Event Management, Vol. 9, pp. 103109 Printed in the USA. All rights reserved.

1525-9951/04 $20.00 + .00 Copyright 2004 Cognizant Comm. Corp. www.cognizantcommunication.com

MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
EVENT MANAGEMENT: A NEW PROFESSION?

VICKY HARRIS Tourism, Hospitality & Events School, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, LSI 3HE UK

The notion that the events industry in the UK is becoming more professional is gaining currency. Yet there has been little or no examination of what such a term means in principle or in practice. Following a review of definitions, the article draws on research that has been undertaken in the context of other occupations and examines its application to the events industry. It goes on to propose a potential model of events professionalism that integrates the traditional and new definitions of professionalism. Key words: Professional; Professionalism; Professionalization; Event management

The worldwide events industry has, in the last 10 years, received a much higher profile. Mega-events such as the Olympic Games and the Football World Cup have received a level of media coverage that has made it very difficult for all but the most isolated of populations to ignore. Similarly, on a national level, high-profile festivals such as Glastonbury and Reading and charity events such as the Flora London Marathon have raised awareness of a new industry and a new occupation. The economic importance of events in terms of generating tourism and in contributing to the regeneration of cities is also receiving greater attention (Jones, 2001; Robertson & Guerrier, 1999; Thomas & Wood, 2003; Wood, 2002). As the profile of events has been enhanced there has also been increased use, in the trade press at least, of

terms such as event professional and a perception of events as a professional industry (Eyerman, 2001). Yet there has been little serious consideration of what these terms mean. This article seeks to initiate such a debate. It begins by investigating the expectations inherent in the term profession through an examination of the existing literature. It then develops a model of professionalism applicable to the events industry, which suggests new criteria that might be considered appropriate for a professionalized events industry. Defining the Term Professional Friedson (1994) has identified a tier of linked levels of professionalization that relate to the individual, the organization, and the industry. First there are individu-

Address correspondence to Vicky Harris, Head of School, Tourism, Hospitality & Events School, Leeds Metropolitan University, Calverley Street, Leeds, LSI 3HE UK. Tel: 44 113 2835937; Fax: 44 113 2833122; E-mail: v.harris@leedsmet.ac.uk

103

104

HARRIS discussion of professionalism as it is seen by many sociololgists as one of the major, if not the defining characteristics, of industrial societies (Johnson, 1972, p. 9). Historically, medicine and law have been recognized as the primary professions but since the industrial revolution the growth of the managerial classes and rise of specialist technical occupations such as architecture and teaching have widened the consideration of what constitutes a profession (Friedson, 1994). More recent literature has demonstrated that other occupations, such as town planning (Thomas & Healey, 1991), leisure management (Fleming, 1996), teachers and educators (Nixon, Marks, Rowland, & Walker, 2001), librarianship (Adams, 1985), public relations (Cameron, Sallot, & Lariscy, 1996), and hospitality management (Crocker, Schrock, & Walker, 2001), still continue to debate the need for recognition of their professional status. A theoretical discussion of professionalism within events itself has also been initiated (Getz, 2000; Getz & Wicks, 1994). Yet, the status of events as a professional industry remains to be established. Approaches to Analyzing Professionalism Early sociological approaches to professionalism can be classified broadly as trait approaches and functionalist approaches. The first attempts to define the traits of professionalism while the second places greater emphasis on an examination of the functions and role of professionalism. Millerson (1964) developed a taxonomy that identified 23 elements of the trait approach. This taxonomy demonstrated little consensus among the theorists whose ideas were included. Nevertheless, the most commonly mentioned traits of a profession included: skills based upon professional knowledge; the provision of training and education; testing the competence of members; organization; adherence to a professional code of conduct; and altruistic service. Johnson (1972) criticized this list as he considered that, although these characteristics may be seen to be appropriate to the common core of the classic professional associations such as those for medicine or law, he recognizes that they may depict the rhetoric rather than the reality in other contexts. Trait theory was further extended by Johnson who considered that an indicator of the process of professionalization is that it follows a series of events through which all professionalizing occupations can be

als who manifest the individual characteristics of being a professional, secondly the organizations that demonstrate the use of professional practice, and, thirdly the wider concept of a professionalized industry. Most of the definitions of the term professional relate to the individual. In such definitions the term is used generically to describe the activities of a wide range of people across many occupational groups. The official definition of professional in the UK, described jointly by the Department for Education and Employment and the Standard Occupational Classification, is one who has a minimum of a degree-level qualification. Watkins (1999) indicates that this means that 15% of the workforce could be considered to be professional even if they were doing a nonprofessional job. Friedson (1994) uses an equally simple definition. A professional is a fulltime specialist who is committed to their work as their source of income rather than amateurs (p. 133). Fleming (1996) considers that no analysis of professionalization can be complete without consideration of what constitutes profession, professional, and professionalism. However, he goes on to suggest that a wide range of meanings can be employed when describing the term professional. These range from: the professional as the specialist, trained, qualified and licensed expert to professional as a term used in recognition of almost any job done well (Fleming, 1996, p. 248). This view is supported by Helsby (1995), who agrees that any definition of professional should take account of two key aspects of professionalism: the notion of being a professional and of behaving professionally. Adams (1985) encapsulates this notion by defining a professional as one who takes: A lively interest in everything, involvement, commitment, the seeking of opportunities and taking the initiative and a high standard of performance, both given and demanded (p. 1) Such definitions provide a useful basis for initial consideration of what might constitute professionalism in events management. However, they are inadequate in depth, detail, and scale to form a strong foundation on which to analyze the professionalization of the events industry. The Professionalism Debate The debate about the development of professionalism has been ongoing in relation to many occupations. Indeed, there appears to be a certain inevitability in the

EVENT MANAGEMENT AS PROFESSION seen to pass. This idea was also supported by Caplow and Wilensky (1964), who classified a five-stage natural history of professionalization: Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 the emergence of a full-time occupation, the establishment of a training school, the founding of a professional association, political agitation directed towards the protection of the association by law, Stage 5 the adoption of a formal code. Although the trait theorists have some diversity of view, these five stages do seem to illustrate the main areas of consensus. So where does the events industry sit in relation to this model? It could be said that event management has now firmly established itself as a fulltime occupation. Scans of the jobs pages in the press and the recruitment websites frequently include vacancies for event managers, conference managers, event technicians, etc. It could also be argued that the recent growth of tertiary education in Events Management would demonstrate a fit with Stage 2 of Caplow and Wilenskys model (the scale of increase in UK being from one course in 1996 to 23 in 2003; Universities and Colleges Admissions Services, 2003). The latter three stages of the Caplow and Wilensky model are not yet in existence. There is no single professional association representing the whole industry, a fact recognized by Getz (2000b), who notes an industry characterized by a large number of professional associations aimed at different sectors of the even industry. Thus, in the UK alone there are 45 event associations (Harris & Stonier, 2001), each of which represents a particular sector or subsector of the industry. There is currently no universally recognized association that has sufficient power to lobby for legal (or any other) form of protection for the industry and there is no universally adopted code of practice for the industry. Getz (2000a) argues that widely divergent approaches are inevitable until a common base of knowledge can be established. On these criteria, the industry has not yet evolved sufficiently to be considered professional within the traditional trait models. By contrast, the functionalist models of professionalism make no attempt to present a list of traits but limit themselves to identifying those elements that are said to have functional relevance for society as a whole. Thus, exponents of this approach consider that society has a functional unity and that it shares a common interest re-

105

gardless of class, gender, ethnicity, or other social divisions. Advocates claim that the distinguishing feature of professions is based entirely on their ability to gain recognition as professions by society. Esland and Salaman (1980), for example, consider that society will only be willing to give that recognition if an occupation displays itself to the public in ways that demonstrate its social responsibility. It could be argued prima facie at least that the events industry is beginning to demonstrate this level of social responsibility and recognition. The organization of the Commonwealth Games in Manchester, UK in July 2002 provided an example of social responsibility by integrating able-bodied and disabled athletes for the first time. Similarly, the cancellation of the Glastonbury Music Festival in 2001 while improvements were made to the perimeter fencing is also an example of a more ethical approach to management. In addition to the perspectives already discussed, there is also a more critical literature. Esland and Salaman (1980), for example, suggest a mythology of professionalism (p. 213) by questioning the validity of professional associations. They argue that, although they typically proclaim the characteristics of altruism, ethical scrupulousness, and neutrality of expertise, the reality is that the prestige and power provided by the collective and self-interested approach inherent within a traditional professional association is really of greater importance. Thus, the symbols of professionalism are often different from the reality. Esland notes that in all industrial societies the positions of prestige and authority in the occupational hierarchy are held by the professions. Indeed, McKinley (cited in Esland & Salaman, 1980) more than 30 years ago argues that professionalized workers had become the generalised wise men of contemporary society. Henry (1993) is of the view that the professions can be seen as pressure groups, which operate largely in ways that assure their members of privilege through control of market demand for their services and the greater degree of control that they are allowed over entry to the occupation and to training. Given these perceptions, it is not surprising that the demand from various occupations to be deemed professional continues to grow as they strive for similar recognition, prestige, and economic advantage. The New Professionalism Other critics of the traditional approach to professionalism (e.g., Frost, 2001; Hanlon, 1999; Quicke,

106

HARRIS

2000) recognize that elitist models are no longer applicable. Hanlon suggests that this split is a result of a move into a new, commercialized version of professionalism. In this model the predominant ethos is to develop an effective response to market and client demands and the possession of managerial and entrepreneurial skills. Thus, in such models, personal professional success is closely related to profitability. Similarly, Quicke (2000) also advocates a need for a new professionalism that is characterized by greater accountability, a flexible workforce that is easily able to adapt to change and that can be more easily manipulated to meet budgetary targets. The structure of the workforce as a result of industrial change has resulted in a blurring of the traditional professional functions leading to a reduction in exclusiveness (Middlehurst & Kennie, 1997). This now offers the potential for developing a new understanding of professionalism. These characteristics would include a claim to have a mastery over practice within a particular discipline, an advanced level of qualifications, and high-level intellectual skills, which would demonstrate an ability to understand problems, respond quickly and effectively, act independently, and apply discretion within the working context. Middlehurst and Kennies model of professionalism has, at its foundation, the concept of customer and client satisfaction with the emphasis being on sustained client relationships, people relationships, excellence in leadership and management, professional work, managing the organization, and greater emphasis on running the business concepts that are highly applicable to events management. The literature therefore indicates the emergence of a new model of professionalism that typifies a more modern business approach and that recognizes that the traditional models are not wholly applicable for new and emerging opportunities for earning. The key features of each of the three approaches to professionalization are summarized in Figure 1. The Professionalization of Events Industry As has been noted, the literature that relates to professionalization in events focuses primarily on the individual. For example, Goldblatt (1997) suggests that the event manager needs to be a producer and business strategist, marketer, controller, promoter, and personnel manager. Similar requirements were also identified in a study carried out by Perry, Foley, and Rumpf (1996),

Figure 1. Approaches to professionalization.

which identified the knowledge requirements for the event manager as being project management, budgeting, time management, relating to the media, and business planning. These characteristics and functions suggest a strong fit between the models of the new professionalism and the structure, functions, and expectations of the events industry. More recently, Silvers (2003) has developed an Event Body of Knowledge as a starting point for a multi-national and multi-disciplinary discussion. Her definition of an event manager is one who can oversee and arrange every aspect of an event, including researching, planning, organising, implementing, controlling and evaluating an events design, activities and production. In these definitions the importance of behavioral characteristics is easily identifiable, while the importance of customer care, budget management, profit, and project management cannot be denied. However, it is much less easy to establish any consistent industry-wide approach to values, ethics, evaluation, education, or training. Neither is it easy to identify changes that have been brought about voluntarily by concerted industrywide effort. Indeed, it could even be argued that the only times that consistency of approach has been achieved is by the enforcement of government interventions as a result of the negative impacts of event disasters. Legislative changes resulting from event disasters such as that at Hillsborough Football Stadium, UK (1989) have resulted in positive changes such as the introduction of all-seater stadia and the development of compulsory training of football stewards. These have been precipitated by compulsion rather than by the voluntary action of an industry seeking social recognition and status. Middlehurst and Kennie (1997) argue that the new professionalism can only be achieved by: the development of different attitudes and behaviours and a reappraisal of professional values and ethics, profes-

EVENT MANAGEMENT AS PROFESSION sional education and training, the delivery of professional services and the evaluation of professional performance. In their view change needs to go beyond the individual or organizational level. It requires coordinated activity at a higher level to be achieved through alignment with the traditional approaches. This results in an integrated model of professionalization that might be more applicable to emerging professions. A New Model for Events There appears to be a desire within the UK event industry to be considered professional but there is at the moment no clear understanding of what might be required to be considered a professional industry or, conversely, what might be desirable for the industry as a whole. This is in spite of some researchers (Getz, 2000b; Getz & Wicks, 1994; Silvers, 2003; Tassiopoulos, 2000) identifying professionalism as one of the critical success factors for event management. The key features of the model can be divided into two groups: those that require industry-wide consensus and those that can be identified as key behavioral characteristics. Evidence of the success of the industry would suggest that the behavioral elements are being achieved. Similarly, although some might say that the provision of courses and training in events management has resulted from opportunism on the part of education providers, the professionalization of events education has been achieved. However, elements such as a code of conduct, common interests, recognition by society, and systems of rewards remain to be achieved. To date there is no clear evidence that the industry has a common motivation to demonstrate the remaining characteristics outlined in the model (Figure 2). The model emphasizes the importance of an industry-wide code of conduct and ethics, agreement on a set of common interests that might lead to a single organization, social recognition, and enhanced reward. Such significant change will require a stronger collective motivation for action than has previously existed. Although there are attempts to introduce changes by some individuals and organizations, the feasibility of achieving such change and consensus across the whole industry is likely to be seriously compromised by current industry structure and organization. History has demonstrated that there are benefits to the enhancement of the professional status of an indus-

107

Figure 2. The new model: the professionalization of events management.

try. Historically, there has been a link between professionalization and enhanced occupational status, conditions of service and public recognition as well as the achievement of greater power and influence. The feasibility of achieving this, given the diversity and multiplicity of the professional associations, however, remains questionable. To date, the achievement of social recognition by the events industry has been limited. The question of the need for reform and the importance of a single entity, particularly in relation to mega-events, has already been identified (Department for Culture, Media and Sport, 2001). Moreover, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport Select Committee (2001) recognized a need for someone to advise and assist the UK government with the staging of major events. There is, therefore, a requirement for a single body such as a professional association to interact and influence government and thus achieve greater recognition. The multiplicity of event associations, each with its own self-interests, means it is unlikely that much progress will be made at the moment. If events management is to be professionalized, the model also indicates a need for an industry-wide code of practice. Although the production of The Event Safety

108

HARRIS expertise and credentialism with the major stakeholders (customers and government), there is a need for some form of common organization because of the potential benefits that are likely to accrue. However, the discussion has also demonstrated that the derivation of any definition of professionalism for the events industry will, inevitably, involve a complex process of integration of the values of the individual, the organization, and of the industry, a process that may be almost impossible to achieve. Consideration of the traditional models of professionalization has indicated some elements that might be adopted in the creation of a new professional paradigm for events. However, the seeking of professional status is one that has no definite conclusion (Getz & Wicks, 1994) and although the discussion has indicated that some progress has been made it is a misnomer to term the events industry as fully professionalized. The hardest things to achieveunity and a common sense of purposeare yet to emerge.
References Adams, M. (1985). Professionalism: A continuing process. London: Association of Assistant Librarians. Cameron, G. T., Sallot, L. M., & Lariscy, R. A. W. (1996). Developing standards of performance in public relations. Public Relations Review, 22(1), 4361. Caplow, T. (1954). The sociology of work. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company. Crocker, K., Schrock, J. R., & Walker, J. R. (2001). The profession of hospitality. Which is it?. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 13(5), 2225. Department for Culture, Media and Sport. (2001, March). Report of the Select Committee. Esland, G. & Salaman, G. (Eds.). (1980). The politics of work and occupations. Milton Keynes, Open University Press. Eyerman, M. K. (2001). Three cheers for event management. London and UK Datebook, 7(3), 1. Fleming, E. (1996). The professionalisation of leisure management in Europe. Managing Leisure, 1, 248252. Friedson, E. (1994). Professionalism reborn: Theory, prophecy and policy. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Frost, N. (2001). Professionalism, change and the politics of lifelong learning. Studies in Continuing Education, 23(1), 517. Getz, D. (2000a). Event studies and event management: On becoming an academic discipline. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 9(1), 1223. Getz, D. (2000b). Developing a research agenda for the event management field. In J. H. Allen, L. R. Jago, & A. J. Veal (Eds.), Events Beyond 2000: Setting the Agenda-Australian Event Evaluation, Research and Education Conference, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia. Getz, D., & Wicks, B. (1994). Professionalisation and certifica-

Guide (1999) ensures legal compliance and has thus changed behaviors in event management, it cannot be considered to be a code of practice nor a guarantee of ethical practice. The diversity of industry specializations and associations inevitably means that only the most general level of consensus could be agreed if a code of practice were to be devised. It must also be recognized that the absence of a single mouthpiece for the profession which serves as the unifying force in professional endeavour (Adams, 1985, pp. 135) might result in the loss of the main benefits, raised status and increased power, which the literature indicates is usually a concomitant of single representation. A professional association tends to present an image of an occupation that emphasizes unity, especially in relation to professional competence. This has not yet been achieved. However, a straitjacket approach that insists on a monopoly of knowledge and thus requires a license to practice would be inappropriate for the industry. The development of a more relaxed professional ideology that allows for the distinctiveness of the specialist occupational functions but without the trappings of the more traditional model of professional association might be more appropriate. Concluding Comments Goldblatt (2000) recognized the difficulties faced in professionalizing the event industry when he states that: The event management profession has produced a climate that is confusing, lacking in credibility as compared to other professions, and perhaps, detrimental to its long term growth. This view has been largely supported by the analyses of the literature. Its application to the UK industry, where there remains little coordination, coherence, or understanding about what is required to be fully professionalized, would suggest that the lack of organization, common purpose, or compromise may be inhibiting long-term growth. A model for the future professionalization of the industry has been proposed. Evidence has been provided that, in some ways, there is a move towards greater professionalization. However, to progress beyond the simple, more individualized stage of being professional to one of a professionalized industry, it will be necessary to consider whether there is the need, or the impetus, for event management to be defined as a profession in the traditional sense. In terms of recognition of

EVENT MANAGEMENT AS PROFESSION

tion for festival and event practitioners: Trends and issues. Festival Management & Event Tourism, 1(4), 163170. Goldblatt, J. J. (1997). Special events: Best practices in modern event management. New York: John Wiley. Goldblatt, J. J. (2000) In J. H. Allen, L. R. Jago, & A. J. Veal (Eds.), Events Beyond 2000: Setting the Agenda-Australian Event Evaluation, Research and Education Conference, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia. Hanlon, G. (1999). The changing nature of professionalism and the fracturing of the service class. International Review of Sociology, 9(1), 87101. Harris, V., & Stonier, R. (2001). Event managers: The new professionals. Unpublished conference proceedings, Leeds Metropolitan University. Helsby, G. (1995). Teachers construction of professionalism in England in the 1990s. Journal of Education for Teaching, 21(3). Henry, I. (1993). The politics of leisure policy. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Johnson, T. J. (1972). Professions and power. London: Macmillan. Jones, C. (2001). Mega-events and host region impacts: determining the true worth of the 1999 Rugby World Cup. International Journal of Tourism Research, 3(3), 241251. Middlehurst, R. J., & Kennie, T. (1997). Leading professionals: Towards new concepts of professionalism. In J. Broadbent, M. Deitrich, & J. Roberts (Eds.), The end of the professions? The restructuring of professional work (pp. 5068). London: Routledge. Millerson, G. (1964). Dilemmas of professionalism. New Society, 4. Nixon, J., Marks, A., Rowland, S., & Walker, M. (2001). Towards a new academic professionalism: A manifesto of hope. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 22(2), 227244.

109

Perry, M., Foley, P., & Rumpf, P. (1996). Event management: An emerging challenge in Australian Education. Festival Management & Event Tourism, 4, 8593. Quicke, J. (2000). A new professionalism for a collaborative culture of organisational learning in contemporary society. Educational Management and Administration, 28(3), 299 315. Robertson, M., & Guerrier, Y. (1999). Events as entrepreneurial displays: Seville, Barcelona and Madrid. In D. Tyler, Y. Guerrier, & M. Robertson (Eds.), Managing tourism in cities: Policy, process and practice (pp. 215228). Chichester: Wiley. Silvers, J. (2003). Event body of knowledge project [Online]. http://www.juliasilvers.com/embok.htm (retrieved January 13, 2004) Tassiopoulos, D. (Ed.). (2000). Event management: A professional and developmental approach. South Africa: Juta Education. The event safety guide. (1999). UK: Health & Safety Executive. Thomas, H., & Healey, P. (Eds.). (1991). Dilemmas of planning practice. Aldershot: Avebury. Thomas, R., & Wood, E. (2003). Local authority use of events to generate tourism. Event Tourism and Destination Management Conference, Yichang, China. Universities and Colleges Admissions Services. (2003). Directory of courses. Gloucestershire: Author. Watkins, J. (1999). Educating professionals: The changing role of UK professional associations. Journal of Education and Work, 12(1), 3756. Wood, E., (2002, July). Events, civic pride and attitude change in a post-industrial town: Evaluating the effect of local authority events on residents attitudes to the Blackburn region. Conference Proceedings: Events and Place Making Conference, Sydney.