Introduction A tectonic event is a physical occurrence resulting from the movement or deformation of the Earths crust.

Such events become tectonic hazards when they have the potential to cause loss of life and damage to property. Not all tectonic events therefore, are hazardous. Tectonic hazards can generate significant risk (short, medium and longer term) to people who live in tectonically active regions. Risks are closely related to Vulnerability of the population - Vulnerability refers not only to the hazardous event itself, but also to the ability to recover afterwards. Vulnerability is therefore the result og a range of physical , social and emotional factors that interact to increase the susceptitibility of people to the impacts of a physical event. Magnitude and frequency of hazard event Level of economic development Population density Community preparedness/ education of the people. A hazard becomes a tectonic disaster when an event materialises and causes extensive destruction and a number of fatalities. For example, the eruption of MT Pinatubo in the Phllipines in 1991 killed about 300 people, over 80,000 homes were destroyed or damaged and 800km2 of agricuktural land was buried beneath a thick layer of ash.

(spectrum) The diagram above will be referred to throughout this report with contrasting case studies of well documented earthquakes like....as well as more recent tectonic events in Sichuan...LAquila Italy where both a developed economy and a transition economy responded quickly post event. The tsunami in the Indian Ocean will be used to show how the scale of the event may dictate the response, both by those directly affected and by international agencies, and the setting up of the TWS in the Pacific Ocean tries to address a need for reduction in vulnerability by giving information pre-event. Lastly volcanoes possibly easier to predict and respond will be evaluated by using evacuation of tm.... and land0use zoning of Vesuvius compared with the do nothing approach of Nevada del Ruiz. Hazard salience may reduce response, however as shown in the complacency in earthquake prone California where many have forgotten 'the big one predicted. A disaster is the realisation of hazard The impacts of disaster are not equal at the global scale. Some 90 percent of hazard-related deaths occur in the less economically developed countries, while 75 percent of the economic losses occur in MEDCs. Hazards are extremely variable in type, magnitude, frequency, geographical location and scale of impact. Classifications helps us to focus on the key characteristics of different hazards so that they can be more clearly understood. Then the human response to hazards can be managed by governemtns, planners, hazard managers and insurance companies, as well as by the people directly at risk. Hazard profile Tectonic hazards can be described in terms of their frequency, magnitude, duration and areal extent.

Magnitude and frequency There is a relationship between the frequency and magnitude of tectonic hazard events. Generally, highmagnitude events have a low frequency and low magnitude events have a high frequency. Many earthquakes in active areas are low in magnitude and any occur deep below the surface. People living in the area may not feel them. For example, during a week in April 2008, there were 161 earthquakes in the Los Angeles area, but virtually all were below 3.0 on the Richter scale. This meant that they passed almost unnoticed and were of no danger to local people. Duration The duration of an event is the length of time it lasts. This can be the time it takes for the fault to rupture, or the period for which shaking is felt at any given point. Volcanic eruptions can last anything from few hours to several decades, as with those from the lava lakes of Kilauea, Hawaii. A recent simulation suggested that the so called super volcano of Yellowstone National Park would erupt for over a year. Focus Earthquakes can be classifies accodng to the de[th of their focus, which affects the amount of surface damange that results from the event. Three broad categories are recognised. Deep focus Intermediate focus Shallow focus

Lava A volcano is landform that develops around a weakness on the Earths crust. Lava flows are sheets and tongues of liquid rock expelled from the crown or flank of an erupting volcano. Although some lava flows can travel at 80-100 kmh-1 others move at human walking pace or more slowly. The speed of flow depends on the viscosity of lava, which itself is influenced by temperature, the silica content and the incline of the volcanos slope. The type of volcano produced depends on the type of lava erupted and the nature of the eruptions themselves. These in turn are greatly influenced by the type of plate margin on which they are formed. Not all volcanic eruptions are violent and destructive. In order to understand why this is the case, we need to consider the nature of the material which reaches the earths surface. Magma is a mixture of molten rock and gases, and a key characteristic is its viscosity. This is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. The lwer the viscosity, the more fluid the magma. There are three factors which affect viscosity. Higher temperatures cause atoms to spread out and decrease in density, so magma at a higher temperature is less viscous and will flow more easily. Secondly, dissolved gases make the magma more fluid and buoyant. The higher the tempearature, the more the gases remain dissolved and less viscous the magma. Thridly, the amount of silica (SiO2) in the magma affects the flow. Silica has close jointing and packing of atoms and make flow slow, and it is more difficult for gases to eascape. Lavas with a high silica content have an acidic chemical composition and form rocks called rhulites. They are viscous and have relatively low temperature of 600-1000oc. The lavas flow slowly, the gase do not escape easily and buld ip to produce more explosive eruptions. Lavas with a low silica content have a basic chemical compostion and form rocks called basalts.They are hotter and have a low viscosity. Gases are realeased more easily and the eruptions tent to be non-explosive.

Cause Heat The most likely cause of plate movement is convection cell currents in the mantle caused by heat from the core. This heat comes from a combination of radioactive decay and residual primary heat and its current cause the lithosphere to move. There is uncertainty about the forces involved but the movement is thought to be due to the pushing apart of plates at places where two rising limbs pulling downwards of the edges of plates at places where descending limbs exist. The downward drag seems to have a greater strength. Cause is the same however the direction of the rising limbs can create type of plate margin the exact nature of earthquake activity varies with the type of plate margin. Divergent - the lava that erupts from them is usually mafic (or basaltic), which means it has a low viscosity due to its low (45-52%) silica content. Being quite fluid a hot (about 1200c) this lava flows quite quickly and covers long distances before it cools and solidifies. Eruptions are frequent but low in magnitude magma is able to reach the surface relatively easily since the plates are divergent and the crust is fracturing. This means that there is seldom a great build-up of pressure. Convergent eruptions tend to be less frequent and much more explosive. Rising magma here often has a much greater thickness of crust to pass and fractures providing easy route ways tent to be less common. The lava itself is typically intermediate or silicic, with more than 50% silica content. This allied to a lower temperature of about 800c; make it much thicker and more viscous. It flows slowly and cools quickly, giving rise to a cone with a narrow base and a greater height.

The Peru-Chile trench, reaching depths of 8,000m occurs at the point of subduction. Earthquakes such as the one in northern Peru in 1970 which killed 67,000 people are common and often of high magnitude, Pressure builds up during convergence, much more so than during divergence, where it tends to be easily and frequency released. The focus of theses earthquakes is often quite deep in the subduction zone. Collision Earthquakes are common, and although their focus is often quite deep below the surface, their magnitude can be very high as a result of the intense compression forces exerted by the collision. In October 2005 a 7.6 magnitude earthquake struck Kashmir region of Pakistan. More than 75,000 people were killed, the death toll aggravated by the poorly built homes on steep slopes. The remoteness and the poor emergency services were another major factor. Hotspot The 2006 Hawaii event was an offshore earthquake occurring 10km southwest from Puako, at a depth of 38.9 km, at 7am on n15th October. It measured 6.7 on the Richter scale. Warning Caner in Ewa Beach, Hawaii measured a 10 cm tsunami in the coast of the Big Island. Sixty-one houses were destroyed, and while there were no fatalities, the cost was estimated at over $200 million. Impact human The hazardous event may be natural but the impact and the scale of the resulting disaster is largely determined by human factors. Choices- An estimated 500 million people were at risk from volcanic hazards in 2000. In the past 500 years, more than 200,000 people have lost their lives as a result of volcanic eruptions. The number of deaths in recent years runs about 1000 per year, which is far greater than the number of deaths for previous centuries.

This rise is not due to increased volcanism but due to an increase in the numbers of people populating the flanks of active volcanoes and valley areas near those volcanoes. Economic dev education - In locations where the level of economic development is low, a lack of education and information may mean that residents are unaware of the risks, particularly if the zone is not very active. In other cases, residents may be aware of the risks but decide to live in the area anyway- perhaps because it offers significant benefits. For some, living in southern California with its well paid jobs and pleasant climate, will outweigh concerns about earthquake risks. Some people are unable to move away from hazardous areas, owing to lack of financial resources or close links to family and tradition. Benefits Fertile soils volcanoes provide nutrients to the surrounding soil. Volcanic ask often contains minerals that are beneficial to plats and if it is very fine ash it can break down quickly and get mixed into the soil. Geothermal energy- water running though the earths crust is heated by high- temperature rocks at or near active plate margins, bringing geothermal energy to the surface where it emerges as hot springs Tourism- modern western culture sees volcanism as beautiful as well as threatening. In Indonesia, there are 82 active volcanoes, yet the island of Java is amoing the most densely populated in the world.

It is predicted that by 2025, 600 million people will be living in tectonically active areas. There are a number of reasons why people may live in tectonically dangeros or risky locations. People may stay in hazardous locations because of a lack o choice or alternatives. Very poor people may have to live in unsafe locations, close to volcanoes or in areas susceptible to earthquakes. Many people subconsciously weigh up benefits and costs eg the economic benefits may outweigh the perceived risks of living on fertile farming land on the flanks of a volcano. Perceptions of hazard risks can be optimistic having faith in technology to overcome/negate risks. There may be traditional, historical or cultural reasons for living close to volcanoes eg people believing volcanoes were sleeping gos inertia has prevented people from moving away from such locations. The number of deaths from this type of tectonic hazard is much lower that that for earthquakes or hydro-meteorological events.

Range of hazards/impacts Tectonic hazards can have a wide range of impacts physical, economic and social. The severity of those impacts depends on physical factors such as the magnitude of the event and human factors such as population density. In the case of volcanic hazards the impacts can be positive as well as negative, but with earthquakes the outcomes are unfailingly negative. Human costs The human costs may be subdivided into the following:

Primary casualties- people killed or injured by an earthquake or volcanic eruption. Casualties tend to be much higher in less developed countries because of poor contraction methods, limited preparedness and less effective warning systems and search and rescue services. Secondary casualties people who survive the initial incident but are either injured or die because of insufficient resources and lack of emergency medical care. These again tend to be higher in LEDC. Tertiary casualties. - People who suffer from pre-existing medical conditions aggravated by the hazard event. This group includes those who become ill, and even die as a result of the post disaster environment, largely through infectious diseases or profound trauma. In LEDC countries this of often the largest group of casualties.

Economic costs The economics costs generated by hazards are of two types. The direct costs include the immediate costs of repairing damage caused by the event itself. In the case of earthquakes this will often include demolishing building fractured by the shock waves and rebuilding from scratch. The indirect costs include the loss of earning by disruption to working life. Evaluation of human and economic costs It is worth noting that in developed countries, major tectonic events tend to cause high economic costs mainly due to the large investment in buildings and infrastructure. In developing countries they tend to cause a high loss of life. Responses Intro the number of fatalities mentioned earlier, when taken as a percentage of the population, the proportion of fatalities has decreased since 1955 and is predicted to continue declining in the future. This is largely due to improvements in preparedness. The impact of tectonic hazard can also be seen to vary over time in the short term. When a hazard event strikes, it disrupts economic and social life, often immediately and totally. The Park model describes a sequence of three phases following such events. Responses have shifted since the end of the twentieth century from developing humanitarian response and repair to post-disaster, such as in the Mexican City earthquake of 1985, to more mitigation and reduction of vulnerability. This is led by the UNs decade for disaster reduction and 2005 Hyogo Framework. This influential player in responses is partly a response to the inequalities in ability to reduce vulnerability, especially among less economically developed countries. Wealthier economies (such as the USA and Japan) have more technological fixes such as seismic building, emergency services, media systems, and literacy and effective civil and planning bodies. The responses of rebuilding and rehabilitation happen everywhere, but funding is usually better in the developed world where insurance exists. In general, hazards can be managed in one of three ways as showing in the diagram below. (spectrum 2Diagrams here During the relief phase teams from outside the immediate area arrive to help with search, rescue and care operations. Urgent medical supplies, rescue equipment, clothing and food may be flown in.

After relief comes the rehabilitation period. This might last for several weeks or months. Actions are designed to restore physical and community structure at least temporarily. In time, rehabilitation gives way to reconstruction, during which permanent changes are introduced to restore the quality of life and economic stability to its original level. If not better. The nature of these activities and the speed at which they are carried out are dictated by the type and magnitude of the event and the availability of contingency planning for disasters.

Different responses A wide range of approaches can be used to cope with tectonic hazard but there are essentially three options: do nothing, adjust or leave Which option is chosen depends on a number of factors. These include the nature of the hazard, its frequency, its magnitude, population pressure in the location and the level of economic development.

Volcanoes are easier to deal with, as there is usually some prior indication of an eruption. Thyey also originate at a known, visible point that can be monitored. Earthquakes typically occur without warning and may have their focus anywhere on a long fault line. The level of development is significant, as it will influence the extent of capital investment ( a deterrent to leaving) and the level of available technology. (an encouragement to adjust) Modifying event, loss and vulnerability Modify the loss Aid vital for poor people Insurance more useful for people in richer communities and countries Modiyfy vulnerability Prediction and warning Community preparedness Education to change behaviour and prevent hazards realsing into hazards Modify the event Further environmental control Hazard avoidance by land-use zoning Hazard resistant design Engineering defences useful coastal and river floods Retro fitting of homes is possible for protection Modify the cause Environmental control Hazard prevention Only really possible for small scale hazard

Strategies employed to adjust to hazard threat tent to concentrate on modifying the loss burden, modifying the event and modifying human vulnerability.

Response conclusion - Hazard perception we react to the threat from natural hazards in different ways because we receive, filter and distort informationas part of human perception. This perception along with the variability of hazardous events, means that we have a selective and partial view of natural hazards. These result in differing responses which aim to modify the event or the human systems.

Risk assessment Assessing the risk of volcanic eruption includes monitoring current levels of activity and mapping the evidence of destruction caused by previous eruptions. It is possible to modify lava flows by damming, cooling (with water) and bombing but the only realistic approach to living with volcanoes is to avaoid high risk sites and to evacuate as necessary. The key strategies to reduce the impact of earthquakes lie in the hands of governments , for example land use zoning Building regulations Evacuation drills Emergency service provision Government bodies such as the Federal Emergency Management Agency in the USA publish advice on how to prepare for and cope with events sich as earthquakes www.fema.gov

Variations in response Case Study On 22nd December an earthquake of moment magnitude 6.5 hit California. Four days later on the 26th December an earthquake of similar magnitude hit Iran. Both caused by reverse faulting The depths of the earthquakes were also very similar, 10km for Iran and 7.6 km for California (making both shallow-focus earthquakes). However the earthquake in Iran killed 26,000 people, on the other hand in California it only killed 3 people How, then, can two near-identical hazards have such different impacts? The answer is that they are not really identical hazards at all. A hazard is a function of both the magnitude of a physical event such as an earthquake and the state of preparedness of the society that is affected by it. Hazard risks (especially direct mortality) tend to be much lower for societies that possess the knowledge and financial capital to insulate themselves from the worst effects of the natural environment, such as the US. The large number of death was due to the immediate collapse of poorly-constructed multi-storey homes with heavy roofs, they were made from mud-brick, which tends to disintegrate on collapse, meaning less chance of air pockets forming, in which people might survive.

On the other hand, great attention is paid to architectural design along the San Andreas Fault and within 12 hours, search and rescue crews in Paso Robles had combed all seriously damaged buildings and had found all the quake's victims. Another factor that contributed to the higher death toll than in California was the time of day when the earthquake struck. It was 5.10am on Friday, the Muslim day of rest, when most people were still in bed and were trapped by falling masonry. Had it been mid-day, greater numbers might have been relatively safe going about their business in the streets of Bam. Flexible structures, light roofs, diagonal bracing (to prevent rhombohedral collapse of buildings) and careful land zoning regulations all contribute to minimal damage to the housing stock There is little earthquake education in Iran although the International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology established a Public Education Department in 1990 to improve "the safety, preventing, and preparedness culture against the earthquake among all groups of the society." In California there are earthquake drills every year, in 2009 it was called The Great California ShakeOut - the information and knowledge to prepare, respond and recover in the event of a disaster. http://www.shakeout.org/ Central intelligence agency the world factbook Colors of Memory is a 2008 Iranian film directed by Amir-Shahab Razavian based around the events of the 2003 Bam earthquake. GDP - per capita (PPP): $47,500 (2008 est. $12,800 (2008 est.) In 1999 there were two earthquakes, one in the NDC Taiwan, and another Turkey, a LEDC. In Taiwan the Western Pacific Plate Margin built up pressure during August and September in 1999, eventually on the 21st September the plates moved and there was an earthquake which killed 2084 people, measured 7.6 on the Richter scale. However in Turkey it was the Turkish plates which built up pressure, and eventually gave out on the 17th of August 99. It measured 7.4 on the Richter scale. These two countries have different levels of economic development, meaning they are a good comparison for how countries of differing levels of Economic development cope with earthquakes. Because of extensive underground seismic monitoring the earthquake could be accurately monitored, and it was said to be the best monitored and recorded earthquake in history. During the quake, 2,416 people died, over 11,000 people were injured, 41,000 houses were completely destroyed, 44,000 homes were severely damaged and $9 billion of damage was done. Management From the two case studies above you can see that the management and effects of earthquakes can significantly differ in places with differing levels of economic development. In Taiwan, the search operations were well managed, with support from all over the globe being utilised well, and volunteers being drafted equally to different parts of the country, where they could be used as needed, and not wasted. The fact that the firemen had all had good and extensive training meant that many lives were saved. In Turkey, the earthquake was not well managed; people were unorganised, leading to loss of life. The inefficiency on the health departments side was devastating as people who did not have life

Taiwan and Turkey

threatening wounds were turned out, and treated on the street. The instruments werent sterilised, and none of the health regulations were followed which allowed for the rapid spread of cholera and other fatal diseases. The search teams were very unorganised, and the government did not have a meeting, deciding what to do, everybody just jumped in, meaning that some places had lots of rescuers, others had few. In more developed countries, there is more money to spend of mitigation and preparation, for example in Turkey, there was warning before the earthquake, because the government and seismologists were monitoring it so closely. In Turkey however there was no warning, and a lot of people were inside sleeping, unaware of the danger. In more economically developed countries more money and resources can go into preparing for an earthquake, such as reinforcing housing structures, and setting in place a better rescue service, with people more likely to know about and abide by the emergency plans. Most of the difference comes down to monetary needs; the housing, structural designs, medical attention and plans. The Armero Tragedy was the aftermath of the November 13, 1985 Nevado del Ruiz Volcano eruption in Tolima, Colombia. The eruption of lava melted the mountain's large ice cap and produced floods, mudslides and a series of lahars that ultimately covered the town of Armero and killed most of its population, over 20,000 people out of 29,000 inhabitants. The volcano had been dormant for almost 150 years before 1985. Geologists and other experts had warned authorities and media outlets about the danger over the weeks and days leading up to the eruption. When interviewed by reporters, a number of different officials told the inhabitants that the city was safe and downplayed the possible effects, possibly due to the cynicism created by previous false evacuation orders. The night before the explosion, the mayor of Armero himself assured citizens that there was nothing to fear. DRC- HDI (2009[3]) 0.389 (low) (176) GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate Per capita $329[2] (180) Population - Density 28.1/km2 (188th) 72.9/sq mi Mount Nyiragongo is a stratovolcano in the Virunga Mountains associated with the Great Rift Valley. Nyiragongo's lavas are made of melilite nephelinite, an alkali-rich type of volcanic rock whose unusual chemical composition may be a factor in the unusual fluidity of the lavas there. Nyiragongo's lava flows may race downhill at up to 60 miles per hour (up to 100 km/h). This is because of the extremely low silica content (the lava is mafic). on January 17, 2002,. Warnings had been given and 400,000 people were evacuated from the city across the Rwandan border into neighbouring Gisenyi during the eruption.

The armero tragedy

The African rift valley Mount Nyiragongo

About 45 people died in the eruption from asphyxiation (condition of severely deficient supply of oxygen to the body that arises from being unable to breathe normally) by carbon dioxide and buildings collapsing due to the lava and earthquakes.[1] At least 15% of Goma comprising 4,500 buildings were destroyed, leaving about 120,000 people homeless. The eruption was the most destructive effusive eruption in modern history

1993: Okushiri, Hokkaido, Japan

A devastating tsunami wave occurred along the coasts of Hokkaid in Japan as a result of a magnitude 7.8 earthquake, 80 miles (130 km) offshore, on July 12, 1993. Within minutes, the Japan Meteorological Agency[citation needed] issued a tsunami warning that was broadcast. However, it was too late for Okushiri, a small island near the epicenter, which was struck with extremely big waves, some reaching 30 meters, within two to five minutes of the quake.

Aonae, a village on a low-lying peninsula at the southern tip of the island, was devastated over the course of the following hour by 13 waves of over two meters height arriving from multiple directions, including waves that had bounced back off Hokkaiddespite being surrounded by tsunami barriers. Of 250 people killed as a result of the quake, 197 were victims of the series of tsunamis that hit Okushiri; the waves also caused deaths on the coast of Hokkaid. While many residents, remembering the 1983 tsunami (see above), survived by quickly evacuating on foot to higher ground, it is thought that many others underestimated how soon the waves would arrive (the 1983 tsunami took 17 minutes to hit Okushiri) and were killed as they attempted to evacuate by car along the villages narrow lanes. The highest wave of the tsunami was a staggering 31 meters (102 ft) high.

Continental hot spot rhyolitic Yellowstone usa

The Yellowstone Caldera is the volcanic caldera in Yellowstone National Park in the United States. Yellowstone is believed to lie on top of a hotspot. Actually, the source of the hotspot is more or less stationary at depth within the Earth, and the North America plate moves southwest across it. The hot spot beneath the continental plate slowly melts the plate above. As the plate is granite, it generates a rhyolitic magma. This magma is cool, has a very high silica content and gas content. As it slowly rises it causes the surface to bulge. Eventually the pressure from below becomes too great and crust begins to fracture allowing magma to escape towards the surface. the last full-scale eruption of the Yellowstone Supervolcano, the Lava Creek eruption which happened nearly 640,000 years ago, ejected approximately 240 cubic miles (1000 cubic kilometres) of rock and dust into the sky. The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years The loosely defined term 'supervolcano' has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Conclusion