Full Text 01

August 10, 2010
Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Andreas Hermansson
BACHELORS THESIS Electrical Engineering, Electric Power Technology Department of Engineering Science
BACHELORS THESIS

Summary
In this bachelor thesis, cable fault locators are studied for use on the overhead electrode lines in the HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) Light project Caprivi Link. The cable fault locators studied operates with the principle of travelling waves, where a pulse is sent in the tested conductor. The time difference is measured from the injection moment to the reflection is received. If the propagation speed of the pulse is known the distance to the fault can be calculated. This type of unit is typically referred to as a TDR (Time Domain Reflectometer). The study is performed as a computer simulation where a simplified model of a TDR unit is created and applied to an electrode line model by using PSCAD/EMTDC. Staged faults of open circuit and ground fault types are placed at three distances on the electrode line model, different parameters of the TDR units such as pulse width and pulse amplitude along with its connection to the electrode line are then studied and evaluated. The results of the simulations show that it is possible to detect faults of both open circuit and ground fault types with a suitable TDR unit. Ground faults with high resistance occurring at long distances can be hard to detect due to low reflection amplitudes from the injections. This problem can somewhat be resolved with a function that lets the user compare an old trace of a healthy line with the new trace. The study shows that most of the faults can be detected and a distance to the fault can be calculated within an accuracy of 250 m. The pulse width of the TDR needs to be at least 10 s, preferable 20 s to deliver high enough energy to the fault to create a detectable reflection. The pulse amplitude seams to be of less significance in this simulation, although higher pulse amplitude is likely to be more suitable in a real measurement due to the higher energy delivered to the fault. The Hipotronics TDR 1150 is a unit that fulfil these requirements and should therefore be able to work as a line fault locator on the electrode line.
Date: Author: Examiner: Advisor: Programme: Main field of study: Credits: Keywords Publisher:
August 10, 2010 Andreas Hermansson Lars Holmblad Sren Nyberg, ABB AB Electrical Engineering, Electric Power Technology Electrical Engineering Education level: Bachelor 15 HE credits Line fault locator, TDR, Arc reflection, simulation, electrode line, HVDC University West, Department of Engineering Science, S-461 86 Trollhttan, SWEDEN Phone: + 46 520 22 30 00 Fax: + 46 520 22 32 99 Web: www.hv.se
Preface
I would like to thank Anna-Karin Skytt and Sren Nyberg at ABB AB who made this bachelors thesis possible. Andreas Hermansson Ludvika 9 April 2010
ii
Contents
Summary.............................................................................................................................................. i Preface ................................................................................................................................................ ii Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................... iv 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Project description ........................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 2 2 Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Travelling waves ............................................................................................................... 4 2.2 Description of the time domain reflectometer (TDR) ............................................... 6 2.3 Description of the impulse thumper ............................................................................. 6 2.4 Description of the arc reflection method ..................................................................... 7 3 Design .......................................................................................................................................... 8 3.1 Modelling of electrode line ............................................................................................. 8 3.2 Modelling of line fault locator ...................................................................................... 10 3.2.1 Time domain reflectometer ............................................................................ 10 3.2.2 Arc reflection .................................................................................................... 11 3.3 Fault model ..................................................................................................................... 12 4 Simulations ................................................................................................................................ 13 4.1 Fault type ......................................................................................................................... 13 4.1.1 Low resistance to ground ................................................................................ 14 4.1.2 High resistance to ground ............................................................................... 15 4.1.3 Open circuit ...................................................................................................... 16 4.2 Pulse width ...................................................................................................................... 17 4.3 Pulse amplitude .............................................................................................................. 18 4.4 Connection ...................................................................................................................... 19 4.5 Parallel/single line .......................................................................................................... 21 4.6 Electrode station configuration ................................................................................... 22 4.7 Arc reflection .................................................................................................................. 24 5 Results and analysis .................................................................................................................. 26 5.1 Fault type ......................................................................................................................... 26 5.1.1 Low resistance ground fault............................................................................ 26 5.1.2 High resistance ground fault ........................................................................... 27 5.1.3 Open circuit ...................................................................................................... 28 5.2 Pulse width ...................................................................................................................... 28 5.3 Pulse amplitude .............................................................................................................. 29 5.4 Connection ...................................................................................................................... 29 5.5 Parallel/single line .......................................................................................................... 30 5.6 Electrode station configuration ................................................................................... 31 5.7 Arc reflection .................................................................................................................. 31 6 Conclusions and future work ................................................................................................. 33 References ........................................................................................................................................ 34
iii
Abbreviations
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor LFL Line Fault Locator TDR Time Domain Reflectometer
iv
Introduction
1.1 Background
Caprivi Link is a HVDC Light project that will be delivered to Namibia during 2010. HVDC Light is a power transmission system developed by ABB that is based on voltages source converters using IGBT semiconductors and high frequency pulse width modulation to convert from AC to DC and back again. The Light version is available in the range from 50 to 1200 MW [1]. The project consists of converter stations, in Zambezi and Gerus, connected by two overhead lines approximately 970 km long. The link has a power rating of 300 MW operating at a DC voltage of 350 kV. This is the first HVDC Light project to be built with overhead lines. At a first stage one monopole is delivered but there is an option to expand to a bipole. This transmission link is very important for the power supply of the country as the networks in the region are very weak [2]. There are three different modes for the operation of the link during the monopole stage. These modes are Single line metallic return (the return current goes through a metallic return conductor), Single line ground return (the return current goes through ground electrodes) and Parallel lines ground return (the return current goes through ground electrodes).
970 km DC OH-line U dN = - 350 kV IdN = 857 A
50 km electrode lines to ground electrodes
Outdoor AC filters
Indoor AC filter
IGBT Smoothing valve reactor
DC capacitor
Converter reactor
Converter transformer
Figure 1.1 Principal of operation in the ground return modes.
The preferred operation of the link is in the Parallel lines ground return mode to minimize losses due to the resistivity in the pole lines. The return current will, in this case, go through ground electrodes located approximately 50 km from each converter station, see figure 1.1.
1.2 Project description

A fault on the pole line can be detected on-line by detecting the incoming travelling waves in each station, by comparing the arrival time of waves in the two stations the location can be determined. However, as the voltage on the electrode lines is approximately zero or very low, this method is not applicable. The aim of this study is to find equipment that can detect the location of the fault along the electrode line. It can be off-line equipment, i.e. does not need to locate the fault when the link is in operation. The fault locator will inject a pulse into the line and detect the time when the reflected pulse comes back. The simulations should answer a number of issues which affect the ability to locate a fault. How different types of faults, distances to faults, pulse amplitude, pulse width affect the ability to locate a fault. The simulation should also elucidate the existence of any interference from parallel lines
1.3 Methodology
Since the electrode line is still under construction and a similar overhead line is hard to get access to for field measurements, the study will be performed as a simulation using PSCAD/EMTDC. PSCAD/EMTDC is simulation software for design and verification of power systems. EMTDC is a simulation engine and PSCAD is a graphical user interface, see figure 1.2. PSCAD/EMTDC is suitable for simulating electromagnetic transients or instantaneous solutions. Simplified models of the line fault locators are constructed from manufacturers datasheets and information from their sales representatives. The LFL models are applied to electrode line models with staged faults. Different parameters are varied one at a time to study the behaviour of the LFL.
Figure 1.2 The PSCAD simulation environment.
Theory
2.1 Travelling waves

Any electrical charge applied to a conductor, such as a lightning stroke or the closing of a circuit breaker, causes a rise of the potential of the conductor. This produces travelling waves of voltage e and current i that propagates along the conductor at the speed of light. The voltage and current waves are related by a surge impedance Z. For a lossless transmission line, Z is dependent only to the inductance and capacitance according to equations (1).
Z=
e i
(1)
Z=
L C
If a voltage and current wave hit a point of discontinuity in the impedance, while propagating along a conductor, voltage and current waves are reflected backward and transmitted forward from the point of discontinuity. I.e. consider two conductors in series with surge impedances Z1 and Z2. Let the original forward waves be denoted as e and i, the waves reflected backwards from the discontinuity point be denoted e and i and the waves transmitted forward be denoted e and i. Then the normal equations (2) describe the travelling wave and the boundary equations (3) the relationship at the point of discontinuity [3]. Normal equations e = Z1 i e' = Z 1 i ' e' ' = Z 2 i ' ' Boundary equations
e' ' = e + e' i' ' = i i'
(2)
(3)
Then in terms of e and i we get

e' = e' ' = Z 2 Z1 e Z1 + Z 2 2 Z2 e Z1 + Z 2
Z Z1 i' = 2 i Z1 + Z 2 i' ' = 2 Z1 i Z1 + Z 2
(4)
Now we can draw the following conclusions from equations (4) about the current and voltage waves at the point of discontinuity: If Z1=Z2, the reflected current and voltage waves are zero and the transmitted current and voltage waves are equal to the original current and voltage waves. If Z1<Z2, the reflected current and voltage have a lower amplitude with the same signs as the original waves unless Z2 approaches infinity then the reflections have the same amplitude, see figure 2.1. The amplitude of the transmitted voltage is in the range: e < e <= 2e with the same sign and the amplitude of the transmitted current is in the range: 0 <= i < i with the same sign.
Figure 2.1 Voltage reflections at a point of discontinuity where Z1<Z2.
If Z1>Z2, the reflected current and voltage waves have a lower amplitude with the opposite signs unless Z2 is zero then the reflected current and voltage waves have the same amplitude, see figure 2.2 . The transmitted voltage wave is in the range: 0 <= e < e with the same sign and the amplitude of the transmitted current is in the range i < i <= 2i with the same sign.
Figure 2.2 Voltage reflections at a point of discontinuity where Z1>Z2
2.2 Description of the time domain reflectometer (TDR)

A time domain reflectometer, TDR, or pulse echo meter is a device which can measure distances to changes in the impedance of a conductor. The technique is based upon the principle of travelling waves. A short rise time pulse is injected in the conductor and it is partly reflected by impedance discontinuities in the line. The trace is then displayed on an oscilloscope screen. By measuring the travel time t between the pulse is sent and a reflection is received its possible to calculate the distance to the discontinuity that caused the reflection. To calculate the distance to the fault the wave propagation speed vp has to be known. The wave propagation speed for an overhead transmission line is close to the speed of light and can be calculated by equation (5) [3], where L is the inductance and C is the capacitance per unit length. Then the distance d to the fault is given by equation (6). The wave propagation speed can also be measured with a known length of the line by extraction from equation (6), this will give the exact propagation speed of the conductor.
vp =
1 LC
(5)
d=
vp t 2
(6)
By inspecting the waveform of the reflection its possible to determine what type of fault caused the reflection. From the conclusions in chapter 3.1 a short circuit is represented by a negative reflection and an open circuit represented of a positive reflection. For a high resistance shunt fault its likely that the amplitude of the reflection is too small to be detectable. To resolve this problem some TDR units have a storage function so that an old trace can be compared with a new one, there deviations between the two traces can point out a fault [4].
2.3 Description of the impulse thumper

An impulse thumper is a high energy capacitive discharge unit that transmit a high energy pulse between the faulty conductor and ground. The unit basically consists of a power supply, capacitors and a high voltage switch. When the pulse reaches the fault location it creates an arc which makes an audible thump. The fault can then be found simply by listening after the thump created by the arc with a microphone or a magnetic loop antenna, however this method is not applicable on an overhead line [4].
2.4 Description of the arc reflection method

The arc reflection method combines the use of a high capacitive discharge unit and a TDR. The thumper and the TDR are connected via a filter that protects the TDR from the high voltage pulses created by the thumper. When the energy pulse reaches a high resistance fault it creates an arc that lowers the resistance of the fault. Simultaneously the TDR unit can measure the distance to the arc [4].
Design
3.1 Modelling of electrode line

The electrode line is connecting the converter station to the electrode station. The line consists of two parallel overhead lines and is approximately 50 km long. Each line is of the type Rail which has an aluminium conductor with a steel reinforcement, see table 3.1 for conductor data. The conductors are located 23 m above ground level and 1.76 m apart at the towers, no shield wires are used, see figure 3.1. Each conductor can be individually disconnected at both converter and electrode station making it possible to operate in ground return mode with only one conductor. This means that a faulty conductor can be measured without taking the electrode station out of service.
C1
C2 1.76 [m]
23 [m]
Tower: Yiduell Conductors: Rail
0 [m] Ground Resistivity: 500.0 [ohm*m] Relative Ground Permeability: 1.0 Earth Return Formula: Analytical Approximation
Figure 3.1 Cross section of the electrode line model. Table 3.1 Data for the two conductors in the electrode line.
Conductor
Aluminium area [mm2] 484
Equivalent copper area [mm2] 304
Current rating [A] 920
DC resistance at 70 C/km [ ] 0,0722
C1/C2
The electrode line model consists of an ideal current source and two frequency dependent transmission line segments connected through ideal conductors. Table 3.2 shows the settings of the transmission line model used in PSCAD/EMTDC. An electrode resistance of 0.2 has been used, which is the highest allowable resistance for the ground electrodes. Two transmission line segments are used so that a fault can be staged anywhere along the line by adjusting the individual length of the two segments. Figure 3.2 shows the electrode line model with one of the two conductors disconnected at both the converter station and the electrode station, a ground fault has also been placed between the two line segments.
Table 3.2 Transmission line model settings in PSCAD/EMTDC.
Frequency dependent (phase) model options Travel time interpolation Curve fitting starting frequency Curve fitting end frequency Total number of frequency increments Maximum order of fitting for Ysurge Maximum order of fitting for prop. func. Maximum fitting error for Ysurge Maximum fitting error for prop. Func. On 0.01 [Hz] 20000 [Hz] 1000 20 20 0.2 [%] 0.2 [%]
1 0.001 [ohm] Tlinezambezi Tlinezambezi 0.001 [ohm] 1
Fault
1 1 Tlinezambe2 Tlinezambe2
0.2 [ohm]
I1
T TLinezambezi
T TLinezambe2
Figure 3.2 The electrode line model in PSCAD consists of a grounded current source, two transmission line segments with a ground fault applied between them and a resistor connected to ground representing the electrode .
0.001 [ohm]
3.2 Modelling of line fault locator

3.2.1 Time domain reflectometer The TDR models are based on the Hipotronics TDR 1150 and the Megger MTDR. Data for the two models are presented in table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Data for the TDR units [5] [6].
Model Pulse amplitude [V] Max. pulse width [s] Max. range [km] Sampling rate [MHz] Voltage input protection level [V]
TDR 1150 25 20 60 100 480
MTDR 10 10 50 50 250
The TDR model consists of a voltage source, a circuit breaker and a voltmeter, see figure 3.3. The circuit breaker is connected to a timing device so that the pulse width can be controlled. Initial simulations showed a DC voltage on the electrode line of approximately 10 V. A 10k resistor is therefore connected parallel to the voltmeter to resolve this problem. The reading of the voltmeter is displayed on a graph that represents the oscilloscope of the TDR. The time interval of the graphs is chosen so that the whole length of the line is shown on the graphs. Two cursors are then placed at the graph, one at the beginning of the generated pulse and one at the beginning of the reflection. The time interval between the two cursors t is then used to calculate the distance using equation (6).
50 [ohm]
BRK1 10 [kohm] Timed Breaker Logic Open@t0
BRK1
Ea
Figure 3.3 The TDR model, there Ea is the measured voltage.
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3.2.2 Arc reflection The Arc reflection model is based on the Hipotronics 5250-30 and the Megger PFL 40 series. Data for the two models are presented in table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Data for the Arc reflection units [5] [6].
Model 5250-30 PFL 40
Voltage [kV] 0-30 8/16/34
Stored energy [J] 2000 1500
The arc reflection model consists of a voltage source, a capacitor, two circuit breakers and a voltmeter. The voltage source handles the charging of the capacitor. The capacitor stores the energy released by the line fault locator. Equation 7 describes the relationship between the energy stored in a capacitor and the voltage and capacitance. Circuit breaker one separates the capacitor from the voltage source and circuit breaker two releases the pulse. The voltmeter represents the oscilloscope of the TDR unit, see figure 3.4. C V 2 2
W =
(7)
1 [ohm]
BRK1
BRK2 C
Ea
Figure 3.4 Arc reflection model.
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3.3 Fault model

The fault model for ground faults consists of a fault module that can be switched on and off. The fault module is connected in series with a resistor to ground. Two values of the resistance are used: 1 representing a short circuit to ground and a higher value of 231 which is the highest likely resistance to trip the differential protection system of the electrode line, see table 3.5. The electrode line has a longitudinal differential protection system that is used to detect ground faults on the line. The protection system measures the current in both ends of the line with DC current transducers. The system is set to alarm when a difference of 17 A is detected [7]. This means that ground faults generating a current of 17A and above should be localised. The resistance of a fault that can be detected varies along the line due to the voltage drop in the line. Close to the electrode the voltage to ground is lower than the voltage at the converter station and a ground fault has to be of lower resistance to be detected by the differential protection system. Table 3.5 shows the voltage to ground (acquired by simulations in PSCAD/EMTDC) and the maximum resistance of a ground fault that leads to an alarm (calculated by ohms law) at increasing distances from the converter station. The calculations is based on a worst case scenario with one of the electrode line conductors disconnected and the other operating at its maximum current rating of 920 A.
Table 3.5 Voltage to ground and the corresponding fault resistance that leads to an alarm in the differential protection system at increasing distances from the converter station.
Distance [km] 0 10 20 30 40
Voltage [kV] 3,94 2,86 2,43 1,68 0,85
Resistance [ ] 231 169 143 99 50
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Simulations
Table 4.1 shows a list of the simulations. The simulations are done by changing one parameter at a time to be able to study changes.
Table 4.1 Issues to investigate.
No 1 Item Fault type Issue High resistance faults may be hard to detect. Is the amplitude of the reflection big enough to detect? 2 Distance to fault How does the distance from the measuring point to the fault affect the result? 45 km 3 Pulse width How do different pulse widths affect the result? 4 Pulse amplitude How do different pulse amplitudes affect the result? 5 Connection How does the connection of the TDR to the line affect the result? 6 Parallel line How does a parallel line in operation affect the result? 7 Electrode station configuration How does the connection of the line to the electrode affect the result? 8 Arc reflection Does a high voltage pulse increase the performance of the TDR? 30kV 2000J Pulse 25 V 10 V Conductor-Ground mode. Conductor-Conductor mode. On Off Connected Disconnected 1, 10 and 20 s Open circuit. 5 km 25 km Simulations Ground fault of 1 Ground fault of 231
4.1 Fault type

As default settings, pulse amplitude of 25 V and a pulse width of 10 s have been used. The TDR is connected between one conductor and ground as a default with the measured conductor disconnected at the electrode station.
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4.1.1 Low resistance to ground Figure 4.1-4.3 shows the voltage Ea measured by the TDR from a low resistance fault of 1 to ground at 5, 25 and 45 km.
M ain : G raphs 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 (V ) 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 -20.0 -25.0 -30.0 -35.0 T e im 0.5999 0.6000 0.6001 0.6002 0.6003 0.6004 0.6000 0.6000 0.0000 E a 0.000 0.229 0.229 M 0.000 in M ax 22.725
Figure 4.1 Low resistance ground fault at 5 km t = 33,0 s.

M ain : G raphs 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 (V ) 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 -20.0 -25.0 -30.0 -35.0 T e im 0.5999 0.6000 0.6001 0.6002 0.6003 0.6004 0.6000 0.6002 0.0002 E a 0.000 0.043 0.043 M -0.008 in M ax 22.725
Figure 4.2 Low resistance ground fault at 25 km t = 165,0 s

M ain : G raphs 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 (V ) 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 -20.0 -25.0 -30.0 -35.0 T e im 0.5999 0.6000 0.6001 0.6002 0.6003 0.6004 0.6000 0.6003 0.0003 E a 0.000 -0.165 -0.165 M -0.165 in M ax 22.725
Figure 4.3 Low resistance ground fault at 45 km t = 299,0 s
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4.1.2 High resistance to ground Figure 4.4-4.6 shows the voltage Ea measured by the TDR from a high resistance fault of 231 to ground at 5, 25 and 45 km.
M ain : Graphs 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 (V ) 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 -20.0 -25.0 -30.0 -35.0 Tim e 0.5999 0.6000 0.6001 0.6002 0.6003 0.6004 0.6000 0.6000 0.0000 E a 0.006 -0.756 -0.762 M -4.049 in M 22.726 ax
Figure 4.4 High resistance ground fault at 5 km t = 33,0 s


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4.1.3 Open circuit Figure 4.7-4.9 shows the voltage Ea measured by the TDR from an open circuit at 5, 25 and 45 km.
M ain : Graphs 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 (V ) 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 -5.0 Tim e 0.5999 0.6000 0.6001 0.6002 0.6003 0.6004 0.6000 0.6000 0.0000 E a 0.247 2.584 2.336 M 0.247 in M 22.748 ax
Figure 4.7 Open circuit at 5km t = 33,5s

Figure 4.8 Open circuit at 25km t = 165,0 s

Figure 4.9 Open circuit at 45km t=299,0 s
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4.2 Pulse width

The pulse width is a way of controlling the amount of energy applied to a fault. A simulation of pulse width settings of 1 and 20 s applied to a high resistance fault 25 km from the converter station is showed in figure 4.10 and 4.11. The displayed values are the voltage Ea measured by the TDR.
Main : Graphs 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 (V) 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 -20.0 -25.0 -30.0 -35.0 Time 0.5999 0.6000 0.6001 0.6002 0.6003 0.6004 0.6000 0.6002 0.0002 Ea 0.006 -0.017 -0.023 Min -0.159 Max 22.653
Figure 4.10 The reflection from a 1 s pulse is too small to detect.

Main : Graphs 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 (V) 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 -20.0 -25.0 -30.0 -35.0 Time 0.5999 0.6000 0.6001 0.6002 0.6003 0.6004 0.6000 0.6002 0.0002 Ea 0.006 0.058 0.052 Min -0.111 Max 22.757
Figure 4.11 The reflection from a 20 s pulse where t=165,5 s.
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4.3 Pulse amplitude

The affects of higher or lower pulse amplitude is tested by applying a lower voltage of 10 V in addition to the previous 25 V simulations. The simulations are done with a high resistance fault, which is likely to be the hardest to detect, at 5, 25 and 45 km and a pulse width of 10 s. Figure 4.12-4.14 shows the result, where the displayed values are the voltage Ea measured by the TDR.
M ain : G raphs 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 T e im 0.5999 0.6000 0.6001 0.6002 0.6003 0.6004 0.6000 0.6000 0.0000 E a 0.002 -0.303 -0.305 M -1.620 in M ax 9.090
Figure 4.12 High resistance ground fault at 5 km t=33,0 s

M ain : G raphs 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 T e im 0.5999 0.6000 0.6001 0.6002 0.6003 0.6004 0.6000 0.6002 0.0002 E a 0.002 0.009 0.006 M -0.059 in M ax 9.090

M ain : G raphs 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 T e im 0.5999 0.6000 0.6001 0.6002 0.6003 0.6004 0.6000 0.6003 0.0003 E a 0.002 -0.028 -0.030 M -0.144 in M ax 9.090
(V )
(V )
(V )
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4.4 Connection
By connecting the LFL to both conductors instead of one conductor and ground, another configuration is achieved. Simulations are done for a high resistance fault and an open line. Figure 4.15-4.17 shows the high resistance simulations at 5, 25 and 45 km distance from the converter station. The displayed values are the voltage Ea measured by the TDR.
M ain : G raphs 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 -20.0 -25.0 -30.0 -35.0 E a 0.246 -0.436 -0.682 M -2.572 in M ax 22.917
(V ) T e im
0.6000
0.6002
0.6004
0.6000 0.6000 0.0000

M ain : G raphs 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 -20.0 -25.0 -30.0 -35.0 E a 0.246 0.263 0.017 M 0.169 in M ax 22.917
(V ) T e im
0.6000
0.6002
0.6004
0.6000 0.6002 0.0002

M ain : G raphs 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 -20.0 -25.0 -30.0 -35.0 E a 0.246 0.259 0.013 M -0.093 in M ax 22.917
(V ) T e im
0.6000
0.6002
0.6004
0.6000 0.6003 0.0003
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Figure 4.18-4.20 shows the open circuit simulation of the conductor conductor mode at 5, 25 and 45 km. The displayed values are the voltage Ea measured by the TDR.
M ain : G raphs 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 (V ) 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 -5.0 Tim e 0.6000 0.6002 0.6004 0.6000 0.6000 0.0000 E a 0.247 3.776 3.528 M 0.247 in M 22.917 ax
Figure 4.18 Open circuit at 5 km t=33,5 s


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4.5 Parallel/single line

Parallel lines give a risk of induced voltages that might affect the ability to make accurate measurements. Therefore a simulation is made with a change in the current in one conductor. Figure 4.21 shows the induced voltage at the converter station when di/dt changes from 2 A /ms to 0 A /ms in the parallel conductor. The displayed value is the voltage Ea measured by the TDR.
Main : Graphs 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Time 0.580 0.590 0.600 0.610 0.620 0.630 ... ... ... Ea
Figure 4.21 The induced voltage at the converter station from a parallel line.
A simulation with a single line as a reference and for future projects was also made with a high resistance ground fault at 5, 25 and 45 km. The results are shown in figure 4.22-4.24, where the displayed values are the voltage Ea measured by the TDR.
M ain : G raphs 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 -20.0 -25.0 -30.0 -35.0 E a 0.006 -0.763 -0.769 M -3.734 in M 22.730 ax
(V ) Tim e
(V)
0.5999
0.6000
0.6001
0.6002
0.6003
0.6004
0.6000 0.6000 0.0000
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(V ) Tim e
0.5999
0.6000
0.6001
0.6002
0.6003
0.6004
0.6000 0.6002 0.0002

(V ) Tim e
0.6000
0.6002
0.6004
0.6000 0.6003 0.0003
4.6 Electrode station configuration

In case of problems with the remote controlled disconnectors at the electrode station a simulation is made with the disconnectors closed. The simulations are made with a high resistance fault at 5, 25 and 45 km, see figure 4.25-4.27. The displayed values are the voltage Ea measured by the TDR.
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(V ) Tim e
0.5999
0.6000
0.6001
0.6002
0.6003
0.6004
0.6000 0.6000 0.0000

(V ) Tim e
0.5999
0.6000
0.6001
0.6002
0.6003
0.6004
0.6000 0.6002 0.0002

M ain : G raphs 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 -5.0 -10.0 -15.0 -20.0 -25.0 -30.0 -35.0 E a 0.000 0.024 0.024 M -0.075 in M 22.725 ax
(V ) Tim e
0.5999
0.6000
0.6001
0.6002
0.6003
0.6004
0.6000 0.6003 0.0003
23
4.7 Arc reflection

Simulations with a high voltage pulse representing the Arc reflection method are done to a high resistance ground fault at 5, 25 and 45 km, see figure 4.28-4.30. The displayed values are the voltage Ea measured by the TDR.
M ain : G raphs 40.0k 35.0k 30.0k 25.0k 20.0k 15.0k 10.0k 5.0k 0.0 -5.0k -10.0k -15.0k -20.0k -25.0k -30.0k -35.0k -40.0k E a 0.0069k -3.6001k -3.6070k M -5.5995k in M 29.6459k ax
y (V )
0.2999
0.3000
0.3001
0.3002
0.3003
0.3004
0.3000 0.3000 0.0000

M ain : G raphs 40.0k 35.0k 30.0k 25.0k 20.0k 15.0k 10.0k 5.0k 0.0 -5.0k -10.0k -15.0k -20.0k -25.0k -30.0k -35.0k -40.0k E a 0.0069k -0.2725k -0.2794k M -0.2084k in M 29.6459k ax
y (V )
0.2999
0.3000
0.3001
0.3002
0.3003
0.3004
0.3000 0.3002 0.0002
24
M ain : G raphs 40.0k 35.0k 30.0k 25.0k 20.0k 15.0k 10.0k 5.0k 0.0 -5.0k -10.0k -15.0k -20.0k -25.0k -30.0k -35.0k -40.0k E a 0.0069k 0.0372k 0.0302k M 0.0069k in M 29.6459k ax
y (V )
0.2999
0.3000
0.3001
0.3002
0.3003
0.3004
0.3000 0.3003 0.0003
25
Results and analysis
To be able detect a line fault with a LFL the reflection from an injected pulse has to be well defined with significant amplitude and a preferable low rise time. High amplitude of the reflection makes it easier to distinguish from smaller reflections caused by discontinuities in the line. A low rise time makes it easier to point out a more precise arrival time for the reflection and there by give a more accurate distance to the fault. The results from the simulations are presented in tables with the travel time for the pulse and the amplitude of the reflection. Further is the distance to the fault calculated by equation (6) and an error is calculated by subtracting the actual distance from the calculated distance. The propagation speed that has been used to calculate the distances is 302,35 m/s which been obtained as a mean value through simulations at 45 km distance. The odd result of a higher propagation speed than the speed of light probably comes from an inefficiently long solution time step setting of 0,5 s. Simulations show that by shortening the solution time step a more accurate propagation speed can be obtained. However as a shorter solution time step increases the simulation time the longer time step has been chosen.
5.1 Fault type

5.1.1 Low resistance ground fault The results of the low resistance simulations (figure 4.1-4.3) are shown in table 5.1. From the results can we see that the reflections are of reversed polarity as indicated in section 2.1. The amplitudes of the reflections are high at a close distance but attenuate as the distance to the faults increases. The rise time of the fault reflections is low at a close distance but increases with increased distance. The error seams to increase with increasing distance and the maximum error is 201 m which is approximately 0,4% of the total length of the line. Over all the low resistance fault of 1 is highly detectable in the simulation.
Table 5.1 Results from the low resistance simulation.
Fault distance [km] 5 25 45
Pulse amplitude [V] 25 25 25
Pulse width [s] 10 10 10
Reflection amplitude [V] -35 -15 -10
Travel time [s] 33,0 165,0 299,0
Calculated distance [m] 4 989 24 944 45 201
Error [m] -11 -56 201
26
5.1.2 High resistance ground fault The results of the high resistance simulations (figure 4.4-4.6) are shown in table 5.2. From the results can we see that the reflections are of reversed polarity as for the low resistance fault. The amplitudes of the reflections are lower than for the reflections from the low resistance faults as expected from equations (4), due to the higher resistance. The rise time of the fault reflections is low at a close distance and increases with increased distance as for the low resistance faults. The maximum error is 126 m which is about 0,25% of the total length of the line. The low amplitude of the reflections at long distances would make them hard to detect in a real world measurement. This is due to reflections from small in homogeneities in the electrode line that would cause a background noise and disguise the fault reflection. A function that can somewhat resolve this problem is the possibility to store a trace from healthy measurements. The new trace can then be compared with an old trace displaying any deviations between them, figure 5.1 illustrates this function.
Table 5.2 Results from the high resistance simulation.
Travel time [s] 33,0 166,0 298,5
Error [m] -11 95 126
However considering table 3.5 in section 3.3, high resistance faults at long distances would not be detected by the differential protection system and is therefore not required to be detected by the LFL [8].
M : Graphs ain 25.0 20.0 15.0 (V ) 10.0 5.0 0.0 -5.0 Tim e 0.1999 0.2000 0.2001 0.2002 0.2003 0.2004 0.2000 0.2003 0.0003 E a E b 22.677 0.266 -22.411 M 0.266 in M 22.737 ax
Figure 5.1 A high resistance fault (blue) plotted over a stored trace of a healthy line (green) makes it easier to pinpoint difficult faults.
27
Travel time [s] 33,0 166,0 298,5
Error [m] -11 95 126
5.1.3 Open circuit The results of the open circuit simulations (figure 4.7-4.9) are shown in table 5.3. From the results can we see that the reflections are of the same polarity as the original pulse, indicating that the fault is of a high resistance series character. The amplitudes of the reflections are higher at a close distance but attenuate as the distance to the faults increases as for the ground faults. The rise time of the fault reflections seams to be lower than for the ground faults although the error shows no sign of improvement with a maximum error of 201 m. The simulations show that an open circuit fault ought to be easier to detect than ground faults due to the high amplitudes of the reflections.
Table 5.3 Results from open circuit simulation.
Reflection amplitude [V] 32 17 10
Travel time [s] 33,5 165,0 299,0
Error [m] 64 -56 201
5.2 Pulse width

The results of the pulse width simulations (figure 4.10-4.11) that were applied to a high resistance ground fault are shown in table 5.4. The amplitudes of the reflections are higher with a longer pulse width, this is probably from the increased amount of energy delivered to the fault. The shorter pulse width of 1 s is hardly detectable and a pulse width of at least 10 s preferable 20 s seams suitable for a longer overhead line. A possible application for a short pulse width is if the fault is close to the measuring point and longer pulse widths would disguise it. The rise time of the fault reflections seams to be unaffected by the longer pulse width. Further shows the error no difference between the two detectable traces.
28
Table 5.4 Results from the pulse width simulation.
Reflection amplitude [V] 0 -8 -13
Travel time [s] 166,0 165,5
Calculated distance [m] 25 095 25 019
Error [m] 95 19
5.3 Pulse amplitude

The results of the pulse amplitude simulations (figure 4.12-4.14) that were applied to a high resistance ground fault are shown in table 5.5. The amplitudes of the 10 V pulse reflections are roughly in the same area as for the 25 V pulse amplitudes calculated as fractions of the original pulses. The rise time of the fault reflections seams also to be unaffected by differences in the pulse amplitude, this is somewhat expected due to the linearity of the fault model. Further shows the error no bigger difference between the different pulse amplitudes. The simulations show no difference between the pulse amplitudes and no conclusions can be made stating that higher or lower pulse amplitude is better. A possible reason for choosing lower pulse amplitude would be measurements on low voltage control cables reducing the risk of interference. However as the LFL is to be used on an overhead line this is not an issue of interest and higher pulse amplitude should be preferred due to the higher energy delivered to the fault.
Table 5.5 Results from the pulse amplitude simulation.
Travel time [s] 33,0 167,0 298,5
Error [m] -11 246 126
5.4 Connection
The results of the simulations with the TDR connected between the two conductors (figure 4.15-4.20) are shown in table 5.6 for the high resistance fault and in table 5.7 for the open circuit. The reflections of the high resistance faults are lower at short distances although they are more constant throughout the length of the line. The rise time of the fault reflections are also quite consistent with a well defined reflection even at the longer distance. The error shows no significant improvement to previous simulations.
29
Travel time [s] 33,5 165,5 299,0
Error [m] 64 19 201
The reflection amplitudes of the open circuit faults are high and the attenuation is low even at long distances. The rise time of the fault reflections are quite consistent with a well defined reflection even at the longer distance. The error shows no significant difference in improvement.
Table 5.7 Results from the open circuit simulation.
Reflection amplitude [V] 33 30 29
Travel time [s] 33,5 165,0 298,5
Error [m] 64 -56 126
5.5 Parallel/single line

The simulation with a parallel line in operation (figure 4.21) shows that a moderate change in the current will induces a voltage in the conductor connected to the TDR. The induced voltage is over 200 V which will probably make accurate measurements difficult and could cause possible damage to the TDR unit. A simulation was made with a single electrode line as reference and for future projects (figure 4.22-4.24). The simulation was applied to high resistance ground fault and the result is shown in table 5.8. The simulation show that a single line has slightly less attenuation of the reflected wave compared to the case with two conductors. It should therefore be easier to detect faults on a single line, although the simulation also shows a significant decrease in the propagation speed at increasing line length. This results in a big error if no compensation in the propagation speed is made.
30
Table 5.8 Results from the single line simulation.
Travel time [s] 32,0 169,0 306,50
Error [m] -162 549 1 335
5.6 Electrode station configuration

The results of the simulations with the disconnectors closed at the electrode station (figure 4.25-4.27) are shown in table 5.9. The reflection amplitudes show the same result as for the high resistance faults with the disconnectors open. Further shows the simulations the same attenuation and rise time as the high resistance simulation. At long distances the fault reflection can be disguised by the reflection from the electrode and measurements should therefore preferable be made with the disconnectors open.
Table 5.9 Results from the electrode station simulation.
Actual fault distance [km] 5 25 45
Travel time [s]
Error [m]
33,0 166,0 299,0
-11 95 201
5.7 Arc reflection

The results from the Arc reflection simulations (figure 4.28-4.30) applied to a high resistance fault are shown in table 5.10. The simulations show no difference from the low voltage pulse simulations on high resistance faults. This is probably because of the linear fault model and a better nonlinear model should be developed if this method is to be simulated further.
31
Table 5.10 Results from the Arc reflection simulation.
Pulse amplitude [kV] 30 30 30
Reflection amplitude [kV] -27 -10 -5
Travel time [s] 33,5 166,0 297,5
Error [m] 64 95 -25
32
Conclusions and future work
The results of the simulations show that it is possible to detect faults of both open circuit and ground fault types with a suitable TDR unit. Ground faults with high resistance occurring at long distances can be hard to detect due to the low reflection amplitudes. This problem can somewhat be resolved with a function that lets the user compare an old trace of a healthy line with the new trace. The study shows that most of the faults can be detected and the distance to the fault can be calculated within an accuracy of 250 m, although further studies with field measurements and staged line faults should determine a more precise accuracy of the final LFL. The pulse width of the TDR needs to be at least 10 s, preferable 20 s to deliver high enough energy to the fault to create a detectable reflection. The pulse amplitude seams to be of less significance in this simulation, although higher pulse amplitude is likely to be more suitable in a real measurement due to the higher energy delivered to the fault. The Hipotronics TDR 1150 is a unit that fulfil these requirements and should therefore be able to work as a LFL on the electrode line. Further shows the simulation with the TDR connected between the two conductors that this is a possible way of decreasing the rise time of the reflections and thereby increasing the accuracy, however further field studies can clarify this. The simulations show a risk of high voltage transients if measurements are done with a parallel line in operation. This is due to induction from current changes in the parallel conductor and could cause possible damage to a TDR unit. In the case with a single conductor the simulation shows less attenuation of the reflections and a fault should therefore be easier to detect. Although a significant decrease of the wave propagation speed at increasing distance to the fault was detected. This results in a substantial error in the calculated distance if no compensations are made to the propagation speed. Simulations with the electrode line connected to the electrode shows that high resistance ground faults close to the electrode station can be disguised by the reflection of the electrode. Measurements should therefore preferable be made with the disconnectors open at the electrode station. The simulation of the Arc reflection method, which combines the use of a TDR and a high energy impulse generator, shows no improvement to the stand-alone TDR unit. This can be explained with the linear fault model and a better fault model has to be developed to study this method further.
33
References
1. ABB AB (2010) Easy introduction for laypersons [Electronic] ABB AB Available: <http://www.abb.com/industries/us/9AAF400197.aspx> [2010-04-06] 2. ABB AB (2010) Caprivi Link Interconnector [Electronic] ABB AB Available: <http://www.abb.com/cawp/gad02181/a93201eafb31ba07c125738000468455.aspx> [2010-04-06] 3. Hileman, Andrew R (1999) Insulation Coordination for Power Systems Marcel Dekker 4. Gill, Paul (2008) Electrical Power Equipment Maintenance and Testing CRC Press 5. Hipotronics (2010) Products - Cable Fault Locating Equipment [Electronic] Hipotronics Available: <http://www.hipotronics.com/products/cable-fault-locating-equipment/> [2010-04-06] 6. Megger (2010) PFL40A-1500 [Electronic] Megger Available: <http://www.megger.com/se/products/ProductDetails.php?ID=1227&Description= > [2010-04-06] 7. ABB AB 1JNL100119-686 HVDC Protection System Unpublished manuscript ABB AB 8. ABB AB 06MR0005 Rev.00 Caprivi Link Interconnector Converter Stations Project Volume 3 Sec 7.1.12.2 Unpublished manuscript ABB AB
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August 10, 2010

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

50 km electrode lines to ground electrodes

IGBT Smoothing valve reactor

Figure 1.1 Principal of operation in the ground return modes.

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

1.2 Project description

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Figure 1.2 The PSCAD simulation environment.

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

2.1 Travelling waves

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Then in terms of e and i we get

Z Z1 i' = 2 i Z1 + Z 2 i' ' = 2 Z1 i Z1 + Z 2

Figure 2.1 Voltage reflections at a point of discontinuity where Z1<Z2.

Figure 2.2 Voltage reflections at a point of discontinuity where Z1>Z2

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

2.2 Description of the time domain reflectometer (TDR)

2.3 Description of the impulse thumper

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

2.4 Description of the arc reflection method

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

3.1 Modelling of electrode line

Tower: Yiduell Conductors: Rail

Aluminium area [mm2] 484

Equivalent copper area [mm2] 304

Current rating [A] 920

DC resistance at 70 C/km [ ] 0,0722

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Table 3.2 Transmission line model settings in PSCAD/EMTDC.

1 0.001 [ohm] Tlinezambezi Tlinezambezi 0.001 [ohm] 1

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

3.2 Modelling of line fault locator

TDR 1150 25 20 60 100 480

BRK1 10 [kohm] Timed Breaker Logic Open@t0

Figure 3.3 The TDR model, there Ea is the measured voltage.

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Model 5250-30 PFL 40

Voltage [kV] 0-30 8/16/34

Stored energy [J] 2000 1500

Figure 3.4 Arc reflection model.

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

3.3 Fault model

Voltage [kV] 3,94 2,86 2,43 1,68 0,85

Resistance [ ] 231 169 143 99 50

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

4.1 Fault type

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Figure 4.1 Low resistance ground fault at 5 km t = 33,0 s.

Figure 4.2 Low resistance ground fault at 25 km t = 165,0 s

Figure 4.3 Low resistance ground fault at 45 km t = 299,0 s

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Figure 4.4 High resistance ground fault at 5 km t = 33,0 s

Figure 4.5 High resistance ground fault at 25 km t = 166,0 s

Figure 4.6 High resistance ground fault at 45 km t = 298,5 s

Simulation of line fault locator on HVDC Light electrode line

Figure 4.7 Open circuit at 5km t = 33,5s

Figure 4.8 Open circuit at 25km t = 165,0 s