PAN AFRICA N INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT WEST AFRICA (PAID-WA) P.

O BOX 133, BUEA, CAMEROON

THEME: MILLENIUM DEVELOPMEN GOALS (MDGs). GLOBAL INITIATIVE, LOCAL ACTION

TOPIC: NGOS/GOVERNMENT STRATEGIES IN PROVISION OF SUSTAINABLE POTABLE WATER IN NKAMBE

A Research Case Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of a Diploma in Development Studies (DDS)

Presented By:

NDZI WILSON TANTO

CAMEROONIAN

2009/2010

ABSTRACT

With the strategic location of Nkambe in the savanna zone of the country it has faced serious problems as regards obtaining potable water. Despite its strategic location and coupled with other aspects such as desertification, climate change and mismanagement of natural resources, the water crisis faced in this region is fast taking the pattern of those in the neighbouring northern desert regions of Cameroon. In the dry season when dependence for domestic water is mainly on streams and springs, people especially children trek for very long distances, at times reaching kilometers to fetch water. With the only pipe borne water supplier (CDE) being expensive for the poor to afford and most of all cannot supply the few subscribers; it is a last option for the people. According to Target 7C of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), by 2015, the proportion of people without access to drinking water and basic sanitation will be halved. In Nkambe, Non- Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and the government have strived towards providing potable drinking water for the community who face acute shortage of portable water. With respect to our main objective which is to examine the processes and mechanisms used by NGOs and government institutions to improve water quality and quantity, we had to first identify the various institutions involved in the process. Various NGOs both community-based and international have and are attempting various strategies. Some strategies put in place include the digging wells that can supply water to a proportion of the community, where due to its cost is unaffordable by the villagers. Tree planting has been used by many organizations as a means to manage ant restore back their natural environment, thus conserving it. Radio talks and training has also been carried out by other bodies, with most of the secondary schools creating environmental clubs. Reduction in subscription fees for pipe borne water and nursing of ornamental trees has been the strategy of many other concerned organizations and stakeholders. This study concludes that the perception of the people about nature and water is responsible for water shortages, given activities like farming on marginal lands and the planting of eucalyptus trees close to streams and catchment areas still persist.

NGOs and government institutions have done a lot and are still doing much to address this problem by providing potable water and to a lesser extent, minimizing the root-cause of the problem

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

NGO CDE DMCR SAIWI MINFOF MINEP MINEE SYFA SHUMAS CAMWATER NHYES YDETPA SIRDEP

Non Governmental Organization Cameroonaise Des Eau Donga-Mantung Community Radio Students Association for International Water Issues Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife Ministry of Environment and Nature Protection Ministry of Water and Energy Safe Your Future Association Strategic Humanitarian Services Cameroon Water Nkambe Highland Youths for Environmental Sustainability Youth Developmental Training and Protection Association Society for Initiative in Rural Development and Environmental Protection

CIG NKACUDA GPOBA GP-DERUDEP

Common Initiative Group Nkambe Cultural and Development Association Global Partnership for Social Aid Grassfield Participatory and Decentralized Rural Development Project

WWOOF

World Wide Opportunity on Organic Farms

TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE.i ABSTRACT....ii LIST ABBREVIATIONS.iii TABLE CONTENTS.iv CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF OF

1.1 Introduction.1 1.2 Problem statement..2 1.3 Research objectives.2 1.4 Methodology........3 1.4.1 1.4.2 Primary data........3 Secondary data....4

1.5 Limitations...4 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction..5 2.2 Decline in water quality...5 2.3 NGO/government participation....7 CHAPTER THREE BACKGROUNG INFORMATION OF STUDY AREA

3.1 Introduction.9 3.2 Physical characteristics...9 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 Location of study area....9 Climate9 Hydrology.10 Vegetation.10 Soils and geology..10

3.3 Human characteristics.......10 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 Population.....10 Economy11 Institutional structure.....11

CHAPTER FOUR 4.1 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.5

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

Introduction.....12 Causes of water inadequacy and shortages..........12 Population pressure...12 Uncontrolled planting of eucalyptus trees.13 Farming and grazing on marginal lands.....14 Global warming/ desertification....15 Bushfires....15 Electricity failures..15 Effects of water inadequacy and shortages on the community..16 Reduction in domestic consumption..16 Reduction in agricultural productivity...16 Impediment to development......16 Water resource protection/improvement agencies and their strategies....................17 Government strategies...18 NGO strategies...19 Strategies by the Nkambe Rural Council...21 Strategies by the community.....22 Difficulties faced by agencies......22 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 conclusion...24 5.2 recommendations....24

PLATES.26

REFERENCES..30

CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION Water scarcity has emerged as a prominent issue for communities across Cameroon and the globe as a whole. In fact, one of the most critical natural resource issues facing communities today is managing the supplies and availability of water. In Cameroon in general and Nkambe in particular, coupled with the fast encroaching desert conditions from the north, water quality and quantity has rapidly reduced. Water supplies have decreased due to many reasons such as; upstream drying, decline of ground water levels, and increase in drought conditions caused by climate change (Arnold, 2009; pp810811). Amongst the challenges currently facing Africa, perhaps none is more important and pressing, nor more often overlooked than the threat to the continents supply of clean, fresh water. In immediate practical terms, the water problem in Africa is a problem of management. With a range of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Cameroon, the activities of some are geared towards environmental protection. In Nkambe, a series of NGOs have worked in the region towards improving on the water quality and quantity. Some NGOs such as Strategic Humanitarian Services (SHUMAS), Society for Initiative in Rural Development and Environmental Protection (SIRDEP), Save Your Future Association (SYFA), Youths Developmental Training and Protection Association (YDETPA), Nkambe Highland Youths for Environmental Sustainability (NHYES) are working in the provision of sustainable potable water. The Cameroon government through Cameroon Water (CAMWATER), Ministry of Water and Energy (MINEE), Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife (MINFOF), Ministry of Environment and Protection of Nature (MINEP) and GP-DERUDEP also play a role. The Nkambe Rural Council, which can be considered as the local government of the people of Nkambe is a major actor in the development processes of the area, including providing water for the community.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT Water shortage in Nkambe is very visible in the community. People trek for long distances to fetch for water mostly for domestic consumption. In a place where gardening is very scarce as a result of shortage in water availability, the agricultural output of the people is very little or absent in the dry season (November-march). Even with the presence of an electric water pump device, it cannot regularly supply the few people in Nkambe who can afford pipe-borne water. Various organizations have been trying to step-up the water situation in Nkambe. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), which are a part of the society of Nkambe, are one of the various organizations involved. NGOs such as Strategic Humanitarian Services (SHUMAS), Save Your Future Association (SYFA) and many others have been putting up strategies such as constructing wells and planting trees in the community. None-the-less, the water crisis is still severely felt presently in the community. Government actions through the Ministry of Water and Energy, Ministry of Environment and Nature Protection, and Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife, accepts this crisis and are also playing roles with respect to their objectives to combat this crisis. Other organizations such as the Nkambe Rural Council and Common Initiative Groups (CIGs) are also participating in the process. All these organizations have their strategies they use in fighting this crisis. To some extent, it seems the attempts being put in place are not having immediate and or massive impacts on the crisis. In this case, the strategies put in place ought to be examined so as to understand their validity and as well, the atmosphere set for the strategies such as the participation from the community or encouragement and funds from the government to the independently operating organizations such as NGOs.

1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are: To identify the causes and consequences of water shortages in Nkambe. To investigate the role of the various actors in the provision of potable water.

To examine the processes and the mechanisms used by NGOs/Government in improving water quality and quantity.

1.4

METHODOLOGY This study is based on two types of data:- primary and secondary data. These

types of data all entailed their various collection techniques, which will be discussed under the following sub headings 1.4.1 PRIMARY DATA Primary data are those that we collected in the study area. We used three major techniques in collecting these primary data which are; Interviews were used as a technique in collecting data from the target population. We targeted key informants with these techniques such as the present and ex-presidents of the various developmental organizations, the people who were in charge of cutting trees in 1996, and some quarter heads. Most important were the presidents of the Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), the Lord Mayor of the Nkambe Rural Council, Divisional Delegates at the Ministries of Water and Energy, Forestry and Wildlife, Environment and Nature Protection. This technique was quite important because through discussions, we could really understand the strategies put in the community to fight the crisis and most important, the problems faced and improvements if attained. We also employed questionnaires, which was applied for every organization and body involved in the fight for potable water provision in Nkambe. These questionnaires were administered most often together with short interviews by the researcher so as to get a full knowledge of the crisis and strategies put in place. Questionnaires were carried out with the following organizations and bodies YDETPA, SYFA, NHYES,

SHUMAS, NKACUDA, NRC, MINEE, MINEP MINFOF, and the Love Your Neighbor CIG. These two particular techniques were used because they could lead us directly to the organizations, bodies and people involved in the development process. This helped to understand clearly

what they said and to handle every aspect as demanded by the checklist, especially for the interviews. Another important technique used was observation, which was accompanied by snap shots of every visual aspect. This could give us a glimpse of what is happening. All these three tools were highly important, well executed and thus brought out interesting results. 1.4.2 SECONDARY DATA Secondary data was another source of information for this research, which entailed reading already published works related to our topic. These already published works involved materials such as World Bank reports, text books, symposiums and articles. These were very relevant sources of data as it dealt much on our subject matter. These materials were gotten from the Pan African Institute for Development-West Africa (PAID-WA) library in Buea, and personal book collections. Also important was the internet which gave us access to much material through Google and Internet explorer to search articles related to our research topic.

1.5 LIMITATION The main limitation we faced was to reach all the NGOs as some of them were in Nkambe and others in Bamenda. This made coherence very difficult. Also, the rough terrains in the region were another limitation, accessing all areas.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION Much has been said on water crisis management around the globe. With the depletion of fresh water, which provide for domestic use, agricultural practices and as such most developmental aspects are impeded. The rate at which the reduction in availability of this resource is affecting Africa is a course for concern. Much has been written on the methods used by various governments and development actors to improve the situation. Some of these will be discussed below.

2.2 DECLINES IN WATER QUANTITY

According to Arnold (2009) whose studies was base in United States, water supplies have decreased due to the drying-up of streams, the decline of ground water levels because of over pumping, contamination of water resources, and an increase in drought conditions caused by climate change. This can be quite true as concerns the first point (up streams drying) which is quite evident in Africa as a whole and Nkambe in particular. Tata (2008) asserted that the planting of eucalyptus extensively and indiscriminately in some countries of the world and Nkambe highlands in particular is a controversial issue. Backing up by saying the quantity of water usually discharged by various streams and springs in the Nkambe highlands have greatly reduced. The discharged rate of the ChuaChua stream which is the main supply of water for the Nkambe community dropped from 30m3/hr in 1986 to about 5m3/hr (Amawa, 1999). He attributed this situation to the nature of land used around the water sources and watersheds which are essentially dominated by eucalyptus plantation and to lesser extend farming, grazing, deforestation and unplanned settlement. Ndzi (2008) pointed out that, one of the greatest consequences of watersheds degradation was the destruction of the natural vegetation. He said that most montane and as well as natural forest with their luxuriant vegetation have the capacity to shade the soil from loosing much water. Also, the roots of the vegetation cover make the soil more permeable to peculating water thus reducing immediate run-off during down pours.

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Global warming which is the gradual increase of the earths temperature is another view strongly held by other scholars as a cause for water shortage. As temperatures increase globally, the amount of water being lost to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration also increases as to saturate the atmospheric humidity. This has affected most especially the Sub-Saharan Africa (Northern and Far North regions, Adamawa and North West region of Cameroon in particular) with the encroachment of the Sahara desert which is located in the Sahel. According to Glennon (2002), water table levels are dropping across the United States as ground water recharge is exceeded by groundwater pumping. The continued use of groundwater is increasing its depletion, which has severe impact for the communities. He noted that as groundwater is low, deeper wells are often required; where water from deeper levels frequently contain natural occurring minerals that cause high pollution. Also, over pumping of these deeper level wells can cause land subsidence in which the land actually cracks and drops. Glennon (2005) also argued that the greatest effects of the over pumping can cause water resources to dry up and riparian habitats to die. With insufficient recharge of groundwater supplies, in streams flow volumes and rates decreases (in stream flow is the water flow into stream channel). This in turn can have dramatic impact on the natural ecosystem where the minimum in stream flow is crucial for sustaining and protecting aquatic habitats and species, with this alteration, changes can occur in the physical, chemical and biological conditions and functions of natural fresh water ecosystem. With this, the health of the riparian wildlife and vegetation are impacted as well. Donkor and Yilma (1998) attributed over grazing by cattle beyond carrying capacity and shifting cultivation by increasing encroachment in marginal lands on low rainfall and drought prone areas to continuously undermining their already fragile ecological balance thus environmental degradation. Africas semi arid lands have come under pressure of people and livestock at a rate considerably faster than the more fertile areas, thus conditions of hunger and even famine are increasingly becoming evident in these areas.

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2.3 NGO/GOVERNMENT PARTICIPATION In a World Bank symposium (1993), various options for development of water systems in the Gangetic basin were exposed. Due to the rugged-steep slope nature of the landscape coupled with the poor status of the inhabitants, providing water for irrigating their fertile lands were viewed as the major step to boost the financial status in this regions. They used shallow tube wells, dug wells and Rower pumps to get water from the ground in which most of these methods were successful. This is accredited to the papers presented at the World Bank colloquium on ground water irrigation, held April 12-14, 1989 in Washington DC. Donkor and Yilma (1998) pointed out that the role for water resource development rest with the government. They went forward to add that, Experience shows that in many African countries, the financial managerial and technical capability is unable to support accelerated development of integrated water resources in the multi-sectoral activities. It is also noted that water activities are implemented in partnership with external support agencies including United Nation specialized agencies like Food and Agricultural Organization(FAO), World Meteorological Organization(WMO), United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF), World Health Organization (WHO),United Nation Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) the donor community and financing bodies like United Nations Development Program (UNDP), World Bank (WB) and African Development Bank (ADB). This can be quite visible as most water enhancement schemes are usually the task of either small or big NGOs or the community in Cameroon. Many NGOs do exist across the country and as mush do a lot of jobs such as the SHUMAS, WB and ADB. African NGOs during a United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development contributed that some of the major constraints faced in carrying out their activities are that Africa still has relatively weak capacity in Environmental Legislative Policy; especially in the areas of enforcement of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Laws.Improvement in this sector would enhance protection of water resources. They added amongst other points that, the lack of inter-sector planning that integrates actions between areas such as Land Use Planning, water resource management and

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involvement of the local communities in the processes is a wide known constraint in the management and coordination of water resources in Africa. They recommended the governments and donor institutions should provide some form of financial resource to encourage research on the use of waste water, as well as innovative ways of realizing optimum water and sanitation schemes.

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CHAPTER THREE BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF STUDY AREA 3.1 INTRODUCTION Our research is based in Nkambe, our study area. Nkambe has various characteristics that can either make it different or alike to other areas. Due to its physical location and as well its institutional structures, activities and characteristics are bound to vary from other areas. This topic is aimed at bringing out both the physical and human characteristics that make the region peculiar and thus affects the activities carried out in Nkambe. This will be discussed in the following topics divided into two: Physical and Human characteristics. 3.2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

3.2.1

LOCATION OF STUDY AREA

Nkambe is located around latitude 635N and longitude 1040E of the Greenwich meridian, located North East (NE) of Bamenda over a distance of 60miles. Situated at heights around 2000m above sea level, and in the Adamawa plateau, it consists of very rugged undulating land of hills and valleys. They land surface is a plateau on its own as all neighboring villages are found at heights lower than that of Nkambe, and is found in the grassland area of Cameroon with mostly grasses and shrubs and fewer trees. 3.2.2 CLIMATE The climate of Nkambe is characterized by a short dry season of about four months (November-February) and a wet or rainy season of about eight months (MarchOctober) with the month of February and August being the hottest and the coldest respectively. The mean annual temperature ranges between 15C-28C. However, temperatures are as low as 10C and as high as 30C are also experienced may be due to the phenomenon of global warming. Rainfall is generally high ranging from 1300mm per annum to about 2000mm (Ngankfumbe, 1989). The combination of attitude, temperature and rainfall variation gives rise to distinctive climatic conditions ranging from cool, misty and wet to warm and wet.

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3.2.3 HYDROLOGY Nkambe is drained by two main streams, which flows north and discharges into the Nkambe lowlands. One of the two main rivers is harnessed by the rain water which is supplied to the inhabitants of Nkambe. Since the place is a plateau, lakes and inland waters are absent in Nkambe central as much of the water is lost through run-offs down stream. Also, as a result of the vegetation type, the hydrology of Nkambe is affected negatively. 3.2.4 VEGETATION

Nkambe plateau is situated in the Sudan savanna zone of the world. Its vegetation is modified by rainfall and altitude but more especially by the latter. The area is a grassland region with spotted trees mostly around the valleys and up hill. Some of these valley vegetations are the raffia palm which is mostly used to pull water. However, it is exceptional that derived savanna forest and montane forest do exist. These are remnants of typical highlands forest and lowlands in which species of economic importance such as Khaha, chlorophora, Acacia, Mahogany and many others do exist (Ndzi, 2008). Very visible these days are the afforestation of species such as eucalyptus trees and cypress trees in the region to make the surrounding greener and for income generation. 3.2.5 SOILS AND GEOLOGY

Most of the soils of Nkambe are lateritic. This plateau region is a massive block of granite that has decomposed. It has been said that the geology here was put in place by volcanism that created a new morpho-structural units which later undergone widespread ferralisation and laterisation (Lambi 1990; Amawa, 1999). 3.3 3.3.1 HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS POPULATION The population of Nkambe as of the 1987 national population census was 15,133 inhabitants, with an annual increase of 3%. It was postulated that, by the year 2000, the population must have reached 30,100. With the results of the last population census still not released, it is quite evident that the population might have doubled. This is with respect to the various new institutions such as schools, offices, the military barrack and with the increase in the market economy of the place. With this increase in population, the land area remains the same meaning there is a high population pressure.

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3.3.2

ECONOMY The economy of Nkambe is based mainly on agriculture. More than 70% of the

total population depends on agriculture for income, mainly cultivating food crops such as corn, beans and potatoes. Another leading sector is animal farming mainly cattle. The economy is booming as people from places such as Bamenda, Kumbo and Nigeria buy here because it is cheaper. This has largely improved the economy of Nkambe, which pulls most people from neighboring villages into Nkambe to look for a market for their goods. 3.3.3 INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE Nkambe as any other place has its institutional structure for governing the people and executing projects and activities. In the case of our topic, the government reacts through the Ministry of Water and Energy, Ministry of Environment and Nature Protection, and the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife. At times, these institutions are reached through GP-DERUDEP still by the government. The various government institutions have their specific objectives and domains of governing. These three ministries have a common characteristic that they are in charge of natural resources including water, thus in this case, they come together to share ideas and strategies deemed best in this case. Also, NGOs and CIGs are vital organizations of the institutional profile of Nkambe. They work in collaboration with the government of Cameroon through the ministries and GP-DERUDEP. These institutions have their own constitutions and design their financial activities by themselves. They mostly get funds from bigger NGOs or any other source of aid or sponsorship. These NGOs often coordinate their activities without control from the government but actually in close collaboration with the ministries to attain common goals.

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CHAPTER

FOUR

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS 4.1 INTRODUCTION From the interviews, visual observations and other methods used in gathering information, much was learnt about the study area (Nkambe). It was clearly stated that there exist a severe water crises in the region that is felt by every person in the community. Streams have dried up, where severity is reached in the four-five months period of the dry season. The major stream (Chua-Chua) which is a collection of other streams (usually referred to as Magha, Bontor, and Chua-chua) is the main source of water for much of the Nkambe community. This stream which is harnessed for supplies into homes has faced a dramatic drop of flow over the recent years. According to Amawa (1999), the discharge of this main stream dropped from 30m3/hr in1986 to a record low discharge rate of 5m3/hr in 1999. It is obvious that in recent years, the situation has worsened. All the same, this is not the original and only cause of water shortage in Nkambe. This comes as a result of some strong factors that push the natural environment and resources to the limit.

4.2 CAUSES OF WATER INEQUALITY AND SHORTAGES 4.2.1 POPULATION PRESSURE The population of Nkambe has been on the rise. According to the 1987 National census of Cameroon, the population of Nkambe town was 15,133 inhabitants, projected to reach 21415 and 30,036 inhabitants in 1995 and 2000 respectively. This was a 3% rise every year. While still awaiting the results of the resent population census of 2006, it is evident that the population of Nkambe has risen more than was expected. This is because of the changes that have accompanied over the years such as the opening of the 62nd Army battalion camp in Nkambe, hospitals and schools which have attracted a lot of population into the area. Without specific figures, it seems that the population pressure on the environment is enormous.

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4.2.2 UNCONTROLED PLANTING OF EUCALYPTUS TREES Eucalyptus trees which are of Australian origin were introduced in Nkambe in the 1950s by the British. According to a survey conducted by Tata (2008) in collaboration with MINFOF Nkambe, eucalyptus plantations cover an approximate area of about 500 hectares. They plotted the proportion of surface area covered by eucalyptus in Nkambe highlands (in general) in relation to other trees species and came out with the pie chart below;

6% 7% 8%

5% Eucalyptus Kolanuts 45% Cypress Pear Orange

11%

Pygeum Mangoes 18%

Fig 1: proportion of forest land covered by different species. Source: J.T. Nfor (2008) According to Amawa (1999), more than 500,000 eucalyptus trees had been planted in Magha, Bonto, and Chua-Chua confluence. This is a clear indication that with respect to the high transpiration rate and deep root systems, these trees are a major cause of streams drying up .This ties with the fact that, according to the MINFOF Nkambe, eucalyptus are planted in the valleys than the hill tops.

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4% 34% 62% valleys hill tops hill slopes

Fig 2: Physical location of Eucalyptus trees. Source: J.T.Nfor/MINFOF Nkambe (2008) With increase in population, the satisfaction of daily need of eucalyptus products for constructions, fuel wood, electric pools and others, has also increased drastically. These demands have led to the increase in plantation sizes and numbers thus encroaching into marginal areas such as the catchment areas thus excess consumption of the water around.

4.2.3

FARMING AND GRAZING ON MARGINAL LANDS Farming and grazing could be seen as a main influence on the drying- up of

streams. Due to the increase in population, the number of mouths to be fed has increased (demands) which pushes the local farmers to move downstream for wetter and fertile soils (as shown in Plate 1). This is a destructive process because it exposes the soils to excess evaporation and degrading the watersheds. This has also been accomplished by the burning of trees and grasses around and on the farms, due to their indigenous knowledge that the process improves upon the fertility of the soil. Grazing too which has been affected by global warming through excess drying up especially in the dry season has much to do with destroying the watersheds, thus water shortages. To meet up the high population demands on beef and products, the herdsmen are bound to take their cattle right downstream during these harsh conditions. The rearing rate of cattle has increased over the years to meet demands. This has quite massive effects

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on the soils as the hampering and eating of grass does expose the soils to excess evaporation thus reducing water discharged into streams, same as with farming.

4.2.4

GLOBAL WARMING / DESERTIFICATION Phenomenon such as global warming, climate change and desertification are not

new across the globe. Global warming (a situation where temperatures across the earth are increasing) with its effects on desertification is quite evident in the Nkambe-savanna region. This region is close to the deserts of Cameroon. With the encroachment of the deserts south, this region is next to being hit. In fact, it is already visible around as the grassland are gradually disappearing, as well as the forests. This continuous increase in temperature means much water is evaporated and transpired in a shorter time and much faster than before. As soils loose water to the atmosphere instead of discharging into streams, so does the amount for harnessing and use reduces.

4.2.5

BUSHFIRES Both naturally occurring bushfires (which are rare in this area) and those sparked

by human activities are a serious threat. Bushfires burn the natural green vegetation (as shown in Plate 2) which protects the soil from loosing water through evaporation, thus reducing their water holding capacity. This act is both carried out by farmers, cattle rearers, hunters and grass cutters who either want early regeneration or dry ones for roofing houses and hurts. 4.2.6 ELECTRICITY FAILURES Nkambe is noted for its rampant electricity failures. Though a very minute role, as well, it affects the provision of water into households as the CDE says. Since their pumping system uses electricity to supply water to their customers, constant electricity failures make the pumping of water to the storage tank difficult or impossible. With respect to the fact that water cannot be pumped into the storage tank, then it cannot be supplied to customers.

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4.3 EFFECTS

OF WATER INEQUALITY ANDSHORTAGES ON THE

COMMUNITY Water which is a very vital component for life is not available in sufficient quantity and quality for the people of Nkambe. This is not a situation of want but need (water). Water is used for various functions, with some being affected or hindered in Nkambe. Water shortages have a lot of effects on the community which can be seen in different ways; which are discussed in the following sub headings.

4.3.1

REDUCTION IN DOMESTIC USE OF WATER With streams drying-up, which is the only source of water in the Nkambe

community during the dry seasons, there is bound to be shortages and scramble. Most streams even some of the main streams such as the Magha, Bontor-Chua-Chua do dry up. People crowd to fetch water in emerging springs in valleys. Some of these springs appear above the water table which is not good for drinking. At times, disease occurrences in Nkambe such as typhoid and meningitis are attributed to the consumption of bad water. The pipe-borne water usually in the dry seasons flows only for two hours in two days as most informants testify, which is as a result of small water in the tank to be pumped-out to consumers. Most often, people are forced to move to springs not only to fetch water but also to carry out laundry of both dresses and dishes as Plate 3 illustrates.

4.3.2

REDUCTION IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY Water shortage highly affects agricultural productivity in Nkambe as in any

region of in the world. During the dry seasons, market gardening is completely brought to a halt. Valleys dry-up and the taps run dry; thus the little that can be gotten is preserved for household consumption, especially for drinking. Spare water is scarce in this period for gardening except in the catchment areas and the stream banks. Animals or cattle rearers do face problems too uphill as the places are too hot and dry, as well as the grass. They are usually forced to move downhill to the streams and catchment areas to get fresh grass and water for their cattle as well as to cool down. In this case, the cattle deposit their dung in the streams and springs which pollute the water

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and causes diseases in the community. This seriously affects the economy of the region negatively especially during the dry seasons.

4.3.3

IMPEDIMENT TO DEVELOPMENT Development in Nkambe is largely impeded as a result of water shortage and

scarcity. Molding blocks or bricks for constructing buildings demands water. This might entail doing it in different areas and transporting to the construction site which is extremely expensive. Also, constructing large complexes such as hotels, malls and hospitals will demand the use of much water (not only for construction, but for consumers as well) which is the one thing in great shortage in this region. The agricultural sector as well is included in this as it brings a great deal of development. Large investments in plantation agriculture cannot be carried out in this place as watering the plants during the dry season will be near impossible except with the help of a new strategy.

4.4 WATER RESOURCE PROTECTION/IMPROVEMENT AGENCIES AND THEIR STRATEGIES IN NKAMBE Protecting and improving upon the water resources in Nkambe has been seen by many agencies as vital. Various means have been taken in accordance to the water shortages and crisis. Some reactions are slow while others are fast reacting, some shortterm while others long-term. The government of Cameroon through ministries such as MINEE, MINFOF and MINEP play vital roles in limiting the dangers of this crisis. NGOs of all types also take part in this process. The NGOs that have been the most active in this sector work either as community based NGOs or as national and multinational NGOs. Not excluding, the Nkambe council as well as the community of Nkambe are also active. Strategies are being put in place either through Common Initiative Groups (CIGs) or personally in the protection and improvement of the water resource. The various actors involved in this process and their strategies are: Government

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 NGOs Nkambe rural council Community.

4.4.1

GOVERNMENT STRATEGIES The government of Cameroon gets to its people through various means. In the

case of Nkambe water crisis, the government does play a role through related ministries such as MINEE, MINFOF and MINEP. More so, the government acts through CAMWATER and GP-DERUDEP. The government through MINEP as their goals clearly state protects the environment by supervising activities such as farming areas techniques in the community. This is done by training farmers on the environmental techniques on farming and as well waste disposal techniques and how to produce organic manures. Feasibility studies on the environmental impact of projects especially water project are also carried out by the government through this ministry. MINEP has gone as far as working with NGOs and schools on environmental education thus encouraging the creation of environmental clubs in all secondary schools. Talk shows are also presented over the Donga-Mantung Community Radio (DMCR) on environmental training and as well present banners with environmental messages on them. This ministry works in collaboration with other bodies such as CAMISUD, EMICAM, Union Earth Ndu (UEN), Society for Initiative Rural Development and Environmental Protection (SIRDEP) and Cameroon Traditional Rulers Against Climate Change (CAMTRACC) in the execution of its activities. MINEE does carry out major and minor water supply project studies and after feasibility studies, applications are sent out for sponsorship and/or funding from both the government and the international NGOs. Also, all water supply projects are supervised and controlled by this ministry since they are directly involved. Through MINFOF, the government plays a vital role by coordinating forestry and wildlife activities. In collaboration with the rural council, forest plantation (silviculture) especially the case of the eucalyptus trees are regularized over the division as a whole and Nkambe town in particular. A major tree cutting project was carried out in 1996 in collaboration with the council which resulted in the cutting of over 100,000 eucalyptus

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trees along stream lines and catchment areas. This was in response of the drought that hit Nkambe that year. More than 7400 trees of 14 species have recently been nursed in this ministry (as Plate 4 shows), which are meant to be planted in catchment areas. These trees are more environmentally friendly than the eucalyptus species, some of which are Pygeum africana, gethropha, mahogany, cypress, palm trees, fruit trees and many others. These trees are given to NGOs and schools free for planting on marginal areas, and sold to individuals so as to balance-up their cost of production.

CAMWATER, a government in collaboration with CDE (Cameroonaise Des Eau, a private company supplying water in Cameroon), WORLD BANK, who all form an alliance called GPOBA work in reducing the connection fees for individuals. This alliance pays about 90% of the total connection fees while the individual involved pays just 10% of the fee. CAMWATER also through CDE gives assistance in the general extension of pipelines as well as build new catchment and treatment facilities but nonthe-less, none of these have been done in the community yet since it entails a lot of paper work, time and patience. GP-DERUDEP is another organization through which the government gets to the council, NGOs and ministries as well. Through this organization, the government carries out specific projects recommended. GP-DERUDEP has worked with YDEPTA, MINEP, and MINFOF to carry out projects involving specifically the planting of ornamental trees in the catchment areas which help shade the environment and have the quality of not absorbing and releasing much water to the atmosphere. It was realized that most projects which involve building of new water catchment and treatment facilities have mostly been carried out in neighboring villages around the division and not in Nkambe town precisely. This does not cancel the fact that Nkambe is facing a serious water shortage and management crisis.

4.4.2

NGO STRATEGIES A lot of NGOs have been in the past and present carrying out development

projects in Nkambe town geared towards protecting and improving on the water crisis. Some of these NGOs are multi-cooperation NGOs such as the HELVETAS and

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SHUMAS while the others (most of them) are small community based NGOs at the local levels. Big corporations such as HELVETAS, SHUMAS, HPI, SIRDEP and GPDERUDEP work singly, but most often in collaboration with either the Rural Council or smaller NGOs based at the village or divisional level. SHUMAS and GP-DERUDEP have worked with the Nkambe council in nursing some ornamental trees to be planted in the stream lines, catchment areas and as well in the neighborhoods. This project provided a lot of trees to be planted and was done in collaboration with YDETPA, a small NGO based at the local level. The trees were planted along the Bontor and Chua-Chua streams and catchment areas. The trees included fruit trees, pygeum (prunus africana), raffia palms and many others. In 2008 still, YDETPA, which is one of the first local NGOs to exist in Nkambe, also nursed some 3000 trees of different species in collaboration with SHUMAS. These trees were planted in other streams around Nkambe. YDETPA also trains youths and students in various secondary schools in Nkambe and has a students environmental club.

Another active NGO in the area is SYFA. This is a local NGO but has done the most impressive works than any other agency. SYFA works in close collaboration with other bodies such as Students Association for International Water Issues (SAIWI), Brown University (USA), World Wide Opportunity on Organic Farms (WWOOF), Tahoe Baikal Institute and SHUMAS. SYFA, in collaboration with SAIWI, dug 3 wells in three different quarters in Nkambe (two presently operational) which can cost from 1millons2millions each depending on who supplies the tools (see Plate 5). Each of these wells supply free water to approximately 2000 people. This organization as well takes a leading role in catchment protection. They plant flowers around catchment areas (see Plate 6) and also have planted around 10,000 trees in collaboration with GP-DERUDEP. Since its creation in 2001, SYFA has carried out sensitization activities through radio programs (DMCR), youth clubs and planting sign boards with relevant messages on them around Nkambe. Though they have never received any funds from the Nkambe Rural Council, they have volunteer programs that keep the organization moving.

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NHYES is another newly created NGO (just two years old) who have worked with the LOVE YOUR NEIGHBOUR, a womens social group in Mansoh quarter. With both financial and material assistance from NKACUDA, they built a water system in their quarter. This was a low budget project, which entailed building a storage tank and a normal flow system in a catchment area. This was the initiative of the womens social group to rescue the community from the water crisis faced. NHYES which is composed of youths have environmental programs with various ministries and also do presentations on public days such as Youths day (11th February) and World Environment Day (5th June) to sensitize and educate the community. They have planted some ornamental trees around the water catchment area in Mansoh quarter and are in charge of controlling and managing the system. Other development associations such as NKACUDA in the process of building a health center in the Moh quarter provided them with a water point. They also assisted in building water points at Mangup, Nsah-kup and Ma-nkah quarters, with a major water point built in the Njema quarter which was in close collaboration with the Arch Diocese of Kumbo. A feasibility study was done for a water project at Binju as was recommended by the villagers, but the project of building the water point was difficult because of the high cost (around 30 millions), which entailed forgoing other projects for a long period of years. This was so difficult since NKACUDA has a very broad field of work including every aspect of development in Nkambe, and most of all runs on a very low budget. In accomplishing their goals, they have worked with agencies such as the British High Commissioner, German and Canadian NGOs and GP-DERUDEP. NKACUDA also supports nurseries of ornamental trees. They had supported the nursing of the Vetiver grass (a cheap and environmentally friendly grass of Indian origin that can grow up to 4m of height) with a sum of 300,000francs CFA.

4.4.3

STRATEGIES BY THE NKAMBE COUNCIL Nkambe Rural Council which is in charge of the whole Nkambe central sub-

division with some 16 villages and projects of all sorts does not ignore the water crisis faced. In fact, Nkambe Rural Council was one of the first organizations to react to this

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crisis. In 1996 when Nkambe was hit by a major drought, there was a quick reaction from the council. Around 100,000 eucalyptus trees were cut down that year along the Magha, Bontor, and Chua-Chua stream lines and catchment areas, and also along other streams and springs such as Malangong and Chanke. This was a whole new dawn into environmental protection through reducing water consuming trees. Over the years, the council has been building water points in other villages but not in Nkambe center. In collaboration with SHUMAS, GP-DERUDEP and YDETPA, it nursed and planted some trees along streams in Nkambe. They faced a major problem as many people did not turnout for the nursed trees, with most of the trees going to other neighboring municipalities such as the Ndu municipality. During most or every dry season, eucalyptus trees are cut to give an average distance of 100m between the last standing tree and the stream or catchment area. As was revealed by the Council, they are working on a project to build earth dams upstream to hold water during the rainy season to be released during the dry season when mostly needed. This project has not yet been launched but is still at the stage of applying for funds and sponsorship and feasibility studies.

4.4.4

STRATEGIES BY THE COMMUNITY The community in Nkambe plays a vital role against water management. Mostly,

through the quarter meetings and CIGs the communities try to identify the major causes and do attempt fixing them. An example is the Mansoh community who started building their water catchment and was later assisted by NKACUDA. Other such actions have been taken by the quarters of Mangup, and Ngwayuh who presently have started by planting trees along their catchment area, and are carrying out feasibility studies to build water storage and flow system. Various individuals do carry initiative programs by going more on a GREEN revolution, thus planting more environmentally friendly trees and flowers, extracting gas from manure. Also, due to the high reliance on fuel wood, some people are building more environmentally friendly ovens which consume less wood than the conventional type of cooking system and can be used for multiple purposes.

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4.5 DIFFICULTIES FACED BY AGENCIES A common difficulty was faced by the development agencies in that; the involvement and cooperation with the people was very minimal. In the case of planting trees, very few people turned out for the trees, still they work on protected areas and catchment areas. This could also be quite visible along the Magha, Bontor, Chua-Chua streams and catchment areas. People work farms right into the streams and destroy the ornamental trees planted to protect the area. In most cases, the issue of burning farms Ankara is still unavoidable in this part of the country. They believe it improves upon the fertility of the soil. Normal bushfires are still common as well. More so, people pollute the waters in various ways, with the most frequent and annoying being the washing of dresses in the streams. This is a very serious case in the Chua-Chua stream which is the main source of pipe-bourne water in the Nkambe community; even with the message put by SYFA, people still ignore. As complained by the Council, people do not want to cut down their trees (eucalyptus) that are growing near streams and protected areas. In certain cases, people threaten to sue the Council if their trees are cut. In other cases, villagers fight over catchment areas and refuse sharing the resources with other communities which affects developing the region. The NGOs complained of lack of assistance and funds of large sums from the Council, Government and donors to carry out massive and well managed projects such as nursing and planting many environmentally friendly trees in regions where eucalyptus trees are cut. They say the water crisis problem is that which needs to be handled with funds, thus care rather than small schemes that are somewhat ineffective as in most regions. Some NGOs too face problems of payment after contract works have been done which makes collaboration very difficult. It was also a hitting point by SYFA that the community based NGOs through bureaucracy face suppression from the big NGOs who impose on them and take credit for their work. It was also noted as a major problem that the approach to this crisis by the Nkambe Rural Council is critically slow.

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CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 CONCLUSION Nkambe is plagued by a water crisis. The extent to which it affects the community is such that it cannot be neglected or handled without precision. No doubt the government institutions (MINEE, MINFOF, MINEP, and MINEDUC), NGOs, Nkambe Rural Council and the community are playing a vital role in managing the crisis. With the intensity of the crisis, the role played by these organizations except for the NGOs is very minimal indicating other partners dont see it as a priority problem. Either enough money is not allocated for managing the crisis by the government or the funds are being mismanaged. From data collected, it shows more than 50,000 ornamental trees have been planted in Nkambe, but these trees are hard to see in these areas. This shows that either the trees were not catered for, or have been destroyed willingly or not by people farming in these regions. Very few trees were seen yet people still farm in these prohibited regions. No legal actions have been taken on these defaulters thus wastage of resources and encouraging the people never to be involved in this strategic process. This crisis together with the issue of climate change (global warming) and desertification, if not paid much attention is going to have very adverse long-term effects on the community worst than what is presently being experienced. Development is largely impeded in the community in various ways and as such; hunger is bound in the almost arid land. With the rate of fall in stream discharge as well as disappearance of some streams especially in the dry seasons, this place might end up being part of the Sahara desert.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings and analysis of issues, various aspects need to be done by the development actors to improve the water resource protection, provision and management as recommended below:

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The government should create a water resource/land use planning and monitoring committee which can both oversee and audit all institutions involved such as MINEE, SYFA, Nkambe Council, CDE, MINFOF and MINEP. Environmental education of children right from the basic elementary level is highly needed so as to place a high priority on environmental protection. Laws should be passed to contain defaulters and as well, erect management organizations through auditing. Participation between the Nkambe Rural Council and grass root NGOs is very vital for progress and reforestation schemes should be big projects with enough money and man-power to attain goals. The community must take the issue seriously and listen to advice and measures to be taken from the various actors because the Nkambe community is highly at risk.

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PLATES

Plate 1: showing farming on marginal lands

Plate 2: showing effects of bushfires on the vegetation 31

Plate 3: shows pollution of water in streams by washing dresses

Plate 4: Nursing of trees at MINFOF

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Plate 5: shows ornamental trees planted in previously occupied eucalyptus land

Plate 6: shows well system dug by SYFA 33

Plate 7: shows revamped dumping ground on marginal lands

Fig 8: showing water point constructed in Mansoh quarter.

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Sani, A., (1999): Land degradation on the Mbum plateau, North West province of Cameroon, M.Sc University of Buea.

Arnold, Craig Anthony (Tony), (2009): Water privatization trends in the United States; Human rights, National security and Public stewardship. William and Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review 33:785

Glennon, Robert, (2002): Water follies: ground water pumping and the rate of Americas fresh waters.

Glennon, Robert, (2005):Water scarcity, marketing and privatization Texas Law review.

John Schoneboom, (1998): Science in Africa: emerging water management issues. Philadelphia, Pa. February 1998 symposium proceedings.

Nfor, J. T., (2008): Silviculture and the environment: the case of eucalyptus in Nkambe highlands, North West province, Cameroon, M.Sc University of Dschang.

Lambi C.M., (1990): The role of joint and fracture network in the Bamenda Granitic landscape (Cameroon) Cahiers Geologiques, N.R University P.M Curie Paris.

Tanto, W. T., (2008): A Montane forest under degradation, causes and The case of the Njising forest. BSc. Thesis, University of Buea.

consequences:

Ngakfumbe S. N, (1989): Spatio-temporal analysis of rainfall over Cameroon, unpublished Ph.D Thesis University of Ibadan.

S. M. K Donkor and Yilma E. Wolde, (1998): Integrated water resource management in Africa: Issues and options. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. United Nations Department of Social Affairs, (5-16 may 2008); Contributions by NGOs major group sector on Africa and sustainable development.

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