Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
This article is about psychological temperament. For musical temperament, see Musical temperament. In psychology, temperament refers to those aspects of an individual's personality, such as introversion or extroversion, that are often regarded as innate rather than learned. A great many classificatory schemes for temperament have been developed; none, though, has achieved general consensus in academia.[1] Historically, the concept of temperament was part of the theory of the four humours, with their corresponding four temperaments. The concept played an important part in pre-modern psychology, and was explored by philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Hermann Lotze. David W. Keirsey also drew upon the early models of temperament when developing the Keirsey Temperament Sorter. More recently, scientists seeking evidence of a biological basis of personality have further examined the relationship between temperament and character (defined in this context as the learnt aspects of personality). However, biological correlations have proven hard to confirm.[1]
Contents
[hide]
o o o o o o o o o o o
1 Overview 2 Infants, children and adults 3 Nine Temperament Characteristics of Thomas and Chess 3.1 Activity 3.2 Regularity 3.3 Initial reaction 3.4 Adaptability 3.5 Intensity 3.6 Mood 3.7 Distractibility 3.8 Persistence and attention span 3.9 Sensitivity 4 "Easy", "difficult", and "slow-to-warm-up" 5 Family life 5.1 Influences 5.2 Understanding for improvement
6 History 6.1 Rudolf Steiner's four temperaments 7 Popular usages 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links
Overview
Temperament is determined through specific behavioural profiles, usually focusing on those that are both easily measurable and testable early in childhood. Commonly tested factors include irritability, activity, frequency of smiling, and an approach or avoidant posture to unfamiliar events.[1] There is generally a low correlation between descriptions by teachers and behavioural observations by scientists of features used in determining temperament.[2] Temperament is hypothesized to be associated with biological factors, but these have proven difficult to test directly.[1]
unfamiliar events, which Kagan termed inhibited. Contrastingly, low reactive children were minimally fearful to novel situations, and were characterized by an uninhibited profile (Kagan). However, when observed again at age 4.5, only a modest proportion of children maintained their expected profile due to mediating factors such as intervening family experiences. Those who remained highly inhibited or uninhibited after age 4.5 were at higher risk for developing anxiety and conduct disorders, respectively.
[1]
Kagan also used two additional classifications, one for infants who were inactive but cried frequently (distressed) and one for those who showed vigorous activity but little crying (aroused). Followed to age 1417 years, these groups of children showed differing outcomes, including some differences in central nervous system activity. Teenagers who had been classed as high reactives when they were babies were more likely to be "subdued in unfamiliar situations, to report a dour mood and anxiety over the future, [and] to be more religious."[4] Solomon Diamond described temperaments based upon characteristics found in the animal world: fearfulness, aggressiveness, affiliativeness, and impulsiveness. His work has been carried forward by Buss and Plomin, who developed two measures of temperament: The Colorado Child Temperament Inventory, which includes aspects of Thomas and Chess's schema, and the EAS Survey for Children.[3] H. Hill Goldsmith and Joseph Campos used emotional characteristics to define temperament, originally analyzing five emotional qualities: motor activity, anger, fearfulness, pleasure/joy, and interest/persistence, but later expanding to include other emotions. They developed several measures of temperament: Lab-TAB and TBAQ.[3] Other temperament systems include those based upon theories of adult temperament (e.g. Gray and Martin's Temperament Assessment Battery for Children), or adult personality (e.g.the Big Five personality traits).
Activity
Activity refers to the child's physical energy. Is the child constantly moving, or does the child have a relaxing approach? A high-energy child may have difficulty sitting still in class, whereas a child with low energy can tolerate a very structured environment. The former may use gross motor skills like running and jumping more frequently. Conversely, a child with a lower activity level may rely more on fine motor skills, such as drawing and putting puzzles together. This trait can also refer to mental activity, such as deep thinking or readingactivities which become more significant as the person matures.
Regularity
Regularity, also known as Rhythmicity, refers to the level of predictability in a childs biological functions, such as waking, becoming tired, hunger, and bowel movements. Does the child have a routine in eating and sleeping habits, or are these events more random? For example, a child with a high regularity rating may want to eat at 2 p.m. every day, whereas a child lower on the regularity scale may eat at sporadic times throughout the day.
Initial reaction
Initial reaction is also known as Approach or Withdrawal. This refers to how the child responds (whether positively or negatively) to new people or environments. Does the child approach people or things in the environment without hesitation, or does the child shy away? A bold child tends to approach things quickly, as if without thinking, whereas a cautious child typically prefers to watch for a while before engaging in new experiences.
Adaptability
Adaptability refers to how long it takes the child to adjust to change over time (as opposed to an initial reaction). Does the child adjust to the changes in their environment easily, or is the child resistant? A child who adjusts easily may be quick to settle into a new routine, whereas a resistant child may take a long time to adjust to the situation.
Intensity
Intensity refers to the energy level of a positive or negative response. Does the child react intensely to a situation, or does the child respond in a calm and quiet manner? A more intense child may jump up and down screaming with excitement, whereas a mild-mannered child may smile or show no emotion.
Mood
Mood refers to the childs general tendency towards a happy or unhappy demeanor. All children have a variety of emotions and reactions, such as cheerful and stormy, happy and unhappy. Yet each child biologically tends to have a generally positive or negative outlook. A baby who frequently smiles and coos could be considered a cheerful baby, whereas a baby who frequently cries or fusses might be considered a stormy baby.
Distractibility
Distractibility refers to the childs tendency to be sidetracked by other things going on around them. Does the child get easily distracted by what is happening in the environment, or can the child concentrate despite the interruptions? An easily distracted child is engaged by external events and has
difficulty returning to the task at hand, whereas a rarely distracted child stays focused and completes the task at hand.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity refers to how easily a child is disturbed by changes in the environment. This is also called sensory threshold or threshold of responsiveness. Is the child bothered by external stimuli like noises, textures, or lights, or does the child seem to ignore them? A sensitive child may lose focus when a door slams, whereas a child less sensitive to external noises will be able to maintain focus.
Parents of middle class children were more likely to report behavior problems before the age
of nine and the children had sleep problems. This may be because children start preschool between the ages of three and four. Puerto Rican children under the age of five showed rare signs of sleep problems, however, sleep problems became more common at the age of six.
Middle class parents also placed great stress on the childs early development, believing that
problems in early ages were indicative of later problems in psychological development, whereas Puerto Rican parents felt their children would outgrow any problems.
At the age of nine, the report of new problems dropped for middle class children but they rose
Family life
Influences
Most experts agree that temperament has a genetic and biological basis, although environmental factors and maturation modify the ways a child's personality is expressed.[11] The term goodness of fit refers to the match or mismatch between temperament and other personal characteristics and the specific features of the environment. Differences of temperament or behavior styles between individuals are important in family life. They affect the interactions among family members. While some children can adapt quickly and easily to family routines and get along with siblings, others who are more active or intense may have a difficult time adjusting. The interactions between these children and their parents or siblings are among a number of factors that can lead to stress and friction within the family. The temperament mix between parents and children also affects family life. For example, a slow paced parent may be irritated by a highly active child; or if both parent and child are highly active and intense, conflict could result. This knowledge can help parents figure out how temperaments affect family relationships. What may appear to be a behavioral problem may actually be a mismatch between the parents temperament and their childs. By taking a closer look at the nine traits that Thomas and Chess revealed from their study, parents can gain a better understanding of their childs temperament and their own. Parents may also notice that situational factors cause a child's temperament to seem problematic; for example, a child with low rhythmicity can cause difficulties for a family with a highly scheduled life, and a child with a high activity level may be difficult to cope with if the family lives in a crowded apartment upstairs from sensitive neighbors. Parents can encourage new behaviors in their children, and with enough support a slow-to-warmup child can become less shy, or a difficultbaby can become easier to handle. More recently infants and children with temperament issues have been called "spirited" to avoid negative connotations of "difficult" and "slow to warm up". Numerous books have been written advising parents how to raise their spirited youngsters.
Understanding a childs temperament can help reframe how parents interpret childrens behavior and the way parents think about the reasons for behaviors. By parents having access to this knowledge now helps them to guide their child in ways that respect the childs individual differences. By understanding childrens temperaments and our own helps adults to work with them rather than try to change them. It is an opportunity to anticipate and understand a childs reaction. It is also important to know that temperament does not excuse a childs unacceptable behavior, but it does provide direction to how parents can respond to it. Making small and reasonable accommodations to routines can reduce tension. For example a child who is slow paced in the mornings may need an extra half hour to get ready. Knowing who or what may affect the childs behavior can help to alleviate potential problems. Although children obtain their temperament behaviors innately, a large part that helps determine a child's ability to develop and act in certain ways is determined by the parents. When a parent takes the time to identify and more importantly respond to the temperaments they are faced with in a positive way it will help them guide their child in trying to figure out the world. Recognizing the childs temperament and helping them to understand how it impacts his/her life as well as others is important. It is just as important for parents to recognize their own temperaments. Recognizing each individuals temperament, will help to prevent and manage problems that may arise from the differences among family members. Temperament continues into adulthood, and later studies by Chess and Thomas have shown that these characteristics continue to influence behavior and adjustment throughout the life-span. In addition to the initial clinical studies, academic psychologists have developed an interest in the field and researchers such as Bates, Buss & Plomin, Kagan, and Rothbart have generated large bodies of research in the areas of personality, neuroscience, and behavioral genetics.
History
See also: Four humours (disambiguation) In the second century A.D. the physician Galen described four temperaments - melancholic, phlegmatic, sanguine and choleric - based upon the four humours or bodily fluids. These became known as the four classical temperaments.
even, in unusual cases, all of them. He also suggested that people are capable of transforming their own temperaments. For each temperament Steiner described less and more mature forms: the introspective and sensitive melancholic may be sullen and self-absorbed but can also become a sympathetic helper or a deep thinker. Steiner's temperaments are often used as a basis to describe and understand children during the elementary-school years in Waldorf schools.
Popular usages
It is a popular conception that those who are highly artistic - painters, sculptors, musicians, writers, etc. - often show dramatic swings in emotion, often elevated to extremes: the so-called "artistic temperament".
See also
Four Temperaments Five Temperaments Keirsey Temperament Sorter Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Notes
1. 2. 3.
^ a b c d e f Jerome Kagan, "Temperament", Encyclopedia on Early Childhood
Development 2005 ^ Biship GS, Spence SH, McDonald C. Can parents and teachers provide a reliable and
valid report of behavioural inhibition? Child Development 2003;74(6):1899-1917 ^ a b c Marcel Zentner & John E. Bates, "Child Temperament: An Integrative Review of
Concepts, Research Programs and Measures". European Journal of Developmental Science [EJDS]. 2008, Vol. 2, No. 1/2, 737
4.
^ Kagan, J., Snidman, N., Kahn, V., & Towsley, S. (2007). The Preservation of Two Infant
Temperaments into Adolescence. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Serial No. 287, 72(2),p.vii
5. 6. 7.
^ a b c "PsychPage.com Child Temperament". Retrieved 2009-04-21. ^ Firchow, Nancy M.L.S.. "Your Child's Temperament: Some Basics". Retrieved 2009-04-
21.[dead link] ^ "Ohio State University Extension: Understanding Your Child's Temperament". Retrieved
2009-04-21.
8.
21.
9. 10. 11.
^ "KeepKidsHealthy.com Temperament and Personality". Retrieved 2009-04-21. ^ Stella Chess and Alexander Thomas, Temperament, Routledge: 1996. ISBN
9780876308356. p. 31 ^ Development of Temperament Symposium (2008). Philoctetes Center, New York; with
panelists Sue Carter, Francis Champagne, Susan Coates, Ed Nercessian, Donald Pfaff, Daniel Schechter, Nadia Bruschweiler Stern
12.
21.
^ Steiner, Rudolf (1909). "The Four Temperaments: Lecture in Berlin". Retrieved 2009-04-
13.
References
Anschtz, Marieke, Children and Their Temperaments. ISBN 0-86315-175-2. Carey, William B., Understanding Your Child's Temperament. ISBN 1-4134-7028-9. Diamond, S. (1957). Personality and temperament New York: Harper Kagan J. Galen's prophecy: temperament in human nature. New York, NY: Basic Books;
1994.
Kagan J, Snidman NC. The long shadow of temperament. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard
Kohnstamm GA, Bates JE, Rothbart MK, eds. Temperament in childhood Oxford, United
Neville, Helen F., and Diane Clark Johnson, "Temperament Tools: Working with Your Child's
1884734-32-4.
Seifer, RA; Sameroff, AJ; Barrette, LC; Krafchuk, E. (1994). "Infant temperament measured by
multiple observations and mother report".Child Development 65 (5): 1478 1490. doi:10.2307/1131512. JSTOR 1131512. PMID 7982363.
Thomas, Chess & Birch (1968). Temperament and Behavior Disorders in Children. New York,