CHEMISTRY: MIDYEAR REVIEW SHEET

Physical Behavior of Matter Chemistry is the study of matter. Matter: anything that takes up space and has mass. made up of pure substances and compounds. Substances any variety of matter that has the same(constant) properties and composition throughout homogenous, made up of only one thing two types of substances: elements and compounds. Elements homogenous can not be decomposed into anything simpler by chemical means ex: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen Compounds can be decomposed by a chemical change made of two or more different elements chemically united in a definite ratio ex. water(H2O), sodium chloride (NaCl) binary compound consists of only two elements different properties Mixtures two or more substances are mixed together (not united) can be heterogeneous, two different things, or homogenous can have different proportions each substance has its own properties Properties of a Substance Properties are characteristics that can be used to identify a substance. Physical Properties can be recognized without changing the substance to anything else. color hardness phase solubility odor density mass

volume boiling point/melting point can it form a solution conductivity Chemical Properties describes how a substance reacts to form a new substance does it burn does it react with water does it react with acid

Separating Mixtures The substances or parts of a mixture can be separated by physical methods such as distillation, filtration, chromatography, being picked up by a magnet, etc. Distillation a process in which a mixture of liquids or liquids and solids can be separated by its boiling points Filtration a process that separates the solid and liquid parts of a mixture Chromatography way to separate different molecules in a mixture Phases of Matter There are three phases of matter, solid, liquid, and gas. Solid Definite shape and volume Particles are close together in fixed positions, vibrate but do not move. Crystalline structure Liquid Definite volume and takes the shape of the container Particles are still close together and move while touching No regular pattern or arrangement of particles Gas No definite volume and no definite shape of their own.

 Particles are very far apart, spread all over, and fill evenly closed container, particles move all over. Total disorder-particles move in all directions (Disorder of particles or entropy increases from solid to liquid to gas) Physical and Chemical Change Physical Change: change in appearance Chemical Claim: produces a new substance with different No new substance is produced. properties. Ex: Tear paper into pieces. Ex: If a cool metal us put into water or acid and bubbles are formed, you know it is a chemical change because Chop carrots. anew substance was produced. Heat ice and ice becomes water and water vapor.

Atomic Concepts

Atomic Models John Dalton stated that elements are made of atoms. JJ Thomson discovered electrons, particles with a negative charge. Atom was a hard sphere of positive charge with electrons in it. Ernest Rutherford bombarded gold foil with alpha particles. Most of the alpha particles went straight through the foil, showing that most of the atom is empty space. Some alpha particles that hit the gold foil bounced back, showing that most of the mass of the atom is in the center, the nucleus, which is positive. Niels Bohr electrons are in different orbits around the nucleus. Protons are in the nucleus, which is positive. Electrons revolve the nucleus in the concentric circular orbits. Modern Model: Wave Mechanical Model (Electron Cloud) Protons are in the nucleus. Shows that an electron is in an orbital, which is the most probable location where the electron it is. Electron as a diffuse cloud of negative charge. The thickest part is the most probably place to find the electron. The thinnest part of the cloud is the least likely. When an electron goes from an orbital which has morn energy to an orbital which has less energy, a spectrum (colors, energy) is given off. The Atom Nucleus is in the center of the atom and has protons and neutrons. The electrons are around the nucleus. Most of the atom is empty space. PROTON NEUTRON ELECTRON CHARGE Positive none negative MASS 1 amu (atomic mass 1 amu 1/1836 amu unit) One Atomic Mass Unit (amu) equals to 1/12 the mass of Carbon. 1 amu (atomic mass unit) = 1.66 x 10-24g.

The Atomic Number of any atom is equal to the number of protons, which is equal to the number of electrons. Atomic Number = Number of Protons = Number of Electrons The Mass Number is equal to the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. To find the number of neutrons, take the mass number minus the atomic number. Neutrons = Mass Number Atomic Number Atomic Mass is the weighted average mass of the naturally occurring isotopes of that element. The average is weighted according to the proportions in which the isotopes occur. To find the weighted mass: Take the percentage of each isotope times its mass; add the numbers. Fourth principal energy level can hold only 32 electrons. Electron Configuration shows how many electrons are in each principal energy level.

Isotopes same element have the same atomic number but different mass numbers have different number of neutrons Isotopes have the same atomic number, different mass number, and different number of neutrons. Principal Energy Levels Principal energy level shows how far the electron is from the nucleus. Electrons in the first energy have the lowest energy. First principal energy level can hold only 2 electrons. Second principal energy level can only hold 8 electrons. Third principal energy level can only hold 18 electrons.

Ground and Excited States An atom is in the ground state when the electrons are filling the atom in order. An atom is excited when the electrons have absorbed energy or gotten more energy. The electrons jump ahead to a high energy level leaving one of the inner principal energy levels partly empty. When the excited electron go back to lower energy levels, they give off energy (in

specific amounts called quanta), which produces a spectrum of colors, or bright line of spectrum. Excited electrons from different atoms of the same element return to different energy levels. Periodic Table

A flame tests helps to identify an element. Different metal ions are heated in a flame, and each element produces its own color. A bright line spectrum also helps to identify an element.

Periods Horizontal rows on the periodic table. Groups Vertical columns Elements in a group have similar properties. Periodic Law states that the properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic number. Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids, & Noble Gases All elements to the left of the zigzag line are metals. All elements touching the zigzag line are metalloids. Elements to the right of the zigzag line are nonmetals. Group 18 are noble gases. Most Active Metal : Fr (francium) Most Active Nonmetal F (fluorine)

Electron Affinity = Electronegativity This table only represents the basic trends not the increase decrease!!!

Metals, Metalloids, Nonmetals, and Noble Gases Metals Low ionization energy low electronegativity lose electrons to form positive ions metallic luster, malleable, and ductile good conductors of heat and electricity Nonmetals high ionization energy high electronegativity gain electrons to form negative ions lack metallic luster and are brittle poor conductors of heat and electricity usually gases, molecular solids, or network solids. Metalloids have properties of both metals and nonmetals Noble Gases complete outer principal energy stable high boiling point Ions of Metals and Nonmetals

When a metal such as lithium loses an electron, a nonmetal like fluorine gains the electron. Ion and atom differ only in the number of electrons.

Physical Properties of Matter Color, odor, solubility, density, boiling point, melting point, hardness, malleability, conductivity, phase, etc. Elements in Group 1 form compounds that are soluble. Elements in Group 2 form some compounds that are soluble and some compounds that are not soluble. Elements in Group 2 have high density than elements in Group 1 in the same period. Elements of Group 1 are soft and they can be cut with a knife, Elements of Group 2 are harder but can be cut with a hard steel knife. Most of the elements are solid at STP. Only mercury and bromine are liquid at STP. Elements of Group 18 and nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, and chlorine are gases at STP. Chemical Properties of Matter Chemical property of an element describes how an element reacts in a chemical reaction. Elements in Group 1 react vigorously in cold water. Elements in Group 2 do not react with cold water, but reacts slowly with hot water. As you go down Groups 1 and 2, reactivity increases. Francium is the most active. For nonmetals in a group, the rule is that the top one is more active than the elements beneath it. In Group 18, small noble gases, helium, neon, and argon do not react. Heavier noble gases, krypton, xenon, and radon can react with fluorine and oxygen. Groups of the Periodic Table Elements in the same group react similarly. They have the same number of valence electrons. As you go down a group of the Periodic Table: Radius increases Electronegativity decrease Ionization energy generally decreases Group 17 is called halogen group. Group 18 is called noble gases. Transition Elements Elements in groups 3-11 of the Periodic Table are called Transition Elements. Ions of transition elements are usually colored, both in solid compounds and in solutions. Elements are in the d orbitals. Have multiple positive oxidation states.

Ionization Energy Amount of energy needed to remove an electron. First ionization energy is the amount of energy needed to remove the first electron. The smaller the amount of ionization energy, the easier it is to lose an electron. As you go down any group, ionization energy decreases because the valence electrons are further away from the positive protons. As you go across any period, ionization energy increases. Electronegativity Attraction for electrons The larger the electronegativity the more the atom attracts electrons. As you go down any group, electronegativity decreases. As you go across any period, electronegativity increases. Atomic Radius An atomic radius is half the distance between adjacent nuclei. Three Types of Atomic Radius: Covalent Atomic Radius: distance from the nucleus to the other valence electrons when atoms are covalently bonded. Van der Waals Radius: half the distance between nuclei of the same atom that have not formed a chemical bond Atomic Radius in Metals: half the distance from nucleus to nucleus in a crystalline metal As you go down any group, the atomic radius increases. As you go across any period, atomic radius decreases. Ionic Radius of Metals and Nonmetals When a metal loses an electron, that atom becomes an ion and becomes smaller. Metals lose electrons; therefore, the ionic radius is smaller than the atomic radius.

Nonmetals gain electrons; therefore, the ionic radius is larger than the atomic radius. Ionic radius increases as you go down a group, because more principal energy levels are added. As you go across a period, the ionic radius decreases.

Chemistry of a Period

As you go across a period: the atomic number increases radius decreases ionization energy increases electronegativity increases transition for positive oxidation states to negative oxidation states

Chemical Bonding Electronegativity and Bonding between Atoms Chemical Bond an attraction between the protons of one atom and the electrons of the next atom that attaches that attaches the atoms together. Formed by sharing or transferring of electrons Bond is broken energy is absorbed Bond is formed energy is released Electronegativity atoms attraction for electrons in a bond Higher the electronegativity, the more the atom attracts electrons Lower the electronegativity, the weaker is the attraction for electrons Bonds between Atoms Octet Rule states that atoms tend to lose, gain, or share electrons in order to have a complete outer shell. Ionic Bonds formed when a metal transfers one or more electrons to a nonmetal. Opposite charges attract one another, forming an ionic bond. Ionic bond is formed by the transfer of electrons. Has an electronegativity difference of 1.4 or more. Exception: Metal hydrides (compounds of an active metal and hydrogen) Properties of Ionic Substances Hard Good conductors of electricity in solution and liquid form, but not in solid High melting and boiling points Dissolve in polar substances Covalent Bonds formed when two atoms (both nonmetals share electrons. Electronegativity difference is less than 1.4. Types of Covalent Bonds Nonpolar Covalent electrons are shared between atoms of the same element, the electrons are shared equally and the bond is nonpolar Polar Covalent electrons are shared between atoms of different elements; they are shared unequally Coordinate Covalent formed when one atom donates both electrons that are shared Substances That Have Covalent Bonds Molecular Substances molecule is the smallest discrete particle of an element or compound that has covalent bonds between atoms. Properties of Molecular Substances Soft Poor conductors of heat, poor conductors of electricity Low melting and boiling points Network Solids have covalent bonds between atoms linked in one big network or one big macromolecule with no discrete particles. Number of Covalent Bonds Single Covalent Bonds Atoms share 1 pair of electrons. Double Covalent Bonds 2 atoms share 2 pairs of electrons. Triple Covalent Bonds Atoms share 3 pairs of electrons. Saturated Organic Compounds carbon compounds that have only single bonds Metallic Bonding

or 1 triple bond Solubility Polar substances dissolve in polar liquids, such as water Nonpolar substances dissolve in nonpolar liquids, such as carbon tetrachloride.

Unsaturated Organic Compounds have at least 1 double

 Metallic bonding occurs in metals. A metal consists of positive ions surrounded by a sea of mobile electrons. In metallic bonding, the attraction between the negative electrons and the positive ions hold the metal together. Metals are malleable because the moving valence electrons can still hold the metal together in any shape.

Properties of Metals (have metallic bonds): Hard Good conductors of heat and electricity, because of mobile electrons. High melting and boiling points because of strong attraction.

Bonds between Atoms 1. Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons, difference in electronegativity of 1.4 or more. 2. Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons, difference in electronegativity less than 1.4
a. Nonpolar covalent b. Polar covalent c. Coordinate covalent bonds d. Molecular substances e. Network solids. 3. Metallic Bonds: mobile electrons attracted to positive ions Properties: 1. Ionic Hard Good conductors of electricity (solution and liquid, not solid) 2. Covalent Soft Poor conductors of electricity

3. Metallic

Hard

Good conductor of electricity (solid and liquid) because of mobile (moving) electrons

High melting and boiling points Low melting and boiling points High melting and boiling points

Intermolecular Forces Dipoles: A molecule composed of only two atoms will be a dipole if the bond between the atoms is polar. Molecular Polarity: Whether or not a molecule is polar depends on its shape, whether its bonds are polar, and hoe the charge is spread out over the molecule. Polar Bonds: Symmetrical Molecules: Because of symmetry, molecules that have polar bonds are overall nonpolar. Asymmetrical Molecules: If a molecule has polar bonds (and there is no symmetry to cancel out the + and -), the molecule is polar. Nonpolar Bonds: Molecules with nonpolar bonds are always nonpolar. Hydrogen Bonding formed between molecules when hydrogen is covalently bonded to a small highly electronegative atom. Dispersion Forces weak intermolecular forces between nonpolar molecules Make it possible for small, nonpolar molecules to exist in the liquid or solid phase under conditions of low temperature and high pressure Increase with increasing molecular size and decreasing distance between molecules Molecule-Ion Attraction attraction between the ions of an ionic compound Opposite charges attract: positive to negative and negative to positive Chemical Formulas describes the composition of elements or compounds Molecular Formula indicates the total number of atoms of each element needed to form the molecule. Empirical Formula simplest ratio in which atoms combine to form a compound In a chemical formula, you put the metal first and the nonmetal last. Compounds made of two elements end in ide. How to Write Formulas The sum of all the oxidation numbers must equal zero because atoms because molecules are neutral. Stock System: A Roman numeral after the element shows the oxidation number of the element. Criss-Cross Method to Write Formulas Write the oxidation number of the element on the upper right corner of the element. Criss-cross only the numbers of the two charges. Write these numbers below and to the right of the elements. The number next to the element shows the number of atoms of that element is in the compound. Compounds A compound is a substance made of 2 or more different elements that are chemically united in a definite proportion. Chemical compounds can be broken down into new substances by chemical means.

 Formulas and naming a chemical compound can be represented by a specific chemical formula and given a name based on the IUPAC system of naming. Finding Molecular Formula From Empirical Formula STEP 1: Find the mass of the empirical formula. STEP 2: Divide the mass of the molecular formula by the mass of the empirical formula. STEP 3: Multiply the empirical formula by the answer found above in step 2. Chemical Equations shows which bonds are broken and which bonds are built. The numbers of the left side of the arrow must be equal to the number of atoms on the right side of the arrow. You can only change the coefficient number in front of the element or compound.

Conservation of Mass, Energy, and Charge Amount of matter stays the same, cannot be created or destroyed The total mass on one side of the equation must equal the total mass on the other side of the equation. Energy may be changed from one form to another, but the total amount of energy is the same. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. The total number of positive charges or negative charges must equal the number of positive or negative charges on the other side of the equation. Conservation of Matter Same number of each type of atom on each side of the equation Conservation of Energy Energy cannot be created or destroyed. The total amount of energy on one side of the equation equals the total amount of energy on the other side of the equation. Conservation of Charge The total amount of charge is equal on both sides of an equation.

Measurement Problems and Stoichiometry

Mole-Mole Problems answer how many moles of one element or compound react with a given number of moles of another element or compound STEP 1: Cross out anything that is not in the problem. STEP 2: On top of the element or compound, write the number of moles given in the problem. STEP 3: Set up a proportion. Cross multiply. Formula Mass the sum of the atomic masses in the molecule Gram Formula Mass mass of 6.02 x 1023 particles (1 mole of particles) Called gram formula mass or molar mass If they ask you the mass of 1 mole or mass of 6.02 x 1023 molecules (Avogradros number), it is the same answer as gram formula mass. Rule: 1 mole (of molecules) equals 1 gram molecular mass equals 6.02 x 1023 molecules Equals Percent Composition % composition by mass = mass of part x 100 mass of whole 22.4 liters (for gases at STP) Density Density = mass, usually expressed for gases in grams/liters Volume Gram Formula Mass = density at STP x 22.4 L Mole Problems Changing Grams to Moles number of moles = given mass (grams) gram-formula mass

Types of Chemical Reactions Synthesis Reaction: Two or more elements or simpler compounds unite to form a compound. Decomposition Reaction: A compound is broken down into 2 or more elements or simpler compounds. Single Replacement Reaction: A free element replaces an element that is part of a compound. Double Replacement Reaction: Two elements replace each other or switch partners. Two new compounds are formed. Mass-Mass Problems give you the grams of one element or compound and ask you to find the grams of another element or compound.

STEP 1: Cross out anything that is not in the problem and write the coefficient under the element or compound. STEP 2: Change the grams and put the number of moles. STEP 3: Set up a proportion. STEP 4: Convert to find the number of grams if needed. Mass-Volume Problems deal with one element or compound in grams and one element or compound in milliliters or liters.

STEP 1: Cross out anything that is not in the problem, and write the coefficient under the element or compound. STEP 2: Change the grams into moles and put that number on top. STEP 3: Set up a proportion and cross multiply. STEP 4: Convert to find the liters by multiplying by 22.4 Liters if necessary.

Volume-Volume Problems gives you liters or ml of one element or compound and asks you to find liters or ml of the other element or compound. STEP 1: Cross out anything that is not in the problem, and write the coefficient under the element or compound. STEP 2: Write the number of liters on the top of the equation. STEP 3: Set up a proportion and cross multiply. Percent Error = measured value accepted value x 100 accepted value 1 meter has 1 decimeters or 100 cm or 1000 mm. Significant Figures 1. Start counting from the first nonzero digit. 2. All digits from 1-9 count as significant digits. 3. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant. 4. In numbers with no decimal point, zeros at the end do not count as significant digits. Zeros are not significant digits. No decimal = Not count. But in numbers with a decimal point, zeros at the end count as significant figures. Significant Digits in Multiplication and Division In multiplication and division, the answer must have the same number of significant digits as the one with the smallest number of significant figures. Significant Digits in Addition and Subtraction When we add or subtract measurements, round the answer to the same number of decimal places as in the one with the smallest number of decimal places.

Some Safety Measures When Doing Laboratory Experiments 1. Do not start working in the laboratory until your teacher tells you 2. If the lab equipment is not working, tell your teacher. 3. Wear safety goggles in the lav. 4. Keep sleeves and hair away from Bunsen burners. 5. Do not bring food into the lab. Food can get contaminated. 6. When you heat a test tube, point the top away from you. 7. Dont heat a test tube that is stoppered. 8. Add acid to water, not water to acid. Stir while adding the acid. 9. Follow the teachers instructions on how to dispose of chemicals. 10. Dont put the electrical equipment near sinks (water). 11. Dont touch hot equipment. 12. Dont use glassware that is chipped or broken. If glassware is broken, tell you teacher. 13. Notify your teacher immediately of any accidents. 14. Know where the fire extinguisher, fire blanket and eye wash are. Heating and Cooling Curves When to use it (look for key words/clues) when there is a change in temp, when it asks for final temp melt, from solid to liquid boil, from liquid to gas

what to do.

Equation q=mCT q=mHf q=mHv Heating Curve

Cooling Curve