INTRODUCTION TO MICROCOMPUTERS COMPUTER: Is an electronic device used to store, input, retrieve and output (printing) information.

It works under given instructions from the person controlling it. To key in or scan data and feed it into the computer. To make data permanent in the computer memory. Make data accessible on the screen. Get/obtain a printout or soft copy (screen) of the information fed into the computer. Any raw facts that can be typed or input in the computer, it can be numbers, text or graphics.

INPUT: STORE: RETRIEVE: OUTPUT:

DATA:

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS 1. SPEED: - Computers work at a very high speed processing information compared to manual methods 2. VOLUME: - It can handle very large volumes of data in a small space simultaneously without becoming tired as long as it is properly programmed. 3. COMPLEXITY: - It can handle very complex arithmetic calculations within a very short time as opposed to manual calculations.

4. ACCURACY: -Are very accurate so long as the person controlling gives proper instructions. (hence the saying garbage in garbage out) 5. SECRECY: Information is fairly protected by use of a password.

6. CONSISTENCY: - Gives the same results given the same data and instructions. DISADVANTAGES: 1. COST/PRICE: - Computers are very expensive and cannot be afforded by many companies and individuals. 2. COMPUTER BREAKDOWN: - Like any other machine, computers do breakdown forcing the users to turn to manual methods that are slow hence time wasting. HEALTH HAZARD: - Pose great risks especially to eyesight, affected due to prolonged use if the screen is not properly regulated.

3.

4.

REDUCTION OF LABOUR FORCE: - Many people have been misplaced by computers leading to unemployment.

COMPONENTS/PARTS OF A COMPUTER 1. SCREEN: Also known as monitor/visual Display Unit VDU. Viewing of data is done on the screen when its being typed. Xx

2. SYSTEM UNIT: It houses the C.P.U also known as the brain (heart) of the computer it is where the processing of data is done. It is also the place where diskettes are inserted and other delicate component e.g. the hard disk. 3. KEYBOARD: The data to be fed into the computer is typed on the keyboard. Characters will be displayed on the screen. Basic keys on the keyboard: (i) Typing keyboard: - contain Alphabets, numerals and a number of punctuation marks. (ii) Special keys: Include control, alternate key, shift keys, caps lock, space bar, Backspace and Tab key. (iii) Additional keys: Include the page up, page down, delete home key, print screen, scroll lock, pause, End, Insert. They are input because they help when it comes to editing and formatting text. (iv) Functions Keys: From F1 to F12. These have different functions as far as a computer is programmed. (v) Numeric key pad: Is positioned on the extreme right of the keyboard, it contains +Addition, Enter-Equal sign, * multiplication sign, /used for division, -used for subtraction. (vi) Arrow keys: They facilitate horizontal and vertical movement during text editing. 4. MOUSE: (movement of user selected entry) Is the alternative to the keyboard, although it can be used for typing but it can be used for opening files in windows based programs. 5. PRINTER: This is a hardware piece used for copy production. It is necessary because it produces whatever is displayed on the screen in written form (hard copy) NB We have many other hardware components that can be connected on a computer.

ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER/REQUIREMENTS 1. HARDWARE The physical/touchable components of a computer necessary to make the Computer function. They include - Keyboard, system unit, Monitor, and Printer e.t.c.

2.

SOFTWARE Set of instructions designed to perform a particular task. Without the computer software the computer cannot work because it depends entirely on software instructions. PEOPLE/ HUMAN WARE: Constitute the most important requirements of a computer system. Their main work is to operate the computer whenever necessary. Generally the computer has operators: (i) Computer operators: - People who have done some of the computer software packages and they know how they operate but not in details.

3.

(ii) (iii)

Computer programmers: Write programs and take to the computer to see how best they can work. Computer Analyst/System designer: - Perform the task overseeing that the computer output is at its best. Their jobs are detailed and they also carry out installation of packages apart from doing maintenance work.

SWITCHING ON A COMPUTER The act of putting on a computer is termed as booting. There are two types of booting: 1. Cold booting (i) Switch on the main switch (ii) Switch on the power button on the CPU (iii) Switch on the power button on the screen (iv) Follow the commands from the computer 2. Warm booting By use of either the reset button on the system unit or by use of a combination of keys ctrl+alt+Del SWITCHING OFF A COMPUTER (i) Close the program first (ii) Click start button on the screen (iii) Move to shut down and click (iv) From the dialog box which appear on the screen select shut down then ok/yes (v) Wait until the computer tells you its now safe to turn off your computer (vi) Switch off the power button on the screen (vii) Switch off the power button on the system unit. (viii) Switch off the main switch.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS We can classify computers using different criteria e.g. 1. Size 2. Age 3. Type of data they accept/process 4. Purpose BY SIZE Super computers Main-frame computers Mini-computers Micro-computers Laptops and notepads

SUPER COMPUTERS E.G CRAY XTICS (a) Have a big storage capacity (b) They recognize a word as long as 64 or more bits long. (c) They are used in scientific applications such as processing of geological data etc MAINFRAME COMPUTERS (a) Very powerful (b) Have a big storage capacity (c) Many users even more than 1000 can log on the machine simultaneously

(d)

They are multitasking in nature i.e. several people doing different tasks.

Areas of application - Police stations used to store fingerprints - In banks MINI COMPUTERS (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Are smaller in size and less costly than super and mini computers Their memory storage can be expanded by adding external storage media e.g. tape disks They recognize 16 and 32 bits of word They are also multitasking i.e. several users can log into them doing different tasks They are well adopted for accounting processing database applications and management.

MICRO COMPUTERS (a) (b)

They are small in size and are normally referred to as P.C (personal Computers) They are well suited for small organizations and individual purposes.

LAPTOPS (a) Small and well suited for outdoor work (b) They consume very little power (c) They are designed for individual use for out office work

CLASSIFICATION BY AGE 1ST GENERATION The key electronic device of this computer was a vacuum tubes Xtics -They were very large in size - Produce a lot of heat - They used magnetic drums to store data - They used punched cards as the input device - Break down chances were so high - They required experts to run them e.g. UNIVAC (Universal Automated Computers) of 1950 1959. - Speed was 40,000 operation/seconds 2nd GENERATION The key electronic device was a transistor - Were more reliable than 1st generation computer - Were small in size than 1st generation computer - The internal memory was in form of magnetic care. - Their speed was 200,000-operational/sec magnetic tape. - E.g. ATLAS, IBM 7000 3RD GENERATION The key feature was the integrated circuit (IC)

An IC is a metric of an electronic channels and related components which enables processors with a relatively small physical size to be produced. - They used magnetic tapes for output - Their processing speed was about 1,000,000 - They had higher internal storage capacity - They had multitasking capacities - E.g. IBM and Compaq. 4TH GENERATION The key feature is very large scale IC - They are smaller in size e.g. laptops - They have a high level of multitasking - Have a high processing speed. - Have a high internal storage. - E.g. Toshiba, Amstrad etc 5TH GENERATION They are feature computers e.g. mobile phones - They are predicted to have human capacities - Their key feature will be artificial intelligence i.e. performing tasks that require them to think - They will also accept voice input/output - The input will also be from remote devices

CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE OF DATA 1. DIGITAL COMPUTERS They process data input in digital form (0,1) 2. ANOLOG COMPUTERS They process data in physical quantities. Voltages: Their input is in form of smooth graph in which information can be read e.g. Thermometer, Voltmeter e.t.c. 3. HI BREED COMPUTERS They have combined features of analogical and digital computers. CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE 1. Special purpose computers They are ment for a particular job e.g. in weapon guidance, operation purposes in hospital, petrol pump e.t.c. 2. Embedded computers This is a computer with some other devices that cannot be assessed directly e.g. cameras, video recorders, security systems e.t.c. 3. General purpose computers They are designed to solve a wider variety of problems. They can be adopted in any of the various applications comfortably by means of special written programs.

DATA PROCESSING Processed data is referred to as information. Data processing can be done in two ways: (i) Online processing: Data is processed right away within that very day or after a few minutes e.g. typing short documents like letters. (ii) Batch processing: A situation whereby data is accumulated on large quantities and they can be processed after some time e.g. after days, weeks, months e.t.c e.g. payroll system.

The processed data has to be stored. Reason for storing of information/data are: (i) Future reference (ii) Updating purposes i.e. adding, deleting etc (iii) Learning purposes

Introduction Hardware
As we learned in the Overview portion of the study guide, a computer system has two basic parts: hardware and software. The equipment associated with a computer system is the hardware. Computer hardware is responsible for performing four basic functions: input, processing, output, and storage. Let s go back to the basic definition of a computer. A computer is an electronic device that is programmed to accept data (input), process it into useful information (output), and store it for future use (storage). The processing function is under the control of a set of instructions (software); we will explore this later. The four primary components of a computer system are: Input devices send data and Input instructions to the central processing unit. Central processing unit executes computer instructions. Memory Output holds data and programs temporarily. Output devices make processed Processing data available to the user. Secondary storage devices store Secondary Storage data and programs permanently. In order to function properly, a computer system must have all four types of hardware: input, processing, output, and storage. In this example, the mouse and keyboard are the input devices and the monitor and speakers are output devices. The processor is contained inside the tower unit and the storage devices are the hard drive, CDROM drive and the diskette drive. Let s explore each of the devices in detail. Input devices accept data in a form that the computer can utilize. Also, the input devices send the data or instructions to the processing unit to be processed into useful information. There are many examples of input devices, but the most commonly used input devices are shown below: The input device feeds data, raw unprocessed facts, to the processing unit. The role of the processing unit or central processing unit is to use a stored program to manipulate the input data into the information required. In looking at the computer system below, the Central Processing Unit, CPU, is not exactly visible. The CPU is found inside the tall, vertical unit, called a tower, located just to the right of the monitor.The CPU is the brain of the computer. The CPU consists of electronic circuits that interpret and execute instructions; it communicates with the input, output, and storage devices. The CPU, with the help of memory, executes instructions in the repetition of machine cycles. A machine cycle consists of four steps: 1. The control unit fetches an instruction and data associated with it from memory. 2. The control unit decodes the instruction. 3. The arithmetic/logic unit executes the instruction. 4. The arithmetic/logic unit stores the result in memory.

The first two instructions are called instruction time, I-time. Steps 3 and 4 are called execution time, Etime. The speed of computer is measured in megahertz, MHz. A MHz is a million machine cycles per second. A personal computer listed at 500 MHz has a processor capable of handling 500 million machine cycles per second. Another measure of speed is gigahertz (GHZ), a billion machine cycles per second. A third measure of speed is a megaflop, which stands for one million floating-point operations per second. It measures the ability of the computer to perform complex mathematical operations. Memory, or primary storage, works with the CPU to hold instructions and data in order to be processed. Memory keeps the instructions and data for whatever programs you happen to be using at the moment. Memory is the first place data and instructions are placed after being input; processed information is placed in memory to be returned to an output device. It is very important to know that memory can hold data only temporarily because it requires a continuous flow of electrical current. If current is interrupted, data is lost. Memory is in the form of a semiconductor or silicon chip and is contained inside the computer. There are two types of memory: ROM and RAM. ROM is read only memory. It contains programs and data that are permanently recorded when the computer is manufactured. It is read and used by the processor, but cannot be altered by the user. RAM is random access memory. The user can access data in RAM memory randomly. RAM can be erased or written over at will by the computer program or the computer user. The amount of RAM has increased dramatically in recent years. Memory is measured in bytes. A byte is usually made up of 8 bits and represents one character a letter, digit, or symbol. The number of bytes that can be held is a measure of the memory and storage capacity. Bytes are usually measured in groups of kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes, and terabytes. The following chart defines each term. Kilobyte Megabyte Gigabyte Terabyte KB MB GB TB Roughly 1,000 bytes Roughly 1,000,000 bytes Roughly 1,000,000,000 bytes Roughly 1,000,000,000 bytes

Memory is usually measured in Megabytes; a typical personal computer will have 64MB or more. Storage is usually measured in Gigabytes. Since we have said that memory is in the form of chips and must maintain a constant flow of electricity, there must be a more permanent form of storage that does not depend on a constant flow of electricity. That form of storage is called secondary or auxiliary storage. The benefits of secondary storage are large space capacity, reliability, convenience and economy. Magnetic disk storage is a very popular type of secondary storage the floppy disk drive is an external disk drive, while a hard disk drive is an internal disk drive. The floppy disk drive is usually a 3 " drive and uses a diskette made of flexible mylar and coated with iron oxide, a substance that can be magnetized. A diskette records data as magnetized spots on the tracks of its surface. A floppy disk can hold 1.44 MBs, or a Zip drive can hold 100 MBs. A hard disk, an internal disk, is a metal platter coated with magnetic oxide that can be magnetized to represent data. Hard disks come in a variety of sizes and can be assembled into a disk pack. Hard disks for personal computers are 3 " disks in sealed modules. A hard disk is capable of holding a great deal more than floppy disks. Hard disks for personal computers are measured in gigabytes. (Remember, a gigabyte is roughly a thousand megabytes or a thousand floppy disks.) While the size or data capacity of a hard drive is very important, the speed of accessing that data is equally as important. Files on hard drives can be accessed significantly faster and more conveniently than floppy drives. The ever-demanding need for storage has required even better storage capacity than that of magnetic disks. Optical disk technology meets that need. Included in the list of this type of technology is the optical disk, the CD-ROM or DVD-ROM. The CD-ROM, compact disk read-only memory can hold up to 660 MBs per disk or the equivalent of more than 400 standard 3 " diskettes. The new storage technology that outpaces all others is called DVD-ROM, digital versatile disk. The DVD has a 4.7 GB capacity, which is about seven times that of the CD-ROM.

In order to protect the data on your hard drive, you should have a backup system. A backup system is way of storing data in more than one location. Magnetic tape is usually used for this purpose. Magnetic tape is an inexpensive type of storage; it looks like the tape used in audiocassettes. Finally, the last component of a computer system is the output device. An output device displays the processed information to the user. The two most popular forms of output devices are the printer and the monitor. The monitor produces output that is temporary the output is lost when it is rewritten or erased or when power is lost. Monitor output is called softcopy. The printer displays output in a permanent manner; it is called hardcopy. Other types of output devices include voice output and music output devices.

Software
As important as hardware devices may be, they are useless without the instructions that control them. These instructions used to control hardware and accomplish tasks are called software. Software falls into two broad categories applications and systems software. Applications software allows you to perform a particular task or solve a specific problem. A word processor is the most widely used example of applications software; it can be used to create a letter or memo or anything else you need to type. Other examples include games, spreadsheets, tax preparation programs, typing tutor, etc. Applications software can be purchased in stores and is called packaged or commercial software. In other words, it is prewritten. However, there may be situations that require a specific type of software that is not available. It would then be necessary to design and write a program; this software is called custom software. Most often, personal computers utilize packaged software. When packaged software is purchased, it will come with written instructions for installation and use. These instructions are documentation. Packaged software can be purchased, or in some cases, it is available for no cost. Freeware is software considered to be in the public domain, and it may be used or altered without fee or restriction. Another form of somewhat free software is shareware. The author of shareware hopes you will make a voluntary contribution for using the product. Task-oriented software is sometimes called productivity software, because it allows you to perform tasks that make you more productive. The major categories of productivity software are word processing, spreadsheet, database management, graphics, and communications. Most often these categories of software are bundled together and sold as a single package. This is called an office suite. A suite is designed to work together. This is very important because this allows you to share files. Another advantage in using suites is that the software looks similar and reduces your learning curve. Microsoft Office is the most popular office suite for the personal computer today. Two other important office suite products are Corel s WordPerfect Office Suite and Sun s Star Office Suite. The most important applications software categories included in office suites are described in the table below: Software Category Word Processor Function Provides the tools for entering and revising text, adding graphical elements, formatting and printing documents. Provides the tools for working with numbers and allows you to create and edit electronic spreadsheets in managing and analyzing information. Provides the tools for management of a collection of interrelated facts. Data can be stored, updated, manipulated, retrieved, and reported in a variety of ways. Provides the tools for creating graphics that represent data in a visual, easily

Spreadsheets

Database Management

Presentation Graphics

understood format. Communication Software Provides the tools for connecting one computer with another to enable sending and receiving information and sharing files and resources. Provides access to the Internet through a service provider by using a graphical interface.

Internet Browser

As important as applications software may be, it is not able to directly communicate with hardware devices. Another type of software is required operating systems software. Operating Systems software is the set of programs that lies between applications software and the hardware devices. Think of the cross section of an onion. The inner core of the onion represents the hardware devices, and the applications software represents the outside layer. The middle layer is the operating systems software. The instructions must be passed from the outer layer through the middle layer before the reaching the inner layer. The onion example All computers, regardless of size, require the operating systems software. As soon as your personal computer is turned on, the operating systems software is loaded into RAM in order to use your computer devices and other software. A few short years ago, personal computers used an operating system call MS-DOS, Microsoft Disk Operating System. This was a command-driven program in which you needed to know command names and syntax. The need for a more user-friendly system brought about Microsoft Windows operating systems software. Icons or pictures, requiring no knowledge of spelling or syntax, drive Windows operating systems software. Windows is a GUI, graphical user interface. A GUI uses graphic symbols, icons, in its interface. Further, Windows allows you to multitask, which means that you may use more than one program at the same time. The newest version of Windows is Windows 2000.

Some notable features of the Windows 2000 are  Internet/intranet browsing capabilities  Support for state-of-the-art hardware  Support for huge disk drives  Wizards

Components of a Computer System

Information is funny stuff. The information for the web page you are looking at is recorded on a hard disk inside a computer located in New Britain, Connecticut. The information was copied from that physical device to other physical devices perhaps hundreds of times before it got to your computer where your web browser is using it to display these words on your monitor. Clearly information is something different from the devices used to store and transmit it. A computer system consists of both hardware and information stored on hardware. Information stored on computer hardware is often called software.
The hardware components of a computer system are the electronic and mechanical parts. The software components of a computer system are the data and the computer programs.

Click Here to see the desktop system these notes were originally prepared on. (This was back when anything to do with computers had to be beige. Everything in this picture has since been replaced, except for the gargoyle.)

The major hardware components of a computer system are:

y y y y y

Processor Main memory Secondary memory Input devices Output devices

For typical desktop computers, the processor, main memory, secondary memory, power supply, and supporting hardware are housed in a metal case. Many of the components are connected to the main circuit board of the computer, called the motherboard. The power supply supplies power for most of the components. Various input devices (such as the keyboard) and output devices (such as the monitor) are attached through connectors at the rear of the case.

Hardware Components
The terms input and output say if data flow into or out of the computer. The picture shows the major hardware components of a computer system. The arrows show the direction of data flow. A bus is a group of wires on the main circuit board of the computer. It is a pathway for data flowing between components. Most devices are connected to the bus through a controller which coordinates the activities of the device with the bus. The processor is an electronic device about a one inch square, covered in plastic. Inside the square is an even smaller square of silicon containing millions of tiny electrical parts. A processor may contain 100 million transistors. It does the fundamental computing within the system, and directly or indirectly controls all the other components. The processor is sometimes called the Central Processing Unit or CPU. A particular computer will have a particular type of processor, such as a Pentium chip or a SPARC chip.

Memory
The processor performs all the fundamental computation of the computer system. Other components contribute to the computation by doing such things as storing data or moving data into and out of the processor. But the processor is where the fundamental action takes place. A processor chip has relatively little memory. It has only enough memory to hold a few instructions of a program and the data they process. Complete programs and data sets are held in memory external to the processor. This memory is of two fundamental types: main memory, and secondary memory. Main memory is sometimes called volatile because it looses its information when power is removed. Secondary memory is usually nonvolatile because it retains its information when power is removed. (However, it needs power when information is stored into memory or retrieved from it.)

Main memory: o closely connected to the processor. o stored data are quickly and easily changed. o holds the programs and data that the processor is actively working with. o interacts with the processor millions of times per second. o needs constant electric power to keep its information. Secondary memory: o connected to main memory through the bus and a controller. o stored data are easily changed, but changes are slow compared to main memory.

o o o

used for long-term storage of programs and data. before data and programs can be used, they must be copied from secondary memory into main memory. does not need electric power to keep its information.

Main Memory
Main memory is where programs and data are kept when the processor is actively using them. When programs and data become active, they are copied from secondary memory into main memory where the processor can interact with them. A copy remains in secondary memory. Main memory is intimately connected to the processor, so moving instructions and data into and out of the processor is very fast. Main memory is sometimes called RAM. RAM stands for Random Access Memory. "Random" means that the memory cells can be accessed in any order. When people say that a computer has "512 megabytes of RAM" they are talking about how big its main memory is. One megabyte of memory is enough to hold approximately one million (106) characters of a word processing document. (There will be more about bytes and megabytes later on in these notes.) Nothing permanent is kept in main memory. Sometimes data are placed in main memory for just a few seconds, only as long as they are needed.

Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is where programs and data are kept on a long-term basis. Common secondary storage devices are the hard disk and optical disks.
y y y y y

The hard disk has enormous storage capacity compared to main memory. The hard disk is usually contained inside the case of a computer. The hard disk is used for long-term storage of programs and data. Data and programs on the hard disk are organized into files. A file is a section of the disk that has a name.

A hard disk might have a storage capacity of 500 gigabytes (room for about 500 x 109 characters). This is about 100 times the capacity of main memory. A hard disk is slow compared to main memory. If the disk were the only type of memory the computer system would slow down to a crawl. The reason for having two types of storage is this difference in speed and capacity. Large blocks of data are copied from disk into main memory. The operation is slow, but lots of data is copied. Then the processor can quickly read and write small sections of that data in main memory. When it is done, a large block of data is written to disk. Often, while the processor is computing with one block of data in main memory, the next block of data from disk is read into another section of main memory and made ready for the processor. One of the jobs of an operating system is to manage main storage and disks this way.

Primary memory
y y y y

Secondary memory
y y y y

Fast Expensive Low capacity Works directly with the processor

Slow Cheap Large capacity Not connected directly to the processor

Input and Output Devices

Input and output devices allow the computer system to interact with the outside world by moving data into and out of the system. An input device is used to bring data into the system. Some input devices are:
y y y y y y

Keyboard Mouse Microphone Bar code reader Graphics tablet Monitor

An output device is used to send data out of the system. Some output devices are:

y y

Printer Speaker

A network interface acts as both input and output. Data flows from the network into the computer, and out of the computer into the network.

I/O
Input/output devices are usually called I/O devices. They are directly connected to an electronic module attached to the motherboard called a device controller. For example, the speakers of a multimedia computer system are directly connected to a device controller called an audio card, which in turn is plugged into a bus on the motherboard. Sometimes secondary memory devices like the hard disk are called I/O devices (because they move data in and out of main memory). What counts as an I/O device depends on context. To a user, an I/O device is something outside of the computer case. To a programmer, anything outside of the processor and main memory is an I/O device. To an engineer working on the design of a processor everything outside of the processor is an I/O device.

Embedded Systems
A computer system that is part of a larger machine and which controls how that machine operates is an embedded system. Usually the processor constantly runs a single control program which is permanently kept in ROM (Read Only Memory). The overwhelming majority of processor chips are used in embedded systems. Only 0.2% of processor chips are used in the familiar desktop computer! A typical embedded system is a cell phone. This is obvious, but there are many less obvious embedded systems. Your car contains dozens of processors, and even more in the audio system. For instance, each airbag is controlled by its own computer chip.

Software
Computer software consists of both programs and data. Programs consist of instructions for the processor. Data can be any information that a program needs: character data, numerical data, image data, audio data, and countless other types. The distinction between programs and data is not as clear-cut as you might think, however. Fundamental Idea: Both programs and data are saved in computer memory in the same way. The electronics of computer memory (both main memory and secondary memory) make no distinction between programs and data. The insight that both programs and data can be saved using the same electronic methods is an important concept in computer science. Computer systems use memory for either programs or data, as needed.

Types of Programs
There are two categories of programs. Application programs (usually called just "applications") are programs that people use to get their work done. Computers exist because people want to run these programs. Systems programs keep the hardware and software running together smoothly. The difference between "application program" and "system program" is fuzzy. Often it is more a matter of marketing than of logic. The most important systems program is the operating system. The operating system is always present when a computer is running. It coordinates the operation of the other hardware and software components of the computer system. The operating system is responsible for starting up application programs, running them, and managing the resources that they need. When an application program is running, the operating system manages the details of the hardware for it. For example, when you type characters on the keyboard, the operating system determines which application program they are intended for and does the work of getting them there. Some embedded systems do not use an operating system, but run their programs directly on the processor. Modern operating systems for desktop computers come with a user interface that enables users to easily interact with application programs (and with the operating system itself) by using windows, buttons, menus, icons, the mouse, and the keyboard. Examples of operating systems are Unix, Linux, Windows XP, and System 10.

Application Programs y Word processors y Game programs y Spreadsheets y Data base systems y Graphics programs y Web browsers

Systems Programs
y y y y y

Operating system Networking system Programming language software Web site server Data backup

Operating Systems
An operating system is a complex program that keeps the hardware and software components of a computer system coordinated and functioning. It is like the owner of a small shop, who keeps everything in order by attending to customers, accepting deliveries, stocking the shelves, doing the bookkeeping, and so on. The shopkeeper must promptly attend to tasks as they arise. Without the shopkeeper the shop could not function. Most computer systems can potentially run any of several operating systems. For example, most Pentium-based computers can run either Linux or a Windows operating systems. Usually only one operating system is installed on a computer system, although some computers have several. In any case, only one operating system at a time can be in control of the computer system. The computer user makes a choice when the computer is turned on, and that operating system remains in control until the computer is turned off.

Starting a Program
When a computer is first started, the hardware automatically loads the operating system and starts it running. This process is called booting. The reason for this odd term is that the operating system is itself involved in getting itself runninga process that is like someone "pulling themselves up by their bootstraps". Once the operating system is running, it is used to start up application programs. Here is a (simplified) list of what happens when the user (you) starts up an application. Assume that the operating system (OS) is already running.
1. The user asks to run an application. o This is done by clicking on an icon, making a menu choice, or by other means. 2. The OS determines the name of the application. 3. The OS finds the files on the hard disk where the application and its data are stored. 4. The OS finds an unused section of main memory that is large enough for the application. 5. The OS makes a copy of the application and its data in that section of main memory. o The software on the hard disk is unchanged; main memory holds a copy of what is on disk. 6. The OS sets up resources for the application. 7. Finally, the OS starts the application running.

As the application runs, the OS is there in the background managing resources, doing input and output for the application, and keeping everything else running.

Networks
A computer network consists of two or more computers connected so that they can exchange data and programs. When a computer is a member of a network, the programs it runs and the data it uses can be on the hard disk of some other computer on the network. In business and industrial settings, most computers are on a network. The operating system that runs on a networked computer must manage its share of the network (along with managing all its other responsibilities). The operating system is able to find programs and data that are stored on other network computers, and copy them into its own main memory. In a local-area network only a few dozen computers are connected together, usually all located within the same building. Each computer has a network address that the other computers use to access it. Usually the computers share a printer. There may be an especially powerful computer called a server whose hard disk holds application programs and data that the other computers are expected to need.

Each computer in a network has a network interface card. This is an input/output device that sends and receives data over cables. The network interface cards of computers on a network are connected together with cables.

Wide-Area Networks
Large organizations need to connect many more computers than can be handled with a local area network. A wide-area network can connect thousands of computers together over great distances. The long distance connections are made by using optical fiber, telephone lines, microwave radio, and satellite communications. Each computer in the network has a network address (as with local-area networks) to uniquely identify it. Wide-area networks use a variety of special hardware to manage the flow of data. When two computers share data, this hardware makes it appear that the two computers are connected together directly. In reality, there may be dozens of network devices between the two computers. All these devices use the same method for dealing with data. Without a common method of dealing with data, a large network would become a hopeless muddle. An agreement about how to represent and transmit data over a network is called a protocol. Usually large networks use a protocol called TCP/IP (for transmission control protocol / internet protocol).

Internet
The Internet consists of many networks that have been connected together to form one huge worldwide network. Even on this huge network, each computer must have a unique network address, called an IP address, much like each telephone in the world has a unique telephone number (including the country code and area code). Here a typical IP address:
149.152.18.25

IP addresses actually are 32-bit binary numbers. Networking equipment uses these addresses to route information over the network. The above example shows the standard way of writing these bits using decimal digits. But even when written in decimal the address is not clear to humans. One of the features of the World Wide Web is that it allows humans to use computer names rather than numbers. Here is a typical computer name:
chortle.ccsu.edu

This computer name corresponds to the above IP address. When you use it in a Web browser it is converted into the 32 binary digits of the computer's IP address. As an experiment, enter the above IP address into the address field of your browser and hit return. Now do the same with the computer name. You will get to the same web page with each.

World Wide Web

Remember that important idea (discussed several pages back):
Fundamental Idea: Both programs and data are saved in computer memory in the same way. The electronics of computer memory (both main memory and secondary memory) make no distinction between programs and data.

Communications equipment makes no distinction between programs and data, either. It is all information as far as it is concerned, and all information is transmitted the same way. The Internet is like a worldwide package delivery service. It is concerned with moving packages from one address to another, without concern about what is in the packages. The Internet provides the hardware and the information transmission protocols for the WorldWide Web. Data intended for the Web is transmitted over the Internet just like any data. What makes Web data special is that it is intended for Web browsers (such as the one you are probably looking at). A browser is a program that can read Web pages and display them in a nicely formatted way. A Web page is a package of data that contains information on how it is to be displayed on a monitor. This information is given using a language called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). If you want to see an example of this, left-click on View in the menu at the top of your Web browser, then left-click on Source. This will bring up a new window with the HTML of this page in it. After you are done viewing, close the window by clicking on the close button in its upper right corner (the button marked with X).