

Launched Soil Nails In this method, bare bars are launched into the soil at very high speeds using a firing mechanism involving compressed air. Bars are 19 to 25 mm in diameter and up to 8 m in length. This technique allows for a fast installation with little impact to project site; however, it may be difficult to control the length of nail that penetrates the ground. These types of soil nails are only used for temporary nails.

Corrosion-Protected Nails Ground shall be considered aggressive if it has one or more of the following, a pH value less than 4.5, a resistivity less than 2000 ohm-cm, sulfides present, stray currents present or has caused chemical attack to other buried concrete structures. In addition, aggressive atmospheric conditions need to be considered. For aggressive soils as well as for permanent structures corrosion protected nails are to be used.

2.2 Nail Head

Figure 2. Main Components of a Typical Soil Nail.

The nail head comprises two main components, the bearing-plate, hex nut, and washers; and the headed-stud. The purpose of the bearing plate is to distribute the
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force at the nail end to the temporary shotcrete facing and the ground behind the facing. The bearing plate has a central hole, which is inserted over the nail bar. Beveled washers are then placed and the nail bar is secured with a hex nut or with a spherical seat nut. Nuts are tightened with a hand-wrench. The headstud connection may consist of four headed studs that are welded near the four corners of the bearing plate to provide anchorage of the nail head into the permanent facing. For temporary walls, the bearing plate is on the outside face of the shotcrete facing.

2.3 Grout

Figure 3: Grout Placement through Pipe.

Grout is placed in the pre-drilled borehole after the nail is placed. The grout serves the primary function of transferring stress from the ground to the nail. The grout also provides a level of corrosion protection to the soil nail. For conventional soil nail, the water cement ratio of the grout mix ranges from 0.4 to 0.5. As most cementitious grout will experience some grout shrinkage, non-shrink additive can be used to reduce breeding and grout shrinkage. The resistance at grout6

soil interface of nail will significantly reduced when the grout shrink. In solid nail bar applications, the grout is injected by tremie methods through a grout pipe, which is previously inserted to the bottom of the drillhole, until the grout completely fills the drillhole. Grout pipes are removed when used as part of the installation of production nails and commonly left in place in when used for soil nails that are to be load tested. Grout injection must be conducted smoothly and continuously in such a way that the space between the drillhole and the nail bar is filled completely, with no voids or gaps.

2.4 Centralizers

Figure 4: PVC Centralizers Attached to a Nail Bar Prior to Nail Installation

Centralizers are devices made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or other synthetic materials that are installed at regular intervals along the length of each nail bar to ensure that a minimum thickness of grout completely covers the nail bar.

2.5 Corrosion Protection Elements

Protective sheathings made of corrugated synthetic material [HDPE (High Density Polyethylene) or (PVC tube)] surrounding the nail bar are usually used to provide additional corrosion protection. The internal annulus between the sheathing and the nail bar is prefilled with grout.

2.6 Temporary and Permanent Facing

The facing provides structural connectivity. The temporary facing serves as the bearing surface for the bearing plate and support the exposed soil. This facing is placed on the unsupported excavation prior to advancement of the excavation grades. The permanent facing is placed over the temporary facing after the soil nails are installed and the hex nut has been tightened.

2.7 Drainage System

To prevent water pressure from developing behind the wall facing, vertical geocomposite strip drains are usually installed between the temporary facing and the excavation. The drainage system also includes a footing drain and weepholes to convey collected drainage water away from the wall face. In some cases, conventional horizontal drains are also installed.

3 MACHINERIES USED FOR SOIL NAILING

Drilling Equipments
There are few common types of drilling equipment, namely rotary airflushed and water-flushed,down-the-hole hammer, tri-cone bit. It is important to procure drilling equipment with sufficient power and rigid drill rods.

Grout Mixing Equipment

In order to produce uniform grout mix, high speed shear colloidal mixer should be considered.Powerful grout pump is essential for uninterrupted delivery of grout mix. If fine aggregate is used as filler for economy, special grout pump shall be used.

Shotcreting/Guniting Equipment
Dry mix method will require a valve at the nozzle outlet to control the amount of water injecting into the high pressurized flow of sand/cement mix. For controlling the thickness of the shotcrete, measuring pin shall be installed at fixed vertical and horizontal intervals to guide the nozzle man.

Compressor
The compressor shall have minimum capacity to delivered shotcrete at the minimum rate of 9m3/min. Sometimes, the noise of compressor can be an issue if the work is at close proximity to residential area, hospital and school.

4 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE

Figure 5: Typical Soil Nail Wall Construction Sequence.

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The sequence of construction for typical soil nail walls consisted of:

4.1 Excavation
Prior to any excavation, surface water controls should be constructed to prevent surface water from flowing into the excavation as this condition will adversely affect construction and potentially cause instability of the excavated face. Collector trenches behind the limits of the excavation usually intercept and divert surface water. Subsequently, soil excavation is performed using conventional earthmoving equipment from a platform, and final trimming of the excavation face is typically carried out using an excavator from a platform.

Figure 6: Initial Excavation Lift and Nail Installation.

Initial excavation is carried out to a depth for which the face of the excavation has the ability to remain unsupported for a short period of time, typically on the order of 24 to 48 hours. The depth of the excavation lift is usually between 1 and 2 m and reaches slightly below the elevation where nails will be installed. A level
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working bench on the order of 10-m wide is required to accommodate the conventional drilling equipment used for nail installation. The exposed length of an excavation should be limited to that which can be stabilized and shotcreted during a single working shift. For cases where the excavated slope face cannot stand unsupported for the required period of time, a continuous berm may be employed to stabilize the unsupported face section. In this case the soil nails are installed and grouted first through the stabilizing berm. Subsequently, the berm is excavated and shotcrete is applied along the entire excavation level.

4.2 Drilling Nail Holes

Drillholes are drilled to a specified length, diameter, inclination, and horizontal spacing from this excavated platform. Drilling can be done by either airflushed percussion drilling, augering or rotary wash boring drilling depending on ground condition.Typically, the hole size can range from 100mm to 150mm. In order to contain the grout, the typical inclination of the drill hole is normally tilted at 15 downward from horizontal. Flushing with air or water before nail insertion is necessary in order to remove any possible collapsed materials, which can potentially reduce the grout-ground interface resistance. The selection of the drilling method may be controlled by the local availability of equipment and the specific ground conditions to be encountered. Restrictions may be imposed on certain drilling methods if it is deemed that they might have an adverse effect on the integrity of adjacent structures or underground utilities. The selected drilling methods should not cause excessive ground caving into the drill hole. Additionally, the drilling of the upper nail rows should not cause excessive ground surface heave. These potentially damaging effects may be avoided by using drill casing (or hollow selfdrilling bars) in unstable ground or by restricting the use of large diameter drilling bits.

4.3 Nail Bar Installation

Nail bars are placed in the pre-drilled hole. Centralizers are placed around the nails prior to insertion to help maintain alignment within the hole and allow sufficient protective grout coverage over the nail bar. After the nail bar is inserted in the drillhole, the drillhole is filled with clean cement grout. Grout injection must be conducted smoothly and continuously in such a way that the space between the
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drillhole and the nail bar is filled completely, with no voids or gaps. The bottom of the grout pipe must remain below the grout surface at all times while grout is being pumped into the drillhole. During grouting operations, the portion of the soil nail near the back of the temporary facing may not be completely filled with grout. Because this area is the most vulnerable to corrosion, it is critical that this area be subsequently filled with shotcrete, or less commonly with a stiff grout to assure complete grout coverage.This method is referred to as open-hole installation. As the grout sets, it bonds to the nail bar and the surrounding ground. The open-hole installation is by far the most commonly used method in soil nail wall construction.

In cases where poor soil conditions are encountered, higher bond strengths might be required. High bond strength may be achieved in granular soils and weak fissured rocks by injecting grout or regrouting under pressure. Grouting under pressure increases resistance to pullout relative to the open-hole method due to several mechanisms including an increase in the confining pressure around the grout bulb, higher compaction of the material surrounding the bulb, an interlocking mechanism , and an increase of the grout bulbs effective diameter. Grouting under pressure is seldom used for fine grained soils. If used, only minor increases in bond strength should be expected because the frictional component and the interlocking mechanism are absent or not significant. When corrosion protection requirements are high, corrugated plastic sheathing can also be used to provide an additional level of corrosion protection.

4.4 Drainage Installation

For preventing the migration of groundwater towards the excavation surface water control and drainage are necessary during construction. It includes intercepting ditches at the top of the excavation. Additionally, vertical geocomposite strip drains are installed behind the wall facing to prevent groundwater pressure to build up. The drain strips are secured against the excavation face and are placed with the geotextile side against the ground. During shotcrete application, the contamination of the geotextile side with shotcrete must be avoided to prevent loosing the flow capacity of the drains. The groundwater collected at strip drains is removed by a series of footing drains at the bottom of the excavation. The footing drain consists of

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a trench at the bottom of the excavation, which is filled with aggregate free of fines and has a PVC slotted collection pipe. Weep holes can be installed through the wall facing at the lower portions of the wall.

4.5 Temporary Facing Construction

A temporary facing system is constructed to support the open-cut soil section before the next lift of soil is excavated. The most typical temporary facing consists of a lightly reinforced shotcrete layer commonly 100 mm thick. Shotcrete provides a continuous supporting layer over the excavated face that can also serve to fill voids and cracks on the excavated face. Temporary shotcrete applications have been constructed using both welded wire mesh (WWM) or fiber reinforcement and bars. Two types of shotcrete methods are commonly used: dry mix and wet mix. In the dry mix method, the aggregate and cement are blended in the dry and fed into the shotcrete gun while the mix water is added at the nozzle. Depending on their features, admixtures can be added at the mix plant or with the water. The addition of water at the nozzle allows the plasticity of the shotcrete to be adjusted at the nozzle, if required.

Figure 7: Shotcrete Temporary Facing.

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In the wet mix method, the aggregate, cement, water, and admixtures are mixed in a batch plant and conveyed to the nozzle by a hydraulic pump. The plastic mix is applied at higher velocities by compressed air. Both shotcrete methods produce a mix suitable for wall facings. Steel fiber reinforcement has been added to shotcrete as part of a wet mix to increase ductility, toughness, and impact resistance. Fibers tend to reduce the shotcrete brittleness and thereby reduce crack propagation, but they have little effect on compressive strength and produce only a modest increase in flexural strength.

The reinforcement typically consists of WWM, which is placed at approximately the middle of the facing thickness. The length of the WWM must be such that it allows at least one full mesh cell to overlap with subsequent WWM panels. Following appropriate curing time for the temporary facing, a steel bearing plate is placed over the nail head protruding from the drillhole. The bar is then lightly pressed into the first layer of fresh shotcrete. A hex nut and washers are subsequently installed to secure the nail head against the bearing plate. The hex nut is tightened to a required minimum torque after the temporary facing has sufficiently cured. This usually requires a minimum of 24 hours. Before proceeding with subsequent excavation lifts, the shotcrete must have cured for at least 72 hours or have attained at least the specified 3-day compressive strength.

4.6 Permenent Wall Facing Construction

After the bottom of the excavation is reached and nails are installed and load tested, a final facing may be constructed. Final facing may consist of reinforced shotcrete, cast-in-place (CIP) reinforced concrete or prefabricated panels.

4.6.1 Reinforced Shotcrete The thickness of permanent facing consisting of reinforced shotcrete is typically between 150 and 300 mm (6 and 12 in.). This thickness does not include the thickness of the temporary facing. The permanent facing can be applied at the same time as the lift is excavated or can be applied later after the final lift of the temporary facing is

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completed and advance in phases from the bottom. The shotcrete facing is reinforced with WWM or rebar mesh. The final wall facing thickness is obtained by applying successive layers of shotcrete, each layer 50- to 100-mm. In order to achieve a good connection between the permanent facing and the nail bar, the nail head must be fully encapsulated in the permanent shotcrete facing. Headed studs are welded to the bearing plate to provide this connection.

4.6.2 Cast-in-Place Facing In general, the requirements for shotcrete mixes and WWM reinforcement for permanent facing are similar to those of shotcrete for temporary facing. The use of epoxy coated WWM is highly recommended for corrosion protection. The reinforcement of permanent facing using CIP concrete typically consists of a mesh (standard reinforcing bars) and occasionally waler bars (Additional reinforcement placed around nail heads to provide additional flexural capacity) placed over the nail head. Reinforcement is placed approximately at the center of the facing section thickness. The advantage of the CIP reinforced concrete is that the finish is more aesthetically pleasing and the quality of the concrete tends to be more homogeneous. The main disadvantage is the need for formwork and potentially longer construction time for facing installation. Soil nail walls to be constructed in heavily trafficked areas may pose special aesthetic requirements. As the typically uneven as-shot finish of the permanent shotcrete facing may not meet these requirements, other finishes might be necessary. Wood, steel, or rubber tools can be used on the as-shot shotcrete surface to condition the surface and achieve the required aesthetic finish. When CIP concrete and shotcrete are used for the permanent facing, horizontal joints between excavation lifts are avoided to the maximum extent possible.

4.6.3 Precast Concrete Facing Precast concrete facing has been used in permanent applications to meet a variety of aesthetic, environmental, and durability criteria. It also provides a means of integrating a continuous drainage blanket behind the facing and a frost protection barrier in cold climates. The panels are either small segmental (i.e., nonstructural) elements or full-height tilt-up (i.e., structural) elements. Small segmental panels resist
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smaller, localized loads than structural elements, which can resist loads globally. If non-structural elements are used for the permanent facing, the temporary facing requires adequate strengthening to resist the design loads.

5 APPLICATIONS OF SOIL NAIL WALLS

      Roadway cut excavations; Road widening under an existing bridge end; Repair and reconstruction of existing retaining structures Temporary or permanent excavations in an urban environment. Stabilization of railroad and highway cut slope Excavation retaining structures in urban areas for high-rise building and underground facilities   Tunnel portals in steep and unstable stratified slopes Construction and retrofitting of bridge abutments with complex boundaries involving wall support under piled foundations    Stabilizing steep cuttings to maximize development space. The stabilizing of existing over-steep embankments. Temporary support can be provided to excavations without the need for bulky and intrusive scaffold type temporary works solutions

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6 ADVANTAGES OF SOIL NAIL WALLS

With the right soil and site conditions, a rapid and economical means of constructing earth retention support systems and retaining walls.

  

Shorter drill holes. Smaller diameter bars at shorter lengths. Retaining walls are secured laterally into the soil, eliminating piles and foundation footers.

    

Grouting only once is required, saving time and labor. The technique is flexible, easily modified. Creates less noise and traffic obstructions. Less impact on nearby properties Allow in-situ strengthening on existing slope surface with minimum excavation and backfilling, particularly very suitable for uphill widening, thus environmental friendly,

 

Allow excellent working space in front of the excavation face, Can be used for strengthening of either natural slope, natural or man- made cut slopes

     

Used to follow irregular curves. Equipment is portable for tight spaces. The technique is flexible, easily modified. Creates less noise and traffic obstructions. Less impact on nearby properties. Requires minimum shoring space.

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7 DISADVANTAGES OF SOIL NAIL WALLS

 

Nail encroachment to retained ground rendering unusable underground space, Generally larger lateral soil strain during removal of lateral support and ground surface cracking may appear,

Tendency of high ground loss due to drilling technique, particularly at coarse grained soil,

Less suitable for coarse grained soil and soft clayey soil, which have short self support time, and soils prone to creeping,

Suitable only for excavation above groundwater

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8 CONCLUSION
Since this process is effective in cohesive soil, broken rock, shale, or mixed face conditions it permits flexibility to conform to a variety of geometric shapes to meet specific site needs. Due to its rather straightforward construction method and is relatively maintenance free, the method has gained popularity in India for highway and also hillside development projects. Soil nailing is an economical means of creating shoring systems and retaining walls.

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9 REFERENCES

1. http://civcal.media.hku.hk/soilnailing/introduction/components/default.htm 2. http://www.pinnacledesignbuild.com/soil-nail-shotcrete.htm 3. http://www.rembco.com/soil_nailing.html 4. http://www.nisargateam.com/soil/soil-nailing.html 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_nailing 6. Satyendra Mittal,2006, Soil nailing application in erosion control an experimental study, Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 24: 675688

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