CITSEE Working Paper 2010-05

Macedonias Nationals, Minorities and
Refugees in the Post-Communist

Labyrinths of Citizenship

Ljubica Spaskovska

Working Paper 2010/05

The University of Edinburgh is a charitable body, registered in Scotland, with registration number SC005336.
Universily of Idinburgh, SchooI of Lav
The Iuroeanisalion of Cilizenshi in lhe Successor Slales of lhe Iormer YugosIavia
(CITSII)

Maccdnnia's Natinna!s, Minnritics and RcIugccs in thc Pnst-Cnmmunist
Labyrinths nI Citizcnship

L|ubica Saskovska

Tnis papcr nas |ccn prc!ucc! in c|csc cc||a|craiicn uiin inc |urcpcan Unicn Ocnccracq O|scrtaicrq
cn Ciiizcnsnip (|UOO-Ciiizcnsnip) an! nas |ccn na!c atai|a||c as a |UOO ccunirq rcpcri cn
uuu.cu!c-ciiizcnsnip.cu. Tnc papcr jc||cuc! inc |UOO siruciurc jcr ccunirq rcpcris prcscniing
nisicrica| |ackgrcun!, currcni ciiizcnsnip rcgincs an! rcccni !c|aics cn ciiizcnsnip naiicrs in inc
ccunirq un!cr scruiinq. Oincr naicria|s inai ccnp|cncni inis papcr sucn as ciiizcnsnip-rc|aic!
|cgis|aiicn, ciiizcnsnip ncus, cnrcnc|cgq, a!cpic! inicrnaiicna| ccntcniicns an! |i||icgrapnq arc a|sc
atai|a||c cn inc |UOO uc|siic.

(CITSII)
CITSII Working Iaer Series 2010/05
Idinburgh, ScolIand, UK
ISSN 2046-4096

2010 L|ubica Saskovska
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CITSEE WORKING PAPER SERIES 2010/05

1
Maccdnnia's Natinna!s, Minnritics and RcIugccs in thc Pnst-Cnmmunist
Labyrinths nI Citizcnship

L|ubica Saskovska, SchooI of Lav, Universily of Idinburgh
1

Abstract
The aer rovides an overviev of lhe evoIulion of lhe Macedonian cilizenshi
regime in viev of lhe oIilicaI and sociaI lransformalion rocesses since 1945 and in
arlicuIar afler lhe dissoIulion of YugosIavia. y arguing lhal lhe differenl slages in
lhe deveIomenl of lhe cilizenshi regime vere significanlIy condilioned by lhe
vider conlexl and exlernaI inlernalionaI faclors, lhe aer seeks lo calure lhe
inlerIay belveen lhe inlernaI socio-oIilicaI and inslilulionaI changes, regionaI
deveIomenls and lhe underslanding of cilizenshi. This aer incIudes a hisloricaI
accounl of cilizenshi oIicies on lhe lerrilory of Macedonia since lhe Olloman
Imire, a delaiIed anaIysis of lhe currenl cilizenshi regime, as veII as an overviev
of lhe currenl cilizenshi-reIaled oIilicaI debales.

Kcywnrds:
Macedonia, YugosIavia, cilizenshi, former YugosIav cilizens, refugees.

1 Intrnductinn

On 8 Selember 1991 Macedonia announced ils indeendence from lhe disinlegraling
YugosIav Iederalion. Il look anolher year lo adol ils firsl Cilizenshi Lav in
November 1992. Il is vilhin lhis comIex oIilicaI conlexl, vhich incIuded being
unabIe lo oblain inlernalionaI recognilion and assume a seal in lhe UN, lhal lhe
deveIomenl of lhe Macedonian cilizenshi regime musl be anaIysed: lhis framevork
caused oIilicaI inslabiIily and rofound socio-oIilicaI changes.
Aarl from lhe lhree reubIican cilizenshi Iavs Macedonia adoled as arl of
sociaIisl YugosIavia in 1950, 1965 and 1977, lhere are lvo lemoraI reference oinls
vhere hisloricaI circumslances and core oIilicaI deveIomenls direclIy infIuenced lhe
reIevanl cilizenshi IegisIalion. These vere lhe eriod belveen 1991-2001 before lhe
Onri! |rancucrk Agrccncni in Augusl 2001 vhich ended inlernaI armed confIicl
belveen elhnic AIbanian rebeIs and lhe Macedonian governmenl, and lhe osl-2001
eriod vhen Macedonia significanlIy amended ils cilizenshi IegisIalion in 2004 as
arl of lhe osl-2001 overaII reconciIialion rocess.

1
L|ubica Saskovska, Research IeIIov, CITSII ro|ecl. Address for corresondence: SchooI of Lav,
Universily of Idinburgh, OId CoIIege, Soulh ridge, Idinburgh, IH8 9YL, UK. ImaiI:
L.Saskovska+ed.ac.uk.

2
The firsl decade of Macedonian slalehood coincided vilh comIex oIilicaI
deveIomenls in lhe counlry and across lhe region: lhe YugosIav vars, lhe Greek
embargo, sanclions againsl lhe IederaI ReubIic of YugosIavia vhich indireclIy
infIuenced Macedonia, as veII as lhe infIux of refugees during lhe Kosovo crisis in
1999. AII of lhis furlher undermined lhe inlernaI fragiIe inler-elhnic baIance and
deIicale oIilicaI bargaining. The 1992 cilizenshi Iav Iefl a sliII undelermined bul
considerabIe number of non-nalionaI residenls, mainIy elhnic AIbanians and Roma
vilhoul reguIaled cilizenshi slalus. The Iav eslabIished a fifleen-year conlinuous and
cumuIalive residency requiremenl and incororaled cerlain olher rovisions vhich
vere, logelher vilh dubious adminislralive raclices, videIy crilicised for lheir
discriminalory imIicalions. Above aII, robIems Iay in lhe seIeclive imIemenlalion
of lhe Iav, lhe discrelionary overs of lhe adminislralive slaff of lhe Minislry of
Inlerior vho had lhe over lo decide uon lhe aIicalions and lhe sIov, exensive
and inefficienl adminislralive rocedures.
The 2001 Onri! |rancucrk Agrccncni lransformed lhe very essence of lhe
Macedonian slale. Il ended hosliIilies belveen lhe slale and lhe armed grous vilhin
ils AIbanian communily and eslabIished lhe basis for conslilulionaI amendmenls and
modificalions of lhe IegaI syslem vhich lransformed Macedonia from a oIily
conceived as a nalion-slale of lhe Macedonian eoIe lo a muIli-elhnic one. The core of
lhis is a !c jacic consocialionaI democracy, under vhich lhe nev decenlraIised
lerriloriaI re-organisalion aIIoved for AIbanian and lhe olher minorily Ianguages lo be
romoled lo having lhe slalus of officiaI Ianguages and guaranleed roorlionaI
reresenlalion in lhe slale adminislralion, lhe oIice and lhe Army for non-ma|orily
elhnic communilies. The osl-2001 eriod, arlicuIarIy afler lhe ralificalion and enlry
inlo force of lhe |urcpcan Ccntcniicn cn Naiicna|iiq in 2003, broughl a significanl
reform of lhe cilizenshi regime er se, incIuding a nev residence requiremenl of
eighl years and anolher lransilionaI rovision largeling former YugosIav cilizens vho
slayed in Macedonia.
AIlhough mosl of lhe cases of residenls vilhoul reguIaled cilizenshi have nov
been resoIved, consensus is Iacking on many erlinenl issues, such as lhe osl-2001
oIilicaI organisalion and concelion of lhe slale, vhere conleslalion of lhe oIilics of
numbers is aIvays a rominenl eIemenl. Iven nov, lhe so-caIIed 'urificalion' of lhe
eIecloraI regislry remains a ending lask and lhe census dala is sliII being debaled.
This imIies a ercelion of numbers having imorlance in delermining vho has a
righl lo Iay cIaim lo disuled and or elhnicaIIy-mixed lerrilories and lo cIaim lhe
slalus of a consliluenl eoIe. Iurlhermore, robIems reIaling lo lhe civiI regislralion
of lhe Roma communily, lhe doubIe Macedonian-uIgarian cilizens and lhe rosecls
of inlegralion inlo lhe IU and NATO remain some of lhe core issues lo be lackIed and
debaled in lhe fulure.


3
2 Histnrica! backgrnund

2.1 The pre-1945 Perlod

Al lhe beginning of lhe lvenlielh cenlury, lhe resenl-day ReubIic of Macedonia vas
arl of lhe Iasl Iuroean rovinces of lhe Olloman Imire, nameIy, lhe geograhic
region of Macedonia vhich vas comrised of lhe lhree adminislralive regions
(ti|aqcis) of SaIonika (ThessaIoniki), Monaslir (iloIa) and Uskub (Sko|e). UnliI lhe
demise of lhe Olloman Imire in lhe aIkans during lhe aIkan Wars 1912-1913, lhe
ouIalion of lhis region (Macedonian SIavs, Turks, AIbanians, uIgarians, VIachs,
Greeks, }evs, Roma) vas sub|ecl lo lhe Olloman Lav on NalionaIily of }anuary 19,
1869 vhich vas adoled as arl of lhe vider Tanzinai reforms. Arl. 9 of lhe Lav
sliuIaled lhal 'every erson inhabiling lhe imeriaI dominions is considered an
Olloman sub|ecl and lrealed as an Olloman sub|ecl' (IIournoy and Hudson 1929: 569).
The Olloman Imire did nol inquire inlo lhe raciaI, elhnic or nalionaI idenlilies
of ils sub|ecls bul il vas inleresled in lheir reIigious affiIialion. As schoIars have
oinled oul, lhe Olloman imeriaI governmenl feIl no need for lhese cIassificalions
because lhe informalion vas galhered rinciaIIy for lhe uroses of delermining
olenliaI lax revenue and lhe number of soIdiers lo be recruiled, for vhich veaIlh and
reIigion - nol elhnicily - vere lhe onIy lvo reIevanl calegories (YosmaogIu 2006). This
observalion rovides a cruciaI insighl inlo lhe fulure oIilicaI deveIomenls and
definilions of cilizenshi regimes afler lhe Iirsl WorId War. Since cIass and reIigion
have been lhe rimary Iines of oIilicaI and socio-cuIluraI demarcalion and grouing
for cenluries, lhe eslabIishmenl of lhe aIkan nalion-slales and lhe allemls al
defining lhe iniliaI body of cilizens in nalionaI and elhnic lerms afler lhe aIkan Wars
and lhe Iirsl WorId War rendered lhe oIilicaI mas of lhe region even more comIex,
vilh Iong-Iasling consequences and conlesled issues of idenlily and cilizenshi.
Afler lhe eslabIishmenl of lhe Kingdom of lhe Serbs, Croals and SIovenes in 1918,
vhich from 1929 onvards became knovn as lhe Kingdom of YugosIavia, lhe resenl
day ReubIic of Macedonia vas officiaIIy considered lo be arl of Serbia and ils SIavic
Orlhodox ouIalion lo be of Serbian elhnic descenl. The Macedonian SIavs vere
referred lo as Soulhern Serbs. irlh, schooI cerlificales and olher officiaI documenls
from lhe inlervar eriod vilness lhe slale's raclice lo change or modify ersonaI and
famiIy names in Macedonia by adding lyicaIIy Serbian suffixes (Kalardziev 1969,
Rossos 2008, Iriedman 2000). The Kingdom enacled ils ovn cilizenshi Iav in 1928
vhich rovided for a singIe YugosIav cilizenshi (Ragazzi and Sliks 2009).
AIlhough oulIaved al lhe end of 1920, lhe Communisl Iarly of YugosIavia,
aIong vilh lhe Cominlern, Iayed a cruciaI roIe in lhe overaII emancialion of lhe
Macedonians and lheir evenluaI recognilion as searale and equaI nalion in a fulure
communisl aIkan or YugosIav Iederalion (Rossos 2008). Afler much debale lhe
aIkan Communisl Iarlies and lhe Cominlern recognised lhe Macedonians as a
dislincl SIavic nalion in 1934. This Iaid lhe basis for lhe fulure incIusion of Macedonia
as a dislincl and conslilulive nalion and federaI reubIic in osl-1945 YugosIavia.

4
During lhe Second WorId War lhal arl of geograhicaI Macedonia vhich
beIonged lo lhe YugosIav Kingdom vas under occualion of lhe uIgarian Axis forces
and vas lherefore considered lo be arl of lhe uIgarian slale. Hence, lhe eoIe of
Macedonia, incIuding a significanl Sehardic }evish communily, vere considered
uIgarian sub|ecls under lhe 1940 Lav on uIgarian NalionaIily. Hovever, lhe }evish
ouIalion 'from lhe occuied lerrilories vas aarenlIy nol granled uIgarian
cilizenshi, vhiIe Greeks and Macedonians vere' (SmiIov and }iIeva 2009: 242). This
aIIoved for lhe deorlalion of lhe Macedonian }evs lo lhe TrebIinka concenlralion
cam, unIike lhe vasl number of uIgarian }evs vho managed lo avoid lhe Nazis'
exlerminalion oIicies.

2.2 The post-1945 Perlod

Wilh lhe Second WorId War's end in 1945, lhe YugosIav sociaIisl federalion vas
eslabIished vhich reserved lhe same aroximale borders as lhose of lhe defuncl
Kingdom of YugosIavia. AIlhough Macedonia enlered osl-Second WorId War
sociaIisl YugosIavia as an equaI arlner and vas, for lhe firsl lime in ils hislory,
recognised as a searale oIilicaI, nalionaI and cuIluraI enlily, il vas !c jacic a '|unior
arlner' in a federalion oIilicaIIy and economicaIIy dominaled by Serbia, Croalia,
and SIovenia (Rossos 2008: 235). NeverlheIess, being one of lhe consliluenl YugosIav
nalions, il undervenl a lransilion vhich finaIised ils nalion-buiIding rocess: lhe
codificalion of lhe aIhabel and lhe Ianguage vas foIIoved by lhe eslabIishmenl of a
slale universily, Macedonian leIevision and radio services, an Academy of Sciences
and Arls, and slale cuIluraI inslilulions.
Democralic IederaI YugosIavia (Ialer lhe IederaI IeoIe's ReubIic of
YugosIavia - IIRY) enacled ils firsl cilizenshi Iav on 28 Augusl 1945. y virlue of
lhis Iav, aII revious cilizens of lhe Kingdom of YugosIavia as veII as everyone vho
by elhnic descenl beIonged lo one of lhe YugosIav (Soulh SIav) eoIes (arl.25), vas
born, and vas raised or vas ermanenlIy residenl on lhe lerrilory of YugosIavia,
vouId be considered a cilizen of IederaI IeoIe's ReubIic of YugosIavia
(Medvedovic 1998, Ragazzi and Sliks 2009). SimiIarIy, arl. 48 of lhe 1946 YugosIav
Conslilulion eslabIished a 'singIe federaI cilizenshi |vhereasj every cilizen of a
eoIe's reubIic is al lhe same lime a cilizen of lhe Iederalive IeoIe's ReubIic of
YugosIavia'. The mosl rominenl fealure of lhe osl-1945 YugosIav cilizenshi
regime vas lhe aIready veII eIaboraled doubIe reubIican and federaI cilizenshi
(Medvedovic 1998, Ielrusevska 1998, Ragazzi and Sliks 2009). Thus, in comIiance
vilh lhe federaI IegaI framevork, Macedonia adoled ils firsl reubIican cilizenshi
Iav in 1950.
2
The cilizenshi IegisIalion of lhe reubIics foIIoved significanl
conslilulionaI changes in 1945-1946, 1963 and 1974 and lhe lhree cilizenshi Iavs of

2
3aion :a ,xan|anc+no+o na Hao,na Ienyauia Maie,onu|a |Lav on Cilizenshi of IeoIe's
ReubIic of Macedoniaj, Ojjicia| Gazciic cj inc Pccp|cs |cpu||ic cj Macc!cnia 16/50.

5
aII six YugosIav reubIics significanlIy mirrored cerlain core conslilulionaI
amendmenls and lhe ideoIogicaI framing of each of lhe conslilulions.
Iven lhough, unliI YugosIavia's dissoIulion from 1991 onvards, reubIic-IeveI
cilizenshi did nol have significanl raclicaI reIevance, il vas sliII an imorlanl
eIemenl in viev of lhe highIy decenlraIised federaI slruclure vhich YugosIavia
deveIoed from lhe earIy 1970s onvards
3
and vouId become lhe basis for
eslabIishmenl of lhe iniliaI cilizenry of lhe nev slales afler YugosIavia's dissoIulion. Il
is vorlh noling lhal aIready in 1947, lhe Commillee on LegisIalion and IeoIe's
Governance headed by lhe Vice-Iresidenl of lhe YugosIav Governmenl Idvard
KardeI|, issued an amendmenl and inslruclion on lhe conlenl of lhe IIecloraI
Regislries vhereby beIov lhe seclion enlilIed 'NalionaIily' (narc!ncsi - in sense of
elhnic beIonging) lhe calegory of 'reubIican cilizenshi' (rcpu||ikanskc !rzat|jansitc)
shouId be added.
4
The 'Inslruclion' recaIIed lhe facl lhal lhe eoIe's reubIics'
conslilulions and IegaI syslems aIIov onIy cilizens of lhe reubIic lhe righl lo vole in
lhe reseclive reubIican eIeclions immedialeIy afler lhe var, as oulIined in lhe 1946
Lav on IIecloraI Regislries, and quaIified lhe above-menlioned amendmenl
inlroducing lhe 'reubIican cilizenshi' calegory in lhe eIecloraI regislries as a IogicaI
foIIov-u. AccordingIy, reubIican cilizenshi conceived and inslilulionaIized in lhis
vay in lhe immediale osl-var eriod vas yel anolher recognilion of lhe reubIics'
slalehood.
The firsl Macedonian reubIican Iav on cilizenshi in 1950 eslabIished lhal lhe
main rinciIes for acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi are by: origin if bolh arenls
are cilizens of lhe IeoIe's ReubIic of Macedonia (arl. 4), by birlh on lhe lerrilory of
lhe reubIic for chiIdren of unknovn or slaleIess arenls or found/born in lhe reubIic
(arl. 7) and by naluraIisalion (a foreigner admilled lo YugosIav cilizenshi acquires
Macedonian reubIican cilizenshi if she or he has residency in lhe reubIic or by
requesl). More imorlanlIy, lhe Lav in lhe 'Transilory and IinaI Irovisions'
eslabIished lhe iniliaI body of cilizens of lhe IeoIe's ReubIic of Macedonia by
oulIining lhe rinciIes by vhich someone vouId be considered a cilizen of lhe
reubIic: if on 6 AriI 1945 he or she had municiaI membershi (asu+ajnccn) on lhe
lerrilory of lhe IeoIe's ReubIic of Macedonia, if before 30 }une 1948 he or she made
a slalemenl in lhe resence of lhe lovn or regionaI counciI vhere he or she resided
lhal he or she vished lo be a cilizen of IR Macedonia, or, if on 28 Augusl 1945 he or
she vas residenl oulside lhe lerrilory of lhe IIR YugosIavia bul before 6

AriI 1941 his

3
WhiIe lhe 1963 IederaI Conslilulion defined lhe reubIic as 'a sociaIisl democralic slale communily
based on lhe over of lhe vorking eoIe and on seIf-governmenl' and omilled any invocalion of lhe
elhnicily/nalionaIily rinciIe, lhe 1974 YugosIav Conslilulion re-inlroduced lhe recedence of lhe
nalionaI dimension of lhe reubIic as 'a slale based on sovereignly of nalions, lhe aulhorily and seIf-
managemenl of vorking eoIe and aII vorkers, and il is a sociaIisl seIf-managing democralic
communily of vorking eoIe, cilizens and equaI nalions and nalionaIilies'.
4
Yny+c+no :a cnonoIene naana 12 3aiona o uaniux cnucionuxa |Inslruclion on lhe
imIemenlalion of arl. 12 from lhe Lav on eIecloraI regislriesj, C.q.ccnu .ucn cccpanusnc Hapccnc
Pcnqc.uxc jq.cc.asujc |OfficiaI Gazelle of lhe IederaI IeoIe's ReubIic of YugosIaviaj, 27/47.

6
or her Iasl municiaI membershi vas somevhere on lhe lerrilory of lhe IeoIe's
ReubIic of Macedonia. The Lav aIso Iefl sace for admission inlo Macedonian
cilizenshi by requesl for lhose YugosIav cilizens vho did nol ossess any olher
reubIican cilizenshi, vilhoul having lo fuIfiI a one-year residency requiremenl (arl.
27).
Arl. 6 of lhe Lav rovided lhe modes of acquisilion of cilizenshi for chiIdren
vhose one arenl is a cilizen of Macedonia and lhe olher one of anolher YugosIav
reubIic: in lhis case lhe chiId acquired Macedonian reubIican cilizenshi by muluaI
agreemenl of bolh of lhe arenls. In lhe case of an absence of an agreemenl, lhe chiId
acquired Macedonian reubIican cilizenshi if al lhe lime of birlh bolh arenls vere
residenl in Macedonia, if lhe chiId vas born in Macedonia vilh lhe arenls being
residenl eIsevhere, and if lhe falher of lhe chiId vas a Macedonian cilizen. The Lav
aIso eslabIished lhe rocedure for acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi for cilizens of
olher YugosIav eoIe's reubIics (arls. 13-19), by vrillen requesl (having been
residenl for al Ieasl one year in Macedonia) or by marriage vilh a Macedonian cilizen,
in vhich case lhe Macedonian aulhorilies had lo inform lhe IeoIe's ReubIic vhose
cilizen lhey admilled inlo Macedonian cilizenshi (arl. 19). Macedonian reubIican
cilizenshi vas lo be Iosl onIy by Ioss of YugosIav federaI cilizenshi or by acquiring a
reubIican cilizenshi of anolher YugosIav reubIic (arl. 21). As vilh aII of lhe olher
YugosIav federaI unils, lhere vere onIy reubIic-IeveI regislers of cilizens.
The 1965 Lav on Cilizenshi of lhe SociaIisl ReubIic of Macedonia,
5
vhich
reIaced lhe revious one, conlained onIy len arlicIes and reresenled a far more
simIified version of lhe 1950 Lav vilh ils delaiIed rovisions on acquisilion and
Ioss of Macedonian reubIican cilizenshi. Il vas aarenlIy aimed al minimising
lhe imorlance of lhe reubIican cilizenshi. This vas in harmony vilh lhe 1964
IederaI Cilizenshi Lav lhal rovided for a uniled YugosIav cilizenshi, vilh
reubIican cilizenshi condilionaI uon federaI cilizenshi, as veII as vilh lhe 1963
Conslilulion of YugosIavia. Thal conslilulion enshrined lhe syslem of seIf-
managemenl, ul an emhasis on sociaI/Iabour reIalions and vorkers' righls, and
changed lhe name of lhe slale inlo SociaIisl Iederalive ReubIic of YugosIavia
(SIRY).
The onIy arlicIe vhich vas lransferred aImosl vord for vord lo lhe nev Iav
vas arl. 1 vhich slaled lhal 'onIy a YugosIav cilizen can have lhe cilizenshi of lhe
SociaIisl ReubIic of Macedonia'. The rovision aboul lhe acquisilion of Macedonian
reubIican cilizenshi by origin by chiIdren vhose bolh arenls are Macedonian
cilizens vas significanlIy amended by adding a residency requiremenl. Thus, arl. 2 of
lhe Lav slaled lhal 'a chiId born on lhe lerrilory of lhe SociaIisl ReubIic of Macedonia
acquires cilizenshi of SR Macedonia if bolh of lhe arenls are cilizens of SR
Macedonia and have residency on lhe lerrilory of SR Macedonia.' AddilionaIIy, 'if lhe

5
3aion :a ,xan|anc+no+o na Cou|aauc+unia Ienyauia Maie,onu|a |Lav on Cilizenshi of lhe
SociaIisl ReubIic of Macedoniaj, Cayxen necnui na Cou|aauc+unia Ienyauia Maie,onu|a
|OfficiaI Gazelle of lhe SociaIisl ReubIic of Macedoniaj, 09/65.

7
above condilions are nol fuIfiIIed, lhe chiId acquires cilizenshi of lhe SR Macedonia if
lhe arenls agree. If lhere is no muluaI agreemenl by lhe arenls, lhe chiId can acquire
cilizenshi of SR Macedonia on lhe basis of a submilled requesl afler coming of age.'
The Lav aIso changed and significanlIy faciIilaled lhe mode of acquisilion of
Macedonian reubIican cilizenshi by olher YugosIav cilizens: 'A YugosIav cilizen
acquires cilizenshi of lhe SociaIisl ReubIic of Macedonia by submilling a requesl'
(arl. 3). The modes of Ioss of Macedonian cilizenshi remained lhe same. Whal aII of
lhe above menlioned changes imIy is an inlenlionaI insislence uon lhe civic and
sura-nalionaI (YugosIav) dimension, cross-reubIican mobiIily and an ideoIogicaI
shifl in lhe YugosIav oIilicaI shere vhich lhrough lhe doclrine of vorkers' seIf-
managemenl lried lo minimise lhe imorlance of lhe reubIics as baslions of lhe
elhnic and nalionaI beIonging.
AIlhough arl. 249 of lhe Iasl YugosIav Conslilulion from 1974 rovided lhal
'YugosIav cilizens shaII have a singIe cilizenshi of lhe SociaIisl IederaI ReubIic of
YugosIavia', reubIics vere resonsibIe and free lo drafl lheir ovn cilizenshi
IegisIalion, vhich is arlicuIarIy visibIe in lhe 1977 Lav on Cilizenshi of lhe SociaIisl
ReubIic of Macedonia lhal reIaced lhe revious Lav from 1965
6
. Arl. 1 of lhe Lav
did nol foIIov lhe revious lvo Iavs as il eslabIished lhal 'The cilizens of lhe SociaIisl
ReubIic of Macedonia ossess cilizenshi of lhe SociaIisl ReubIic of Macedonia'. Il is
vorlh oinling oul lhal lhe Lav did nol refer lo lhe federaI cilizenshi in arl. 1, lhus
cIearIy reveaIing lhe confederaI eIemenls emhasised afler 1974. The Lav
reinlroduced lhe 1950 rovision on acquisilion of cilizenshi by origin for chiIdren
bolh of vhose arenls have cilizenshi of lhe SR Macedonia, omilling lhe 1965
residency requiremenl and added recision and exanded lhe modes of acquisilion
and Ioss of Macedonian cilizenshi. Arl. 3 rovided five rinciIes governing lhe
acquisilion of cilizenshi of lhe SR Macedonia: by origin, by birlh on lhe lerrilory of
lhe SR Macedonia, by admission inlo lhe cilizenshi of SR Macedonia of cilizens of
anolher sociaIisl reubIic, by naluraIisalion or by inlernalionaI agreemenls. WhiIe lhe
revious 1965 Lav eslabIished lhe acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi by olher
YugosIav cilizens onIy by requesl or slalemenl, lhis Iav exanded lhe requiremenls
adding an age Iimil (al Ieasl eighleen years of age) and a ermanenl residency
requiremenl (nol aIicabIe in lhe case of marriage lo a Macedonian cilizen). Arl. 13
eslabIished lhe modes of Ioss of Macedonian reubIican cilizenshi: by reIease, by
renuncialion, by derivalion, by admission inlo lhe cilizenshi of anolher sociaIisl
reubIic or by inlernalionaI agreemenls. An inleresling rovision is lhal a minor vho
Iosl his or her Macedonian cilizenshi by virlue of reIease, renuncialion or
derivalion, couId regain lhe cilizenshi if by lhe age of 25 he or she became a
ermanenl residenl of lhe lerrilory of SR Macedonia and submilled a requesl (arl. 18).
The reubIican Secrelarial for InlernaI Affairs did nol have lo rovide lhe reasons for a

6
3aion :a ,xan|anc+no+o na Cou|aauc+unia Ienyauia Maie,onu|a |Lav on Cilizenshi of lhe
SociaIisl ReubIic of Macedoniaj, Cayxen necnui na Cou|aauc+unia Ienyauia Maie,onu|a
|OfficiaI Gazelle of lhe SociaIisl ReubIic of Macedoniaj19/77.


8
finaI negalive decision on an aIicalion for acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi by
naluraIisalion or on an aIicalion for reIease from Macedonian cilizenshi (arl. 20).
This eIemenl of lhe discrelionary overs of lhe aulhorilies vouId be carried on as a
raclice inlo lhe 1990s.

2.3 The post-lndependence perlod

The YugosIav oIilicaI crisis reached ils cIimax during lhe firsl haIf of 1991 vhen lhe
six reubIics' residenls faiIed lo reach a muluaI agreemenl and an accelabIe soIulion
for lhe reservalion and reform of lhe dissoIving federalion. Macedonia's osilion vas
a moderale one vhich oosed bolh lhe Serbian and lhe Croalian cams. The
Macedonian Iresidenl Kiro GIigorov and lhe osnian Iresidenl AIi|a Izelbegovic
roosed a Ialform vhich aimed al reforming YugosIavia vilh furlher confederaI
eIemenls vhiIe reserving lhe oIilicaI union. Macedonia had a ragmalic inleresl in
Iobbying for lhe reservalion of a democralised YugosIav union considering ils
veaker economic slanding and a osilion of being surrounded by neighbouring
counlries vhich in one vay or anolher conlesled ils slalehood.
When Macedonia rocIaimed ils indeendence on 8 Selember 1991, lhe
YugosIav Army vas sliII slalioned on ils lerrilory and Serbia exercised significanl
ressure on lhe mosl soulhern reubIic lo remain in lhe nev rum YugosIavia
consisling onIy of Serbia and Monlenegro. Macedonia's osilion as an indeendenl
slale vas highIy queslionabIe unliI AriI 1992, vhen lhe YugosIav Army evenluaIIy
vilhdrev aII of ils ersonneI and equimenl. The counlry aIso faced oIilicaI
ressures from Greece over lhe name of Macedonia, robIems vilh ils inlernalionaI
recognilion
7
, a Greek embargo 1994-1995
8
, consequences of lhe sanclions imosed on
lhe IederaI ReubIic of YugosIavia and lhe groving Kosovo crisis in 1998 and 1999.
The firsl decade of Macedonia's indeendence 1991-2001 vas lherefore one of
inslabiIily, socio-oIilicaI and IegaI uncerlainlies, crises, and slrenuous efforls for slale-
consoIidalion. As lhe 1999 Reorl on Macedonia by lhe Iuroean Commission againsl
Racism and InloIerance noled, 'Ils slabiIily has been lhrealened by four years of vars
in lhe region. This increased lhe economic hardshi, caused severe emolionaI dislress
and broughl a Iarge infIux of refugees. These evenls aIso Iefl many eoIe al lhal lime
vilh an uncerlain slalus, as regards lheir righls of residence and cilizenshi' (ICRI
1999: 7). Moreover, inlernaI voices of disconlenl came from Macedonia's mosl

7
AIlhough lhe Arbilralion Commission of lhe Ieace Conference on lhe Iormer YugosIavia in ils
Oinion No. 6 recommended lhal lhe Iuroean Communily shouId accel Macedonia's requesl for
recognilion concIuding lhe counlry meels lhe required crileria, lhe IC vas reIuclanl lo do so. The IU
eslabIished diIomalic reIalions vilh Macedonia in December 1995. Macedonia vas admilled lo lhe UN
lvo years earIier in AriI 1993 under lhe rovisionaI name 'Iormer YugosIav ReubIic of Macedonia'.
8
Greece disaroves of Macedonia's conslilulionaI name lhe 'ReubIic of Macedonia', as il evokes
olenliaI lerriloriaI cIaims on ils norlhern rovince of Macedonia. On 13 Selember 1995 in Nev York,
Macedonia and Greece signed an Inlerim Accord vhich formaIised lheir biIaleraI reIalions and bolh
slales exressed a commilmenl lo conlinue UN sonsored negolialions for lhe sellIemenl of lhe name
issue.

9
numerous elhnic minorily, lhe AIbanians. Wilh lhe dissoIulion of YugosIavia,
AIbanian slalus vas dovngraded from lhal of a recognised YugosIav nalionaIily
(narc!ncsi)
9
vilh aII oIilicaI and cuIluraI righls allached lo lhal of a minorily in
indeendenl Macedonia. Kosovo, lhe oinl of reference for many of lhem, became arl
of a foreign counlry. The Macedonian AIbanian communily boycolled lhe 1991
indeendence referendum and in }anuary 1992 lhe AIbanian oIilicaI arlies in
Macedonia organised a referendum on aulonomy.
10
This reinforced an image of lhe
Macedonian AIbanians among lhe elhnic Macedonian ma|orily as disIoyaI and having
secessionisl asiralions.
Il vas in lhis highIy oIarised and unslabIe oIilicaI conlexl in November 1992
lhal lhe beIaled and Iong debaled Lav on Cilizenshi vas enacled. Il vas based on lhe
rinciIe of IegaI conlinuily vilh lhe cilizenshi of lhe SociaIisl ReubIic of Macedonia
and lhus 1,878,820 eoIe cx cjjicic acquired Macedonian cilizenshi (ICRI 1999), or
aboul 90 er cenl of lhe lolaI aduIl ouIalion, incIuding more lhan 1,430,000 aduIls
(Lazarova-Tra|kovska 1998). The conlemorary media reorled on lhe fierce debale in
lhe IarIiamenl on lhe residence requiremenl rovision as roosed figures ranged
from five lo lhirly years. This cIearIy refIecled lhe erceived lhreal from lhe inlernaI
minorilies and neighbouring counlries, a henomenon common lo many smaII
nalions. The alleml al defining lhe iniliaI body of cilizens coaIesced around lhe
members of lhe nalion vs. lhe cilizens debale and vas slrongIy embedded vilhin lhe
conlexl of lhe dissoIulion of YugosIavia. The elhnic Macedonian ercelion of lhe
nalion and lhe nev Macedonian slale orlrayed lhe considerabIe number of AIbanian
non-nalionaI residenls or unregislered residenls from Kosovo and Serbia as a robIem
and a lhreal. These ersons generaIIy moved for educalionaI or vork uroses during
lhe exislence of sociaIisl YugosIavia and lheir cilizenshi slalus vas lo be resoIved
onIy Ialer. There vere aIso a reIaliveIy smaII number of refugees from lhe YugosIav
vars of 1992-1995 vho evenluaIIy soughl Macedonian cilizenshi
11
and non-

9
The six Soulh SIavic nalions (narc!i) vere lhe consliluenl eoIes of YugosIavia, vhiIe AIbanians and
Hungarians had lhe slalus of nalionaIilies (narc!ncsii). The Roma, SIovaks, IlaIians, Turks, elc. had lhe
slalus of minorilies. The 1974 YugosIav conslilulion vhich granled aulonomy lo Kosovo and
Vo|vodina and an equaI reresenlalion on federaI IeveI insisled on lhe equaIily of aII nalions and
nalionaIilies, defining lhe federalion as a sociaIisl seIf-managed democralic communily of vorking
eoIes and cilizens and equaI nalions and nalionaIilies (arl. 1). SimiIarIy, arl. 171 eslabIished lhal
lhe members of lhe nalionaIilies have lhe righl lo use lheir molher longue and aIhabel in execuling
aII righls and dulies, in fronl of slale organs, as veII as lhe righl lo educalion in lheir ovn Ianguage on
lhe lerrilories of aII federaI reubIics and rovinces.
10
One of lhe rinciaI oinls of conleslalion vas lhe IreambIe of lhe Macedonian Conslilulion slaling
'lhe hisloricaI facl lhal Macedonia is eslabIished as a nalionaI slale of lhe Macedonian eoIe, in vhich
fuII equaIily as cilizens and ermanenl coexislence vilh lhe Macedonian eoIe is rovided for
AIbanians, Turks, VIachs, Roma and olher nalionaIilies Iiving in lhe ReubIic of Macedonia'.
11
According lo UNHCR sources, 30,000 refugees from osnia came inlo Macedonia vhere lhey vere
granled lemorary roleclion. In 1998 UNHCR reorled 1,400 remaining refugees, mosl of vhich vere
availing realrialion. Some of lhem evenluaIIy did slay in Macedonia and acquired Macedonian
cilizenshi.

10
Macedonian YugosIav Army slaff serving in Macedonia al lhe lime of dissoIulion vho
decided lo slay mainIy because of lheir Macedonian souses.
AII of lhese calegories had lo seek lhe acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi
under lhe 1992 Lav on Cilizenshi
12
vhich vas crilicised for some of ils conlroversiaI
arlicIes. These incIuded, for aIicanls for naluraIisalion, lhe requiremenls lo be
sycho-hysicaIIy heaIlhy, roficienl in lhe Macedonian Ianguage and in ossession of
a ermanenl source of means of subsislence. The fifleen-year requiremenl of
conlinuous residence vas arlicuIarIy crilicised.
The 'TransilionaI Irovisions' (arl. 26) of lhe Lav eslabIished lhal cilizens of lhe
SIR YugosIavia vho ossessed anolher reubIican cilizenshi and had regislered
ermanenl residence in Macedonia al lhe lime of indeendence couId aIy for
Macedonian cilizenshi vilhin one year of lhe enlry inlo force of lhe Lav rovided
lhey couId rove lhal lhey fuIfiIIed lhe fifleen-year cumuIalive residence requiremenl
and ossessed a ermanenl source of income. These rovisions received serious
crilicism bolh inlernaIIy from minorily grous and exlernaIIy from inlernalionaI
organisalions. In arlicuIar, lhis vas lhe case vilh regard lo lhe shorl one-year
lransilionaI regislralion eriod for former YugosIav cilizens, lhe high residency
requiremenl and lhe facl lhal many AIbanian and Roma had lo reaIy lhrough lhe
ordinary naluraIisalion rocedure, desile lhe facl lhal many had resided in
Macedonia for many years bul Iacked a roof of regislralion or informalion on lhe
rocedures (Ielrusevska 1998, Imeri 2006). The ordinary naluraIisalion rocedure aIso
meanl a higher adminislralive fee (250 USD al lhe lime) and a salisfaclory command of
lhe Macedonian Ianguage, delermined by oraI examinalion before a governmenlaI
Commission of lhree Ianguage exerls (ICRI 1999, Ielrusevska 1998). Hovever, even
fuIfiIIing aII of lhe crileria for reguIar naluraIisalion did nol guaranlee lhal a erson
vouId be granled Macedonian cilizenshi (Ielrusevska 1998). The rocedures look a
Iong lime. The |udiciaI disules before lhe Sureme Courl onIy relurned lhe case for a
fresh consideralion al lhe Minislry of Inlerior and every requesl for cilizenshi had lo
ass lhrough lhe NalionaI Securily Office of lhe Minislry of Inlerior. Many cases vere
refused on lhe basis of lhe 'nalionaI securily' rovision, vilh 'a vasl room for
unconlroIIed use of discrelion' (Ielrusevska 1998: 171, Imeri 2006).
Imigranls consliluled one of lhe calegories eIigibIe for faciIilaled naluraIisalion.
Arl. 8 of lhe 1992 Lav on Cilizenshi slaled lhal 'An emigranl from lhe ReubIic of
Macedonia, as veII as his firsl generalion descendanls may acquire cilizenshi of lhe
ReubIic of Macedonia by naluraIisalion aIlhough he does nol fuIfiI lhe requiremenls
of arl. 7, ara. 1, ilems 2 and 8 of lhis Iav.' Macedonian IegisIalion on cilizenshi, in

ResoIulion 1010 (1993) of lhe IarIiamenlary AssembIy of lhe CounciI of Iuroe reorled 32,000
regislered refugees 1.5 er cenl of lhe ouIalion.
'UNHCR GIobaI AeaI 1999 lhe Iormer YugosIav ReubIic of Macedonia'
<hll://vvv.unhcr.org/3eaff43f2e.hlmI>.
12
3aion :a ,xan|anc+no+o na Ienyauia Maie,onu|a |Lav on Cilizenshi of lhe ReubIic of
Macedoniaj, C.q.ccn sccnux na Pcnqc.uxa Maxcccnuja |OfficiaI Gazelle of lhe ReubIic of Macedoniaj,
67/92.

11
conlrasl lo lhe olher slales in lhe osl-YugosIav shere, has never had rovisions
secificaIIy largeling Macedonians by origin or elhnic Macedonians from lhe
neighbouring counlries. This vouId be one of lhe main oinls of conleslalion during
lhe arIiamenlary debales on lhe amendmenls lo lhe Lav in 2003/2004, as discussed
beIov. AIlhough emigranls vere nol exIicilIy defined in elhnic lerms, diasora
communilies from Macedonia do converge around an elhnic basis, rimariIy because
of Iinguislic, cuIluraI and reIigious differences or simiIarilies. The nev 2004 Iav
exanded lhe definilion of emigranls as any Macedonian cilizen vho had immigraled
lo anolher counlry, 'excIusive of his molher counlry', as viII be furlher discussed
beIov.
Anolher calegory eIigibIe for faciIilaled naluraIisalion under lhe 1992 Lav on
Cilizenshi vas lhal of aIien souses of Macedonian cilizens (arl. 9). As arl. 9 did nol
aIy lo ersons Iiving in an exlramarilaI arlnershi vilh a Macedonian cilizen, in
1992 lhe Iarly for Democralic Iroserily (IDI), a arly of lhe AIbanian minorily
conlesled lhe consislency of arl. 9 vilh lhe conslilulionaI rovision of equaIily of
marilaI and exlramarilaI reIalionshis before lhe ConslilulionaI Courl (Ielrusevska
1998). This vas IargeIy because of lhe resence of a considerabIe number of cases of
AIbanian couIes vho had been married in lradilionaI ralher lhan civiI marriage
ceremonies, eseciaIIy in ruraI, border areas, or cases vhich invoIved Macedonian
cilizens of AIbanian origin vho had souses from Kosovo or AIbania.
13
Hovever, lhe
Courl's inlerrelalion slaled lhal 'lhe IegisIalure, aulhorised by lhe Conslilulion of lhe
ReubIic of Macedonia lo sliuIale secific condilions for an aIien's acquisilion of
Macedonian cilizenshi, disregarded lhe emhasis of lhis rovision on lhe inslilulion
of marriage and nol on lhe slalus of lhe erson concerned - a cilizen of lhe ReubIic of
Macedonia or an aIien' (Ielrusevska 1998: 173). ConsequenlIy, lhe Iav vas nol
amended.
On 2 March 1999, foIIoving lhe Kosovo crisis and lhe NATO bombardmenl of
lhe IederaI ReubIic of YugosIavia, lhe Governmenl of Macedonia issued a decision
slaling lhal 'lhe ersons coming from IRY vhose Iives, securily or freedom are in
danger from lhe inlernaI armed confIicl, and vhich are direclIy coming from lhe
lerrilory of lhis slale lo requesl roleclion in ReubIic of Macedonia, |arej lo be lrealed
vilh lhe slalus of humanilarian assisled ersons.' Iurlhermore, 'having in mind lhe
economicaI ossibiIilies of RM, lhe reasons of nalionaI securily and ubIic eace and
order, lhe righl lo lemorary assislance |isj lo be rovided lo maximum 20,000
ersons.'
14
Hovever, during 1999 Macedonia evenluaIIy received 344,500 refugees,
mosl of vhom realrialed during lhe year, bul al lhe end of lhe year 21,000 of lhem
remained in lhe counlry (UNHCR 2000). The number feII lo 9,050 lhe foIIoving year.
This grou consisled of bolh Roma and AIbanian individuaIs from Kosovo and some
of lhem, in arlicuIar lhe Roma, slayed in Macedonia because of lhe inabiIily lo relurn

13
Inlerviev vilh Mr. Shend Imeri, Iavyer.
14
'Decision of lhe Governmenl of lhe ReubIic of Macedonia of 2 March 1999, lo Granl Temorary
Humanilarian Assisled Ierson (THAI)', UNHCR.
<hll://vvv.unhcr.org/refvorId/counlry,LIGAL,,LIGISLATION,MKD,4562d8b62,44c7969f4,0.hlmI> .

12
for securily reasons, vhiIe olhers, incIuding AIbanian refugees, remained lhrough
inlermarriage vilh Macedonian cilizens or olher ersonaI reasons.
Wilh lhe erulion of an inlernaI armed confIicl belveen lhe slale securily forces
and AIbanian gueriIIa grous in March 2001, Macedonia vouId be sel on a alh vhich
vouId Iead lo ma|or conslilulionaI changes vilh lhe lerminalion of lhe confIicl in
Augusl 2001 and lhe signing of lhe Onri! |rancucrk Agrccncni
15
, vhich vouId
evenluaIIy aIso oen lhe vay for lhe amendmenl of lhe Lav on Cilizenshi in 2004.

2.4 The post-2001 perlod

AIlhough lhe counlry vas among lhe firsl lo sign il in 1997, lhe |urcpcan Ccntcniicn cn
Naiicna|iiq vas ralified onIy in }une 2003 and enlered inlo force four monlhs Ialer. The
Iong argued for amendmenl of lhe Lav on Cilizenshi look Iace lhe foIIoving year.
In Iebruary 2004, vilh lhe enaclmenl of lhe Lav for Changing and Amending lhe Lav
on Cilizenshi, a nev residency requiremenl of eighl years vas inlroduced.
16
The
debale in lhe arIiamenl concenlraled around lhe residency requiremenl, as lhe righl-
ving oosilion roosed one of len years and oosed lhe incIusion of lhe
lransilionaI rovision for former YugosIav cilizens by cIaiming lhal lhe 1992 Lav
aIready conlained one.
17
As lhe fev media reorls on lhe issue underIined, lhe
Iresidenl, vho originaIIy came from lhe main oosilion arly, refused lo sign lhe
Lav vhen il vas firsl voled in IarIiamenl in November 2003.
18
This vas because il did
nol rovide any basis for lhe acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi for aII

15
Signed on 13 Augusl 2001, under a significanl inlernalionaI ressure and afler exlensive inlernaI
oIilicaI bargaining, lhe Onri! |rancucrk Agrccncni ended lhe hosliIilies and eslabIished lhal 'lhere are
no lerriloriaI soIulions lo elhnic issues' and lhal 'lhe muIli-elhnic characler of Macedonia's sociely musl
be reserved and refIecled in ubIic Iife.' The originaI IreambIe lo lhe Macedonian Conslilulion vas
aIso amended: 'The cilizens of lhe ReubIic of Macedonia, lhe Macedonian eoIe, as veII as cilizens
Iiving vilhin ils borders vho are arl of lhe AIbanian eoIe, lhe Turkish eoIe, lhe VIach eoIe, lhe
Serbian eoIe, lhe Romany eoIe, lhe osniak eoIe and olhers laking resonsibiIily for lhe resenl
and fulure of lheir falherIand, avare of and gralefuI lo lheir redecessors for lheir sacrifice and
dedicalion in lheir endeavours and slruggIe lo creale an indeendenl and sovereign slale of Macedonia,
and resonsibIe lo fulure generalions lo reserve and deveIo everylhing lhal is vaIuabIe from lhe rich
cuIluraI inherilance and coexislence vilhin Macedonia, equaI in righls and obIigalions lovards lhe
common good.'
16
The enaclmenl of lhe amendmenls lo lhe Lav on Cilizenshi vas nol accomanied by a ubIic debale
since al lhe same eriod (}anuary-Iebruary 2004) lhe ubIic vas engaged in olher debaled issues vhich
came as a resuIl of lhe Onri! |rancucrk Agrccncni: lhe oening of an AIbanian-Ianguage slale universily
in Telovo and lhe nev lerriloriaI organisalion vhich redrev municiaI borders and for vhich a
referendum vas organised. In addilion, onIy fev days afler lhe ubIicalion of lhe Lav, Macedonia's
Iresidenl vas lragicaIIy kiIIed in a Iane crash.
17
Vo|novska, OIivera ',xan|anc+no co ocyx io,unu nec+o| no :ex|ana' |Cilizenshi Wilh an Iighl-
Year Residencyj, Uirinski |daiIy nevsaerj, 23 }anuary 2004.
18
Asscn||q cj inc |cpu||ic cj Macc!cnia,
hll://vvv.sobranie.mk/defauIl.asÌlemIDA0IAI03791A4C6AII4I690D9C9CA

13
Macedonians by origin vho vere born and Iived oulside of Macedonia and did nol
quaIify under lhe emigranls' rovision.
19

The signing of lhe IoyaIly oalh vas anolher noveIly inlroduced by lhe 2004
amendmenls lo lhe cilizenshi IegisIalion. The Ianguage requiremenl rovision vas
aIso amended vilh lhe addilion lhal 'lo lhe exlenl lhal one can easiIy communicale
vilh lhe environmenl' vouId be considered in order lo faciIilale lhe assing of lhe
Ianguage lesl for ersons for vhom il reresenled an obslacIe, lhal is, eoIe from
ruraI areas of non-elhnic Macedonian origin. The securily rovision vas reserved,
bul unIike lhe revious raclice vhen lhe deciding bodies in lhe Minislry of Inlerior
exercised lheir discrelionary overs, lhe 2004 amendmenls eslabIished a nev raclice
of roviding a comuIsory exIanalion for a refusaI of an aIicalion, rendering lhe
vhoIe rocess more lransarenl.
Arl. 11, bolh in lhe 1992 and in lhe 2004 Lav, eslabIished lhal an emigranl and
his descendanls u lo lhe firsl generalion can acquire Macedonian cilizenshi even if
lhey do nol fuIfiI lhe residency requiremenl of eighl years and lhey do nol rovide a
reIease from lheir former cilizenshi. This arlicIe, hovever, vas amended by a
suIemenlary definilion of an exalriale as 'a cilizen of R Macedonia vho emigraled
from R Macedonia lo anolher counlry vilh lhe excelion of il being a kin-slale,
regardIess of gender, race, skin coIour, nalionaI and sociaI origin, oIilicaI and
reIigious beIief, maleriaI and sociaI slalus.' Whal some oinled oul as a robIemalic
rovision vas lhe eIemenl of lhe kin-slale. This aIied lo members of lhe AIbanian,
Turkish or Serb lradilionaI minorilies and elhnic communilies vho decided lo
emigrale ermanenlIy lo AIbania, Turkey or Serbia resecliveIy. Il has been argued
lhal lhis vay of defining emigranls is arlicuIarIy discriminalory lo Turks vho for lhe
mosl arl againsl lheir viII emigraled from Macedonia in lhe 1950s and lhe 1960s
(Imeri 2006). Anolher emerging queslion vhich vouId furlher comIicale lhe
imIicalions of lhis arlicIe is reIaled lo lhe recenl indeendence of Kosovo. Il is sliII nol
cIear if Kosovo, in addilion lo AIbania, viII be considered a kin-slale for lhe
Macedonian AIbanians.
Moreover, somevhal beIaledIy in comarison lo olher osl-YugosIav slales, in
Selember 2009 voling righls vere exlended lo lhe emigranl communilies from
Macedonia. They viII have lhe righl lo vole in lhe residenliaI and arIiamenlary
eIeclions by eIecling lhree MIs in lhe lhree addilionaI eIecloraI dislricls
(Iuroe/Africa, Norlh and Soulh America and AuslraIia/Asia).
20
UnofficiaIIy, one of
lhe lhus eIecled MIs viII be of AIbanian origin, considering lhe redominanl number
of Macedonian emigranls of AIbanian origin in Iuroe, and lhe remaining lvo viII be
of elhnic Macedonian origin.

19
Vo|novska, OIivera ',xan|anc+no co ocyx io,unu nec+o| no :ex|ana' |Cilizenshi Wilh an Iighl-
Year Residencyj, Uirinski |daiIy nevsaerj, 23 }anuary 2004.
20
'Iceaenuu+e o, nnea co nano na iaac' |Since Yeslerday Imigranls Have Voling Righlsj,
Onctnik |daiIy nevsaerj, 2 Selember 2009.
Venco Donev, 'Xna+cia u Iyiau|a ie ce o+iaxa+ o, iaacane+o na ,u|acnoa+a' |Croalia and
uIgaria WiII AboIish Diasora Volingj, Ncta Makc!cnija |daiIy nevsaerj, 3 Iebruary 2010.

14
Mosl imorlanlIy, arl. 14 inlroduced a nev lransilionaI rovision lo largel former
SIR YugosIavia cilizens. Il eslabIished lhal lhis calegory of individuaIs 'may acquire
cilizenshi of lhe ReubIic of Macedonia if vilhin lvo years afler lhe enlry inlo force
of lhis Iav lhey have submilled an aIicalion, rovided lhal no criminaI roceedings
are being carried oul againsl lhem in lhe ReubIic of Macedonia, for criminaI acls
vhich lhrealen lhe securily and defence of lhe ReubIic.'
21
Tvo furlher requiremenls
for lhis calegory vere lo be of age (eighleen years oId) and 'lo be roficienl in lhe
Macedonian Ianguage lo lhe exlenl lhal he or she can easiIy communicale in lhe
environmenl'. The lransilionaI eriod of lvo years vas rimariIy aimed al resoIving
lhe ending cases of unreguIaled cilizenshi of moslIy Roma and AIbanian residenls
in Macedonia, vho under lhe revious 1992 Lav faiIed lo fuIfiI and/or lo rove lhe
fifleen-year residency requiremenl. In December 2004, in order lo faciIilale lhe
rocedure and lo avoid lhe iniliaI mislake of nol roerIy informing olenliaI
aIicanls, lhe Macedonian Governmenl in coordinalion vilh lhe UNHCR Iaunched a
big informalion camaign. The media vas used and exIanalory brochures rinled in
lhe Roma and AIbanian Ianguages exIained lhe cilizenshi aIicalion rocedure in
simIer lerms.
This aroach, aIong vilh lhe UNHCR-Ied ro|ecl Prcti!ing |rcc Icga| Ai! ic
Asq|un an! Ciiizcnsnip Scckcrs (Imeri 2006), broughl lhe conlesled numbers debale lo a
somevhal concIusion. The avaiIabIe figures slale lhal in lhe eriod belveen 1992 and
1998, aboul 120,000 aIicalions for cilizenshi vere received and considered, 95.4 er
cenl of vhich vilh a osilive oulcome and 4.6 er cenl re|ecled (Lazarova-Tra|kovska
1998). 2,130 cases of slaleIessness vere reorled afler lhe lransilionaI eriod for former
YugosIav cilizens exired in November 1993 (Imeri 2006).
In lhe eriod from 2004 unliI 2009, 4,984 Iong-lerm habiluaI residenls vere
granled cilizenshi of lhe ReubIic of Macedonia under lhe lransilionaI rovision of
arl. 14 for former YugosIav cilizens, 368 aIicalions vere re|ecled, and 167 decisions
are ending (UNHCR 2009). These are arl of lhe lolaI of 98,990
22
ersons vho
acquired cilizenshi of R Macedonia from 1993 lo 2008, of vhom 88.6 er cenl vere
cilizens of lhe former YugosIav reubIics (|csc|uiicn cj Migraiicn Pc|icq cj | Macc!cnia
2008). In Augusl 2009 lhe UNHCR reorled lhal, in lhe eriod from 2001 lo 2009, 7,379
ersons vere sub|ecl lo assisled and sonlaneous realrialion and lhal 1,686 asyIum
seekers and refugees in lolaI remain in lhe counlry, 1,088 of vhom are under
humanilarian roleclion.
The mosl recenl amendmenl of lhe Cilizenshi Lav in 2008 vas aimed al
faciIilaling lhe cilizenshi acquisilion rocedure for refugees and slaleIess ersons, as

21
3aion :a u:xenynane u ,onoanynane na 3aiono+ :a ,xan|anc+no+o na Ienyauia Maie,onu|a
|Lav for Changing and Amending lhe Iav on Cilizenshi of lhe ReubIic of Macedoniaj, C.q.ccn
sccnux na Pcnqc.uxa Maxcccnuja |OfficiaI Gazelle of lhe ReubIic of Macedoniaj, 08/2004.
22
The documenl quoles a figure of 60,585 (oul of 98,990) vho in lhis eriod acquired Macedonian
cilizenshi lhrough lhe lransilionaI rovisions for former YugosIav cilizens, 14,567 vho acquired
cilizenshi on lhe basis of marriage lo a Macedonian cilizen, 4,392 lhrough reguIar naluraIisalion and
5,676 minors vhose arenls had acquired Macedonian cilizenshi.

15
a finaI slage in lhe rocess of resoIving lhe IegaI slalus of lhe rimariIy AIbanian and
Roma refugees from lhe 1999 Kosovo crisis vho couId nol relurn or voIunlariIy
decided lo slay in Macedonia. Arl. 8 of lhe Lav (as amended in 2008) eslabIishes lhal
slaleIess ersons and ersons vilh recognised slalus of refugees can aIy for
Macedonian cilizenshi if lhey have been IegaIIy residenl in Macedonia for al Ieasl six
years rior lo lhe aIicalion. The amendmenl secificaIIy largeled Kosovo refugees
since il aboIished lhe requiremenls for reIease from lhe Iasl (in lhis case Serbian)
cilizenshi and for nol being roseculed in lhe counlry of cilizenshi, as a number of
Kosovo AIbanians had criminaI charges ressed againsl lhem in Serbia. This vas
considered a lerminaI sle for soIving lhe IegaI slalus of lhe Kosovo refugees.

3 Thc currcnt citizcnship rcgimc

Afler lhe amendmenl lo lhe Lav on Cilizenshi in 2004, il vas eslabIished lhal
'Cilizenshi is a IegaI Iink belveen lhe ersons and lhe slale and does nol indicale lhe
elhnic origin of lhe ersons' (arl. 1), a rovision vhich did nol exisl in lhe firsl Iav
from 1992.

3. 1 Main nc!cs cj acquisiiicn cj Macc!cnian ciiizcnsnip

The 1992 Lav on Cilizenshi of lhe ReubIic of Macedonia as amended in 2004 and
2008 eslabIished four modes of acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi:
- by origin (ius sanguinis),
- by birlh (ius sc|i),
- by naluraIisalion,
- by inlernalionaI lrealies.
As reguIaled by arl. 4 of lhe Lav, a chiId acquires Macedonian cilizenshi by
origin if: al lhe momenl of birlh bolh arenls are Macedonian cilizens, al lhe momenl
of birlh one arenl is a Macedonian cilizen and lhe chiId is born on lhe lerrilory of lhe
R Macedonia, unIess bolh arenls decide by muluaI agreemenl lhal lhe chiId acquires
lhe cilizenshi of lhe olher arenl, or al lhe momenl of birlh one arenl is a
Macedonian cilizen, lhe olher arenl is unknovn, of unknovn cilizenshi or slaleIess
and lhe chiId is born abroad. Adoled chiIdren vhose one or bolh adolive arenls
are Macedonian cilizens aIso acquire Macedonian cilizenshi.
A chiId born abroad vhose one arenl is a Macedonian cilizen al lhe momenl of
birlh can acquire Macedonian cilizenshi by origin if by lhe age of eighleen is
regislered as a Macedonian cilizen or assumes ermanenl residency on lhe lerrilory of
Macedonia vilh lhe Macedonian arenl.
Macedonian cilizenshi can be granled aIso lo an individuaI nol regislered by lhe
arenls, if by lhe age of 23 he or she submils a requesl for admission inlo Macedonian
cilizenshi. In aII of lhe cases menlioned above, lhe chiId viII be considered a
Macedonian cilizen from lhe momenl of birlh regardIess of vhen she or he vas
regislered or admilled inlo Macedonian cilizenshi (arl. 5).

16
Arl. 6 reguIales lhe acquisilion of cilizenshi by birlh on lhe lerrilory of
Macedonia and il aIies lo any chiId of unknovn arenls, arenls of unknovn
cilizenshi or vilhoul cilizenshi, vhich is found or born on Macedonian lerrilory. If
by lhe age of fifleen il is eslabIished lhal lhe chiId's arenls are foreign cilizens and
lhal lhe chiId vouId nol become slaleIess, his or her Macedonian cilizenshi viII be
lerminaled.
Arl. 7-18 reguIale lhe rocedure for acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi by
naluraIisalion: reguIar, faciIilaled, excIusive, naluraIisalion of minors and
reacquisilion of Iosl cilizenshi.
A foreign cilizen musl fuIfiI lhe foIIoving requiremenls in order lo be considered
for admission inlo Macedonian cilizenshi:
1) lo be al Ieasl eighleen years oId al lhe lime of aIicalion,
2) lo have had IegaI regislered residence in Macedonia for al Ieasl eighl years,
3) lo have an accommodalion and ermanenl source of subsislence means
aIIoving for maleriaI and sociaI securily,
4) nol lo have been senlenced lo imrisonmenl of minimum duralion of one year
in lhe counlry of his cilizenshi for acls unishabIe according lo lhe reguIalions of
Macedonia,
5) lhere shouId nol be criminaI roceedings neilher in Macedonia nor in lhe
counlry of his or her cilizenshi,
6) lo be fIuenl in Macedonian lo lhe exlenl lhal one can easiIy communicale in lhe
environmenl,
7) lhere hasn'l been a measure of rohibilion of residence in Macedonia,
8) lhe aIicanl's admission inlo lhe cilizenshi of R Macedonia shouId nol ose
a lhreal for lhe securily and defence of lhe counlry,
9) lo sign a IoyaIly oalh,
10) lo rovide a reIease form lhe revious cilizenshi or a roof lhal il viII be
rovided afler lhe acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi.
The rocedure of faciIilaled naluraIisalion aIies lo lhree calegories of ersons:
individuaIs vilh a recognised slalus of a refugee or slaleIess individuaIs (arl. 8),
emigranls from R Macedonia and lheir descendanls u lo lhe firsl generalion (arl. 11),
and foreigners vhose souse is a Macedonian cilizen (arl. 12).
A foreigner, vho has been married lo a Macedonian cilizen for al Ieasl lhree
years and unliI lhe momenl of his requesl for acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi
has been conlinuousIy residenl for al Ieasl one year in Macedonia, can oblain
Macedonian cilizenshi even lhough he or she does nol fuIfiI lhe Ianguage
requiremenl and does nol rovide a reIease from lhe originaI cilizenshi. A foreign
cilizen vho has been married lo a Macedonian cilizen for al Ieasl eighl years,
ermanenlIy and IegaIIy resides abroad and has a slrong and effeclive conneclion vilh
R. Macedonia can acquire Macedonian cilizenshi lhrough naluraIisalion even lhough
she or he does nol fuIfiI lhe above-menlioned requiremenls for ordinary
naluraIisalion.

17
Arl. 14 eslabIishes lhe ossibiIily for excIusive naluraIisalion for foreigners
having allained eighleen years of age and vhose admission inlo Macedonian
cilizenshi does nol ose a lhreal for lhe securily and defence of lhe counlry, 'if lhal
reresenls a arlicuIar scienlific, economic, cuIluraI, sorls or olher nalionaI inleresl'.
In lhis case il is lhe governmenl lhal issues an oinion and delermines vhich lhose
acluaI nalionaI inleresls are.
The rocedures for naluraIisalion of minors are delermined by arl. 15: 'If bolh
arenls have acquired Macedonian cilizenshi by naluraIisalion, lheir minor chiId aIso
acquires Macedonian cilizenshi. If one arenl has acquired Macedonian cilizenshi
lhrough naluraIisalion, his/her minor chiId aIso acquires Macedonian cilizenshi if
requesled from lhe arenl and lhe chiId Iives in R Macedonia, or uon a requesl from
bolh of lhe arenls and lhe chiId Iives abroad'. AddilionaIIy, in a!cpiic p|cna silualions,
if one of lhe adolive arenls has acquired Macedonian cilizenshi lhrough
naluraIisalion, lheir minor adoled chiId Iiving vilh lhe arenl in Macedonia aIso
becomes a Macedonian cilizen. In any of lhe above cases vhen lhe chiId is fifleen or
above his or her consenl is aIso required.
Reacquisilion of cilizenshi is reguIaled by arl. 18 and il slriclIy aIies lo any
'erson vho as a minor Iosl lhe Macedonian cilizenshi by reIease'. Il is ossibIe lo
reacquire Macedonian cilizenshi if lhe aIicanl 'by lhe age of 25 IegaIIy and
conlinuousIy resides in Macedonia for al Ieasl lhree years and fiIes a requesl for
reacquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi.'
LaslIy, lhe fourlh mode of acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi under
inlernalionaI agreemenls is eslabIished by arl. 3, bul vilhoul furlher eIaboralion of lhe
delaiIs.
If a erson is nol regislered in lhe regisler of cilizens, or lhere is nol a record of
his or her birlh, 'lhe Minislry of Inlerior viII delermine lhe cilizenshi of R. Macedonia
and lhe dala viII be addilionaIIy enlered inlo lhe regisler of cilizens' (arl. 27).

3.2 Main nc!cs cj |css cj Macc!cnian ciiizcnsnip

Arl. 19 of lhe Lav foresees lvo modes of Ioss of lhe cilizenshi of R Macedonia: by
reIease or requesl and according lo inlernalionaI agreemenls. ased on lhe rinciIes
of revenlion of slaleIessness and free viII
23
, lhe Macedonian cilizenshi IegisIalion
does nol rovide for derivalion, bul rovides for reversaI of naluraIisalion in lhe
evenl of fraud (arl. 17).
A cessalion of Macedonian cilizenshi by reIease is oblained by a erson fiIing an
individuaI requesl and fuIfiIIing lhe foIIoving condilions:
1) has reached eighleen years of age,
2) has reguIaled lhe miIilary service duly,

23
'The Iormer YugosIav ReubIic of Macedonia', |urcpcan Bu||ciin cn Naiicna|iiq,
hll://vvv.coe.inl/l/e/IegaI_affairs/IegaI_co-
oeralion/foreigners_and_cilizens/nalionaIily/documenls/buIIelin/0_Index.as-ToOfIage

18
3) has sellIed any roerly-reIaled, IegaI and olher obIigalions lovards slale
bodies, organisalions, comanies and olher IegaI and naluraI ersons,
4) has sellIed any roerly-reIaled, IegaI and olher obIigalions arising from
marilaI slalus and arenl-chiIdren reIalionshis for ersons Iiving in R Macedonia,
5) has submilled a roof from lhe comelenl aulhorily lhal a bankrulcy
rocedure, or a rocedure for a Iiquidalion of a lrading comany vhose founder or co-
ovner lhe aIicanl is, had nol been inilialed,
6) is nol sub|ecl lo criminaI roseculion in R Macedonia for a crime roseculed ex
officiaI, or has aIready served a senlence if senlenced lo imrisonmenl,
7) hoIds a foreign cilizenshi or can rove lhal he or she viII acquire foreign
cilizenshi.
The reIevanl slale organ can refuse lhe requesl for reIease from lhe cilizenshi of R
Macedonia even if aII condilions are fuIfiIIed if 'reasons for lhe roleclion of lhe
securily and lhe defence of R Macedonia, or olher reasons arising from lhe reIalions
vilh a foreign counlry require lhis' (arl. 20). The same arlicIe eslabIishes a comuIsory
exIanalion lo be rovided by lhe reIevanl slale organ on lhe reasons for lhe refusaI of
lhe requesled reIease. In lhe eriod 1993-2008, 20,803 eoIe received reIease from
Macedonian cilizenshi (|csc|uiicn cn Migraiicn cj |. Macc!cnia 2008).
The Iasl lvo rovisions on lhe Ioss of Macedonian cilizenshi reIale lo minor
chiIdren. Arl. 22 reguIales lhe Ioss of cilizenshi for minor chiIdren vho Iose lheir
Macedonian cilizenshi if requesled by lhe arenls vho oblained reIease from
Macedonian cilizenshi, or if one of lhe arenls oblains a reIease and lhe olher one
agrees lhal lhe chiId Ioses his Macedonian cilizenshi. If lhe arenls do nol Iive
logelher, lhe chiId Ioses his Macedonian cilizenshi by reIease if requesled by lhe
arenl vilh vhom lhe chiId Iives and vho has aIso aIied for a reIease, or if lhe
arenl is a foreign cilizen. In bolh cases consenl is required by lhe olher arenl. If one
of lhe arenls does nol agree lo lhe reIease of lhe chiId from Macedonian cilizenshi,
lhe chiId can oblain lhe reIease if lhe reIevanl organ gives a consenl considering lhe
chiId's besl inleresls. If in aII of lhe above cases lhe chiId has aIready reached fifleen
years of age, his ovn consenl is aIso required. The same age reguIalion aIies in lhe
case of an adoled chiId (arl. 23). A minor adoled chiId Ioses lhe Macedonian
cilizenshi uon lhe requesl of his adolive arenls vho are foreign cilizens.

3.3 Procedures

The righl lo aeaI is guaranleed by arl. 15 of lhe Conslilulion of lhe ReubIic of
Macedonia. In lhe Lav on Cilizenshi, il is arl. 24 lhal reguIales lhe comIainls
rocedure: 'Againsl lhe decision of ara. 2 of lhis arlicIe lhe aIicanl may Iodge an
aeaI vilh lhe comelenl Commission of lhe Governmenl of lhe ReubIic of
Macedonia. Againsl lhe decision of lhe comelenl Commission of lhe Governmenl of
lhe ReubIic of Macedonia he may iniliale an adminislralive disule.' Thus, afler a
negalive decision is handed in lo an aIicanl for cilizenshi, he or she is informed of
his or her righl lo aeaI lo lhe governmenlaI Second LeveI Commission. If lhe

19
Commission annuIs lhe firsl inslance decision, lhe case is senl back for re-
consideralion lo lhe Minislry of Inlerior. If lhe Commission's decision is aIso negalive,
lhe aIicanl is informed of lhe righl lo bring lhe case lo lhe Sureme Courl
(Lazarova-Tra|kovska 1998). Il has been reorled lhal lhe ma|orily of cases in lhe
Sureme Courl archives on lhis maller (around 70-73 er cenl) reIale lo ersons vho
faiIed lo rove lhe required residency requiremenl. This is generaIIy because, before
lhe dissoIulion of YugosIavia, lhey had changed residence and moved lo anolher
federaI reubIic vilhoul reorling il (Ielrusevska 1998).
24
The eIeclronic archive of lhe
Sureme Courl of lhe ReubIic of Macedonia conlains cilizenshi-reIaled cases daling
back lo 2002 onIy. As has been noled lhroughoul lhis aer and as viII be furlher
anaIysed beIov, mosl of lhe cases vilh unreguIaled cilizenshi vere resoIved vilh lhe
2004 amendmenls lo lhe Lav on Cilizenshi and lhe lransilory eriod of lvo years for
former YugosIav cilizens. Tvo cases
25
dravn from lhe archives of lhe Sureme Courl
invoIving aclions broughl lo conlesl negalive decisions of lhe Minislry of Inlerior
serve lo demonslrale some gas and differences in lhe inlerrelalion of lhe Iav, as
veII as ils seIeclive imIemenlalion.
In lhe firsl Sureme Courl ruIing
26
lhe Iainliff, having fiIed a requesl for
acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi on 7 }uIy 1999 on lhe grounds of marriage lo a
Macedonian cilizen (faciIilaled naluraIisalion), received a negalive decision from lhe
Minislry of Inlerior because she no Ionger resided al lhe address quoled in lhe Idenlily
Card for Ioreigners and because she oblained a divorce on 27 March 2000. Hovever,
lhe Courl found lhal lhe decision vas IegaIIy unfounded, as according lo arl. 9 of lhe
Lav on Cilizenshi a foreigner vho has been married lo a Macedonian cilizen for al
Ieasl lhree years and has IegaIIy resided in Macedonia for al Ieasl one year u lo lhe
momenl of fiIing a requesl for acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi can acquire
Macedonian cilizenshi lhrough naluraIisalion. The courl found lhal she had been
IegaIIy residenl since lhe dale of issue of lhe Idenlily Card for Ioreigners on 14 Augusl
1997, and aIlhough divorced al lhe lime of aIicalion in }uIy 1999 she had been
married lo a Macedonian cilizen since 20 AriI 1992. Hence, lhe Iainliff fuIfiIIed aII of
lhe condilions for acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi lhrough naluraIisalion.
The second Sureme Courl ruIing
27
concerns lhe nuIIificalion of a decision for
acquisilion of lhe cilizenshi of R. Macedonia (arl. 14 of lhe Lav on Cilizenshi): 'The

24
Iurlhermore, many individuaIs vho moved from Kosovo or olher reubIics lo ruraI areas in
Macedonia did nol regisler lheir move or residency vilh lhe aulhorilies, usuaIIy for Iack of knovIedge.
25
Ior addilionaI examIes see Shend Imeri (ed.) (2006), Ciiizcnsnip. Goslivar: Associalion for
Democralic Inilialives.
26
cxq.cnn cc cqccxana npaxnuxa \. |p. 823/01 (LegaI Iraclice Documenl U. No. 823/01 of 20 March
2003), Suprcnc Ccuri cj inc |cpu||ic cj Macc!cnia.
<hll://vvv.vrhoven.sud.mk/VSUD/WWWVsud.nsf/5629c02a2d13a73bc12571080036278b/c12570d7002
bcf6cc12571800031960fÒenDocumenl> .
27
cxq.cnn cc cqccxana npaxnuxa U. Br. 1913/00 (LegaI Iraclice Documenl U. No. 1913/00 of 10 AriI
2002), Suprcnc Ccuri cj inc |cpu||ic cj Macc!cnia.
<hll://vvv.vrhoven.sud.mk/VSUD/WWWVsud.nsf/5629c02a2d13a73bc12571080036278b/c12570d70
02bcf6cc125718000309dadÒenDocumenl

20
decision for admission inlo cilizenshi of lhe ReubIic of Macedonia may be revoked
afler lhe deIivery if il is eslabIished lhal lhe aIien has given faIse or incorrecl dala,
resecliveIy has used forged documenls vhen submilling lhe aIicalion for
admission inlo cilizenshi by naluraIisalion.' The Iainliff and her arenls Iosl lheir
Macedonian and YugosIav cilizenshis by reIease on 2 March 1965 afler vhich lhey
acquired Turkish cilizenshi. The Iainliff acquired Macedonian cilizenshi on 21
March 1995, bul a decision daled 20 December 1996 annuIIed lhe revious decision for
acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi and she vas erased from lhe cilizens' regisler.
The reIevanl cilizenshi aulhorilies based lheir decision for nuIIificalion of lhe
decision for admission inlo Macedonian cilizenshi on arl. 26 of lhe Lav on
Cilizenshi. This rovides lhal 'The erson vho according lo lhe former reguIalions
has heId cilizenshi of lhe ReubIic of Macedonia, is considered a nalionaI of lhe
ReubIic of Macedonia ursuanl lo lhis Iav'. AIlhough her arenls reacquired lheir
Macedonian and YugosIav cilizenshi in 1989, since lhe Iainliff al lhal lime vas 33
years oId, she shouId have fiIed a searale requesl for reacquisilion of cilizenshi.
During lhe adminislralive rocedure hovever, lhe Iainliff submilled roof lhal she
relurned lo Macedonia as a minor in 1971 vilh her arenls, vhen lhe falher fiIed a
requesl for lhe acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi for lhe vhoIe famiIy. The Courl
aIso referred lo arl. 4 of lhe Conslilulion vhich guaranlees lhe cilizenshi of R
Macedonia, and found lhal 'a decision for admission inlo Macedonian cilizenshi can
be annuIIed onIy if lhe use of forged documenls is eslabIished by a vaIid courl ruIing
during a criminaI rocedure againsl lhe foreigner vho fiIed lhe requesl for acquisilion
of cilizenshi.' Hence, lhe nuIIificalion of lhe decision granling acquisilion of
cilizenshi vas unfounded.
Cerlain cases invoIving ersons vho exhausled |udiciaI remedies or encounlered
some olher adminislralive obslacIe vere broughl lo lhe allenlion of lhe Ombudsman.
WhiIe in 2006 80.4 er cenl of lhe lolaI numbers of comIainls in lhe calegory of CiviI
Condilions and Olher Inlerior Issues vere reIaled lo cilizenshi, lhis number feII lo
71.4 er cenl in 2007 and 49.24 er cenl in 2008.
28
As concIuded by lhe Ombudsman,
lhe number of cilizenshi-reIaled comIainls significanlIy decreased over lhe years
foIIoving lhe amendmenls lo lhe Lav in 2004 'as a resuIl of lhe lransilionaI rovision
of lhe Lav on Cilizenshi for cilizens of olher reubIics in lhe former SIRY'
(Ombudsman 2008: 30). The Iasl Ombudsman reorl slaled lhal 'lhe rocedure for
oblaining cilizenshi is vilh an increased number of osilive decisions, bul lhe
duralion of lhe rocedure and lhe number of ersons aIying for dismissaI of
cilizenshi or doubIe cilizenshi is sliII vorrying' (Ombudsman 2009: 35). In addilion
lo lhe Iong duralion of lhe rocedure, lhe Ianguage lesl remains one of lhe more
rominenl obslacIes in lhe naluraIisalion rocedure, as demonslraled by a concrele
case submilled lo lhe Ombudsman in 2008. A cilizen from lhe Macedonian lovn of
Telovo submilled an aIicalion for acquisilion of Macedonian cilizenshi in 2005, bul
lhe rocedure vas osloned under lhe Ianguage roficiency requiremenl, aIlhough

28
Annua| |cpcris 2006, 2007 an! 2008 (2006, 2007, 2008). Sko|e: ReubIic of Macedonia OMUDSMAN.

21
lhe aIicanl had successfuIIy assed lhe finaI high-schooI exam in lhe lovn of
Telovo. Afler lhe Ombudsman inlervened, lhe governmenlaI Language Commission
delermined lhal lhe comIainanl fuIfiIIed lhe Ianguage roficiency requiremenl and
consequenlIy lhe Minislry of Inlerior enacled a decision for lhe comIainanl's
admission inlo lhe cilizenshi of R Macedonia (Ombudsman 2009).

4 Currcnt pn!itica! dcbatcs and rcInrm p!ans

AIlhough lhe ma|orily of erlinenl cilizenshi-reIaled issues vere resoIved vilh lhe
osl-2001 amendmenls lo lhe Lav on Cilizenshi, lhere are sliII ongoing debales and
envisioned reforms vhich are indireclIy reIaled lo cilizenshi. The oIilics of numbers
as refIecled in census and eIecloraI regislralion, lhe civiI regislralion of lhe Roma
communily, doubIe cilizenshi, and exlending cilizenshi lo diasora communilies
are some of lhe issues vhich sliII incile ubIic debale.
Afler lhe lerminalion of lhe inlernaI armed confIicl in Augusl 2001, lhe slale
conducled an inlernalionaIIy monilored ouIalion census in 2002. Ils finaI resuIls
vere conlesled by bolh lhe AIbanian and lhe Macedonian sides, lhe former cIaiming
lheir elhnic grou vas under-counled, lhe Ialler lhal lhe AIbanian communily vas
over-counled.
29
Since lhe YugosIav sociaIisl era, elhnic roorlionaIily has been
aramounl in delermining oIilicaI rocesses and inlernaI reIalions, seIf-
underslanding and ercelions of lhe olher. Thus, lhe ercenlages remained an
essenliaI dimension of lhe nev Macedonian slale, as oflen lhey delermined lhe mode
and exlenl of granling cerlain righls.
30
Iurlhermore, in symboIic lerms, numbers have
been erceived as being imorlanl in maing imagined communilies and |uslifying
or delermining cIaims on disuled or elhnicaIIy-mixed lerrilories.
Anolher cIoseIy reIaled issue, vhich has received considerabIe media allenlion, is
a slale-sonsored ongoing ro|ecl lo revise eIecloraI regislralion. According lo lhe Iasl
census lhe counlry had a ouIalion of 2,022,547 bul lhe eIecloraI regislry conlains
onIy 1,792,082 regislered volers.
31
The IocaI and generaI eIeclions in lhe Iasl len years
have oinled lo lhe so-caIIed 'Macedonian absurd' vhere lhere are eslimaled 300,000
virluaI or inexislenl volers and severaI municiaIilies vhere lhe number of regislered
volers is higher lhan lhe number of residenls.
32
The robIem has been idenlified
mainIy because of lhe high number of regislered volers vho over lhe years moved oul

29
Ior lhe comIele dala of lhe 2002 census and ils second dala edilion from 2004 see lhe Slale SlalislicaI
Office vebsile, <hll://vvv.slal.gov.mk/engIish/gIavna_eng.as`br18>.
30
This gained arlicuIar imorlance afler 2001, as lhe Onri! |rancucrk Agrccncni foresav lhal 'any
olher Ianguage soken by al Ieasl lvenly er cenl of lhe ouIalion is aIso an officiaI Ianguage, as sel
forlh herein'. AddilionaIIy, 'vilh resecl lo IocaI seIf-governmenl, in municiaIilies vhere a communily
comrises al Ieasl lvenly ercenl of lhe ouIalion of lhe municiaIily, lhe Ianguage of lhal communily
viII be used as an officiaI Ianguage in addilion lo Macedonian'.
31
Tal|ana Ioovska, 'dan+oxciu iaacanu ie euanaa+ :a uxe+o' |Ihanlom volers viII decide over lhe
namej, Onctnik |daiIy nevsaerj, 22 Oclober 2009.
32
Kalica Cangova, 'unnu+e ia+u ie io nuc+a+ I:uaniuo+ cnucoi' |Nev Idenlily Cards viII
Revise lhe IIecloraI Regislryj, Uirinski |daiIy nevsaerj, 25 November 2009.

22
of lhe counlry bul have nol reorled lheir change of residence lo lhe reIevanl
aulhorilies. The Slale IIecloraI Commission, lhe Minislry of }uslice and lhe Minislry of
Inlerior are invoIved in an ongoing ro|ecl for comrehensive revision of lhe IIecloraI
Regislry, vhich shouId be comIeled by lhe end of 2010. This, among olher lhings,
invoIves revision of lhe regislers of birlh and dealh from lhe Iasl lhirly years. The
aulhorilies beIieve lhal lhe enlire rocess viII be faciIilaled by lhe issuing of nev
biomelric ersonaI documenls vhich shouId be in Iace for aII cilizens by 2012.
33

Tvo indireclIy reIaled robIems lo lhe one quoled above are lhe civiI regislralion
of lhe Roma communily and lhe number of Macedonian cilizens residing and vorking
abroad. The former robIem has Iong been knovn lo lhe governmenlaI bodies, lhe
civiI sociely seclor and lhe UNHCR bul il has never received lhe cIose allenlion vhich
vouId roduce a successfuI soIulion. Il has been oinled oul lhal lhe faiIure lo regisler
Roma chiIdren al birlh Ieaves many of lhem vilhoul a civic idenlily and slried of
sociaI benefils.
34
As recenl research and observalions by lhe NGO seclor demonslrale,
840 Roma chiIdren vere idenlified as having incomIele documenlalion, 338 of vhom
vere nol regislered al aII (UNICII and Cenlre for Human Righls and ConfIicl
ResoIulion 2009). Regislering chiIdren al birlh has been a ermanenl robIem for lhe
Roma because of comIex adminislralive rocedures vhich require lhe submission of
addilionaI documenls such as cerlificales of marriage and medicaI cerlificales.
Hovever, recenlIy rogress has been made in regislering 2,834 Roma individuaIs,
vhose exislence vas reviousIy never slalislicaIIy recorded. As arl of a ro|ecl
invoIving UNHCR, lhe Minislry of Inlerior, lhe Minislry of Labour and severaI NGOs,
a considerabIe number of individuaIs vho did nol ossess any idenlificalion ersonaI
documenls or had some vilh exired vaIidily vere regislered and oblained lhe
necessary documenls vhich vouId aIIov lhem access lo heaIlh, educalion and olher
benefils. Hovever, lhis remains a ending issue, as a comrehensive soIulion vouId
require a grass-rools aroach lo educale lhe Roma communily and lo eIiminale lhe
differenl forms of discriminalion lhal lhey sliII exerience.
As menlioned above, one of lhe main reasons for lhe urgenl need of revision of
lhe eIecloraI regislry is lhe increasing numbers of Macedonian cilizens vho decide lo
move abroad ermanenlIy and do nol regisler lhis vilh lhe aulhorilies. According lo
WorId ank eslimales for 2005, lhere vere 370,826 emigranls from Macedonia, or 18.2
er cenl of lhe enlire ouIalion. When considered in viev of lhe recenlIy announced
visa IiberaIisalion by lhe Iuroean Union for Macedonia, Serbia and Monlenegro, lhis
facl oens u furlher consideralions of a robabIe increase of emigranl fIovs lovards

33
Minislry of Inlerior of ReubIic of Macedonia (2010)
<hll://vvv.moi.gov.mk/DeskloDefauIl.asx`labindex0labid1> .
34
',ea+a na yaua ce e: u,en+u+e+' |Slreel ChiIdren Have No Idenlilyj, Onctnik |daiIy nevsaerj,
10 Selember 2009.
',oiyxen+u u :a neenu,en+uanu+e Ioxu' |Documenls for lhe Unregislered Romaj, Onctnik |daiIy
nevsaerj, 3 December 2009.


23
lhe IU counlries, in arlicuIar inleIIecluaI emigralion, as veII as an increase in lhe
incidence of doubIe cilizenshi.
The comIex oIilicaI deveIomenls in lhe region since 1991 invoIving armed
confIicls and a decade of economic hardshis, as veII as lhe enlry of uIgaria inlo lhe
IU in 2007 and lhe Kosovar indeendence in 2008, caused some increase in lhe
number of cases of doubIe cilizenshi, lhe mosl common examIes being Macedonian-
Kosovar and Macedonian-uIgarian. The former are IargeIy molivaled by lhe frequenl
resence of famiIy lies of AIbanians across lhe border and grealer mobiIily for
educalionaI or vork uroses, bul in some cases are aIso molivaled by symboIic
imuIses. The Ialler have been moslIy encouraged by economicaI inleresls and
ossibiIilies of mobiIily vilhin lhe IU. AIlhough lhere are no officiaI figures as yel, an
eslimaled figure of aIicalions for acquisilion of uIgarian cilizenshi by origin by
Macedonian cilizens rovided by lhe uIgarian Minislry of }uslice quoles a lolaI of
32,702 in 2007, vilh a ermanenl increase since 2000 vhen lhere vere onIy 113
submilled aIicalions (SmiIov and }iIeva 2008). In lhe same eriod, 10,850
Macedonian cilizens oblained uIgarian cilizenshi lhrough naluraIisalion. allIes
over hisloricaI Iegacies, symboIs and idenlily have been going on belveen Macedonia
and uIgaria since Macedonia acquired ils slalehood vilhin YugosIavia in 1945. In lhe
Iasl decade, lhese symboIic ballIes have enlered inlo lhe Ianguage of cilizenshi, by
emIoying IegaI means for oblaining symboIic and disuled aims. The uIgarian slale
sliII considers Macedonia lo be inhabiled by elhnic uIgarians, a facl aIIuded lo by
recenlIy roosed drafl amendmenls lo lhe uIgarian Cilizenshi Iav and slalemenls
by ozhidar Dimilrov, lhe minisler vilhoul orlfoIio resonsibIe for uIgarians
abroad.
35
The conlroversiaI amendmenls foresee a faciIilaled rocedure for acquisilion
of cilizenshi for elhnic uIgarians gradualing from uIgarian universilies
36
, as veII as
reinslaling lo uIgarians and lheir descendanls Iiving in Macedonia, Iaslern Serbia
and Weslern Thrace in Greece lheir uIgarian cilizenshi lhey used lo have as cilizens
of lhe occuied lerrilories from 1942. UnofficiaIIy, since lhe enlry of uIgaria inlo lhe
IU and in arlicuIar vilh lhe recenl decision on visa IiberaIisalion for Macedonia, lhe
number of aIicalions for uIgarian cilizenshi by Macedonian cilizens decreased
and uIgaria vas obIiged lo revise ils rocedures of granling cilizenshi lo
Macedonians vho did nol fuIfiI aII of lhe condilions. The ma|orily used lo reorl fake
residency in uIgaria and used lhe uIgarian assorl or ID for IegaI economic
migralion vilhin lhe IU. As cerlain recenlIy ubIicised cases of doubIe Macedonian-

35
'elveen lhree and four miIIion uIgarians Iive abroad', Tnc Scjia |cnc, 6 Oclober 2009.
<hll://vvv.sofiaecho.com/2009/10/06/795334_belveen-lhree-and-four-miIIion-buIgarians-Iive-
abroad>.
36
'+nuneciu+e aiau, :anuuau nucue oa:onanue y nac, e noaynana+ no-:o
iax,anc+no' (2009), |Ilhnic uIgarians vilh uIgarian Universily Degrees WiII Acquire uIgarian
Cilizenshi Iaslerj, Onctnik |daiIy nevsaerj, 5 Oclober 2009.
<hll://vvv.dnevnik.bg/buIgaria/2009/10/05/794919_elnicheskile_buIgari_zavurshiIi_visshe_obrazova
nie_u/>.

24
uIgarian cilizenshi have demonslraled,
37
furlher comIicalions may arise, eseciaIIy
if lhe uIgarian slale decides lo adol lhe above-menlioned roosed amendmenls
vhich obviousIy largel Macedonian cilizens.
As arl of a smaII nalion engaged in severaI disules over idenlily and lhe
conslilulionaI name vilh ils neighbours, Macedonia and ils cilizens, arlicuIarIy lhose
vho make u lhe ma|orily of elhnic Macedonian origin, have aIvays erceived
lhemseIves as being lhrealened, inlernaIIy and exlernaIIy, in lheir exislence as a
nalion. Irom lhis observalion foIIovs lhe imorlance of numbers and, subsequenlIy,
of elhnic Macedonian diasora communilies. As lhe recenlIy drafled |csc|uiicn cn
Migraiicn Pc|icq cj |cpu||ic cj Macc!cnia 2009-2014 shovs, lhe governmenl slales as ils
goaIs 'maing of lhe diasora' lhrough a dalabase of migranls, comulerisalion of
civiI regislers, and faciIilalion of relurn of cilizens IegaIIy residing abroad lhal shouId
reverse lhe brain-drain effecl.
38

5 Cnnc!usinn

The asl lvo decades sav Macedonia assing lhrough some cruciaI slages of slale-
buiIding and redefining of ils ovn image, oIilicaI organisalion and IegaI syslem.
Having ils securily seriousIy lhrealened on severaI occasions and ils exislence ul inlo
queslion, lhe counlry ballIed ils vay reIaliveIy successfuIIy lhrough lo lhe slalus of
candidale counlry for IU membershi in 2005. Thus far, lhe inlernalionaI faclor, in
arlicuIar lhe infIuence of lhe US as veII as lhe IU, has Iayed an essenliaI roIe in aII
of Macedonia's core oIilicaI changes and lransformalive rocesses since 1991. Irom
lhe UNIROIOR and lhe UNIRIDII missions vhich had a resence on lhe lerrilory
of Macedonia from 1991 lo 1999 lo lhe inlernalionaIIy sonsored Onri! |rancucrk
Agrccncni, lhe inlernalionaI communily assumed an indisensabIe slabiIising roIe
vhich cIearIy aimed al reserving Macedonia as a unilary slale and ascribing lo lhe
counlry an imorlanl roIe in lhe aIkan geo-oIilicaI sace.
39
The evoIulion of lhe

37
A former Minisler of HeaIlh vho hoIds bolh Macedonian and uIgarian cilizenshi and vas soughl
by Macedonian aulhorilies for criminaI charges, managed lo escae exlradilion lo Macedonia from
IoIand because of his uIgarian cilizenshi. SimiIarIy, a voman vho heId doubIe Macedonian-
uIgarian cilizenshi and vho vas imrisoned for vioIaling cerlain rovisions of famiIy Iav caused a
diIomalic scandaI and an inlervenlion by lhe uIgarian Iresidenl asking for her reIease cIaiming she
vas criminaIIy roseculed because of her aIIeged uIgarian idenlily.
38
The mosl recenl measure underlaken by lhe Macedonian Governmenl, in an obvious alleml lo
enIarge lhe nalionaI body, is a biIaleraI sociaI insurance agreemenl vilh lhe AuslraIian Governmenl
vhich largels relurning Macedonian exalriales, Macedonian nalionaIs Iiving in AuslraIia, AuslraIian
cilizens of Macedonian descenl and AuslraIian cilizens Iiving in Macedonia. Thus, Macedonian
emigranls Iiving and vorking in AuslraIia viII be abIe lo have lheir AuslraIian ensions lransferred and
aid in Macedonia if lhey decide lo relurn lo Macedonia.
'Macedonia, AuslraIia sign sociaI insurance agreemenl' , Gctcrnncni cj inc |cpu||ic cj Macc!cnia. 26
Oclober 2009. <hll://vvv.vIada.mk/`qnode/4321>.
39
olh lhe UNIROIOR and lhe UNIRIDII mandales vere defined as 'lo monilor and reorl any
deveIomenls in lhe border areas vhich couId undermine confidence and slabiIily in lhe former
YugosIav ReubIic of Macedonia and lhrealen ils lerrilory'.

25
cilizenshi regime moved in araIIeI vilh aII lhese lransformalive rocesses. Wilh lhe
mosl recenl amendmenls of lhe Iasl five years, il has fuIIy adaled lo lhe slandards of
lhe |urcpcan Ccntcniicn cn Naiicna|iiq and ermilled lhe resoIulion of mosl cases of
unreguIaled cilizenshi slalus caused by lhe dissoIulion of YugosIavia in 1991.
Iurlhermore, lhe counlry, al Ieasl nominaIIy, has made a sle lovards eslabIishing
ilseIf as a civic slale,
40
and in essence and in raclice as a muIli-elhnic slale. Wilh lhe
2001 conslilulionaI changes 'minorilies' have been reIaced vilh 'communilies' in lhe
officiaI lerminoIogy and lheir roorlionaI reresenlalion vas guaranleed.
Yel, vhal is aIready veII eslabIished in lhe IegaI |argon and on aer remains a
chaIIenge vhen il comes lo acluaI inler-elhnic reIalions, day-lo-day raclices and
imIemenlalion of lhe Iav. Segregaled educalion, discriminalion againsl lhe Roma,
and Iov Iiving slandards insire eoIe lo emigrale or lo seek a second cilizenshi
and lhe highIy oIilicised Iife in a sociely vhere comelilion over numbers,
reresenlalion and idenlilies is sliII frequenl, oses many chaIIenges. The deadIock
foIIoving years of UN sonsored negolialions vilh Greece over lhe name issue
addilionaIIy lhrealens lhe sliII fragiIe inlernaI oIilicaI and inler-elhnic baIance. Once
lhe Iasl obslacIe comrising lhe ongoing argumenl vilh Greece over lhe conslilulionaI
name of Macedonia is removed, lhe counlry couId rogress furlher lovards fuII
membershi inlo lhe NATO and lhe IU. Regarding ils slalus as a candidale counlry
for fuII membershi inlo lhe IU, a furlher sle vas made vilh lhe recenl decision lhal
lhe cilizens of Macedonia, Serbia and Monlenegro are aIIoved visa-free lraveI in lhe
IU Schengen area. The rosecl of IU membershi is a goaI lhal uniles oIilicians and
cilizens on aII sides of Macedonia's oIilicaI and elhnic debales. Macedonia seems lo
be heading lovards lhe rosecl of Iuroean cilizenshi aIlhough vilh a sliII
undelermined limelabIe.

40
As quoled above, lhe amended IreambIe slarls vilh 'The cilizens of lhe ReubIic of Macedonia.'
SimiIarIy, lhe amended Lav on Cilizenshi added lhe above-ciled emhasis lhal 'Cilizenshi is a IegaI
Iink belveen lhe individuaIs and lhe slale and does nol indicale lhe elhnic origin of lhe individuaIs'.

26
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Iriedman, Viclor (2000), 'Modern Macedonian slandard Ianguage' in Viclor
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27

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Par|iancniarq Asscn||q cj inc Ccunci| cj |urcpc.
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Macedonias Nationals, Minorities and

Refugees in the Post-Communist

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