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Chapter No: 04

Six Sigma; Methods Of Analysis & Infrastructure

4.1 Six Sigma Tools 4.2 Statistical Analysis Tools 4.3 Process Optimization Tools 4.4 Elements of Six Sigma Infrastructure 4.5 Six Sigma Organizational Structure 4.6 Successful Project Selection

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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} Six Sigma:

PPM Defective for 3 versus 6 Quality (not to scale)

4.1 Six Sigma Tools: The discipline of Total Quality Control uses a number of quantitative methods and tools to identify problems and suggest avenues for continuous improvement in fields such as manufacturing. Over many years, six sigma practitioners gradually realized that a large number of quality related problems can be solved with these six sigma tools.

Classification Of Six Sigma Tools: Six sigma tools are widely used in many manufacturing industries. These six sigma tools are further classified into two categories:

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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} o Statistical Analysis Tools o Process Optimization Tools Process optimization tools allows Six Sigma teams to create better workflows while statistical analysis tools helps teams to analyze data more effectively.

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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} 4.2 Statistical Analysis Tools: Statistical analysis includes the following tools which are discussed below with description and construction to understand them easily: o Check Sheet o Histogram o Pareto Chart o Cause and Effect Diagram (Also Discussed in Chapter No. 03) o Scatter Diagram o Control Charts These tools have been widely used in most Quality Management Organizations, and a number of extensions and improvements to them have been proposed and adopted. The six sigma tools are the most popular tools, which are being used by quality conscious companies throughout the world for improvement of quality of products and processes. A brief description of these tools is presented here:

4.2.1 Check Sheet: What is a check sheet: A check sheet is a pre-designed format for collection of data that encourages organized collection and groups data into categories. Categories are created in advance and may be added as needed. A check mark is added for each example of a category. The marks are added to determine subtotals. When to use it: To keep track of the parameters of an on going process. It can be used to track events by such factors as timeliness (on time, one day late, two days late, etc.); reason for inspection failure (appearance, performance, etc.); person accomplishing the task (sales calls per representative); when something happens (customer complaints for each day of the month); and many others.

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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} How to use it: Look at some preliminary data before developing the check sheet. This will indicate what categories to use. For example, you might want to track employee mistakes by hour of the day or simply by whether they occur in morning or afternoon. Include information about who collected the data, the date and the total sample from which it was drawn.

4.2.2 Histogram: A histogram is a display of statistical information that uses rectangles to show the frequency of data items in successive numerical intervals of equal size. In the most common form of histogram, the independent variable is plotted along the horizontal axis and the dependent variable is plotted along the vertical axis. The data appears as colored or shaded rectangles of variable area. The illustration, below, is a histogram showing the results of a final exam given to a hypothetical class of students. Each score range is denoted by a bar of a certain color. If this histogram were compared with those of classes from other years that received the same test from the same professor, conclusions might be drawn about intelligence changes among students over the years. Conclusions might also be drawn concerning the improvement or decline of the professor's teaching ability with the passage of time. If this histogram were compared with those of other classes in the same semester who had received the same final exam but who had taken the course from different professors, one might draw conclusions about the relative competence of the professors. Some histograms are presented with the independent variable along the vertical axis and the dependent variable along the horizontal axis. That format is less common than the one shown here.

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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} 4.2.3 Pareto Chart: The Pareto diagram is a special type of bar chart used to determine which problem to work on first to improve a process. An Italian economist named Vilfredo Pareto developed the Pareto chart in the late 1800s. It is based on what is now called the Pareto principle. Pareto found that 80% of Italy's wealth was held by only 20% of the people. This 80/20 rule is generally true for many things. For example, 80% of our problems are probably due to only 20% of the possible causes. The Pareto diagram allows us to separate the "vital few" from the "trivial many." This permits us to focus our time and resources where they will be most beneficial. The Pareto diagram can also be used to determine how often causes of problems occur. The problem or cause is listed on the x (horizontal axis). The frequency of occurrence or cost associated with each problem or cause is plotted on the y (vertical) axis. The problems or causes on the x-axis are listed in decreasing order. The problem or cause that happens most frequently or costs the most is listed first. This is usually the problem you want to work on first. The problem or cause that happens least frequently or costs the least is listed last. Example: The Pareto diagram in the figure shows the reasons for consumer complaints against U.S. airlines in 2002. Each bar on the chart represents the frequency with which each complaint was received. It is easy to see that the major complaint was for flight problems (cancellations, delays and other deviations from schedule). The second largest complaint was for customer service (rude or unhelpful employees, inadequate meals or cabin service, treatment of delayed passengers).
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} The line on the Pareto diagram is called a cumulative line. This line gives the cumulative percentage. Flight problems account for 21% of the complaints. Flight problems and customer service account for 40% of the complaints. The top three complaint categories account for 55% of the complaints. So, if the airlines want to reduce the number of complaints, they need to work on flight delays, customer service, and baggage problems.

4.2.4 Cause and Effect Diagram: Cause-and-effect diagrams are also called:
o o

Ishikawa diagrams (Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa, 1943) fishbone diagrams

Cause-and -effect diagrams do not have a statistical basis, but are excellent aids for problem solving and trouble-shooting Cause-and-effect diagrams can
o o

reveal important relationships among various variables and possible causes Provide additional insight into process behavior.

Procedure For Constructing a Cause-and-Effect Diagram: To construct a fishbone, start with stating the problem in the form of a question, such as 'Why is the help desk's abandon rate so high? Framing it as a 'why' question will help in brainstorming, as each root cause idea should answer the question. The team should agree on the statement of the problem and then place this question in a box at the 'head' of the fishbone. The rest of the fishbone then consists of one line drawn across the page, attached to the problem statement, and several lines, or 'bones,' coming out vertically from the main line. These branches are labeled with different categories. The categories you use are up to you to decide. There are a few standard choices: You should feel free to modify the categories for your project and subject matter.
Service Industries (The 4 Ps) Manufacturing Industries (The 6 Ms) Machines Methods Materials Measurements Mother Nature (Environment) Manpower (People) Process Steps (For Example) Determine Customers Advertise Product Incent Purchase Sell Product Ship Product Provide Upgrade

Policies Procedures People Plant/Technology

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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} Once you have the branches labeled, begin brainstorming possible causes and attach them to the appropriate branches. For each cause identified, continue to ask 'why does that happen?' and attach that information as another bone of the category branch. This will help get you to the true drivers of a problem. Once you have the fishbone completed, you are well on your way to understanding the root causes of your problem. It would be advisable to have your team prioritize in some manner the key causes identified on the fishbone. If necessary, you may also want to validate these prioritized few causes with a larger audience.

4.2.5 Scatter Diagram: The scatter diagram is another visual display of data. It shows the association between two variables acting continuously on the same item. The scatter diagram illustrates the strength of the correlation between the variables through the slope of a line. This correlation can point to, but does not prove, a causal relationship. Therefore, it is important not to rush to conclusions about the relationship between variables as there may be another variable that modifies the relationship. For example, analyzing a scatter diagram of the relationship between weight and height would lead one to believe that the two variables are related. This relationship, however, does not mean causality; for instance, while growing taller may cause one to weigh more, gaining weight does not necessarily indicate that one is growing taller. The scatter diagram is easy to use, but should be interpreted with caution as the scale may be too small to see the relationship between variables, or confounding factors may be involved. Scatter diagrams make the relationship between two continuous variables stand out visually on the page in a way that the raw data cannot. Scatter diagrams may be used in examining a cause-and-effect relationship between variable data (continuous measurement data). They can also show relationships between two effects to see if they might stem from a common cause or serve as surrogates for each other. They can also be used to examine the relationship between two causes.
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} Scatter diagrams are easy to construct: Step 1: Collect at least 40 paired data points: "paired" data are measures of both the cause being tested and its supposed effect at one point in time. Step 2: Draw a grid, with the "cause" on the horizontal axis and the "effect" on the vertical axis. Step 3: Determine the lowest and highest value of each variable and mark the axes accordingly. Step 4: Plot the paired points on the diagram. If there are multiple pairs with the same value, draw as many circles around the point as there are additional pairs with those same values. Step 5: Identify and classify the pattern of association using the graphs below of possible shapes and interpretations. Scatter Diagram Interpretation

Caution: Stratifying the data in different ways can make patterns appear or disappear. When experimenting with different stratifications and their effects on the scatter diagram, label how the data are stratified so the team can discuss the implications. Interpretation can be limited by the scale used. If the scale is too small and the points are compressed, then a pattern of correlation may appear differently. Determine the scale so that the points cover most of the range of both axes and both axes are about the same length. Be careful of the effects of confounding factors. Sometimes the correlation observed is due to some cause other than the one being studied. If a confounding factor is suspected, then stratify the data by it. If it is truly a confounding factor, then the relationship in the diagram will change significantly.
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} Avoid the temptation to draw a line roughly through the middle of the points. This can be misleading. A true regression line is determined mathematically. Consult a statistical expert or text prior to using a regression line. Scatter diagrams show relationships, but do not prove that one variable causes the other.

4.2.6 Control Charts: In general, control charts are used to plot production values and variation over time. These charts can then be analyzed to determine if changes in production values or variation are due to the inherent variability of the process or a specific correctable cause. Control charts for variables are fairly straightforward and can be quite useful in material production and construction situations. Four popular control (Montgomery, 1997): charts within the manufacturing industry are

Control Chart For Variables: In variable sampling, measurements are monitored as continuous variables. Because they retain and use actual measurement data, variable sampling plans retain more information per sample than do attribute sampling plans (Freeman and Grogan, 1998). This implies that compared to attribute sampling, it takes fewer samples to get the same information. Because of this, most statistical acceptance plans use variable sampling. Control Chart For Attributes: This chart is used when a number cannot easily represent the quality characteristic. Therefore, each item is classified as "conforming" or "nonconforming" to the particular specification for the quality characteristic being examined. These charts look similar to control charts for variables but are based on a binomial distribution instead of a normal distribution. Two of the most common attribute control charts are for fraction nonconforming and defects. Cumulative Sum Control Chart: A disadvantage of control charts for variables and attributes is that they only use data from the most recent measurement to draw conclusions about the process. This makes it quite
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} insensitive to shifts on the order of 1.5 standard deviations or less. The cumulative sum control chart is a more sensitive control chart that can use information from an entire set of points to draw conclusions about the process. Basically the cumulative sum (or CUSUM) chart plots the cumulative sum of measurement deviations from an average. Therefore, if an abnormal amount of measurements fall on only one side of the average this sum will grow and indicate an out-of-control condition. Exponentially Weighted Moving Average (EWMA) Control Chart: This chart is similar to the cumulative sum chart but instead of weighting each measurement the same, recent measurements are more influential because measurements are weighted exponentially based on when they were made. Beyond these, control charts begin to get more complex or are hybrids of more than one type.

4.2.6.1 Control Chart For Variables: Control charts for variables monitor characteristics that can be measured and have a continuous scale, such as height, weight, volume, or width. When an item is inspected, the variable being monitored is measured and recorded. For example, if we were producing candles, height might be an important variable. We could take samples of candles and measure their heights. Two of the most commonly used control charts for variables monitor both the central tendency of the data (the mean) and the variability of the data (either the standard deviation or the range). Note that each chart monitors a different type of information. When observed values go outside the control limits, the process is assumed not to be in control. Production is stopped, and employees attempt to identify the cause of the problem and correct it. Next we look at how these charts are developed. Mean (x-Bar) Charts:

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Range (R) Charts:

Using Mean and Range Charts Together: Mean and Range Charts are used to monitor different variables. The mean or x-bar chart measures the central tendency of the process, whereas the range chart measures the dispersion or variance of the process. Since both variables are important, it makes sense to monitor a process using both mean and range charts. It is possible to have a shift in the mean of the product but not a change in the dispersion.
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4.2.6.2 Control Charts For Attributes: Control charts for attributes are used to measure quality characteristics that are counted rather than measured. Attributes are discrete in nature and entail simple yes-or-no decisions. For example, this could be the number of nonfunctioning light bulbs, the proportion of broken eggs in a carton, the number of rotten apples, the number of scratches on a tile, or the number of complaints issued. Two of the most common types of control charts for attributes are p-charts and ccharts. P-charts are used to measure the proportion of items in a sample that are defective. Examples are the proportion of broken cookies in a batch and the proportion of cars produced with a misaligned fender. Pcharts are appropriate when both the number of defectives measured and the size of the total sample can be counted. A proportion can then be computed and used as the statistic of measurement. C-charts count the actual number of defects. For example, we can count the number of complaints from customers in a month, the number of bacteria on a Petri dish, or barnacles on the bottom of a
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} boat. However, we cannot compute the proportion of complaints from customers, the proportion of bacteria on a Petri dish, or the proportion of barnacles on the bottom of a boat. P - Charts:

C-Charts:

In general, as a process becomes more controlled, the upper and/or lower


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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} control limits can be decreased to reflect this. The general rule-of-thumb is to act when measurements exceed control limits. However, many companies have expanded on this and developed their own rules such as (Montgomery, 1997): o One or more points outside of the control limits o Two of three consecutive points outside the 2-s warning limits but still inside the control limits o Four of five consecutive points beyond the 1-s limits o A run of eight consecutive points on one side of the centerline o Six points in a row steadily increasing or decreasing o Fourteen points in a row alternating up and down o An unusual or non-random pattern in the data o One or more points near a warning or control limit

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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} 4.3 Process Optimization Tools: Process optimization is the discipline of adjusting a process so as to optimize some specified set of parameters without violating some constraint. The most common goals are minimizing cost, maximizing throughput, and/or efficiency. This is one of the major quantitative tools in industrial decision making. The goal of process optimization is to continuously improve the efficiency of existing business, production and development processes. There are some process optimization tools are discussed below: 4.3.1 SIPOC: The Six Sigma methodology follows several different process variables; SIPOC is just one of the variables used by Six Sigma. SIPOC is a high-level picture of the process and provides a visual image of how the process is servicing the customer The SIPOC stands for:
o o

S - Suppliers that provide input in your process. I - Input to define the material, service or information that is used by the process to product the outputs. P - Process that your team is improving; typically it is a defined sequence of activities that will add value to inputs to produce outputs for the customer. O - Outputs are considered the products, services, and information which are valuable to the customer. C - Customers that use the outputs that are produced by the entire process.

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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} 4.3.2 Correlation Tests: Correlation of two variables is a measure of the degree to which they vary together. More accurately, correlation is the co variation of standardized variables. In positive correlation, as one variable increases, so also does the other. In negative correlation, as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. Correlation can be visually displayed in a Scatter Diagram. Correlation is a descriptive statistic, as it simply describes data, telling you something about it. This is in contrast to inferential statistics. A correlation coefficient is a calculated number that indicates the degree of correlation between two variables: o Perfect positive correlation usually is calculated as a value of 1 (or 100%). o Perfect negative correlation usually is calculated as a value of -1. o A value of zero shows no correlation at all.

Persons Correlation

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4.3.3 Design Of Experiments (DOE):

4.3.4 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis:

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4.3.5 Quality Function Deployment (QFD):

The QFD process answers the following questions: What do customers wants? Are all the wants equally important? Will delivering perceived needs yield a competitive advantage? How can we change the product, service, or process? How does an engineering decision affect customer perception? How does an engineering change affect other technical descriptors? What is the relationship to parts deployment, process planning, and production planning? QFD reduces start-up costs. Reduces engineering design changes, and most important, leads to increased customer satisfaction.

4.3.6 Benchmarking:

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Figure: Role of BENCHMARKING in Implementing Best Practices

Basic Terms: Failure Mode: "The manner by which a failure is observed; it generally describes the way the failure occurs". Failure Effect: Immediate consequences of a failure on operation, function or functionality, or status of some item. Indenture Levels: An identifier for item complexity. Complexity increases as levels are closer to one. Local Effect: The Failure effect as it applies to the item under analysis. Next higher level effect: The Failure effect as it applies at the next higher indenture level. End Effect: The failure effect at the highest indenture level or total system. Failure Cause: Defects in design, process, quality, or part application, which are the underlying cause of the failure or which initiate a process which leads to failure.
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Severity: "The consequences of a failure mode. Severity considers the worst potential consequence of a failure, determined by the degree of injury, property damage, or system damage that could ultimately occur."

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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} 4.4 Elements of Six Sigma Infrastructure: Any major change initiative requires a clearly defined supporting infrastructure to drive the program. Infrastructure is defined as the underlying foundation and basic framework of personnel and supporting systems needed to support Six Sigma deployment activities. Because every part of a company participates in Six Sigma activities, the infrastructure must be clear, consistent, and comprehensive.

An effective infrastructure facilitates the development of the core competency that will establish and link Six Sigma project teams to (1) projects, (2) financial targets, and (3) the strategic plan. These project teams will be multifunctional and will need multi-functional support to execute the projects. If Six Sigma has any chance of being successful, the infrastructure will span from the CEO and his leadership team to business leaders and to people executing the projects. Remember we learned earlier that one of Kotter's eight stages of leader change is "Create a Guiding Coalition." Thus, there is the goal of the Six Sigma infrastructure. The infrastructure creates a strong network among the Executive Team, the Six Sigma Champions, the Belts, and the functions and businesses. This makes sense because the CEO's leadership team holds the accountability for executing the corporate strategic plan, and Six Sigma projects are instrumental in moving along the strategic plan. One learning challenge of a Six Sigma deployment involves training the Six Sigma project teams. The human resources on these teams must learn how
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} to work as a Six Sigma team. A new roadmap and a new set of tools, plus a more distinct focus on project accountability, add to the changes confronted by an organization when creating a Six Sigma environment. Equally more important and complex is the learning challenge of the senior executives. Teaching the leadership team to learn how to lead a team-based organization is essential to strategic and long-term success. Because executing the strategy is a clear responsibility to which the senior executives are accountable, it follows that becoming a dynamic team leader within the Six Sigma deployment will support the strategic efforts. Executing a good strategic plan entails the coordination of multifunctional internal activities. Senior executives must learn to deal with a multifunctional arena rather than the traditional functions. Hundreds of Six Sigma teams launched simultaneously is the outcome of an exemplary deployment of Six Sigma. Each of these teams need at minimum: 1. Clear purpose for the Six Sigma team structure. 2. Clear Six Sigma program expectations. 3. Six Sigma project charters. 4. Six Sigma infrastructure tracking the number of teams. 5. Centralized repository for project results. 6. Six Sigma team goals. 7. Six Sigma team reporting mechanism. 8. Rewards and recognition alignment. 9. Six Sigma training and development plan. 10. Six Sigma team performance measures. 11. Deployment management of Six Sigma teams. To accomplish all of the preceding requirements demands an extensive infrastructure with supporting systems. Preexisting resources are largely used to staff this infrastructure. Deploying a Six Sigma program, however, does not assume a requirement to add outside resources in a lot of new positions. The additional costs will usually have to do with the external consulting group you hire. For example, the only resource that Larry Bossidy added when he launched Six Sigma into Allied Signal was a corporate program leader. Larry brought in Richard Schroeder from ABB to drive the program. All the other resources for AlliedSignal's Six Sigma program already existed within the company. A small number of additional resources were added by the businesses as needed. Because accountability represents the hallmark of successful Six Sigma deployments, defining the Six Sigma infrastructure and staffing and training the infrastructure players should happen very early in the Six Sigma deployment. Training is essential since, as Larry Bossidy has advised in his
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} book, Confronting Reality, you must "Learn the guts of the initiative." He also adds that key members of the leadership team should learn the guts of the initiative. Early leadership training becomes a natural part of Six Sigma deployments to allow the program leaders to learn the guts of Six Sigma before the program gets too far along. Defining the Six Sigma infrastructure is a little tricky. There should be a small centralized unit to ensure consistency and cost effectiveness of Six Sigma activities across the businesses and functions. There should also be a decentralized process that allows each business and function to tailor the Six Sigma deployment to its special needs. There is a big difference in deploying Six Sigma into the Human Resources function when compared to deploying into product development and R&D. So, our recommended infrastructure has both centralized and decentralized elements in it.

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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} 4.5 Six Sigma Organizational Structure: Management strategies, such as TQC, TQM, and Six Sigma, are distinguished from each other by their underlying rationale and framework. As far as the corporate framework of Six Sigma is concerned, it embodies the five elements of top-level management commitment, training schemes, project team activities, measurement system and stakeholder involvement. Stakeholders include employees, owners, suppliers and customers. At the core of the framework is a formalized improvement strategy with the following five steps: define, measure, analyse, improve and control (DMAIC). The improvement strategy is based on training schemes, project team activities and measurement system. Top-level management commitment and stakeholder involvement are all inclusive in the framework. Without these two, the improvement strategy functions poorly. All five elements support the improvement strategy and improvement project teams. Most big companies operate in three parts: R&D, manufacturing, and nonmanufacturing service. Six Sigma can be introduced into each of these three parts separately. In fact, the color of Six Sigma could be different for each part. Six Sigma in the R&D part is often called Design for Six Sigma (DFSS), Manufacturing Six Sigma in manufacturing, and Transactional Six Sigma (TSS) in the non-manufacturing service sector. All five elements are necessary for each of the three different Six Sigma functions. However, the improvement methodology, DMAIC, could be modified in DFSS and TSS. These points will be explained in detail in Section Top-level Management Commitment and Stakeholder Involvement. 4.5.1 Top-Level Management Commitment: Launching Six Sigma in a company is a strategic management decision that needs to be initiated by top-level management. All the elements of the framework, as well as the formalized improvement strategy, need top-level management commitment for successful execution. Especially, without a strong commitment on the part of top-level management, the training program and project team activities are seldom successful. Although not directly active in the day-to-day improvement projects, the role of top-level management as leaders, project sponsors and advocates is crucial. Pragmatic management is required, not just lip service, as the top-level management commits itself and the company to drive the initiative for several years and into every corner of the company. There are numerous pragmatic ways for the CEO (chief executive officer) to manifest his commitment. First, in setting the vision and long-term or shortterm goal for Six Sigma, the CEO should play a direct role. Second, the CEO should allocate appropriate resources in order to implement such Six Sigma programs as training schemes, project team activities and measurement
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} system. Third, the CEO should regularly check the progress of the Six Sigma program to determine whether there are any problems which might hinder its success. He should listen to Six Sigma reports and make comments on the progress of Six Sigma. Fourth, he should hold a Six Sigma presentation seminar regularly, say twice a year, in which the results of the project team are presented and good results rewarded financially. Finally, he should hold a Champion Day regularly, say once in every other month, in which Champions (upper managers) are educated by specially invited speakers and he should discuss the progress of Six Sigma with the Champions. It is also the responsibility of top-level management to set stretch goals for the Six Sigma initiative. Stretch goals are tough and demanding, but are usually achievable. Some companies set the stretch goal for process performance at 6 sigma or 3.4 DPMO for all critical-to-customer characteristics. However, the goals can also be set incrementally, by stating instead the annual improvement rate in process performance. The industry standard is to reduce DPMO by 50% annually. 4.5.2 Stakeholder Involvement: Stakeholder involvement means that the hearts and minds of employees, suppliers, customers, owners and even society should be involved in the improvement methodology of Six Sigma for a company. In order to meet the goal set for improvements in process performance and to complete the improvement projects of a Six Sigma initiative, top-level management commitment is simply not enough. The company needs active support and direct involvement from stakeholders. Employees in a company constitute the most important group of stakeholders. They carry out the majority of improvement projects and must be actively involved. The Six Sigma management is built to ensure this involvement through various practices, such as training courses, project team activities and evaluation of process performance. Suppliers also need to be involved in a Six Sigma initiative. A Six Sigma company usually encourages its key suppliers to have their own Six Sigma programs. To support suppliers, it is common for Six Sigma companies to have suppliers sharing their performance data for the products purchased and to offer them participation at in-house training courses in Six Sigma. It is also common for Six Sigma companies to help small suppliers financially in pursuing Six Sigma programs by inviting them to share their experiences together in report sessions of project team activities. The reason for this type of involvement is to have the variation in the suppliers products transferred to the companys processes so that most of the process improvement projects carried out on suppliers processes would result in improvement of the performance.
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} Customers play key roles in a Six Sigma initiative. Customer satisfaction is one of the major objectives for a Six Sigma company. Customers should be involved in specific activities such as identifying the critical-to-customer (CTC) characteristics of the products and processes. CTC is a subset of CTQ from the viewpoint of the customers. Having identified the CTC requirements, the customers are also asked to specify the desired value of the characteristic, i.e., the target value and the definition of a defect for the characteristic, or the specification limits. This vital information is utilized in Six Sigma as a basis for measuring the performance of processes. In particular, the R&D part of a company should know the CTC requirements and should listen to the voice of customers (VOC) in order to reflect the VOC in developing new products. 4.5.3 The Six Sigma Organisational Structure: Six Sigma programs have their own organizational structure aside from the companys. Each level of the organizational hierarchy has its own role and responsibilities. The foundation of this organization is the Green Belt. Green Belt: An introductory participant and the foundation of the process. Green belts understand concepts of problem solving, data collection, data interpretation, variation, process capability, and cost analysis. Green Belts are expected to assist Black Belts on larger initiatives and lead smaller scale projects. The Six Sigma Green Belt operates in support of or under the supervision of a Six Sigma Black Belt, analyzes and solves quality problems and is involved in quality improvement projects. A Green Belt is someone with at least three years of work experience who wants to demonstrate his or her knowledge of Six Sigma tools and processes. Black Belt: Thoroughly trained individuals with expertise in using statistical tools and interpreting analytical results. Black Belts are expected to identify opportunities, lead initiatives, and coach Green Belts. Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigma methodology to specific projects. They devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They primarily focus on Six Sigma project execution, whereas Champions and Master Black Belts focus on identifying projects/functions for Six Sigma. Master Black Belt: Master Black Belts are Six Sigma Quality experts that are responsible for the strategic implementations within an organization. Master Black Belt main responsibilities include training and mentoring of Black Belts and Green Belts, helping to prioritize, select and charter high-impact projects.
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} Also Serve as part of a team that develops Lean Six Sigma consulting methods and ensures the appropriate methodology design and deployment of Lean events, including Six Sigma DMAIC projects. The Master Black Belts is generally a hard working and motivated individual. They are responsible for the training needs of Black Belts and other Six Sigma professionals. The ease with which they handle a situation proves their ability to take on more responsibilities. They are permanent change agents. Master Black Belts apply the Six Sigma methodology to achieve tangible results. They are able to identify the opportunities for Six Sigma project deployment. The Master Black Belt is a certified Black Belt. However, they have higher levels of skill with respect to advanced statistical analysis tools, communication skills, project management and coaching. Six Sigma project success is not dependent on the training and ability of employees; rather, it very much depends on the abilities of the Champions and Master Black Belt with a passion for improvement of the business using Six Sigma tools. Champion: The simplest way to explain the responsibility of the Champion is that of removal of roadblocks, which the Black Belts cannot handle alone. They are generally members of middle management and are responsible for the initiation of projects. They are responsible for mediating any issues between the Black Belts and top management. This allows the Black Belts to concentrate on their problem areas. The Champions propose as well as assess potential projects. Being in the middle management level, they are generally familiar with business opportunities and the need for improvement. They select projects which are crucial for the success of the business.

Additionally, they also see to it that project selection is in alignment with company objectives. They have to ensure that top management is aware of the relevance of the project. Champions help the Black Belts to concentrate on project problems and the development of new ideas, rather than Black Belts having to deal with top management in conflicting issues. At the same time, they do not interfere in the Black Belts operations, but provide appropriate support in the areas for potential improvement.
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339}

In the deployment of the program, financial factors also exist. The Six Sigma Champion has to ensure that the project implementation happens primarily for improvement. It may take some time to show the financial results, and thus may be criticized by top management, whose aim is financial results. Champions are ultimately accountable for the success of the project. Black Belts are not able to carry out the deployment and successful implementation alone. Provide support, resources and remove road-blocks. Champions have more in-depth understanding of the methods measurements and interpretation of process measurements. Steering Committee: Identifies projects / black belts; allocates resources; monitors progress; manages project portfolio; establishes implementation strategy and policies. It usually find where in the organisation, the opportunity exists. It identify the opportunities and then help black belts and other six sigma team members by providing all resources. It time by time, monitor all the activities and check whether the six sigma project is going smooth or not. If yes, then try to minimize that thread to eliminate maximization limit.

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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} 4.6 Three Steps to Successful Six Sigma Project Selections: Project selection is one of the most critical and challenging activities faced by Six Sigma companies. Most organizations are able to identify a host of project opportunities, but the difficulty arises in sizing and packaging those opportunities to create meaningful projects. To be successful, the project selection process must be well defined and disciplined. One process that has proven successful incorporates a three-step approach. 4.6.1 Step 1 Establish a Project Selection Steering Committee: A Project Selection Steering Committee should include managers who have been trained as Six Sigma Champions, as well as other key Six Sigma knowledge resources, such as the deployment Champion and Master Black Belts or Black Belts, who bring experience in determining the feasibility and manageability of projects under consideration. 4.6.2 Step 2 Generate Project Ideas: The frustrations, issues, problems and opportunities visible inside the company are key sources of potential projects. These ideas should be examined during a project selection workshop. Two weeks before the workshop, the project Champions each compile a list of project opportunities from their areas, keeping in mind that Six Sigma projects should align with the organizational strategy and be linked to core business issues. Using predefined guidelines, the opportunities are accompanied by supporting project rationale data including defect type, historical volumes and financial impact. The project Champions meet with their team members to identify which process improvements are beneficial to the business, customers and employees. To help generate viable project ideas, the project Champions should ask the following questions: 4.6.2.1 Defect Reduction: Is any scrap produced by the process? Is anything falling outside of the desired specifications? Where are high volumes of defects and/or rework occurring? Does the process have a high degree of variation? Where do inputs need controls in order to produce a consistent output? Can scientific adjustments to the process create robust changes?

4.6.2.2 Cycle Time Reduction: Are there any processes that rely on multiple hand-offs between individuals? Is the process producing less than expected?
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} Is the process requiring a lot of overtime? Is the process bogged down with computer/machine downtime?

4.6.2.3 Resource Consumption Reduction: Does the process experience high variation consumption? Is the process requiring more labor to do the job? in the material

Once identified, project information is summarized in a standardized quad chart format used to present to the steering committee.

4.6.3 Step 3 Assess and Prioritize Projects Using a Project Selection Matrix:
During the formal project selection workshop, all identified projects are reviewed together to determine integration opportunities and review expected benefits. Existing projects also are included in this review and all projects are then ranked to determine prioritization using a project selection matrix. Whether or not the project is a candidate for the DMAIC methodology is a key question to answer during the workshop. Lean, value stream mapping or Design for Six Sigma may provide a more suitable methodology for some of the projects. At the end of this process, Black Belt resources are assigned to projects based on the prioritization list. This project selection process provides a straightforward way to gather the appropriate data from all areas of the business, segregate by improvement categories and apply a rating for prioritization. The goal of any project
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{D-08-IN-314, D-08-IN-331, D-08-IN-337, D-08-IN-338, D-08-IN-339} selection process is to create a clear path to implementing process improvements that benefit the business as a whole.
Table : Project Selection Matrix Project Number 1 2
Project Description/Potential Project Title (X) Project Owner/Champion Project A Gary Brosi Project B Kim Glover

3
Project C

4
Project D

Project Characteristic (Y)


1. Is it likely that the project can be completed within six months? 2. Does the project represent a significant improvement in quality? 3. Does the project justify the deployment of a Six Sigma team? 4. Can the project support a minimum 2:1 ROI regardless of capital investment? 5. Does it appear a minimum of investment will be required to solve the problem? 6. Is the problem easily defined (the function, Y, the defect, Xs)? 7. Will success significantly improve customer satisfaction? 8. Is the process currently measured? 9. Is the process measurable? 10. Is it likely that the solution will be highly leverage-able? 11. Is the scope of the proposed project appropriate? 12. Does it appear that Six Sigma DMAIC is the right problem-solving approach? 13. Is success likely?

Priority 1-10 7 3

X Correlation with Y (1 = weak, 3 = moderate, 9 = strong) 3 -

10

3 3 6 4

3 9 3 6

9 3 9 3

7 8

9 9

3 3

Totals

483

321

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