REVIEWER IN SCIENCE 3rd Periodical Exam

I.

THERMAL ENERGY

 All matter is made up of small particles called ATOMS and MOLECULES.  KINETIC ENERGY --- average kinetic energy of the particles in an object.  HEAT --- the movement of thermal energy from a substance at a higher temperature to another at a lower temperature.  Heat is transferred in 3 ways: a. CONDUCTION ---transfer of heat without the movement of the matter itself. Metals --- good conductor of heat b. CONVECTION --- upward movement of a warm liquid or gas. Convection Currents --- upward currents of hot liquid or gas c. RADIATION --- heat is transferred even through empty space The rays of the sun travel in straight lines called Heat Rays

II.

SOURCES OF ENERGY b.) NON-RENEWABLE

 Two types: a.) RENEWABLE

 A. Non-Renewable Sources of Energy --- includes oil, natural gas, and coal. 1. OIL --- formed from the remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago in marine environment. Petroleum --- means rock oil or oil from earth Crude Oil --- smelly liquid whose color ranges from yellow to black Reservoirs --- underground areas where crude oil and oil are found. 2. NATURAL GAS --- composed of tiny bubbles of odorless gas. Its main ingredient is METHANE. Digesters --- machines that can produce natural gas. It turns organic materials (plants, animals, wastes) into gas. 3. COAL --- nonrenewable source because like oil and natural gas, it takes millions of years for it to be created. COAL is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock made up mostly of carbons and hydrocarbons.

Jorge Rabaja|1

 B. Renewable Sources of Energy --- derived through natural processes. Can be replenished constantly in a short period of time. They are better alternatives because they do not depend on fossil fuels, and do not harm earth.  Five most often used RENEWABLE ENERGY: 1. Biomass --- organic material made from plants and animals Biogas --- Biomass converted to usable forms of energy like methane gas, or transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel methane gas 2. Hydropower --- widely used renewable energy source to generate electricity 3. Geothermal energy --- heat from within the earth 4. Solar energy --- radiant energy from the sun that strikes the sun. Sun --- source of almost all the energy that is used on Earth Solar energy can be converted to electricity with the use of PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS Photovoltaic Cells --- solar cells that change sunlight directly into electricity. 5. Wind Energy --- comes from the moving air Wind --- moving air caused by uneven heating of the Earths surface by the sun

CHAPTER 11: CHANGES IN THE LITHOSPHERE

III. STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH 1. Lithosphere --- solid, rocky crust covering the entire planet 2. Hydrosphere --- made up of all water on Earth 3. Biosphere --- includes all life forms (Plants, animals, one-celled organism) 4. Atmosphere gaseous envelope surrounding the earth IV. COMPOSITIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH 1. Crust --- thin skin that covers the entire Earth. Two types:

a. Thin Oceanic Crust --- underlies the ocean basins b. Thicker Continental Crust --- underlies the continents 2. Mantle --- middle part of the interior of Earth. Located between the core and the crust. Geothermal Gradient --- steady increase of temperature with depth. Responsible for many rock behaviors which are used to divide the mantle into two different zones. 3. Core --- central part of Earth. Contains radioactive materials. Two Parts: a. Liquid Outer Core b. Solid Inner Core

Jorge Rabaja|2

V.

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH 1. Lithosphere --- part of the crust and the upper mantle 2. Asthenosphere --- lies below the Lithosphere. Contains hotter and softer rocks that flow like a lava 3. Mesosphere --- middle layer, found at the lowest part of the mantle. Below the asthenosphere. Magma is very hot and pressurized.

VI.

EVIDENCES OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

 Continental Drift Theory --- this proposed that the continents, which were once joined together in one super continent named PANGAEA, had split apart into smaller land masses.  Alfred Weneger --- German scientist who presented the Continental Drift Theory 1. From Fossils 2. From Rock Formations 3. From Climate Differences Glossopteris --- plant traces that were widely distributed in all the continents. They thrived only in subpolar climate and would have been difficult for it to survive in the separated continents of diff. climates.

VII.

FORMATION OF MOUNTAINS

 Mountain or Hill --- any part of the surface of Earth that rises high above the surrounding land Oregeny --- processes of mountain building. This include: a. Folding b. Faulting  Different Kinds of Mountains: 1. Folded Mountains --- formed when two plates collide head-on, and their edges crumble. Anticlines --- upward folds Synclines --- downward folds Folded mountains are the most common. Worlds longest mountain range are also Folded Mountains. Examples of Folded Mountains: Himalaya Mountains in Asia, Alps in Europe, Andes in South America, Rockies in North America, Urals in Russia. 2. Fault-Block Mountains --- formed when faults or cracks in the crust force some materials or blocks of rock either upward or downward. Examples: Grand Teton Mountains of Wyoming, Sierra Nevada Mountains in North America, Harz Mountain in Germany c. Upwarding d. Volcanic activity

Jorge Rabaja|3

3. Dome Mountains --- formed when a great amount of molten rocks (magma) pushes its way up under the crust. Dome --- rising magma looks like the top half of a sphere 4. Volcanic Mountains --- formed by the building up of molten material Examples: Mt. St. Helens in North America Marina Loa in Hawaii --- largest volcano on Earth which rests on the ocean floor 5000 m below sea level. Mt. Pinatubo

VIII.

ROCK FORMATIONS

 Rock --- earth materials made up of one or more minerals.  The Three Rock Groups: IGNEOUS | SEDIMENTARY | METAMORPHIC  Rock-Forming Minerals: SILICATES| CARBONATES| OXIDES| SULFATES| HALIDES 1. Silicates --- largest group of minerals. Compounds of SILICON and OXYGEN combined with other metals and non-metals 2. Carbonates --- composed of CARBON, OXYGEN, and some other elements Calcite --- most common carbonite 3. Oxides --- combinations of OXYGEN and some other elements 4. Sulfates --- composed of the sulfate ion and 1 or more other elements 5. Halides --- composed of a halogen ion and another element

IX.

IGNEOUS ROCK

 Latin word IGNEUS = fire  Formed from the cooling and hardening of magma from the crust of Earth.  TEXTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCK: Texture of Rocks --- provide clues that the diff rocks came from diff beginnings Rock Textures --- can be described by GRAIN SIZE and COLOR Grain Size --- size of the minerals or crystals that make up the texture of rocks Color --- less dependable as basis for describing rocks 1. Coarse --- texture of the rock with grains that are visible to the naked eye 2. Fine --- grains are not visible. Mineral Grains or Crystals --- flat, parallel, needle-like, or equal in every direction, like spheres or cubes. Granites --- have coarse grain size (used as construction material) Obsidian --- have very fine grain size (used for jewelry and art) Jorge Rabaja|4

 COMPOSITION: Igneous Rocks are divided into 2 in terms of composition: FELSIC | MAFIC 1. Felsic --- light-colored igneous rock; have high levels of silica Ex: Quarts, Feldspar Granite & Granodiorites --- best known frequently seen igneous rock containing 70% silica 2. Mafic --- rocks containing high levels of magnesium and ferric (iron-containing) minerals.  Intrusive Igneous Rocks --- formed from cooled and crystallized MAGMA that force its way into the surrounding unmelted rock masses deep in the Earth They are generally COARSE-GRAINED. Phanerites --- Igneous rocks with large mineral grains Plutons --- all masses of intrusive rocks whether small or large Batholith --- larger pluton network of igneous rocks. They are huge masses of intrusive igneous rock, usually GRANITE  Extrusive Igneous Rocks --- fine-grained rocks that are formed after the LAVA has cooled quickly Extrusive Igneous Rocks are commonly called VOLCANIC ROCKS Lava --- magma that is spewed out into the surface Volcanic Glass --- a natural glass that is formed by the quick cooling of molten lava which did not have time for formation of crystals FORMS OF VOLCANIC GLASS: 1. Pumice --- light-weight rock with lots of holes from escaped gases. Sometimes called GLASSY FROTH 2. Obsidian --- black or dark-colored glassy volcanic rock which is formed by super fast cooling 3. Porphyry --- mixed texture rock with large crystals suspended in a fine crystalline matrix Phenocrysts ---large crystals formed while magma is still below the Earths surface BASALTS --- MOST ABUNDANT EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK ON EARTH

X.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS--- made up of sediments which are loose particulate matter (clay, sand, gravel)  Comes from Latin word SEDIMENTUM = TO SETTLE OUT  Wind, Water, Ice --- agents that deposit withered sediments  LITHIFICATION --- process which sediments harden into sedimentary rocks

Jorge Rabaja|5

 Sedimentary Rocks are classified as: CLASTICS | NONCLASTICS 1. Clastics --- made up of fragments of rocks, minerals, and broken shells 2. Nonclastics --- deposited from solution or by organic process  COMPACTION --- generally caused by the weight of the overlying sediment  CEMENTATION --- occurs when compacted grains stick together

XI.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS --- formed from rocks that were originally another type and were changed into a different form  Greek words META and MORPH = TO TRANSFORM or CHANGE FORM  3 changes happen as a result of METAMORPHISM: 1. Arrangement of mineral grains 2. Enlargement of crystals 3. Change in the chemistry of rock SUBJECTING THE ROCK TO HIGH TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE --- will cause #1 (Arrangement of mineral grains) and #2 (Enlargement of Crystals) RECOMBINATION OF ELEMENTS ---result to #3 (Change in the chemistry of the rock)  Transformation of diff rock types to metamorphic rocks can be attributed to 3 main forces: 1. Internal heat from the Earth 2. Weight of overlying rock 3. Horizontal pressures from rocks  SEVERAL WAYS HOW METAMORPHIC ROCKS ARE FORMED: 1. Contact Metamorphism --- igneous intrusion of magma heats up SURROUNDING ROCK 2. Hydrothermal Metamorphism --- common in MID-OCEAN RIDGES 3. Regional Metamorphism --- a chunk of strata originally at the surface becomes deeply buried and subjected to squeezing horizontal stresses 4. Burial Metamorphism --- results to a low pressure, low temp changes in the upper crust.  2 Categories of Metamorphic Rocks: FOLIATED| NONFOLIATED 1. Foliated Rocks--- strongly-bonded 2. Nonfoliated Rocks --- massive and lacks bonding

XII.

ROCK CYCLE --- a cycle of transformation of an existing rock from HEAT and PRESSURE.  Rock cycle is affected by 3 environmental conditions: 1. Heat 2. Pressure 3. Weathering

Jorge Rabaja|6

XIII.

SOIL FORMATION  SOIL --- covers most land surfaces. Not a living entity but supports all plant and animal life.  Soil --- not only an accumulation of weathered debris but also a combination of mineral and oceanic matter, water, and air  Regolith --- layer of rock and mineral fragments produced by WAETHERING, covers the land surface of the earth, with few exceptions.  SOIL TEXTURE AND STUCTURE Soil Texture --- proportions of diff particle sizes. Loam Soils --- no single particle size dominates over the other two. Best suited for plant life. Soil Structure --- another essential factor to consider bec it influences the ease of soil cultivation as well as the susceptibility of soil to erosion.  FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION: 1. Parent Material --- source of the weathered mineral matter from which soils develop 2. Climate --- includes elements like temperature and precipitation, has the STRONGEST IMPACT on SOIL FORMATION. 3. Time --- essential element that strongly influences soil formation 4. Plants and Animals --- play an important role in soil formation. Soil fertility depends in part on the presence of organic matter. 5. Slope --- has a great effect on the amount of erosion and water content of soil.  SOIL HORIZONS --- refers to 3 layers of the soil, commonly labeled as A, B, C. The 3 horizons are not always found in the soil 1. A horizon --- includes the surface and horizon which is a zone of leaching and oxidation. Where minerals are dissolved 2. B horizon --- middle horizon which is described as a zone of accumulation. Where ions are carried down by infiltrating rain water. 3. C horizon --- bottom horizon; which is the zone of unconsolidated weathered original rock  TYPES OF SOIL: Pedalfer | Pedocal | Laterite 1. Pedalfer --- Greek word PEDON = SOIL and the cheml symbols Al (Aluminum) and Fe (Iron). --- usually formed in wet environments 2. Pedocal --- Greek word PEDON = SOIL + the 1st 3 letters of Calcite --- found in dry and semi-arid climates Caliche/Hard Pan --- a hard layer formed in arid places where water evaporates and calcites precipitates in the B horizon 3. Laterite --- found in places with hot, wet tropical climates. High in organic matter. Jorge Rabaja|7

XIV.

EARTHQUAKE --- vibration of the earth hat occurs when pieces of the lithosphere suddenly shift  Hypocenter --- The focus. The point at which the slip starts  Epicenter --- point on the surface directly above the hypocenter  Elastic Rebound Theory --- stresses in the crust near a fault deforms the rocks.  Fault --- fracture in a plane by the crust where a slip between the 2 plates has taken place  Fault Plane --- used to represent an actual fault or a section of a fault  Fault Line --- the intersection of a fault plane with the Earths surface along which a crack takes place  Two Types of Seismic Waves: Body Waves| Surface Waves

1. Body Waves --- travel through the interior of earth. They originate from the hypocenter a. P Waves --- (push-pull or compressional waves) --- fastest seismic waves travelling at about 5 km/s b. S Waves --- transverse waves that cause a shearing, side-to-side motion perpendicular o their direction of travel 2. Surface Waves --- travel only within the top surface layers (Love and Rayleigh Waves are responsible for strong destructive earthquakes) a. Love Waves --- produce motion that is perpendicular to the direction of wave travel in a horizontal orientation only b. Rayleigh Waves --- produce a rolling motion like the sea waves.  Magnitude ---measured value of the size of an earthquake Ritcher-Magnitude Scale --- open-ended scale, used to determine MAGNITUDE of earthquakes.  Intensity --- measures the strength of shaking produced by an earthquake at a certain location Giuseppe Mercalli --- developed the 1st intensity scale in 1902  PHILVOLCS --- Philippine Institute of Volcanology ang Seismology

Jorge Rabaja|8