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of the family Gruidae, the cranes. They are distinctive among the cranes, adults are nearly all snowy white, except for their black primary feathers that are visible in flight and a naked red face, with two breeding populations in the Arctic tundra of western and eastern Russia. They eastern populations migrate during winter to China while the western population winters in Iran and formerly, in India. Among the cranes, they make the longest distance migrations. Their populations, particularly those in the western range have declined drastically in the 20th century due to hunting along their migration routes and habitat degradation. The world population was estimated in 2010 at about 3200 birds, mostly belonging to the eastern population with about 95% of them wintering in the Poyang lake basin in China, a habitat that may be altered by the Three Gorges Dam.
Description
Adults of both sexes have a pure white plumage except for the black primaries, alula and primary coverts. The forecrown, face and side of head is bare and brick red, the bill is dark and the legs are pinkish. The iris is yellowish. Juveniles are feathered on the face and the plumage is dingy brown. There are no elongated tertial feathers as in some other crane species.[2] The call is very different from the trumpeting of most cranes and is a goose-like high pitched whistling toyoya. They typically weigh 4.9-8.6 kg (10.8-19 lbs) and stand about 140 cm (55 in) tall. The wingspan is 210230 cm (8391 in) and length is 115127 cm (4550 in). Males are on average larger than females.[2][3][4][5][6][7] There is a single record of an outsized male of this species weighing 15 kg (33 lb).[8]
between the Yana and the Alazeya rivers.[4] Like most cranes, the Siberian Crane inhabits shallow marshlands and wetlands and will often forage in deeper water than other cranes. They show very high site fidelity for both their wintering and breeding areas, making use of the same sites year after year.[2] The western population winters in Iran and some individuals formerly wintered in India south to Nagpur and east to Bihar. The eastern populations winter mainly in the Poyang Lake area in China.[4]
[edit] Feeding
These cranes feed mainly on plants although they are omnivorous. In the summer grounds they feed on a range of plants including the roots of hellebore (Veratrum misae), seeds of Empetrum nigrum as well as small rodents (lemmings and voles), earthworms and fish. They were earlier thought to be predominantly fish eating on the basis of the serrated edge to their bill, but later studies suggest that they take animal prey mainly when the vegetation is covered by snow. They also swallow pebbles and grit to aid in crushing food in their crop.[4] In their wintering grounds in China, they have been noted to feed to a large extent on the submerged leaves of Vallisneria spiralis.[19] Specimens wintering in India have been found to have mainly aquatic plants in their stomachs. They are however noted to pick up beetles and birds eggs in captivity.[20][21]
[edit] Breeding
Siberian Cranes return to the Arctic tundra around the end of April and beginning of May.[22] The nest is usually on the edge of lake in boggy ground and is usually surrounded by water. Most eggs are laid in the first week of June when the tundra is snow free. The usual clutch is two eggs, which are incubated by the female after the second egg is laid. The male stands guard nearby. The eggs hatch in about 27 to 29 days. The young birds fledge in about 80 days. Usually only a single chick survives due to aggression between young birds. The population increase per year is less than 10%, the lowest recruitment rate among cranes. Their success in breeding may further be hampered by disturbance from reindeer and sometimes dogs that accompany reindeer herders.[4] Captive breeding was achieved by the International Crane Foundation at Baraboo after numerous failed attempts. Males often killed their mates and captive breeding was achieved by
artificial insemination and the hatching of eggs by other crane species such as the Sandhill and using floodlights to simulate the longer daylengths of the Arctic summer.[23]
[edit] Migration
This species breeds in two disjunct regions in the arctic tundra of Russia; the western population along the Ob in Yakutia and western Siberia. It is a long distance migrant and among the cranes, makes the longest migrations.[4] The eastern population winters on the Yangtze River and Lake Poyang in China, a western population formerly wintered at Keoladeo National Park, India but was extirpated, the last crane in this population was observed in 2002. The west and the western population in Fereydoon Kenar in Iran
Satellite telemetry was used to track the migration of a flock that wintered in Iran. They were noted to rest on the eastern end of the Volga delta.[28] Satellite telemetry was also used to track the migration of the eastern population in the mid 1990s, leading to the discovery of new resting areas along the species' flyway in eastern Russia and China.[29] The Siberian Crane is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies and is subject of the Memorandum of Understanding concerning Conservation Measures for the Siberian Crane concluded under the Bonn Convention.
[edit] References
1. ^ BirdLife International (2010). "Grus leucogeranus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. International Union for Conservation of Nature. http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/143772. Retrieved 2 February 2011. ^ a b c Rasmussen, PC & JC Anderton (2005). The Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volume 2. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions. p. 138. ^ Ali, S.; and Ripley, S. D. (1980). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 2. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 144146. ^ a b c d e f g h Johnsgard, P. (1983) (PDF). Cranes of the World. Indiana University Press. pp. 129139. ISBN 0253112559. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1027&context=bioscicranes. ^ a b Baker, E. C. S. (1929). Fauna of British India. Birds. Volume 6 (2nd ed.). London: Taylor and Francis. p. 53. http://www.archive.org/stream/BakerFbiBirds6/BakerFBI6#page/n89/mode/1up/. ^ Grus leucogeranus (2011). ^ [1] (2011). ^ Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9. ^ Divyabhanusinh (1987). "Record of two unique observations of the Indian cheetah in Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri" (PDF). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 84 (2): 269274. http://www.carnivoreconservation.org/files/attente/autres/cheetah/Divyabhanusinh%201987%20Indian%20 cheetah%20in%20Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri.pdf. ^ Bowdler Sharpe, R (1893). "[Meeting notes"]. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 1 (7): 37. http://www.archive.org/stream/bulletinofbritis19189299b#page/n61/mode/1up. ^ Hartert, E (1922). Die Vogel der parlaarktischen Fauna. Band 3. Verlag von R Friedlander and Sohn, Berlin. pp. 18191820. http://www.archive.org/stream/dievgelderpal03hart#page/1819/mode/1up/. ^ Sharpe, R Bowdler (1894). Catalogue of the Fulicariae and Alectorides in the collection of the British Museum. Taylor and Francis, London. pp. 261262. http://www.archive.org/stream/catalogueofbirds23brit#page/260/mode/1up/. ^ Krajewski, C & JW Fetzner, Jr. (1994). "Phylogeny of cranes (Gruiformes: Gruidae) based on cytochrome-b DNA sequences" (PDF). The Auk 111 (2): 351365. http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v111n02/p0351-p0365.pdf. ^ Wood, D S (1979). "Phenetic relationships within the family Gruidae" (PDF). Wilson Bulletin 91 (3): 384399. http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Wilson/v091n03/p0384-p0399.pdf. ^ Bragina EV and I R Beme (2007). "[Sexual and individual differences in the vocal repertoire of adult Siberian Cranes (Grus leucogeranus, Gruidae)"] (in Russian). Zoologieskij urnal 86 (12): 14681481. http://vertebrata.bio.msu.ru/Bragina_Beme_2007_ZG_.pdf.
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16. ^ Bragina, EV and Irina R. Beme (2010). "Siberian crane duet as an individual signature of a pair: comparison of visual and statistical classification techniques". Acta ethologica 13 (1): 3948. doi:10.1007/s10211-010-0073-6. 17. ^ Davis, Malcolm (1969). "Siberian Crane longevity". Auk 86 (2): 347. http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v086n02/p0347-p0347.pdf. 18. ^ Temple, Stanley A. (1990). How long do birds live The passenger pigeon. 52. http://images.library.wisc.edu/EcoNatRes/EFacs/PassPigeon/ppv52no03/reference/econatres.pp52n03.stem ple2.pdf. 19. ^ Guofeng Wu; de Leeuw Jan; Skidmore Andrew K. ; Prins Herbert H. T. ; Best Elly P. H. ; Yaolin Liu (2009). "Will the Three Gorges Dam affect the underwater light climate of Vallisneria spiralis L. and food habitat of Siberian crane in Poyang Lake?" (PDF). Hydrobiologia 623: 213222. doi:10.1007/s10750-0089659-7. http://www.resourceecology.org/publ/2009_Wu,Leeuw,Skidmore,Prins,Best,Liu_WillTheGorgesDamAffectTheUnderwaterLig htClimateOfVallisneriaSpiralis.pdf. 20. ^ Quinton W. H. St. (1921). "The White Asiatic crane". The Avicultural Magazine 12 (3): 3334. http://www.archive.org/stream/avicultu1213319211922avic#page/n76/mode/1up. 21. ^ Ellis, DH; Scott R. Swengel, George W. Archibald, Cameron B. Kepler (1998). "A sociogram for the cranes of the world" (PDF). Behavioural Processes 43: 125151. doi:10.1016/S0376-6357(98)00008-4. http://jornathan.com.ne.kr/article/Sociogram_for_cranes.pdf. 22. ^ Bysykatova, IP; M. V. Vladimirtseva, N. N. Egorov, and S. M. Sleptsov (2010). "Spring Migrations of the Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus) in Yakutia". Contemporary Problems of Ecology 3 (1): 8689. doi:10.1134/S1995425510010145. 23. ^ Stewart JM (2009). "The lily of birds: the success story of the Siberian white crane". Oryx 21: 621. doi:10.1017/S0030605300020421. 24. ^ Blyth, Edward (1881). The natural history of the cranes. R. H. Porter. pp. 3844. http://www.archive.org/stream/naturalhistoryof00blyt#page/38/mode/1up. 25. ^ Finn, Frank (1906). How to know the Indian waders. Thacker, Spink and Co.. pp. 8283. http://www.archive.org/details/HowToKnowTheIndianWaders. 26. ^ Clarke, WE (1892). "The reported occurrence of Grus leucogeranus Pallas, in the Outer Hebrides". The Annals of Scottish Natural History 1 (1): 7172. http://www.archive.org/stream/annalsofscottish01edin#page/71/mode/1up. 27. ^ Provencal, P. and Srensen, U. G. (1998). "Medieval record of the Siberian White Crane Grus leucogeranus in Egypt". Ibis 140: 333335. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1998.tb04399.x. 28. ^ Yutaka Kanai, Meenakshi Nagendran, Mutsuyuki Ueta, Yuri Markin, Juhani Rinne, Alexander G. Sorokin, Hiroyoshi Higuchi and George W. Archibald (2002). "Discovery of breeding grounds of a Siberian Crane Grus leucogeranus flock that winters in Iran, via satellite telemetry". Bird Conservation International 12 (4): 327333. 29. ^ Kanai, Y., Mutsuyuki, U., Germogenov, N., Negandran, M., Mita, N., Higuchi, H. (2002). "Migration routes and important resting areas of Siberian cranes Crus leucogeranus between northeastern Siberian and China as revealed by satellite tracking". Biological Conservation 106: 339346. doi:10.1016/S00063207(01)00259-2. http://www.cs.kumamoto-u.ac.jp/~mita/Siberian%20Crane2002.pdf.
International Crane Foundation's Siberian Crane page BirdLife Species Factsheet Siberian Crane Flyway Coordination The Siberian Crane Flyway Coordination (SCFC) enhances communication among the large network of scientists, governmental agencies,
biologists, private organizations, and citizens involved with Siberian Crane conservation in Eurasia. Siberian Crane Wetland Project The Siberian Crane Wetland Project (SCWP) is a six-year effort to sustain the ecological integrity of a network of globally important wetlands in Asia that are of critical importance for migratory waterbirds and other wetland biodiversity, using the globally threatened Siberian Crane as a flagship species. Three White Cranes, Two Flyways, One World An educational website that links schools along the eastern crane flyway in the United States with schools along the eastern flyways of the Siberian and Red-crowned Cranes in Russia and China.