Sie sind auf Seite 1von 55

GRAPH THEORY September 2010 Paper

Ans: A) B) C) D) E) Graphs I,,V have multiple edges (A.K.A parallel edges) Graphs III (A.K.A self-loop) contain loop. (note: Graph II contains path) Graphs II,IV simple graphs Graphs IV,V are disconnected graphs Graph IV contains isolated vertices

Degree Sequence for Graph I {1,1,1,1,4,4} (in the order of vertices F,G,J,K,H,I). Degree of the graph is 1. Degree Sequence for Graph II

{4, 4, 4, 4, 4} Degree of the graph is 4. Degree Sequence for Graph III {1, 1, 3, 3} (in the order of vertices V,X,W,U) . Degree of the graph is 1. Degree Sequence for Graph IV {0, 0, 0, 0} Degree of the graph is 0. Degree Sequence for Graph V

{1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 4} (in the order of vertices 1,4,2,6,7,8,5,3) Degree of the graph 1

Graph I is not Eulerian because all vertices dont have even degree of vertices. (Eg D,G,E,F) Graph I is Hamiltonian because there is a circuit that includes all vertices of Graph 1. Circuit: A B E C F G D A

Graph II: All the vertices dont have even degree for all vertices (A, C, E, F, H, J, K) So not Eularian. Graph II is not Hamiltonian because there is no circuit because C will be repeated always to construct a circuit. (Eg : A B C D E F G H I J C K A, so C Repeated and not a circut)

(in assignment this is G4)

Walk Consider a graph G having at least one edge. In G, consider a finite alternating sequence of vertices and edges of the form vi ej vi+1 ej+1 vi+2,. . . ,ek vm which begins and ends with vertices and which is such that (a) each edge in the sequence is incident on the vertices preceding and following it in the sequence, and (b) no edge appears more than once in the sequence Such a sequence is called a trialor a walkin G Note: In a walk, repetition of an edge is not allowed but a vertex can repeat Closed walk A walk that begins and ends at the same vertex is called a closed walk. In other words, a closed walk is a walk in which the terminal vertices are coincident. For example v1e9v7e8v2e1v1 is a closed walk Open walk A walk that is not closed is called an open walk. In other words, an open walk is a walk that begins and ends at two different vertices For example v5e7v5e6v6e5v4 is an open walk Path A open walk in which no vertex appears more than once is called a simple path or just a path. For example v6e5v4e3v3e2v2 is a path where as v5e7v5e6v6 is a not a path Circuit In closed walk with at least one edge in which no vertex except the terminal vertices appears more than once is called a circuit or a cycle. For example v1e1v2e8v7e9v1 is a circuit, but, v1e9v7e8v2e4v6e5v4e 3v3e2v2e1v1 is a closed walk but not a circuit Euler graphs Consider a graph G. If there is a closed walk in G that contains all the edges of G, then that walk called an Euler line (or Eulerian line or Eulerian tour) in G The property of walk is carried to Euler line also, that is, in a walk no edge can appear more once but an vertex can appear. Since walk is a subgraph an Euler line is a subgraph. A connected graph G is an Euler graph if and only if all vertices of G are of even degree. Walks -> Edges Should Not Repeat. Eulerian -> All edges should cover Paths -> Vertices Should Not Repeat. Hamiltonian - > All vertices should cover Hamiltonian Graph Let G be a connected graph. Then a circuit C in G is called a Hamiltonian circuit if it includes every vertex of G i.e.,a Hamiltonian circuit in a connected graph G is a cycle subgraph of G which includes every vertex of G. Hamiltonian circuit (when it exists) in a graph of n vertices consists of exactly n edges,because a circuit with n vertices has n edges. A Hamiltonian Graph

in a graph G (if it exists) must include all vertices in G which does not necessarily imply that it should include all the edges of G. A graph that possesses Hamiltonian circuit is called Hamiltonian graph.

Path Matrix Let G be a connected graph with m edges e1, e2, e3, , em, and (u, v) be a specified pair of vertices of G. Suppose there are k different paths p1, p2, p3, ,pk connecting u and v. Then consider the k x m matrix whose (i, j)th element pij is defined as follows: Pij = 1, if pi contains ej 0, otherwise This matrix is called the Path matrix for the vertex pair (u, v); it is denoted by P(u, v).

For example consider the graph shown above. This graph has 7 edges. Choose the vertex pair (v1, v3). Then there exists the following 6 paths between v1and v3. P1={e3} P2={e1,e6} P3={e1, e2, e4} P4={e1, e2, e7} P5={e5, e4} P6={e5, e7} Since there are 6 paths and 7 edges, the path matrix for the pair (v1, v3) is a 6 x 7 matrix.

Circuit matrix Let G be a graph with m edges e1, e2, e3, , em and k different circuits C1, C2, C3, , Ck. Associated with this graph let us consider the k x n matrix B=[ bij ] whose (i, j)this defined as follows: bij= 1, if the circuit Ci includes the edge ej 0, otherwise This matrix is called the Circuit matrix of the graph G. When G has to be indicated explicitly, we write B as B(G). For example, consider the graph shown below

Note that the graph has 8 edges. It also contains the following 4 circuits. C1=e1e2 C2=e3e5e7 C3=e4e6e7 C4=e3e4e6e5 Therefore, the circuit-matrix of the graph is a 4 x 8 matrix B = {bij}. Note that the circuit C1 includes the edges e1and e2and no other edges. Continuing in the similar way we get the circuit matrix of the graph given below.

Note that the circuits C1, C2, C3, and C4are taken along rows and the edges e1, e2, e3, e4, e5, e6, e7, e8are taken along columns.

Cut-sets Let G be a connected graph. A set S of edges of G is said to be a cut-set of G if the following conds hold (1) The removal of S from G leaves G disconnected (2) Removal of a proper subset of S from G does not disconnect G Cut-Set Matrix: (eg Graph missing) Let G be a graph with m edges e1, e2, e3, , em and k different cut-sets S1, S2, S3, , Sk. Associated with this graph, let us consider the k x m matrix C=[cij] whose (i, j) th element cij is as defined by Cij = 1, if the cut-set Sicontains the edge ej 0, otherwise This matrix C is called the cut-set matrix of G. When G has to be indicated explicitly, we write C as C(G) For example consider the graph shown below. S1={e8} S2={e1,e2} S3={e3, e5} S4={e4, e6} S5={e5, e6, e7} S6={e3, e6, e7} S7={e4, e7,e3} S8={e4, e5, e7}

Rank of Incidence Matrix:

4A. Ring Sum: Consider a graph whose vertex set is V1UV2 and the edge set E1 E2, where is the symmetric difference of E1 and E2 then G1 G2=(V1 U V2, E1 E2) is called the ring sum of G1 and G2 Note: Symmetric difference means E1E2=(E1-E2)U(E2-E1)=(E1UE2)-(E1E2) The following consequences of the above definition of union, intersection and ring sum (a) G1UG2=G2UG1 (b) G1G2=G2G1 (c) If G1 and G2 have no edge in common (edge-disjoint), then G1G2 is a null graph and G1G2 = G1UG2 (d) If G1 and G2 have no vertex in common (vertex-disjoint), then G1G2 does not exist

4B.

The complete graph is a simple graph in which every vertex is joined with every other vertex through one edge. Therefore, if there are n vertices, there occur n-1 edges at every vertex. The degree of every vertex is therefore n-1. Further, two vertices out of n vertices can be chosen in nc2=n(n-1) ways and each such choice gives and edge. The total number of edges is therefore n(n-1). Another way of getting the result is the following: Since there are n vertices each of degree n-1, the sum of the degrees of vertices is n(n-1). This is equal to twice the number of edges is n(n-1).

Own Sentences: In a Simple Complete graph with n vertices, each vertex connects to all other vertices. i.e degree of each vertex is n-1. So the sum of degrees of all vertices (n vertices is) n(n-1). So From Handshaking principle the total number of edges for n(n-1) vertices are n(n-1)/2. Handshaking principle: The sum of the degrees of all the vertices in a graph is even and is equal to twice the number of edges in the graph.

5A Edge Covering: A non-empty subset S of E is called an edge covering (or an edge cover) of G if every non-isolated vertex in G is incident with at least one edge in S. Evidently, an edge cover of a graph is a sub graph of the graph.

Set S={e1, e3, e6, e8} is an edge covering, because as can be easily seen, every vertex in the graph is incident with some edge in S.

Chromatic Number: Painting all the vertices of a graph with colours such that no two adjacent vertices have the same colour is called the proper colouring (or sometimes simple colouring) of a graph. Usually a given graph can be coloured in many different ways. For example observe the following three different proper colouring of a graph.

The proper colouring which is of interest to us is one that requires the minimum number of colours. A graph G that requires different colours for its proper colouring, and no less, is called a -chromatic graph, and the number is called the chromatic number of G.

Maximal Matching A matching is said to be a maximal matching if it is not a proper subset of any other matching of the graph. In other words, a matching M in a graph G is said to be maximal if M does not continue to be a matching when an arbitrary edge of G is included into M. The number of edges present in a maximal matching of G is called matching number of G. Ref: Matching Consider graph G with E as its edge set. A subset M of E is called a matching in G if no two edges in M are adjacent, i.e., if for any two edges e and e in M, the two end vertices of e are both different from the two end vertices of e. A singleton subset of E is taken as a matching.

Here in graph I sets {e5}, {e1, e3}, {e2, e4} are matchings. The set {e1, e5} is not a marching; so are the sets {e1, e2}, {e1, e4}. The graph does not have a matching consisting of three edges. In Graph 2 every two edges have a vertex in common. Therefore, the graph has no matchings with two or three edges. All the matchings in this graph are singleton sets of edges {e1}, {e2}, {e3}.

The maximal matchings are {e1, e3} and {e2, e4}, each of which contains 2 edges. Therefore, the matching number of this graph is 2. The matching number of the graph in figure 2 of slide no. 3 is 1. Complete Matching: Consider a bipartite graph G(V1, V2; E) where V1 and V2 are as usual the two partitions of the vertex set of the graph G and E is the edge set of G. In this graph every edge has one end vertex in V1 and the other end vertex in V2. In the example, consider the bipartite graph. In this graph, M = {e1, e3, e5, e6} is a matching and this matching is a complete matching from V1 to V2.

Note that {e1, e4, e6} is a matching but not a complete matching; because this matching does not include all the vertices of V1 as matched vertices. The set of edges {e1, e2, e3, e4, e6} is not a matching at all, although every vertex in V1 is end vertex of some edge in this set. Three boys b1, b2, b3 and four girls g1, g2, g3, g4 are such that (i) b1 is a cousin of g1, g3, g4 (ii) b2 is a cousin of g2 and g4 (iii) b3 is a cousin of g2 and g3 Can every one of the boys marry a girl who is one of his cousins? If so find the possible sets.

The problem is finding whether a complete matching exists from V1, to V2. Let us employ the criterion indicated in Halls theorem. We have to consider every subset of V1 with k = 1, 2, 3 elements and find whether each subset is collectively adjacent to k or more vertices in V2. We observe that there are five possible couple sets: Set 1: (b1 , g1), (b2, g2), (b3, g3) Set 2: (b1 , g1), (b2, g4), (b3, g2) Set 3: (b1 , g1), (b2, g4), (b3, g3) Set 4: (b1 , g3), (b2, g4), (b3, g2) Set 5: (b1 , g4), (b2, g2), (b3, g3) Halls theorem In a bipartite graph G (V1, V2; E), a complete matching from V1 to V2 exists if and only if every subset of k vertices in V1 is collectively adjacent to k or more vertices in V2 for all values of k

6A) Let G be a disconnected graph with n vertices where n is even. If G has two components each of which is complete, prove that G has minimum of n(n-2)/4 edges. Let x be the number of vertices in one of the components. Then the other component has n-x number of vertices. Since both components are complete graphs, the number of edges they have are x(x-1)

(n-x)(n-x-1) respectively. Therefore, the total number of edges in G is

Thus, the given graph G should have a minimum of n(n-2)/4 number of edges. 6B) For a graph with n vertices and m edges, if is the minimum and is the maximum of the degrees of vertices, show that 2m/n Let d1, d2, d3, , dn be the degrees of the vertices. Then by the handshaking property, we have d1+ d2+ d3+ + dn = 2m (1) Since = min (d1, d2, d3, , dn ), we have d1, d2 d3 , dn . Adding these n inequalities we get d1+ d2+ d3+ + dn n Similarly, since = max (d1, d2, d3, , dn ) (2) we get d1+ d2+ d3+ + dn n (3) From (1), (2), and (3) we get 2m n and 2mn So that n 2m n or 2m/n Note: Since 2m is the sum of the degrees of n vertices, (2m/n) is the average degree of the graph (say, ) of the graph. Thus,

7A)

i) Degree The degree of a graph is the minimum of the degrees of all the vertices in the graph. The degree of a graph is denoted by (G). In a graph, different vertices will have different degrees in general. Let d1, d2, d3, , dn be the degrees of vertices of a graph of order n, arranged in the nondecreasing order, i.e., d1, d2, d3, , dn are degrees of vertices such that d1 d2 d3 . . . dn. The sequence {d1, d2, d3, , dn} is called the degree sequence of the graph, and d1 which is the first element in the sequence is called the degree of the graph.

ii)

Edge Connectivity:

The edge connectivity of G is the minimum number of edges that we need to delete in order to disconnect G. The edge connectivity of every (connected) graph is at least one. Since, every edge is a cut-set (bridge) in a tree the edge connectivity of a tree is one. Let G be a connected graph. Every cut-set of G contains certain number of edges. Take a cutset that contains the fewest number of edges. Such a cut-set is called a smallest cut-set of G. The number of edges in a smallest cut-set is called the edge-connectivity or line-connectivity of G and denoted by (G). iii) Vertex Connectivity: Let G be a connected graph. The vertex connectivity (or point-connectivity) is defined as the minimum number of vertices whose removal leaves the graph disconnected. Note that the removal of a vertex implies removal of all the edges incident on that vertex. A graph G is said to have vertex connectivity only when G is connected, not complete and has three or more vertices. The vertex connectivity of a graph G is denoted by (G). Obviously, (G)1 for every connected graph G. A connected graph G is said to be k-connected if (G)=k. 7B) Find the degree, edge-connectivity, and vertex connectivity of this graph

By examining all the vertices, we note that at least three edges are incident on every vertex. Therefore, the degree of the graph is 3, i.e., (G)=3. Further, note that the removal of any one edge will not disconnect the graph. But the removal of the edges BP and CP will disconnect the graph. These two edges constitute the cut-set. Hence, the edge-connectivity of the graph is 2, i.e., (G)=2. Lastly, observe that the removal of the vertex P from the graph will disconnect the graph. Therefore the vertex-connectivity of the graph is 1, i.e., (G)=1. Thus, for the given graph we have (G)=3, (G)=2 , and (G)=1 and hence, (G) (G) (G).

Solution:

Consider the one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the two graphs under which the vertices A, B, C, D, P, Q, R, S of the first graph corresponds to the vertices A', B', C', D', P', Q', R', S' respectively, and vice versa. In this correspondence the edges determined by the corresponding vertices corresponds so that the adjacency of vertices is retained. As such the two graphs are isomorphic. (It will be good to add edge correspondence like AD -> AD)

(Traversability Chapter) A connected graph G is an Euler graph if and only if G can be decomposed into edgedisjoint circuits. Necessary condition: Suppose that G can be decomposed (partitioned) into edge-disjoint circuits. Since the degree of every vertex in a circuit is two, it follows that every vertex in G is of even degree. Therefore, by Theorem 1 G is an Euler graph (Theorem1: A connected graph G is an Euler graph if and only if all vertices of G are of even degree.)

Now, consider a vertex v1 in G. Since v1 is of even degree, there are at least two edges incident on v1. Choose one of these edges, and let v2 be the other end vertex of this (chosen) edge. Then v2 is also of even degree and therefore there must be at least one other edge incident on v2.

Choose one of such edges, and let v3 be the other end vertex of the edge. Proceeding like this, we eventually arrive at a vertex that has previously been traversed, thus forming a circuit C1. Let us remove C1 from G. All vertices in the remaining graph must also be of even degree, and in this graph we can construct a circuit C2 and proceed as above. The process ends when no edges are left. In this way we get a sequence of circuits whose union is G and whose intersection is a null graph. Thus, G has been decomposed into circuits.

10 A) If G is a connected simple planar graph with n ( 3) vertices, m (>2) edges and r regions, then (i) m (3/2) r and (ii) m 3n-6 Further, if G is a triangle-free, then (iii) m 2n-4.

Proof Since the graph G is simple, it has no parallel edges and no self-loops. As such, every region must be bounded by three or more edges. Therefore, the total number of edges that bound all regions is greater than or equal to 3r. On the other hand, an edge is in the boundary of at most two regions. Therefore, the total number of edges that bound all regions is less than or equal to 2m. Thus, 3r 2m or m (3/2) r. This is required result (i). Now, substituting for r from the Eulers formula in the result just proved, we get m (3/2) (m n + 2) Which simplifies to m 3n 6. This is the required result (ii). If G is triangle-free, every region must be bounded by four or more edges, so that the total number of edges that bound all is greater than or equal to 4r. Consequently, we have 4r 2m. Substituting for r from the Eulers formula in this, we get m 2 (m n + 2) or m 2n-4. This is the required result (iii).

March 2010 paper

Isolated Graph: (Is it separate or same as Isolated Vertex need to check) A vertex in a graph, which is not an end vertex of any edge is called an isolated vertex Connected and Disconnected Graph: Consider a graph of order greater than or equal to two. Two vertices in G are said to be connected if there is a at least one path from one vertex to the other. We say that G is connected if every pair of vertices in G are connected. Otherwise, G is disconnected graph Degree of the graph: The degree of a graph is the minimum of the degrees of all the vertices in the graph. The degree of a graph is denoted by (G). In a graph, different vertices will have different degrees in general. Let d1, d2, d3, , dn be the degrees of vertices of a graph of order n, arranged in the non-decreasing order, i.e., d1, d2, d3, , dn are degrees of vertices such that d1 d2 d3 . . . dn. The sequence {d1, d2, d3,

, dn} is called the degree sequence of the graph, and d1 which is the first element in the sequence is called the degree of the graph.

1B) In every graph, the number of vertices of odd degree is even. Proof Consider a graph with n vertices. Suppose k of these vertices are odd degree so that the remaining n-k vertices are of even degree. Denote the vertices with odd degree by v1, v2, , vk and the vertices with even degree by vk+1, vk+2, , vn. Then the sum of the degrees of the vertices is d(vi)= d(vi) + d(vi) (1) where the summation of the first term on RHS ranges from 1 to k and that of second term ranges from k+1 to n In view of the hand shaking property, the sum on the left hand side of the above expression is equal to twice the number of edges in the graph. As such, this sum is even. Further, the second sum in the RHS is the sum of the degrees of vertices of even degrees. As such this sum is also even. Therefore, the first sum on the RHS must also be even.

In the 18th century a city named Knigsberg in east Prussia (Europe) there flowed a river viz., Pregel which divided the city into four parts. Two of these parts were on the banks of the river and the other two parts were on islands. These parts were connected with each other through seven bridges. The citizen of the city seems to have posed the following problem: By starting at any four land areas, can we return to that area after crossing each of the seven bridges exactly once?

This problem now known as the Knigsberg Bridge Problem, remained

In the year 1736, Euler analyzed the problem with the help of a graph and gave the solution. This was indeed the starting point for the development of graph theory. Denote the land areas of the city by v1, v2, v3 and v4 where v1 and v2 are the banks of the river and v3 and v4 are the islands. Construct a graph by treating these four land areas as four vertices and the seven bridges connecting them as seven edges. Note that in this graph not all the vertices are of even degree and therefore the graph is not Euler graph. This means that there does not exist a closed walk that contains all the edges (exactly once).

For the graph to be euler graph it should contain even degree for all the vertices.

3A) A tree with n vertices has n-1 edges

The theorem will be proved by the method of induction on the number of vertices. It is easy to see that the theorem is true for n=1, 2, and 3 (see the figure).

Assume that the theorem holds for all trees with fewer than n vertices. Consider a tree with n vertices. In T let Therefore, deletion of

ek be an edge with end vertices vi and vj.


Furthermore,

ek from T will disconnect the graph as shown in the figure.

T- k consists of exactly two components, and since there were no circuits in T to begin with, each of these components is a tree. Problem Both these trees T1 and T2 have fewer than n vertices each, and therefore, by the induction hypothesis, each contains one less that the number of vertices in it. Thus, Ttwo edges. Hence, T has exactly n-1 edges. 3B)

ek consists of no

Reference:

Eccentricity Consider a connected graph G and a vertex v of G. Suppose we determine the distance between v and each of the other vertices in G. The greatest of these vertices is called the Eccentricity of the vertex v and it is denoted by E(v).Thus, E(v) = Max {d(v, v1), d(v, v2),, d(v, vn)},

Radius Given a tree, suppose we determine the eccentricities of all its vertices. The minimum of these eccentricities is called the Radius of the tree and a vertex having this minimum eccentricity is called the center of the tree. Diameter The diameter of a given tree is defined as the length of the longest path in a tree. Thus, the diameter is the maximum distance between any two vertices. For example, E(v1)=3, E(v2)=2, E(v3)=2, E(v4)=3, E(v5)=3. The minimum of these eccentricities is 2 and this minimum eccentricity is possessed by the vertices v2 and v3. Hence, the radius of the tree is 2 and v2 and v3 are the centers. This illustrates that the tree can have more than one centre. Further, the longest path in this tree is the one consisting of e1, e2, and e4, and its length is 3. Therefore, the diameter of the tree is 3. (Diameter of a tree need not be twice its radius).

After finding distance from each vertex to all other vertices (for all of the vertices) it found that (solved by own, report if any mistakes are there) Eccentricity of vertex V1 is 10, V2 is 9 and so on and for V10 it is 5. So the radius of the tree will be 5 and the center will be V10. The diameter will be 10. (need not be double of radius in general)

Seating Problem: (please take a screen shot and attach) http://books.google.co.in/books? id=Yr2pJA950iAC&pg=PA6&dq=seating+problem+in+graph+theory&hl=en&ei=H0mPTfXmDYu kugOyoaCqDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage &q=seating%20problem%20in%20graph%20theory&f=true

4B one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the two graphs The Edges FE and DE are not corresponding each other . So they are not isomorphic

Proper subgraph A subgraph H is said to be proper subgraph of G if G has at least one vertex which is not in H.

Perfect matching A matching M in a graph G is called a perfect matching if every vertex is a matched vertex with respect to M. In the graph 1 of slide 3 the matchings {e1, e3} and {e2, e4} are perfect matchings, where as {e5} is not a perfect matching.

References Vertex covering A subset W of V is called a vertex covering (or a vertex cover) of G if every edge in G is incident on at least one vertex in W.

The set W={v2, v4, v6} is a vertex covering (because, as can be easily seen, every edge in the graph is incident on some vertex in W. Edge covering A non empty subset S of E is called an edge covering (or an edge cover) of G if every nonisolated vertex in G is incident with at least one edge in S.

Minimal edge covering An edge covering S of G is called a minimal edge covering if no proper subset of S is an edge covering of G. For example, in figure given in slide no. 26, the set S={e1, e3, e6, e8} is an edge covering, because as can be easily seen, every vertex in the graph is incident with some edge in S. It is not hard to check that no proper subset of S is an edge covering. (Observe that S-e1, S-e3, S-e6, S-e8 are not edge covering. Hence, S is a minimal edge covering.

It may be realized that a spanning tree in a connected graph is an edge covering of the graph. So are Hamiltonian circuit and Hamiltonian path (if they exist).

Reference

Subgraphs Let G and H are two graphs. They are said to be sub graphs if the following Conditions hold (a) All the vertices and edges of H are in G (b) Each edge of H has the same end vertices in G as in H. In other words, if H is a graph with vertex set V(H) and the edge set E(H) and G is graph with vertex set V(G) and the edge set E(G) then H is a subgraph of G whenever V(H) is subset of V(G) and E(H) is subset of E(G).

Tournaments Earlier we defined a complete asymmetric digraph as an asymmetric digraph in which there is exactly one edge between every pair of vertices. Such a digraph can be used to record the result of a tennis tournament, or any other game in which draws are not allowed. For this reason, a complete asymmetric digraph is popularly referred to as a complete tournament or just a tournament. The following figure is a complete asymmetric digraph (tournament). This digraph can be used to represent the situation where (i) The team (player) A beats the team (player) B, but is beaten by the team (player) C.

(ii) The team (player) B beats the team (player) C, but is beaten by the team (player) A. (iii) The team (player) C beats the team (player) A, but is beaten by the

team (player) B In a tournament, there does not generally exist a directed circuit that includes all vertices. In other words, tournaments are not in general Hamiltonian. However, the following theorem establishes the existence of directed Hamiltonian paths in a tournament.

6B) is 6B of September 2010 paper 6A)

Common properties of K5 and K3, 3 By the virtue of the definitions and Theorems 1 and 2 the Kuratowskis graphs K5 and K3, 3 share some common properties. 1. Both are regular graphs, where as K5 is 5-regular, K3, 3 is 3-regular. 2. Both are non-planar. 3. Removal of one edge makes each a planar graph. (In theorem 1, the drawing would have contained only non intersecting edges if e9 was not there. In theorem 2, the drawing would have contained only nonintersecting edges if e7 was not there. 1. Removal of one vertex makes each a planar graph (Note that K4 and K2, 3 are planar. 1. K5 is the non-planar graph with the smallest number of vertices, and K3,3 is the non-planar graph with the smallest number of edges 6C)

Hamiltonian Circuits ABCDEA, BCDEAB, CDEABC, DEABCD, EABCDE

7A) Show that the graphs K2, 2 and K2, 3 are planar graphs. Solution In K2, 2 the vertices set is partitioned into two sets of vertices say {v1, v2} and {v3, v4}.

Respectively and there is an edge joining every vertex in V1with vertex V2 and vice-versa. The first figure in slide no. 36 represents this graph. Evidently, in this graph, no two edges cross each other. Therefore, K2, 2 is planar. In K2,3, the vertex set is partitioned into two sets V1, and V2, with V2, containing two vertices v1, v2, and V2 containing three vertices, say, v3, v4, v5 and there is an edge joining every vertex in V with every vertex in V2 and vice-versa. The figure 2 in slide no. 36 represents this graph. Observe that in this figure, no two edges cross each other. Therefore, K2,3 is planar. Note: The graph K2, 3 can be obtained by removing one vertex from K3, 3. Thus, the nonplanar graph K3, 3 becomes planar if one vertex is removed from it.

7B) http://books.google.co.in/books?id=yFelrqitQTAC&lpg=PA206&dq=show%20that%20every %20non%20trival%20connected%20graph%20has%20atleast%20two%20vertices%20which %20are%20not%20circuts&pg=PA206#v=onepage&q&f=false need to check if the above answer suits.

Incidence matrix Let G be a labeled graph with n vertices v1, v2, v3, , vn, m edges e1, e2, e3, , em and no self loops. Associated with this graph, let us consider the n x m matrix A=[aij] whose (i, j)th element, aij, is defined by Example a11=1, a12=1, a13=0 a21=1, a22=0, a23=0 a31=0, a32=1, a33=1 a41=0, a42=0, a43=1 For the purpose of clarity, to the left of every row the corresponding vertex is indicated and on the top of every column the corresponding edge is indicated.

Adjacency matrix Let G be a labeled graph with n vertices v1, v2, v3, , vn, and no parallel edges. Associated with this graph, let us consider the n x n matrix X= [xij] whose (i, j)th element, xij, is defined by This matrix X, is called the adjacency matrix or connection matrix of G. If G has to be indicated explicitly, we denote this matrix by X(G).

For example consider a graph (slide no. 25). This has 5 vertices and therefore its adjacency matrix X=[xij] is a matrix of order 5 x 5. Observe that v1 is joined to v3 and v4 and to no other vertex. Example x11=0, x12=0, x13=1, x14=1, x15=0 x21=0, x22=0, x23=0, x24=1, x25=0 x31=1, x32=0, x33=0, x34=0, x35=1 x41=1, x42=1, x43=0, x44=0, x45=0 X51=0, x52=0, x53=1, x54=1, x55=1

8B Incidence Matrix
E1e2e3e4 e5 e6 e7 e8 e9

V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6

110000000 101100000 011011000 000001101 000110111 000000011

Adjacency Matrix V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V1 0 1 1 V2 1 0 1 V3 1 1 0 V4 0 0 1 V5 0 1 0 V6 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 1

0 0 1 1 0

Maximal matching

A matching is said to be a maximal matching if it is not a proper subset of any other matching of the graph. In other words, a matching M in a graph G is said to be maximal if M does not continue to be a matching when an arbitrary edge of G is included into M. The number of edges present in a maximal matching of G is called matching number of G. For example, in the graph in figure 1 of slide no. 3, the maximal matchings are {e1, e3} and {e2, e4}, each of which contains 2 edges. Therefore, the matching number of this graph is 2. The matching number of the graph in figure 2 of slide no. 3 is 1.

Minimal edge covering An edge covering S of G is called a minimal edge covering if no proper subset of S is an edge covering of G. For example, in figure given in slide no. 26, the set S={e1, e3, e6, e8} is an edge covering, because as can be easily seen, every vertex in the graph is incident with some edge in S. It is not hard to check that no proper subset of S is an edge covering. (Observe that S-e1, S-e3, S-e6, S-e8 are not edge covering. Hence, S is a minimal edge covering. It may be realized that a spanning tree in a connected graph is an edge covering of the graph. So are Hamiltonian circuit and Hamiltonian path (if they exist).

Every Euler digraph is strongly connected, but the converse is not necessarily true. Proof: Let D be an Euler digraph. Then it contains a closed directed walk that includes all edges of D. Consequently, it passes through every vertex of D, at least once. Therefore, there is a walk (and consequently a path) from every vertex of d to every other vertex. This implies that D is strongly connected. To see that the converse is not necessarily true consider the digraphs shown in the following figure. Clearly, this digraph is strongly connected, but does not contain a closed directed walk that includes all edges. Hence, this digraph is not a Euler digraph, although strongly connected.

10 B) Matrix for Prims Algorithm ABCPQR A - 6 8 6&& B 6 - & 5 10 & C 8& - 7 5 3 P 6 5 7 - && Q & 10 5 - & & R && 3 &3 Step 1 is matrix Step 2 Select from A -> B or P as both have smallest weight 6 (selected B) Select smallest from A and B which is P (5). From A,B, and P select smallest which is C (7) From A,B,C,P select smallest which is R(3) From R select remaining smallest which is Q (3) So the spanning tree created will be A B P C R Q. Weight is 6+5+7++3+3= 24.

August 2009 Paper

a) Degree of Graph 7A answer of September 2010 paper

b) Regular Graph A graph in which all the vertices are of the same degree is called a regular graph. A regular graph in which all vertices are of degree k is called k-regular graph. Obviously for a kregular graph ==k. In particular 3-regular graphs called cubic graphs

C) Adjacent Edges and Vertices Adjacent edges Two non-parallel edges are said to be adjacent edges if they are incident on a common vertex (i.e., if they have a vertex in common). Adjacent vertices Two vertices are said to be adjacent vertices (or neighbours) if there is an edge joining them. D) Pendent and Isolated Vertex Isolated vertex A vertex in a graph, which is not an end vertex of any edge is called an isolated vertex Pendant vertex A vertex of degree 1 is called a pendent vertex. An edge incident on a pendant vertex is called a pendant edge.

A) Subgraphs Let G and H are two graphs. They are said to be sub graphs if the following conditions hold (a) All the vertices and edges of H are in G (b) Each edge of H has the same end vertices in G as in H. In other words, if H is a graph with vertex set V(H) and the edge set E(H) and G is graph with vertex set V(G) and the edge set E(G) then H is a subgraph of G whenever V(H) is subset of V(G) and E(H) is subset of E(G). Proper subgraph A subgraph H is said to be proper subgraph of G if G has at least one vertex which is

not in H

We observe that all the vertices and edges of the graph H are in the graph G and that every edge in H has the same end vertices in G as in H. Hence H is a graph of G. Observe that the graph G contains one extra vertex and three extra edges and thus, H is a Proper subgraph of G Edge-disjoint and Vertex-disjoint subgraphs Let G be graph. Let K and H are two graphs of G. Then (a) K and H are said to be edge-disjoint if they do not have any common edge (b K and H are said to be vertex-disjoint if they do not have any common edge and any common vertex. Notice that the edge-disjoint subgraphs may have common vertices. Subgraphs that have no vertices in common cannot possibly have edge in common, i.e., two vertex-disjoint subgraphs must be edge-disjoint but the converse is not necessarily true. Example of edge-disjoint but not vertex-disjoint subgraphs

Union of two graphs Let G1(V1, E1) and G2(V2, E2) be two graphs. Then the graph whose vertex set is V1 V2 and the edge set E1 E2 is called the union of G1 and G2 and it is denoted by G1 G2 G1 G2 = (V1 V2, E1 E2) Intersection of two graphs Let G1 (V1, E1) and G2 (V2, E2) be two graphs. Then the graph whose vertex set is V1 V2 and the edge set E1 E2 is called the intersection of G1 and G2 denoted by G1 G2 is G1 G2 = (V1 V2, E1 E2), provided V1 V2

Ring sum Consider a graph whose vertex set is V1UV2 and the edge set E1 E2, where is the symmetric difference of E1 and E2 then G1 G2=(V1 U V2, E1 E2) is called the ring sum of G1 and G2 Note: Symmetric difference means E1E2=(E1-E2)U(E2-E1)=(E1UE2)-(E1E2) Complement of a subgraph Added in the end.

Refer 7A and 7B of September 2010 paper

Cut-sets Let G be a connected graph. A set S of edges of G is said to be a cut-set of G if the following conditions hold (1) The removal of S from G leaves G disconnected (2) Removal of a proper subset of S from G does not disconnect G

Removal of a cut-set {a, c, d, f} from the graph cuts it into two There are many other cut-sets, such as {a, b, g}, {a, b, e, f} and {d, h, f}. The edge {k} alone is also a cut-set. The set of edges {a, c, h, d} on the other hand is not a cut set, because one of its proper subsets {a, c, h} is a cut-set Thus, a cut-set of a connected graph G is a minimal set of edges whose removal from G will separate G into exactly two parts. It should be noted that when an edge is removed (deleted) from a graph, the end vertices of the edge will continue to remain in the graph.

Refer 3A from march 2010 paper

A connected graph is a tree if and only it is a minimally connected. Proof: Suppose G is a connected graph which is not a tree. Then G contains a circuit C. The removal of any one edge e from this circuit will not make the graph disconnected. Therefore, G is not Minimally connected. Thus, if a connected graph is not a tree then it is not minimally connected. This is equivalent to saying that if a connected graph is minimally connected then it is a tree (contrapositive). Conversely, suppose G is a connected graph which is not Minimally connected. Then there exists a edge e in G such that G-e is connected. Therefore, e must be in some circuit in G. This implies that G is not a tree. Thus, if a connected graph is not minimally connected then it is not a tree. This is equivalent to saying that if a connected graph is a tree, then it is minimally connected. (CP) Ref:Minimally connected graph A connected graph is said to be minimally connected if the removal of any one edge from it disconnects the graph. Removal of any one edge makes these graphs disconnected. All those graphs are minimally connected graphs.

This is from slide#46 of Graph Theoretic Algorithm

Kuratowskis second graph is nonplanar. Proof: Be definition, K3, 3 is the graph in which the vertex set is partitioned into two sets V1 and V2 each containing three vertices such that every vertex in V1 is joined to every vertex in V2 by an edge and vice-versa. Let us name the vertices in V1 as v1, v2, v3 and the vertices in V2 as v4, v5, v6.

e1=(v1, v4) e7=(v3, v4)

e2=(v1, v5) e8=(v3, v5)

e3=(v1, v6) e4=(v2, v4) e5=(v2, v5) e9=(v3, v6)

e6=(v2, v6)

Observe that the edges e1=(v1, v4), e4=(v4, v2), e5=(v2, v5), e8=(v5, v3), e9=(v3, v6), e3=(v6, v1) form a hexagonal circuit.

Consider the edge e6=(v2, v6). This edge can be drawn either wholly inside the hexagon or wholly outside it. Let us draw it inside- the other case is similar. Consider the edge e2=(v1, v5). If we draw this edge inside the hexagon, it intersects the edge e6. Therefore, let us draw it outside the hexagon. Now, consider the edge e7=(v3, v4). If this edge is drawn inside the hexagon, it crosses the edge e6 and if it is drawn outside the hexagon, it crosses the edge e2. This demonstrates that in every possible plane drawing of K3, 3 at least two edges of K3, 3 intersect at a point which is not a vertex of K3, 3. Hence K3, 3 is a nonplanar graph.

Internal Test Paper 1


1 A).Define With an illustration Complete Graph and Complete Bipartite Graph Complete Graph A simple graph in which there is an edge between every pair of vertices is called a complete graph (or full graph). In other words, a complete graph is a simple graph in which every pair of distinct vertices are adjacent. A complete graph is denoted by Kn

Complete Bipartite Graph A bipartite graph G (V1, V2; E) is called a complete bipartite graph if there is an edge between every vertex in V1 to every vertex in V2. The bipartite graph in slide no. 36 is not a complete bipartite graph. A complete bipartite graph is denoted by

Kr,s, if there are r vertices in V1 and s vertices in V2.

1B) Is there a simple graph with degree sequence {1,1,3,3,3,4,6,7}


Solution: Assume that there is such a graph. Since the degree sequence has 8 elements, the graph should have 8 vertices, say P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, arranged in the order of the degree sequence. Then, the vertex W which is of degree 7 should have an edge to all other vertices. In particular, W must have an edge to both of the vertices P and Q which are of degree 1. then P and Q are not joined to any other vertices and in particular to the vertex V which is of degree 6. Since, the graph is simple, there cannot be an edge joining V to itself. Therefore, V can be joined only to five vertices W, R, S, T, U. Then V cannot have the degree 6. This is a contradiction. Hence, there is no simple graph having the given degree sequence. 2A) In every graph, the number of vertices of odd degree is even. Proof Consider a graph with n vertices. Suppose k of these vertices are odd degree so that the remaining n-k vertices are of even degree. Denote the vertices with odd degree by v1, v2, , vk and the vertices with even degree by vk+1, vk+2, , vn. Then the sum of the degrees of the vertices is d(vi)= d(vi) + d(vi) (1) where the summation of the first term on RHS ranges from 1 to k and that of second term ranges from k+1 to n In view of the hand shaking property, the sum on the left hand side of the above expression is equal to twice the number of edges in the graph. As such, this sum is even. Further, the second sum in the RHS is the sum of the degrees of vertices of even degrees. As such this sum is also even. Therefore, the first sum on the RHS must also be even. That is, d(vi) = even, i=1,2,,n (2). But each of d(vi) is odd for i=1,2,,k. Therefore, the number of terms in the LHS of (2) must be even; that is k is even. Note that as per the above theorem, in any graph, there is an even number of odd vertices. But, it is not true in general that a graph must have an odd number of even vertices. This means that Z is joined to all other vertices by an edge and in particular to A also. Hence, the degree of A is not zero. This is a contradiction. Hence, all vertices of G cannot have different degrees; at least two of them must have the same degree

Note: The proof is by the method of contradiction which is often used in graph theory 2B) Show that in a complete graph of n vertices (Kn) the degree of every vertex is n-1 and that the total number of edges is n(n-1) Answer 4B of September 2010 paper 3 ) Show that a graph with n vertices and k components can have at most (n-k)(n-k+1) edges Proof: Let n1 be the number of vertices in the first component, n2 be the number of vertices in the second component, and so on, and nk be the number of vertices in the kth component in the given graph G. Then n1+n2+n3++nk =n (1) Subtracting 1 for each term on both side gives, n1-1+n2-1+n3-1++nk-1=n-(1+1+.+k terms). Squaring on both sides, we get (n1-1)2+(n2-1)2+(n3-1)2++(nk-1)2 + S =(n-k)2 (2)

where S is the sum of products of the form 2(ni-1)(nj-1), i, j=1,2,,k, ij. Since each of n1, n2, n3,,nk is greater than or equal to 1, we have S0 and therefore, (2) yields (n1-1)2+(n2-1)2+(n3-1)2++(nk-1)2 (n-k)2 n12 +n22 ++nk2 (n-k)2 + 2n - k, (By (1)) = n2 + k2 - 2nk +2n - k = n2 - (k - 1)(2n - k) 2 ni n2 - (k - 1)(2n - k) (3) Now, since G is a simple graph, each of the components of G is a simple graph. Therefore, the maximum number of edges which the ith component can have is ni(ni-1). Therefore, the maximum number of edges which G can have is N, where N= ni(ni-1). Therefore, from (4) we find that N= (ni2-ni) = ni2-n/2 {n2 - (k-1(2nk-k)}- n = {n2 - 2nk + n + k2 - k = {n - k)(n - k+1)} Thus, the number of edges in G cannot exceed (1/2){n-k)(n-k+1) (4)

4) Show that in a tree with n vertices has n-1 edges 7th question of august 2009 paper 5) a) In a binary tree, the number of vertices is always odd

b) In a binary tree with n vertices, the number of pendent vertices is (n+1)/2 Proof: (1) Let T be a binary tree with n vertices. Then T has exactly one vertex of degree two and the remaining n-1 vertices are of degree 1 or 3. Since, in a graph, the number of vertices of odd degree is even, it follows that n-1 is even. Therefore n is odd. (2) Let p be the number of pendant vertices in T. Then, of the remaining vertices, one vertex is of degree two and the others must be of degree three. Hence, the number of vertices of degree three is n-p-1. Consequently, the sum of the degrees of all vertices is (p x 1) + (1 x 2) + (n p -1) x 3 = 2(n-1) which simplifies to = n - 2p + 1 i.e., p= (n+1). Thus the number of pendant vertices in T is (n+1). 6) Define Isomorphic graph. Say, giving reasons, whether the two graphs below are isomorphic or not. Isomorphic Let G and G* be two graphs. They are said to be isomorphic (or equivalent) to each other if the following conditions are hold (a) There exists a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of G and G*. (b) There exists a one-to-one correspondence between the edges of G and G* in such a way that if e=(vi, vj) is and edge in G the n the corresponding edge e* in G* must be e*=(v*i, v*j). Here v*i and v*j are edges in G* that correspond to the edges vi and vj in G In other words, two graphs G and G* are said to be isomorphic (to each other) if there is a one-toone correspondence between their vertices and between their edges such that the incidence relationship (that is the adjacency of vertices) is preserved. Such graphs will have the same structures differing only in the way their vertices and edges are labeled or only in the way they are represented geometrically. For many purposes, we regard them as essentially the same. When G and G* are isomorphic we write GG* 6B) Show that the following two graphs are isomorphic.

Solution: Note that both graphs have six vertices each of degree three and nine edges. Consider the correspondence between the edges in the two graphs as shown below: {u1, u4} {v1, v2}, {u1, u5} {v1, v3} {u1, u6} {v1, v6}, {u2, u5} {v4, v3} {u2, u4} {v4, v2}, {u2, u6} {v4, v6} {u3, u6} {v5, v6}, {u3, u5} {v5, v3} {u3, u5} {v5, v3}. This yields the correspondence between the vertices :

u1 v1, u2 v4, u3 v5 u4 v2, u5 v3, u6 v6 We observe that the correspondence between the edges and the vertices are one-to-one correspondence and these preserve the adjacency of vertices. In view of these correspondences we can infer that the two graphs are isomorphic. 7) For a graph with n vertices and m edges, if is the minimum and is the maximum of

the degrees of vertices, show that 2m/n 6B question from March 2010 paper 8) Define Eulerian Graph, For each graphs below determine whether it is eulerian or not with reasons. For those that are eulerian find an euler tour by inspection. Consider a graph G. If there is a closed walk in G that contains all the edges of G, then that walk called an Euler line (or Eulerian line or Eulerian tour) in G The property of walk is carried to Euler line also, that is, in a walk no edge can appear more once but an vertex can appear. Since walk is a subgraph an Euler line is a subgraph. Since Euler line should include all the edges automatically it should include all vertices as well. A graph that possesses at least one Euler line is called an Euler graph (or Eulerian graph).

To find Euler or Not: the degree of every vertex should be even. For Graph 1: it is odd, so not euler For Graph 2: It is even, so euler For Graph 3: It is even, so euler For Graph 4: It is odd, so not euler Euler Tour writing is Pending.

Some More Exam Questions


Compliment of a subgraph

Reference : http://www.tutorvista.com/math/sub-graphs-tutoring

Rank of the incidence matrix


Consider the incidence matrix of the graph (slide no. 5) and the matrix given in slide no. 6.

Observe that the rank of A is n-1, where n is the number of vertices in the graph.

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen