3a6 Heat Transfer

1 Cambridge University Engineering Department Engineering Tripos Part IIA
3A6: Heat and Mass Transfer
Convective Heat Transfer

By N. Swaminathan
Lent 2009
Course Objectives: understand the principles of convective heat transfer - interplay between uid mechanics and thermodynamics1 understand and appreciate the richness of the physics involved learn to analyse heat transfer problems via control volume and scale analyses learn to use convective heat transfer correlations apply these to heat exchanger calculation
It is a good idea to read your IB Heat transfer - Lab. handout
Contents
1 Introduction 5 1.1 Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2 Types of Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3 Equivalent electrical resistance for convection . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2 Principles of Convection 2.1 Mass Conservation . . . . . . 2.2 Momentum Conservation . . . 2.3 Thermal Energy Conservation 2.4 Boundary Layer Equations . . 2.5 Scale Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 11 12 13 14 16 21 21 22 35 41 42 48 50
3 Forced convection 3.1 Laminar Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 External ows Flat Plate Case 3.1.2 Internal ows . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 External ows . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Internal ows . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Non-constant Fluid Properties . . . . .
4 Heat exchanger 53 4.1 Heat Exchanger Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 4.1.1 LMTD method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 4.1.2 NTU method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5 Natural convection 5.1 Laminar Cases - External Convection . . 5.1.1 Scale analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Integral approach . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Uniform wall heat ux . . . . . . 5.1.4 Inclined walls . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Laminar Cases - Convection in Enclosures 5.2.1 Semiinnite size . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Finite size . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Mixed Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Effect of Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 61 62 64 65 66 66 67 69 71 72
4 6 Convection with Phase change 6.1 Boiling Regimes . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Laminar lm condensation 6.2.2 Scale analysis . . . . . . . 7 Appendix
CONTENTS
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Chapter 1 Introduction
In solids, conduction is the sole mechanism for energy transport. This mechanism is govened by the process of diffusion from high temperature to low temperature regions, which is a microscopic process and it is because of random vibration of molecules and the movement of free electrons. Fluids are usually set in motion and thus conduction alone occurs in them only in special circumstances such as stagnant uid. The moving uid particles carry heat in the form of internal energy and this mode of heat transfer is called convection which involves bulk motion. The convective heat transfer usually occurs at the boundaries (interface separting phases) and thus they appears as boundary condition in the analysis of heat transfer problems. You may have already seen this in some heat conduction problems, for example ns. Convective heat transfer is very common in engineering and in common dayto-day situations. In the current climate of energy economics, we strive hard to minimise energy losses, however small it may be, by all possible ways. In practical terms, the rate of energy loss is important and engineers are constantly faced with a challenging question: What is the rate of heat transfer required to achieve a given objective efficiently? Objective can be different in different applications. For example, see Fig. 1.1: Chip cooling: the temperature of electronic chip is to be kept below a critical value for its normal operation Turbine Blade cooling: Surface temperature need to be maintained well below a critical temperature Why and how condensation occur? - important for condenser design Industrial and residential heat exchangers Boiling water for a cuppo - pool boiling Catalytic converters - will be discussed in detail in mass transfer part 5
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Convection FINS
Conduction CAP
(a)
CHIP BASE
HOT COLD FLUID Forced Convection
CAP CHIP
(b)
BASE
Figure 1.1: Typical applications involving heat transfer.In (a) heat is conducted away from the chip and is lost to the surrounding via ns by natural convection. In (b) the cooling of the chip is by forced convection. In (c) and (d) the turbine blade is cooled by forced convection. In (d) the heat transfer from the warm room air to the cold window pane occurs by natural convection.
1.1. APPROXIMATIONS
Types of convection:
1. forced convection: the bulk motion of the uid is caused by external means such as pumps, fans, vehicle movement, etc., see Fig. 1.1b, c and d. 2. natural or free convection: the uid motion arises because of external force elds, known as body forces (see Fig. 1.1a and e). In this part, we study convective heat transfer by applying the laws of continuum uid mechanics and thermodynamics. The background on thermodynamics acquired from IA/IB and 3A5 modules are adequate. The laws of continuum uid mechanics are briey discussed in the next chapter. In the subsequent chapters, heat transfer problems with additional complexities are introduced gradually.
1.1 Approximations
The following approximations apply to our analysis with exceptions clearly noted. 1. The uid is Newtonian and its transport properties are constant. 2. The uid density varies only with temperature - strictly valid for airow velocity up to 100 m/sec at room temperature. Compressibility effects become important beyond this speed. 3. The heat transport and the uid ow processes are steady. 4. Newtons relationship: Q = hAT
applies, where Q is the heat transfer rate (watt - W), h is the heat transfer coefcient also known as conductance per unit area and time (W m2 K1 ), A is the surface area available for heat transfer and T is a characteristic temperature difference (K). The heat transfer coefcient is not a constant but depends on many parameters describing the uid ow, heat transport and also temperature. The temperature dependence mainly comes if the uid properties vary strongly with temperature as in liquids and liquid metals (used in nuclear reactors).
1.2 Types of Flows

Two types (1) External and (2) Internal. Let us revist the blade cooling problem to highlight important aspects.
8 .
T U
x Tw L
Heat conducted into uid = Heat convected away f A T y = h A (Tw T )

y=0
= h =
f (T /y)y=0 f , (Tw T ) t
(1.1)
f is the thermal conductivity of the uid (W m1 K1 ) t is the thermal boundary layer thickness Commonly, h is presented via a non-dimensional number called Nusselt number, which may be interpreted as the ratio of heat transfer rate by convection to a notional heat transfer rate which could occur if conduction were the only possible
1.2. TYPES OF FLOWS

mechanism, ie., Nusselt number N ut = convection hAT hL = = conduction f A(T /t ) f t L ,
where L is an appropriate length scale. The principles of uid mechanics, especially boundary layers, are required to determine t /L. This forms the basis for most of our analysis in the subsequent chapters.
thermal boundary layer thickness, t , is important in convective heat transfer A relationship similar to Eq. (1.1) can be shown for internal ows and natural convection.
Pipe Flow
Heat Exchanger Hot
Natural Convec.
g T < T s cold
10
1.3 Equivalent electrical resistance for convection

Q
Ts T = QR
R=
1 hA T Q = 1 hA
= R =
The principles of serial and parallel resistances also apply here.
Chapter 2 Principles of Convection

In the continuum approach, the laws of mechanics and thermodynamics applied to a medium (solid or uid) inside an appropriately selected control volume provide the governing equations, which are (1) mass conservation, (2) momentum conservation and (3) energy conservation. To illustrate the method of obtaining these equations, let us consider a control volume of size dx dy dz as in Fig. 2.1. The cartesian
y, v v + dy u u + dx v x, u u dx x v dy y
Figure 2.1: Control volume in cartesian coordinate system shown for a 2D case coordinates are x, y and z with u, v and w as the corresponding uid velocities. The uid density is .
2.1 Mass Conservation

Figure 2.1 shows mass uxes (mass ow rate per unit area; kg m2 s1 ) coming into and leaving the control volume in x and y directions. We also assume that there is no mass addition or consumption inside the control volume. Thus, rate of change of mass in the control volume = (mass in mass out)
u (dx dy dz) = u(dy dz) u + dx (dy dz) + t x

net rate of mass ow in x direction
u v w + + + = 0, t x y z 11
(2.1)
12
CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF CONVECTION
with t denoting time. This equation is known as continuity equation, which can also be written as D ui = 0. + Dt xi The symbol D/Dt,which is called substantial derivative, is D + ui , Dt t xi i = 1, 2 and 3 (for 3D)
with the repeated index implying summation over it (this is called Einstein notation). u1 , u2 and u3 are the velocities in x (x1 ), y (x2 ) and z (x3 ) directions. If the uid is incompressible ( = const.) then the continuity equation becomes ui = 0. xi We will use the above equation in 2D form for our analysis: u v + =0 x y (2.3) (2.2)
2.2 Momentum Conservation

This conservation law is essentially an extension of Newtons second law of motion. The reformulation of this law for a uid states that the sum of all forces must equal the rate of change of momentum of the uid mass under consideration (see Fig. 2.1). This gives u dx dy dz = t mu
in out
mu
+
k
k Fx ,
k for the forces acting in x-direction. The x forces, Fx , acting on the uid element include the pressure p, force, the shear, , forces due to viscous effects and the body forces such as gravity, g, electric, magnetic forces, etc. The forces acting in the coordinate direction is usually taken to be positive. Now the above equation for the balance of forces acting in the x direction of Fig. 2.1 (2D case) becomes
u = t
uu vu + x y
p xx xy + + + gx x x y
(2.4)
For an incompressible and Newtonian uid, the shear stress is given by (recall from your IA and IB modules on thermouids) xy = yx = u v + y x ,
where is the dynamic viscosity of the uid. Now, Eq. (2.4) becomes Dui p 2 ui = + + gi , Dt xi xj xj (2.5)
2.3. THERMAL ENERGY CONSERVATION
13
after using Eq. (2.1). This equation is the momenutm equation and for 2D this equation in component form is x component : y component : u u u 1 p 2u 2u +u +v = + 2 + 2 + gx , (2.6) t x y x x y 2 v v 1 p v 2v v +u +v = + 2 + 2 + gy . (2.7) t x y y x y
gx and gy are body forces acting in the x and y direction respectively. The kinematic viscosity of the uid is /. Some points to note 1. Three unknowns (u, v and p) and three equations, Eqs. (2.3), (2.6) and (2.7) - there will be a unique solution 2. Temperature can be obtained by solving the energy equation after calculating ow elds 3. One should note that the density and uid properties are assumed to be constant, which is a reasonably good approximation for liquids with moderate temperature variation. This approximation is also good for gases when the thermodynamic pressure variation is small which is the case at moderate velocities. If the uid properties are allowed to vary with temperature then one is forced to include the energy equation along with the above three equations in the analysis. The energy equation is derived next.
2.3 Thermal Energy Conservation

The rst law of thermodynamics can be applied to the uid inside the control volume shown in Fig. 2.1 to obtain an equation for the total energy (kinetic energy + thermal energy) conservation, which can be used to get thermal energy conservation equation. This tedious exercise is carried out in Appendix2.0 for those interested. In the following, we shall obtain the temperature equation, Eq. (2.9), simply considering the balance of thermal energy in a control volume as shown in Fig. 2.2.
ui net viscous workdone = ij xj v u v u1 + 22 + 212 + = 11 x y y x
y, v
dy u cp T qx dx u cp T +
u cp T dx x
qx +
qx dx x T qx = f A x, u x
Figure 2.2: Control volume for energy conservation.
14
Since we exclude the compressibility effects, the workdone by pressure forces are neglected in this gure, but the wordone by viscous forces are included because this can be substantial in the case of viscous uids such as oils. Balancing the energy across the control volume, one gets: Rate of change = Ein Eout + Energy addition via workdone,
Applying this to Fig. 2.2, one gets ui dx dy xj (2.8) After using Eq. (2.1) for 2D and treating the uid to be incompressible with constant properties, one gets dx dy dx dy + ij T T 2T 2T T +u +v = 2 + 2 + , t x y x y (2.9) cp T = t u cp T v cp T qx qy + + + x y x y
where is the viscous dissipation, obtained by carefully expanding ij in the workdone by the viscous forces noted in Fig. 2.2, given by =2 u x
2
v y
u v + y x
The thermal diffusivity (m2 s1 ) of the uid is = f /cp . An interesting point to note here is, when u = v = 0, that is the uid is at complete rest, the energy equation simply reduces to the unsteady heat conduction equation in 2D: T 2T 2T = 2 + 2. t x y
2.4 Boundary Layer Equations

A at plate shown in Fig. 2.3 is oriented along x axis and the free stream velocity is U , which becomes zero on the plate because of no-slip condition. Also the free stream temperature T becomes Tw on the plate. These gradual changes of velocity and temperature occur over thin regions called boundary layers. There are two boundary layers; one is related to the uid dynamics and a second one related to the thermal eld as in Fig. 2.3. The equations given by Eqs. (2.3), (2.6), (2.7) and (2.9) generally govern this type of ows and these equations can be simplied further. The dimensionless forms of the governing equations are given in the Appendix 2.1 and it also identies a number of nondimensional parameters, out of which Reynolds number, Re, and Prandtl number, P r are the most important parameters. Let be the charactistics length along y for variation of u from U to zero and also << L. We also take U , L and as representative quantities respectively for
2.4. BOUNDARY LAYER EQUATIONS

y
T
15
Figure 2.3: Development of velocity and thermal boundary layers over a at plate immersed in a uid with P r < 1 and owing at U at far stream. u, the distance along the plate, x, and y. From the continuity equation, Eq. (2.3), one gets U v . L Now, the x momentum equation, Eq. (2.6), becomes u u u 1 p 2u +v = + 2, x y x y (2.10)
since 2 u/x2 (U /L2 ) which is much smaller than 2 u/y 2 (U / 2 ) when << L. The nondimensional form of y momentum equation given in the appendix yields p/y 0, when the Reynolds number is large. This condition implies that p(x, y) = p(x) only. This means that dp/dx = dp /dx, which simplies Eq. (2.10) as u u 1 dp 2u u +v = + 2. x y dx y (2.11)
If one applies the Bernoullie equation for the ow outside the boundary layer then dp /dx can be related to dU /dx, which is zero for a plane wall case (U = U in Fig. 2.3) - boundary layer with zero pressure gradient. In the energy equation, Eq. (2.9), 2T T 2 2 x L This gives u T T 2T +v = 2. x y y (2.12) 2T T 2 . 2 y T
Now, the heat transfer analysis is reduced to nding solutions of u, v and T via Eqs. (2.3), (2.11) and (2.12). This can be achieved using three different methodologies, viz., (i) dimensional analysis, (ii) integral approach, and (iii) similarity

t
Tw
16
solution methods. The method of dimensional analysis (recall your rst year experiments on dimensional analysis) is based on scale analysis. This method of analysis is simple but yet powerful giving order of magnitude for quantities of interest and it also identies important dimensionless groups. The integral methods are next in the order of accuracy of solutions and its simplicity. The similarity solution method is the most accurate and rigorous mathematical approach. Advanced mathematics are required for similarity analysis and thus we shall keep our discussion on this method to a bare minimum and borrow the results for our purpose. Some prelude to these results are noted in Appendix2.2. In this module, we will use the control volume analysis predominantly and the scale analysis to get physical understanding. We also make use of integral methods when required.
2.5 Scale Analysis

The scale analysis is nothing but order of magnitude analysis and this method gives only an estimate. But it can be done on the back of an envelop yielding many important rst hand information about the physics of the problem. This method is already used in the brief boundary layer analysis presented above. The following rules are dened to guide us in the scale analysis. (I) Let A = B + C 1. If B and C are O(B) and O(C) then the order of magnitude of A is O(B), if O(B) > O(C). The order of magnitude of the sum or difference is dictated by the dominant term - the dominant term rule. 2. If B and C are of the same order of magnitude then O(A) O(B) O(C). (II) If A = B C, then O(A) O(B) O(C). A similar rule applies for division. (III) Identify the region of interest. This allows us to choose a length scale for the analysis. The symbol O is read as the order of magnitude. If A = 1 then A is said to be order unity or O(A) O(1); if A = 40, then O(A) O(10). Let us consider a laminar ow over a at plate as in Fig. 2.3 with an objective to nd the amount of heat transferred from the plate to the uid. Let us take (Tw T ) T , which is unkown at this stage and the temperature gradient scales as (T /t ). From Eq. (1.1) the Nusselt number is Nu = (T /y)y=0 L hL = L , f Tw T t
which implies that the nondimensional heat transfer coefcient, thus the normalised convective heat transfer, is inversely proportional to t .
2.5. SCALE ANALYSIS
17
Now we like to see how the thermal boundary layer thickness, t , scales. Taking u U , v/ U/L and using Eq. (2.11), u u u 1 dp 2u +v = + 2, x y dx y
U 2 /L U 2 /L U/ 2
1 L Re
( is taken to be O(1))
The scaling for T can be found using the temperature equation u T T + v x y = 2T y 2 (2.13)
The scales for u and v will depend on the relative size of and T and thus there are two cases. Case 1 :
y T T U Pr 1 momentum diffusion is slower than thermal diffusion u and v in the thermal Blayer u uU v L u, T U T T 2 L T convection conduction
T P r1/2 ReL 1/2 L
(2.14) (2.15)
N u P r1/2 ReL 1/2 . Case 2 :

y T T U Pr 1 thermal diffusion is slower than momentum diffusion u and v in the thermal Blayer u U u T v T L u, T
T T U T 2 L T convection conduction
T P r1/3 ReL 1/2 L
(2.16) (2.17)
N u P r1/3 ReL 1/2 .
18
Problem 2.1: Conduct a scale analysis for the case of heat transfer in laminar pipe ow and nd the conditions under which the Nusselt number is constant. (Detailed analysis of heat transfer in pipe ow is discussed in section 3.1.2).
Solution:
fully developed region T D y,v x, u
entrance region
Figure 2.4: Thermal boundary layer development in a pipe ow The energy equation is u T T +v = x r 1 r r r T r + 2T x2 ,
take v 0, ie., the ow is hydrodynamically fully developed. The heat transfer rate per unit area through the wall is qw = U cp T T qw U cp .
We also take u U and D as appropriate length scale. This gives T T qw . x D U cp D Now the energy equation gives U But h = qw /T = hD f 1+ hD U cp D 1+ hD f U D . qw U cp D qw T + , D2 U cp D2
Thus, to have N u hD/f 1, one requires U D/ 1 (the dominant term rule). From the above analysis, one can write the following conditions for N u to be constant
2.5. SCALE ANALYSIS

1. v 0 = the ow is hydrodynamically fully developed, 2. the ow thermally fully developed, since we took T /r T /D.
19
3. In the entrance region the above result is invalid because T /r T /T and T D. 4. UD 1.
20
Chapter 3 Forced convection

In forced convection the ow is induced by external means and the inertial forces are large compared to the body forces in Eqs. (2.6) and (2.7), and hence, the body forces can be neglected. Also, the ow velocity is taken to be moderate and thus the viscous dissipation term in the energy equation, Eq. (2.9), can be neglected. Under these circumstances, the Nusselt number becomes N u = G1 (x+ , Re, P r, dp+ /dx+ ) and the skin friction coefcient Cf = F1 (x+ , Re, dp+ /dx+ ) (see Appendix 2.2) As it is noted in the previous chapter, the pressure gradient is zero for the plane wall case. Thus N u depends only on x+ , Re and P r. Our objective here is to nd N u and Cf , which are related to one another as we will see later. The forced convection can occur in laminar or turbulent ows, which can be external (ow over a car, for example) or internal (ow in a pipe, for example) ows. We shall analyse typical cases for each of these. The following boundary layer equations govern these ows. We shall consider steady two-dimensional ows which can also be axisymmetric (such as pipe ows). The ow is taken to be incompressible (constant density) and the uid properties are constant. u v mass : + = 0, (3.1) x y momemtum : u energy : u u 1 dp 2u +v = + 2, x y dx y u T T 2T +v = 2, x y y (3.2) (3.3)
The scale analysis1 of these equations presented in section 2.5 identied dependence of N u on Re and P r. Exact forms of these solutions depend on the boundary conditions.
3.1 Laminar Flows

We consider the heat exchange between a surface and a laminar uid ow. The external and internal ows are considered separately. An example for internal ow
2 The skin friction coefcient from Eq. (7.19) is Cf = 2w /U , w = (u/y)y=0 2 U / U ReL /L. Thus, w U / ReL Cf 1/ Re. 1
21
22
CHAPTER 3. FORCED CONVECTION
with heat transfer is the ow through tubes in a heat exchanger such as car radiator. The heat transfer to the air owing over the radiator falls into the external ow category. The analysis of these two types are different because of the difference in the nature of the ow involved. However, the basic methodology remains the same.
3.1.1 External ows Flat Plate Case

The heat transfer in external ows are concentrated in the boundary layer. Thus, solution to boundary layer equations are sufcent to obtain the heat transfer rate. There are some exceptions to this - recirculating ow involving ow separation is a typical example. Analysis of such problem are complex and beyond the level of this module. To exposition the analysis, let us consider a plane wall in Fig. 2.3 again,
U Y B C E
Figure 3.1: Control volume for the derivation of displacement, momentum and energy thicknesses of the boundary layer. redrawn as Fig. 3.1. We also consider the surface temperature, Ts , to be constant. The uid velocity is U = U and its temperature is T . The heat transfer rate is Q = h A (Ts T ), where the convective heat transfer coefcient h depends on T /y at the wall. One needs to know the temperature distribution to obtain the temperature gradient at the wall and thus the energy equation should be solved. For this, various quantities are normalised as below: u= u ; U v= v ; U x= x ; L y= y L and = T Ts . T Ts
Now, the boundary layer equations and their boundary conditions become mass : momen. : energy : u v u + = 0, x y u u 1 2u +v = , x y Re y 2 BC : u( = 0) = 0; y (3.4) u( ) = 1 y (3.5) BC : ( = 0) = 0; y ( ) = 1 y
(3.6) For P r = 1, Eqs. (3.5) and (3.6) and their boundary conditions are identitical implying that their solutions are the same. This means that u and are identical.
1 2 u + v = , x y Re P r y 2
u(y)
T Ts T Ts
(y)
A D F
3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS
23
Physically, this implies that the mechanisms for momentum and heat transfers are analogous. This analogy is called Reynolds analogy, which implies that the heat transfer can be obtained from the knowledge of momemtum transfer or skin friction coefcient. It is to be noted that P r = 1 is required for the above analogy to be valid. However, advanced analyses show that such analogy exists for P r = 1 also, which is called Reynolds-Colburn analogy. Experimental results offer strong support to this analogy.1 Now, we learn how to obtain the skin friction coefcient. Momentum transfer Integrating Eq. (3.1) along y upto Y in Fig. 3.1, one gets v= From Eq. (3.2) x
Y 0
u dy
0
since v(0) = 0.
(3.7)
u2 dy + uv|Y = 0
u y
,
0
after using Eq. (3.7) and allowing Y = d 2 U dx

0
u U
u U
dy =
u y
,
0
(3.8)
which is the integral form of the momentum conservation. Now, let us consider the control volume ABEF shown in Fig. 3.1:

The mass ow across AB =

0
U dy and across EF =
0
u dy.
Thus the mass ow rate across BE is = mass ow across AB - mass ow across EF.

=
0
( U u) dy
= U
0
u U
dy.
Equating this to U , the displacement thickness is dened as =

0
u U
dy,
for =
(3.9)
By considering the momentum owing in and out of the control volume,

2 U 1 = 0 2 U dy 0 across EF
u2 dy U U
0
1
across BE
u U
dy
across AB
the momentum thickness is dened as
=
1
1 =
0
u U
u U
dy,
for =
(3.10)
such analogy for mass transfer also exsists
24 Using this 1 , Eq. (3.8) can be written as
d1 (u/y)0 s = = , 2 2 dx U U = d1 Cf,x = , dx 2 if Cf,x = 2s . 2 U (3.11)
This equation states that the rate of increase of momentum decit in the boundary layer is one half the skin friction coefcient. To obtain the skin friction coefcient by integrating Eq. (3.11), let us take u y y =a+b +c U
2
+d
(3.12)
where is the boundary layer thickness, which is different from 1 and . The boundary layer thickness is dened as the distance where u U . The four constants in Eq. (3.12) are obtained using the boundary conditions u = 0 at y = 0, u = 0 at y = , y 2u = 0 at y = 0, y 2 u = U at y = , to have continuous u since both u and v are zero in Eq. (3.2).
Now, the velocity varition becomes u 3 y 1 y = U 2 2 Using this in Eqs. (3.10) and (3.11), one obtains 1 = 39 Cf,x 3 , and = 280 2 2 U (3.14)
3
(3.13)
d 140 = dx 13 U By integrating the last part of the above equation, one obtains 4.64 ; = x Rex and 0.646 Cf,x = Rex
which are very close to the exact solutions: 5 = ; x Rex and 0.664 Cf,x = . Rex (3.15)
A point to note here is that the scale analysis presented earlier gives the essential features of the above solutions. To establish the direct relationship between Cf,x and the heat transfer coefcient h, one need to know how h varies. This is done next.
3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS

Heat transfer
25
Integrating the temperature equation, Eq. (3.3), along y upto Y in Fig. 3.1, one gets x
Y 0
u T dy + v T |Y = 0
T y
,
0
after using Eq.(3.7) and denition and allowing Y = d U (Ts T ) dx

0
u (1 ) dy = U
T y
.
0
(3.16)
This equation is the integral form of the energy equation. This is worked out as problem 3.0 (in this chapter) using integral energy balance. By considering the thermal energy owing in and out of the control volume,
U cp, e =
0
U cp, dy
across AB
ucp dy
across EF
cp, U
0
u 1 U
dy
across BE
the energy thickness is dened as u (1 ) dy, for constant and cp ; = 1 U 0 (3.17) Using this e in Eq. (3.16) = e = de (T /y)0 (/y)0 h = = = , dx U (Ts T ) U U cp, = de = Stx , dx if Stx = h . U cp, (3.18)
Stx is called Stanton number which is the ratio of heat transfer per unit area per unit temperature difference to the rate of heat capacity transport by the ow. The Stanton number is also called modied Nusselt number and St = Nu . Re P r
Now, as we noted earlier, for P r = 1 , u/U and will be identitical and thus e = 1 . This gives, from Eqs. (3.11) and (3.18), Stx = Cf,x , 2 and = hx = 0.332 f N ux = U x
1/2
hx x = 0.332 Re1/2 x f
(3.19)
26

For P r = 1, one has to solve Eq. (3.18), for this purpose let us take
(3.20) where T is the thermal boundary layer thickness dened as the distance at which = 1. After applying the boundary conditions (y = 0) = 0; one gets 3 = 2 y T y 1 2 y T (y = T ) = = 1; y = 0;
y=T 3
T Ts = =A+B T Ts
y T
+C
y T
+D
y T
note :
= 1,
and
2 y 2
= 0,
y=0
(3.21)
Now, the heat transfer coefcient, hx , is given by hx = f =

0
3 f , 2 r
where r T / is the ratio of thermal boundary to velocity boundary layer thicknesses. The value of r has been worked out in Appendix3.0 as r= T 1 xo = P r1/3 1 1.025 x
3/4 1/3
for the case shown in Fig. 3.2. Now, the local heat transfer coefcient, hx , and the
y
U T
Ts > T T
Figure 3.2: Boundary layer with unheated starting length. The surface temperature and N u variations along the length of the at plate are also shown. local Nusselt number, N ux , are hx = 0.331 f P r
1/3
hx x xo 1/2 and N ux = = 0.331 P r1/3 Rex 1 f x
Nu/Nuxo = 0 1
U x
1/2
xo 1 x

3/4 1/3
xo
L
(3.22)
3/4 1/3
(3.23)
3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS
27
The variation of N ux normalised by its value when xo = 0 is also shown in Fig. 3.2. The Nusselt number for the plate heated over its entire length is N ux = hx = 0.331 P r1/3 Re1/2 , x f Pr 1 (3.24)
Experimental results show that the above relation can be used for 0.5 P r 15. This result is to be compared with the scaling analysis result in Chapter 2, Eq. (2.17), and the results from Reynolds analogy, Eq. (3.19). The Nusselt number averaged over the entire length of the plate is N uL = where h = 1 L hL = 2N ux=L f h dx = 2hx=L
0
(3.25)
The analysis presented above is for laminar ow which occurs when Rex < Rec = 5.0 105 for a smooth at plate. The value of Rec depends on surface roughness and also depends on the ow type (external or internal). Some points to be noted in relation to the above analysis are : 1. Comparing Eqs. (3.15) and (3.23) and rewritting N ux in terms of Stx as Stx = xo N ux = 0.331P r2/3 Re1/2 1 x Re P r x or Stx P r2/3 =
3/4 1/3
xo 3/4 Cf,x 1 . (3.26) 2 x This relation is called as Reynolds-Colburn analogy. Although it is shown formally for laminar ow over a at plate with a specied temperature distribution it applies to turbulent ows over a at plate and inside a tube as well. But it does not apply to laminar ow inside a tube. 2. In the above analysis, the thermal boundary layer is taken to be inside the velocity boundary layer (P r > 1), which is the case for the most of gases and liquids. But for liquid metals P r 1. For this situation the plug ow model, in which the velocity inside the thermal boundary layer is constant and it is equal to U , can be used. This is justiable since T >> (see the scaling analysis, in chapter 2, for this). since u = U continuity equation gives v = 0, = with T = Ts at y = 0, 2T T = 2 U x y and T = T for x = 0, y .
1/3
The solution of unsteady heat conduction in a semi-innite medium can be used after substituting = x/U . From this,
1/2 N ux = 0.564 P r1/2 Re1/2 = 0.564 P ex , x
for P r
or
P ex 103 , (3.27)
Peclet number number is P e = Re P r.
28

3. In the above analysis, the surface temperature, Ts , is considered to be uniform. But in many engineering situations it can vary along the length of the plate, for example as shown in Fig. 3.3. The local heat transfer rate per unit Ts
111111111111111 000000000000000 111111111111111 000000000000000

x1 x2 x T = (Ts T )
f
111111111111111 000000000000000 111111111111111 000000000000000

case (i): q1 = hT =
0.331P r1/3 Re1/2 T 1
1/3 x1 3/4 x
111111111111111 000000000000000 111111111111111 000000000000000

T = (Ts T )
case (ii):
q2 = hT =
f 0.331P r1/3 Re1/2 T 1 x
1/3 x2 3/4 x
Figure 3.3: The principle of superposition for nding heat transfer rate from a at plate with a nite heated length in a laminar ow. area from the plate is q = q1 +q2 = f 0.331 P r1/3 Re1/2 T x x
q
x1 x
3/4 1/3
x2 x
3/4 1/3
The variation of q/q is shown in Fig. 3.4. Note that the heat transfer rate is almost innite at x1 and x2 because the thermal boundary layer thicknesses are zero at these locations(see Fig.3.3). The negative q for x x2 implies 2 that the uid transfers heat to the plate.
2
If the plate temperature varies continously then the above expression can be generalised as
111111111111111 000000000000000 111111111111111 000000000000000

x
q = [TS ( = 0) T ] + q
x 3/4 1/3
Ts
1
0
dTs d d
3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS
29
T
15
T x2
x1
qs & * q &s
5
& qs (Ts , x0 = x1) & qs (Ts , x0 = x2 )
-5
x /x 1
Figure 3.4: Varitiation of q/q with x/x1 for case (i) (solid line), case (ii) (dashed line), and the total (line with symbol) heat transfer rate for the plat with temperature distribution shown above. 4. In the above analysis Ts is specied. In many practical problems the surface heat ux, qs is specied (for example by placing an electrical heater). For this case, the N u is given by N ux = 0.453 P r
1/3
Rex ,
1/2
for
The local surface temperature is obtained from Ts,x = T + qs x qs = T + . hx f N ux
5. Another point to note in the above analysis is that the pressure gradient is zero (at plate case). Some times, the plate may be inclinded at some angle to the ow, in some special cases the plate may even be placed perpendicular to the ow. In these situations, the pressure gradient is nonzero and this category of ows are called wedge ows. The at plate case also belongs to this category. The solutions are given in advanced texts but the nal solution for Cf,x and N ux are Cf,x = 4 C, (2 )Rex and N ux = N Rex .
1/2
is related to the orientation of the plate and it is dened in Fig. 3.5. The values of C and N are summarised in Table 3.1 6. The heat transfer rate will also be inuenced by suction or blowing through the plate. Out of many cases studied in the past, two specic cases to our interest are (1) ow over a at plate and (2) stagnation point ow. In both cases the uid is taken to be air (P r = 0.7). Figure 3.6 shows the variation of F = N u/ Rex with , the blowing or suction parameter, for the above two
4 5
Ts
P r > 0.6
(3.28)
(3.29)
30
Table 3.1: Values of parameters C and N in Eq. 3.29 for isothermal surface C N P r = 0.7 0.8 1.0 5.0 10 1.6 1.5210 0.813 0.858 0.938 1.736 2.236 1.0 1.2326 0.496 0.523 0.570 1.043 1.344 0.5 0.9276 0.384 0.403 0.440 0.792 1.013 0.2 0.6866 0.331 0.348 0.378 0.669 0.851 0.0 0.4696 0.292 0.307 0.332 0.585 0.730 cases. The negative implies suction while its positive value means blowing. It is also important to note that the injected uid, in the case of blowing, is the same as the free stream uid in terms of composition. If not, there will also be mass transfer and thus one need to consider the combined heat and mass transfer. When there is strong suction, the heat transfer is very large because the boundary layers moves very close to the surface. As consequence of this, the temperature gradient at the surface will increase resulting in enhanced heat transfer. In case of blowing, the boundary layers move away from the surface leading to a decrease in the temperature gradient at the surface and thus the heat transfer rate decreases. However, these changes depends on the ratio vs /v, where v is the natural cross stream velocity inside the boundary layer and vs is the injection velocity. This ratio is also related to the parameter which is dened as vs 1/2 = Re U x 2 m+1
1/2
m=
(see Fig. 3.5). 2
When the blowing is signicant, the temperature gradient at the surface will be smaller compared to the case with no injection leading to a decrease in the heat transfer rate. There is a critical value of beyond which the heat transfer becomes zero as shown in Fig. 3.6. This science has led us to the invention of lm (injection is at angle to the plate) and transpiration (injection is almost perpendicular to the plate) cooling technology. This technology is widely used in gas turbines, rocket nozzles and in nose cones etc., to protect the metal surface from the hot gases. But the concept of ablative cooling used in the re-entry vehicles such as space shuttle is different as it involves heat
y
= 2m/(m+1)
x U
=0
U(x)
U U
=1
-1 < < 0
Figure 3.5: The possible orientations of a at plate.
U(x)
U(x
/2 0<<1
U(x
3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS
31
4
F
F = 0.496 - 0.592 , for m = 1
3 2
F = 0.293 - 0.4406 , for m = 0
1 0
-6
-4
-2
0 -1
Figure 3.6: Variation of F = N u/ Rex with blowing parameter in laminar ows over a at plate (m = 0) and in a twodimensional stagnation point ow (m = 1) when the surface temperature is kept constant. The uid has a Prandtl number of 0.7. : suction, +: blowing and mass transfers with chemical reactions inside the boundary layers. The analysis of this problem is beyond the level of this module. 7. Many practical devices involving heat transfer include geometries which can not be simplied as at plate. For example, hot gas ow over long tubes in recuperators and re-heaters in industrial boilers and heat exchanger. In these situations, the behavior of the boundary layer depends strongly on the Reynolds number and very often separtation and transition of boundary layers occur. These behaviors play prominent role and the method of boundary layer analysis is inapplicable. One needs to do a full numerical simulation or comprehensive experiments to obtain the heat transfer rate. The results of these studies can be summarised in terms of average Nusselt number, N u, as N uD = hD = C Rem P r1/3 , D f (3.30)
where D is a characteristic length. The values of C and m are different for different geometries and also depend on the Reynolds number. These values are given in Table 3.2 for few typical cases. In the above correlation, the uid properties are strictly to be evaluated at lm temperature3 . The average Nusselt number for the case of ow over a sphere is given by N uD = 2 +
1/2 0.4ReD 1/4
2/3 0.06ReD
Pr
0.4
(3.31)
Note that when there is no ow the average Nusselt number is 2 which corresponds to heat transfer by conduction from a spherical surface to quiescent innite medium surrounding the surface4 .
Tf = 0.5(Ts + T ) dT 4 1 d f r 2 = 0, with T = Ts on the surface at radius r = R and T = T as r . 2 dr r dr 1 1 D solving this system one gets (T (r) Ts ) = (T Ts )R , N uD = = 2. R r R
3
32

Table 3.2: Constants in Eq. (3.30) for various geometries
Geometry U D ReD 4x104 4x105 C 0.027 m 0.805
5x103 105
0.102
0.675
5x103 105
0.246
0.588
103 104
0.228
0.731
103 105
0.153
0.638
4 5 D 10 10
0.0385
0.782
8. There are a number of industrial applications in which ow over banks of tubes are relevant. In this case, the ow is complicated involving separation, interaction of wakes, etc. The average heat transfer coefcient for these situations is determined largely by experimentally obtained empirical correlations for specic arrangement of the tubes. These correlations are available in heat transfer text and data books, for example references 15 listed at the end. Problem 3.0 : Considering the energy balance in control volume CDEF in Fig. 3.1, obtain the integral form of the energy equation, Eq. (3.16). Solution
Rate of energy owing across CD :

0
u cp T dy u cp T dy
0
across EF :
0
u cp T dy + d qs dx, cp, T v dx =
across DF : across CE :
qs = wall heat ux = f = cp, T dx
T y 0 u dy x 0
net rate of energy owing in = d dx d dx

0 0
net rate of energy owing out T y T y
u(T T ) dy = u (1) dy = U
= U (T Ts ) .
same as Eq. (3.16)

0
3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS

Problem 3.1 :
33
1. 2 m Ts = 350 K 1. 2 m Pr = 0.7 = 1.84E-05 m2/s f = 0.028 W/m-K Electronic components are mounted at the bottom side
U = 2 m/s T = 300 K
Determine the rate of heat dissipation from the plate shown in the gure above. Solution heat dissipation rate = heat transfer rate; Q = hA(Ts T ) = h(L W )(Ts T ) and W = 1.2 m To nd h, we need to know if the ow is turbulent or laminar. Using the properties given above, ReL = U L = 1.3 105 h = Nu f , L (< 5 105 ) = laminar ow. N u from Eq. 3.25
= Q = 0.664 ReL P r1/3 f W (Ts T ) = 358.31 W.

1/2
34
Problem 3.2 : Cover plate of a at-plate solar collector of 1m length and 2m width is at 15 C, while the ambient air is at 10 C. A wind at 2 m/s ows parallel to the collector plate. i) Determine the convective heat loss from the plate. ii) If the plate is mounted ush with a roof surface at 2m from the leading edge of the roof then what is the heat loss? Solution : Air properties at 10 C: = 14.38106 m2 s1 ; f = 24.94103 Wm1 K1 ; 0.71 Given: Ts = 15 C, T = 10 C and U = 2m/s, W = 2 m (i) Convective heat loss Q = h A (Ts T )
2 m/s, 10 C 15 C
2m 1m
Pr =
To get h = N uL f /L, one needs to know if the ow is laminar or turbulent. Re = U L 21 = = 1.39E05 14.38 106
1/2
laminar ow,
N uL = 2N uL = 0.664ReL P r1/3 = 220.85 f Q= N uL A (Ts T ) = 55.08 W L (ii) Flat plate with unheated starting length
2 m/s, 10 C 15 C
2m 0 2m
xo
1m
2m
Rex=3 = 4.2 105 < 5 105 , Q=

0 L L
= laminar ow
3
q dA
=
0
hx (Ts T ) W dx xo x 2 x
= f W (Ts T )
2 3/4 1/3
N ux dx, x
1/2 N ux = 0.331 P r1/3 Rex 1 3
, with xo = 2 = 38.91 W
= Q = 27.46
2
1/2
3/4 1/3
1.417 (evaluated numerically)
Note: about 30% reduction in the heat loss compared to the arrangement in (i).
3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS
35
3.1.2 Internal ows

The growth of the boundary layer is physically contrained in internal ows leading to shrinking of inviscid (potential) ow region and merging of boundary layers unlike in external ows. This is shown in Fig. 3.7, where the merging distance x measured from the entrance depends on the Reynolds number. The ow is laminar if the Reynolds number based on the bulk mean velocity (dened below), Ub , and the diameter, D, of the tube is less than 2000. For tube with circular cross section, diameter is the geometric diameter of the tube. For noncircular cross section, the 4Ac appropriate diameter is the hydraulic diameter, Dh = , where Ac is the cross P sectional area of the tube and P is the wetted perimeter. Momentun transfer In fully developed region (x > x ), the viscous effects extend over the entire cross section of the tube and the velocity prole will not change with the distance, x, ie u/dx = 0.5 Thus, the viscous force balances the pressure force in the momentum
(a) thermal entrance region
t
fully developed region

u/2Ub
(b)
2rdx (p + dp)r2 r (r) p r2
hydrodynamic entrance region
fully developed
dx
Figure 3.7: (a) Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers in laminar tube ow. Thermal situation is shown for P r < 1. Fully developed velocity the nondimensional temperature proles are also shown. (b) control volume for analysis of momentum transfer. equation. From Fig. 3.7(b) r2 dp 2r dx = 0 and using Newtons expression for , one gets du = r 2 dp dx dr, = u(r) = r2 4 dp dx + C1 .
The condition of noslip velocity at the wall yields u(r) =

5
1 4
dp dx
r 2 R2 .
This condition gives the radial velocity v = 0 from the continuity equation
36 Now the mass ow rate is

R
m = 2
0
ru(r) dr, the bulk mean velocity Ub = m R2 = Ac 8 dp dx

2
u(r) r =2 1 Ub R
(3.32)
In practice, the mass ow rate, m (kg s1 ) is usually known and thus the bulk mean velocity is also known. The above ow is called HagenPoiseuille ow. The skin friction coefcient for the pipe ow, Cf , which is also known as Fanning friction coefcient, is Cf = 2s 16 = 2 Ub ReD since s = du dr =
r=R
8Ub D
(3.33)
Dening the Darcy friction factor (see Fig. 3.15) as f= Heat transfer If the surface temperature of the pipe is Ts then the local heat ux is qs = h(Ts Tb ), where Tb is the bulk mean temperature of the uid which is dened via
R
64 ReD
Cf =
f . 4
(3.34)
m cp Tb = 2cp
0
r u T dr
(3.35)
is used as a reference temperature since there is no free stream temperature. For tubes with circular crosssection Tb = 2 Ub R 2
R
r u T dr.
0
(3.36)
Since the uid is gaining heat Tb varies in the ow direction x, which implies that dTb /dx and T /x can never be zero. Thus, a condition similar to that of u/x = 0 can not be used to dene thermally fully developed ow. However, if one denes a dimensionless temperature increment (r, x) = (T Ts ) (Tb Ts ) (3.37)
then it is known that /x = 0 exists, which means that the normalised temperature increment does not change with the distance along the pipe. The ows exhibiting this behaviour are called thermally fully developed ows and have (r, x) = (r), with typical variation shown in Fig. 3.7.
3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS
37
Figure 3.8: Control volume for heat transfer analysis. For heat transfer analysis of fully developed ows, let us consider the energy balance in the control volume in Fig. 3.8. net energy convected out cp 2r dr d(uT ) = = net energy conducted in = r T r . d f T 2r dx r (3.38)
d(qr 2r dx) T = x r
= u
By solving this equation one can nd T (x, r), if boundary conditions are specied. Two practically meaningful conditions are (i) constant surface heat ux (qs = const) and (ii) constant surface temperature (Ts = const). (i) Constant Surface Heat Flux: This case is analysed in Problem 3.3. The important conclusion is that the Nusselt number, N uD = hD/f , based on the diameter of the tube D is constant and it is equal to 4.36 for pipes with circular cross section. By extending the control volume shown in Fig. 3.8 to, R, the tube wall, the energy balance in terms of the bulk mean temperature, Tb , gives dTb = dx 2R mcp qs 2R mcp (3.39)
= Tb (x) = Tb (xo ) +
qs (x xo )
(3.40)
(ii) Constant Surface Temperature: For this case also N uD is constant (see Problem 2.1). The energy balance as in the previous case gives dTb = dx f mcp N uD (Ts Tb ) (3.41)
38
(a) T Ts q h
(b) Ts T Tb
Tb x x
Figure 3.9: The variation of Tb and Ts along the pipe length for (a) qs = const and (b) Ts = const cases. f N uD (x xo ) mcp
= Ts Tb (x) = [Ts Tb (xo )] exp
(3.42)
The above analysis can also be applied for non-circular tubes but D should be replaced by the hydraulic diameter Dh . The values of N uD for various cross sections are given in Table 3.3. This N u gives h, which can be used to obtain the heat transfer rate after calculating Tb . Table 3.3: N u and f for fully developed laminar tube ows
Concept of log mean temperature difference (LMTD) Let us consider a laminar ow inside a tube of length L at a mass ow rate of m 1 (kg s ). The surface temperature of the tube, Ts , is constant. A uid enters the
3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS
39
tube with a bulk mean temperature of Tb,i and leaves the tube at Tb,o . Now the heat gained by the uid over the length L is Q = m c(Tb,o Tb,i ) = m c(Ti To ), where c is the specic heat capacity of the uid ( = cp for gases) and T = (Ts Tb ). This Q must have been supplied by the tube wall. Thus, m c(Ti To ) = h As (LM T D), but from Eq. (3.42) Thus LM T D = h As = m c ln To Ti , ln (To /Ti ) To Ti , (3.43)
which is known as Log mean temperature difference and often referred to as LMTD in the analysis of heat exchanger. The heat transfer rate can be obtained as Q = hAs (LM T D), which is usually used to calculate the required tube length to achieve the specied exit temperature for a given inlet temperature. Heat exchangers usually involve two or more uids (see page 9). For simplicity purpose, let us consider two uids, one is hot and owing through the tube and the second one is cold and is owing outside the tube. The heat is transferred from the hot to the cold uid and the conductive resistance in the tube wall is negligible. The equivalent resistance circuit is shown in the gure below with temperatures and the direction of the heat ow. The heat transfer rate is Q = hh Ah (Th Ts ) = hc Ac (Ts Tc ) = U A(Th Tc ) = (U A)1 = Th Tc = (hh Ah )1 + (hc Ac )1 , Q
where U is the overall heat transfer coefcient (W m2 K1 ). The other heat transfer coefcients, hh and hc , are calculated using the appropriate N u expression.
Q
Th
hot side
Ts
cold side
Tc
40
Problem 3.3 : Determine the Nusselt number for laminar ow, which is hydrodynamically and thermally fully developed, in a circular tube when its wall has uniform heat ux, qs . (Recall Example 2.1 in section 2.5.) Solution
u r 2 =2 1 , (Eq. (3.32) Ub R thermally fully developed ow: h is constant, = 0. x dTs T dTs dTs dTb = = 0 in Eq. (3.37) gives = x x dx dx dx dx the energy equation, Eq. (3.38), becomes fully developed laminar ow = u dTs 1 = dx r r r T r with T r
(since Ts Tb =
qs = const) h
= 0, and T (r = R) = Ts
r=0
T 1 dTs = r r dx
ru dr
2Ub dTs r r3 dx 2 4R2
= T (r) = Ts
r4 2Ub dTs 3R2 r2 + dx 16 4 16R2
From the denition of the bulk mean temperature Tb , Tb Ts = 2 Ub R 2

R
uT r drTs
0
11 96
2Ub
dTb 2 R dx
note :
dTs dTb = dx dx
= qs = h
11 96
2Ub
dTb 2 R dx
But from the control volume analysis, see Eq.(3.40),: qs = Equating the above two expressions = N uD = hD = 4.36. f Ub cp R 2 dTb dx
Note: The Nusselt number in fully developed internal laminar ows is constant. This does not apply to turbulent ows. A simillar result can be obtained for Ts = const case also. But it requires advanced maths.
3.2. TURBULENT FLOWS
41
3.2 Turbulent Flows

The force balance for a moving uid parcel includes viscous, pressure and inertial forces. If a small disturbance is introduced into a ow then the viscous force will dampen the disturbance while the inertial forces will amplify them via nonlinear interaction. Thus, the ratio of inertial to viscous forces determines whether the disturbance grows or dies. The Reynolds number is the ratio of these two forces and thus if the Reynolds number is large, the disturbance grows and multiply and the lamella structure in the laminar ow is lost leading to turbulent ow. One can naturally think of a critical Reynolds number, Rec , beyond which the turbulent behavior is predominant. The value of Rec depends on the type of ow and its typical values are given in Table 3.4. Table 3.4: Critical Reynolds number for transition to turbulent ow External ows Rex 106 Internal ows ReD 2000 Free jet (round) ReD 30 Film condensation on a vertical wall Rex 450 The turbulent ows are observed to have mean and uctuations in velocity and other quantities (see Fig. 3.10). Thus, the instantaneous values can be written as u = U +u , T = T +T , with u = 0, v = 0, u 2 = 0, and u T = 0,
where the overbar indicates the mean values and u and T denote the uctuations in the velocity and temperature respectively. If one considers the control volume analysis as for the laminar cases, these uctuations will give rise to additional transport of momentum and energy across the control volume. These additional uxes are
T signal
Figure 3.10: Typical traces of velocity and temperature signals in a low Re turbulent ow. non-zero in the mean and they can be very large in high Re ows. These uxes are called Reynolds stress and Reynolds ux respectively for momentum and energy transport. Formally these quantities can be shown (after some algebra)6 to be
6
for energy conservation in Eq. (3.3):
uT vT 2T uT vT 2T + = 2, + = 2 x y y x y y
42
u v and u T (note that = const for our analysis). These two quantities do not dependent on uid but they srongly depend on the ow and they are to be modelled using turbulence modelling. Let us consider a simple algebraic model called eddy viscosity or eddy diffusivity model. This model assumes that these quantities are proportional to the gradients in the respective mean quantities in a manner analogous to molecular transport (Newtons law for shear stress or Fourier law for heat conduction) as u v = t U y and v T = t T t T = , y P rt y (3.44)
where the constants of proportionality, t and t , are turbulent diffusivities which depends on the ow and are to be modelled. Now, the total shear stress and the conductive heat ux will be the sum of molecular and turbulent parts: = ( + t ) U y and q = c( + t ) T . y (3.45)
To obtain a simple model for turbulence viscosity t , let us consider two points separated by some distance l along y inside the boundary and let us denote the mid point as yo . Now expanding the velocity U about yo using Taylors series, U yo + l 2 = U (yo ) + l U , 2 y and U yo l 2 = U (yo ) l U 2 y
It is postulated (called Prandtls mixing length postulate) that u and v are of the order of U between the two points considered. Thus, U u l , y u v = l
2
U y
= t
U y
= t = l2 |
U y|,
where l is the mixing length given by l = K y, with K 0.4 known as Von Karman constant.
3.2.1 External ows

If one uses the above model for t and conducts the analysis given in Appendix 3.1 then the complex structure of the turbulent boundary layer becomes apparent. This structure is shown in Fig. 3.11. The molecular viscosity plays an important role in the viscous sublayer while the turbulent viscosity plays a predominant role in the outer layer. Between these two layers, the effects of both the molecular and the turbulent viscosity play important role. In an analogous manner, one can expect similar structure in thermal boundary layer also, as noted in Appendix 3.1. For heat transfer calculation, recalling the ReynoldsColburn analogy, Eq. (3.26), Cf,x , 2 one needs to know the skin friction coefcient. This can be obtained by considering the momemtum transfer. Stx P r2/3 =
u T v T x y

U
43
outer layer U inner layer
turbulent layer ( buffer layer ( t ) viscous sub-layer (
t )
t )
Figure 3.11: Structure of turbulent boundary layer over a at plate. Momentum transfer A number of experimental studies suggest that U over the entire boundary layer and the local skin friction coefcient can be approximated as U = 8.75 w
4/7
1/7
and
Cf,x w = = 0.0225 2 2 U
1/4
(3.46)
where is the turbulent boundary layer thickness. To calculate this thickness, one needs to consider the integral momentum balance as we did for laminar ow. This is given as problem 5 in example sheet 3. The boundary layer thickness is Cf,x 1/5 = 0.3707Rex = = 0.0288Re1/5 . x x 2 (3.47)
One should be aware that a number of correlations, based on experimental measurements, are available for higher Reynolds number ows. Details of these correlations can be found in appropriate data books and reference listed in this notes. Heat transfer The heat transfer coefcient can now be obtained using the ReynoldsColburn analogy and Eq. (3.47) as Stx P r2/3 = = N ux = Cf,x 2 = 0.0288 Re1/5 x since Stx = N ux , Rex P r
L
hx 4/5 = 0.0288 Rex P r1/3 , f
(3.48)
The average Nusselt number is N uoL hL 4/5 = = 0.038 ReL P r1/3 , f 1 where h = L h dx.
0
(3.49)
h comes from Eq. (3.48). Some points and extensions to note from the above results are:
44

1. Although N ux given above is obtained for an isothermal plate, it can also be used for constant heat ux from the plate. The error is typically within 4%. 2. When there is suction or blowing at velocity vs , through the plate as shown in Fig. 3.12, there will be advection of momentum and heat in the direction perpendicular to the plate inside the boundary layer. This should be taken into account in the analysis, which is complicated. But the nal results for the skin friction coefcient and the Stanton number are given as Cf,x ln(1 + t ) = , (Cf,x )o t and Stx ln(1 + Bt ) = (Stx )o Bt Cf,x (Cf,x )o
1/2
where the subscript o refers to the case with no blowing or suction. The parameters t and Bt are dened as t = vs Cf,x , U 2 and Bt = vs . U Stx
Thus, the expressions for Cf,x and Stx are implicit. The positive value for t and Bt means blowing while their negative values mean suction.
U
vs
Figure 3.12:
3. As we noted in the laminar ow case, a plate with unheated starting length provides basic building block for constructing solutions for nonisothermal surfaces. The solution process is complex and laborious but the nal result is simply
Ts T
xo
Stx P r2/3 =
Cf,x 2
xo x
9/10 1/9
(3.50)
where (Cf,x /2) is given by Eq. (3.47). 4. The wall surface roughness disturbs the laminar sublayer when the roughness size is comparable to the viscous sublayer thickness. Thus the momentum
45
transfer does not occur via the rubbing mechanism but it occurs via the pressure drag mechanism - impact or the dynamic pressure acting on the upstream side of roughness elements. This also implies that the molecular viscosity does not play a role and thus Cf,x becomes independent of Re when the surku face is fully rough. Dening a roughness Reynolds number as Re , where k is the surface roughness height, for Re < 5, the wall is considered to be aerodynamically smooth for Re > 70, the wall is considered to be fully rough, and in range of Re between the above two limits, the characteristics of smooth surface persists and the wall is transitionally rough. For heat transfer over a rough surface, molecular conduction remains significant and there is no impact mechanism for heat transfer. This also implies that the analogy between the momentum and heat transfer becomes questionable, in strict sense, for rough surfaces. The Stanton number for a rough plate is Stk = hk 0.8 Re 0.2 P r0.44 c p u
based on experiments. Note that Stk is dened based on u to imply its signicance near the wall. 5. Geometries other than at plate case, are already discussed in laminar ow section and the appropriate Nusselt number to be used is given by Eq. (3.30). Mixed boundary layers In practice, it is unlikely that the entire boundary layer will remain laminar throughout or be turbulent from the begining. Usually, the initial laminar boundary layer will develop into turbulent one. The analysis in the transition region is complicated and for our purpose we consider the change from laminar to turbulent boundary layer is abrupt. This is justiable to some extent,since the length of the transition region is small compared to the total length of the plate and thus the error introduced by this approximation can be small. This situation is shown schematically in Fig. 3.13. If one takes the critical Reynolds number as 5 105 then xc = 5 105 /U . The average heat transfer rate over the entire length of the plate is Qs = hAs (Ts T ) with h= 1 L
xc
hlam dx +
o
1 L
htur dx.
xc
(3.51)
The heat transfer coefcient for the laminar part, hlam , is obtained using Eq. (3.24) for constant surface temperature case or Eq. (3.28) for constant surface heat ux case. Equation (3.48) is to be used for the turbulent part, htur . For example, considering the plate to be isothermal, the average Nusselt number is Nu = hL 4/5 1/2 = P r1/3 0.664Rexc + 0.038 ReL Re4/5 xc f . (3.52)
46
Turbulent Laminar 0 x xc L
Figure 3.13: A case of mixed boundary layers. (see problem 6 in example sheet 3 for heat transfer in mixed boundary layer ows)
Problem 3.4 : Assume that a person can be approximated as a cylinder of 0.3m diameter and 1.8m height with a surface temperature of 24 C. Determine the heat loss from the body when this person is walking in a wind of 15 m/s at 5 C. Solution:
D = 0.3m Ts = 24 C at T = 5 C = 268 K U = 15 m/s T = 5 C = 13.04 106 m2 /s f = 23.74 103 W/m-K P r = 0.725 neglect walking speed compared to wind speed L = 1.8 m
Q = hAs (Ts T ),
As = D L,
N uD =
hD = C Rem P r1/3 from Eq. (3.30) D f
For ReD = 3.45 105 , m = 0.805 and C = 0.027 from Table 3.2 for the case of ow over a long cylinder. = Q = 2.71 kW.
47
Problem 3.5 : Consider the arrangements shown in the gure below. Neglecting radiation, determine the air temperature, T .
T1 = 450 K T2 = 375 K Steel, Di = 5mm Do = 10mm k = 35 W/m-k
L = 0.15m Air at T , U = 3 m/s
Solution: Assume T = 450 K to get air properties: = 3.239 105 m2 /s, = 0.774 kg/m3 , f = 3.73 102 W/m-K, P r = 0.6. (from Ref. [2], Table A.4) the well is like a n of uniform cross sectional area and conduction is only along its length (x) the tip temperature, T1 , and the base temperature, T2 are known T can be obtained from the n theory. But the average heat transfer coefcient must be known for this. From theory of ns: T T cosh m(L x) + (h/mk) sinh m(L x) = , where m = T2 T cosh mL + (h/mk) sinh mL for x = L, hP k Ac
1/2
T1 T 1 (i) = cosh mL + (h/mk) sinh mL T2 T h - average heat transfer coefcient obtained from N u = C Rem P r1/3 for ow D over a cylinder. 3 0.01 ReDo = = 926.2, = C = 0.683, m = 0.466 from ref. [1], Table 6.2 3.239 105 h = 54.20W/m2 K 2 2 (Do Di ) P = Do = 0.0314m, Ac = = 5.89105 m2 4 From Eq. (i) T = 451.9 C. =
Note: Thus assuming T = 450 C for uid property selection is acceptable. If the difference between the calculated and assumed T is large then an iterative process is to be followed to determine the air temperature. (The selection and the use of experimental correlation is also remarked above and in problem 3.4.)
= m = 28.73m1
48
3.2.2 Internal ows

Smooth pipe Internal ows become turbulent when ReD = Ub D/ > 2000, where Ub is the bulk mean velocity velocity, D is the diameter of the tube and is the kinematic viscosity of the uid. As in laminar cases, see Fig. 3.7, there is an initial distance for the development of the boundary layer and this region is called entry region. Its typical size is x /D 0.623 Re0.25 . We will consider the fully developed region D for our analysis, where the pressure force balances the shear force at the wall in a mean sense (refer the force balance done in section 3.1.2). In turbulent ow, the shear force includes contributions from the laminar and the Reynolds stress components. For heat transfer part, one can invoke the ReynoldsColburn analogy, which states that Cf St P r2/3 = . 2 Note that the subscript x for the Stanton number and the skin friction coefcient has been dropped since they do not depend on the location along the pipe length in fully developed ows. The skin friction coefcient can be obtained by considering the force balance. Recalling the analysis in section 3.1.2 and carefully noting the contributions to the shear stress , the mean force balance is r dP dU = ( + t ) 2 dx dr = , = r = , w R (3.53)
where w and R are the shear stress at the wall and the tube radius respectively. dU Since = 0 at r = 0, the shear stress varies linearly with r as in Fig. 3.14. dr The bulk mean velocity Ub is 2 Ub = 2 R = Ub+ = Ub w / =
R
U r dr,
0 R+ 0
2 2 = +2 Cf R
U + (R+ y + ) dy + .
Using the logrithamic variation U + = 2.5 ln y + + 5.5,(see Appendix 3.1) the skin friction coefcient is 1 = 1.74 ln(ReD Cf ) 0.39. (3.54) Cf
w r x y R Ub (r)
Figure 3.14: Distribution of shear stress and the bulk mean velocity in a turbulent pipe ow.
49
This relationship is called KarmanNikuradse relation and it is valid for ReD < 1 106 . Because of the implicit nature of this equation many simple correlations have been suggested in the past. One such correlation is Cf = 0.046 ReD
1/5
for 2 104 ReD 106
(3.55)
For a fully rough pipe, the skin friction coefcient is Cf = [1.74 ln (D/ks ) + 2.28]2 . By combining Eqs.(3.54) and (3.56) 1 = 1.74 ln Cf which is known as Colebrook equation. ks /D 1.254 + 3.707 ReD Cf , (3.57) (3.56)
Figure 3.15: Friction factor f = 4Cf for duct ow. The variation of Cf with ReD and surface roughness was measured by Nikuradse in 1930s and his results were compiled into an elegant form by Moody in 1944. This compilation is called Moodys chart and is given in Fig. 3.15 to assist us in heat transfer analysis. This chart can be used for ows in ducts of other cross section by using hydraulic diameter Dh instead of D. By using any of the above relation for Cf , the Nusselt number can be obtained via ReynoldsColburn analogy. For example, if one uses Eq. (3.55) for Cf then N u 0.023ReD P r1/3
4/5
4Cf
for 2 104 ReD 106
(3.58)
There are many such correlations available in the heat transfer literature, for example in [5,6]. The commonly used correlation for pipe ows is the DittusBoelter correlation:
N u 0.023ReD P rn ;
4/5
n = 0.4 for heating,
n = 0.3 for cooling the uid (3.59)
50
The above expressions can be used for ows in ducts of other cross section by simply replacing D by hydraulic diameter, Dh . However, one should be aware that the concept of hydraulic diameter is not very accurate when there are sharp corners as in the triangular ducts. This is because of the presence of complicated secondary ows. For such situation, full numerical solution or comprehensive experimental measurements are required. Inuence of surface roughness The presence of wall roughness increases Cf (see Fig. 3.15) and thus N u is expected to increase. Experiments suggests that N u for a rough pipe is Nu = N uo Cf Cfo
n
with n = 0.68P r0.215 ,
(3.60)
where N uo is the Nusselt number for a smooth pipe. The above result suggests that the heat transfer rate can be enhanced by articially roughening the surface. However, experimental studies showed that N u does not increases further with roughCf ness when > 4. Thus, one needs to pay sufcient attention in introducing the Cfo articial roughness otherwise the pumping power requirement will increase because of the increase in Cf for marginal or no gain in the heat transfer rate. Typically, the size of the roughness element should be within viscous sub-layer to gain benet on heat transfer augmentation.
3.3 Non-constant Fluid Properties

The uid properties are taken to be constant in the analysis discussed so far. Also this approximation is found to be sufciently accurate when the temperature difference is moderate. It is also noted that the experimental correlations account for property variation with temperature. For certain uids, the temperature dependence of uid properties may be strong and thus one needs to account for this appropriately. Three methods are normally employed for this purpose: (i) In the rst method, a mathematical transformation is used to render the boundary layer equations into a form which is the same as for constant property case.7 This method is used only in theoretical analysis. (ii) The second method is called property ratio method where N u variation, for example, given by Eq. (3.24) is written as Nu = 0.332Re1/2 x
1/3 P r
Pr P r
1/3
1/2
(3.61)
where the subscript refers that the uid properties are taken at T . Some experimental correlations are reported in this form.
The Howarth-Dorodnitzyn transformation, discovered by an English (Cambridge University Professor) and a Russian scientist in around 1940, is an example for this.
7
3.3. NON-CONSTANT FLUID PROPERTIES
51
(iii) The third method, which is most commonly used, is based on the concept of lm temperature, Tf , which is dened as (T + Ts )/2. The uid properties required for N u are obtained at Tf . However, most of the experimental correlations available will normally note the temperature to be used for uid properties evaluation. Problem 3.6 : Rework the problems 3.1 with uid properties evaluated at lm temperature. By comparing the new results with the previous results calculate the error involved in assuming constant uid properties (our approximation 2 in section 1.1 - this approximation is very good if the temperature variation is moderate in the ow).
Solution: 300 + 350 = 325 K 2 0.028 W/m K, P r = 0.704 Tf = ReL = = 1.84 105 m2 /s, f =
2 1.2 = 1.3 105 < 5 105 ow is laminar 1.84 105
1/2 Q = hA(Ts T ) = 0.664 ReL P r1/3 f W (Ts T )
Taking ln and differentiating Q 1 Re 1 P r f = + + 2 Re 3 Pr f Q

0.0695 0.0141 0.0646
Q = 1.9% Q
52
Chapter 4 Heat exchanger

Heat exchanger is a device which facilitates heat transfer from one uid stream to another. The radiators used in automobiles and in airconditioners, the radiators (as it is commonly called) used for space heating are examples of simple heat exchangers. Complex heat exchangers are very common in power plants (using fossil fuels or nuclear power), food processing, rening oil, chemical processing, etc., industries. In this chapter, we shall conduct simple analysis of heat exchangers using the principles learnt in the previous chapters. The design of these devices is a complex process involving heat transfer, cost analyses and an optimization process. The sizing of the heat exchangers are primarily determined by two factors, (i) the heat transfer rate per unit area and (ii) pumping power requirement. Since the specic heat transfer rate (h W/m2 K) for a given temperature difference varies as the average velocity, Ub , to the power 0.8 (see Eq. (3.58), one may think that the heat transfer rate can be increased by increasing the average velocity. But the pumping power requirement varies like the cube of the average velocity.1 Thus, one can see that a delicate balance is required for proper sizing and design of heat exchanger. The heat exchangers are classied according to the ow arrangement and its construction. A common construction involves concentric tubes or shellandtube. The variations of these two arrangements are used in practice. These heat exchangers can be of (i) direct transfer, (ii) indirect transfer, (iii) periodic ow and (iv) compact heat exchanger types as shown in Fig. 4.1. The direct transfer type is the simplest of all types, most commonly used and also known as recuperators. This type forms the building blocks for the analysis of indirect transfer type and compact heat exchangers. The liquid coupled indirect transfer type is mostly used in situation where the possible contamination of hot and cold uids should be totally avoided, for example as in nuclear reactors. The liquid coupling results in some reduction of the overall size of the device. However, this additional liquid circuit will introduce further complexities and cost. The periodic ow type heat exchangers, also called as regenerators, are compact in size and less expensive. An example for this type of heat exchanger is the Ljungstrom air preheater used in coal power plants. The heat absorbing medium absorbs the heat from the hot gases when the hot gases ow through them and releases this heat to
pumping power P = Vp, where V is the volume ow rate (m3 s1 ) and p is the pressure 3 2 drop. But p = Ub Cf /2 in the fully developed ow, P Ub .
1
53
54
CHAPTER 4. HEAT EXCHANGER

Any of type (i)
cold hot Co-flow cold hot Counter flow hot Cross flow cold cold hot cold Two-pass (i) Direct transfer type (iii) Periodic flow type Heat absorbing media hot (ii) Liquid coupled indirect transfer type cold hot
Figure 4.1: Types of heat exchanger based on ow arrangement. the cold uid when the rotating matrix travels through the cold uid passage. Since the ow direction in the matrix is reversed periodically, self cleaning of the heat exchanger is possible. However, there will be some mixing of hot and cold uids because of the residues left in the matrix and also there will be leakage issues for high pressure situations. Compact heat exchangers are special and important class involving one of the above types specially arranged and made (commonly involving ns). This class of heat exchangers provide heat transfer area in excess of 700 m2 per cubic meter and usually involves ow passages with a hydraulic diameter of 5 mm or below. Thus, the ow involved are usually laminar and the pressure drop across the heat exchanger unit becomes an important factor to consider. The analysis of this class of heat exchanger is specic to each cases and detailed discussions are presented in [5].
4.1 Heat Exchanger Analysis

The analysis of heat exchanger is commonly done via two methods: 1. Log-Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) concept discussed in section 3.1.2, or 2. -NTU method
4.1.1 LMTD method

This methodology is already discussed in section 3.1.2. But requires a small modication because of multiple streams present in the heat exchanger operation. From the analysis in section 3.1.2, the heat transfer rate is Q = U ATlm , where U is the overall heat transfer coefcient, A is the area available for the heat transfer and Tlm is the LMTD, which depends on the ow arrangement in the
4.1. HEAT EXCHANGER ANALYSIS

(a) Tc,i mc , cc cold dx Tc,o
55
Th,i
1111111111111111111 0000000000000000000 1111111111111111111 0000000000000000000

mh , ch hot x (b) Q Rh Rf,h Rcond Rc Rf,c
Th,o L Tc
Th
Figure 4.2: (a) Control volume for heat transfer analysis, (b) equivalent resistance circuit. heat exchanger. The overall heat transfer coefcient, U , can be obtained using the N u relations given in the previous chapters. For the co-ow heat exchanger shown in Fig. 4.2a, an equivalent electrical resistance circuit is given in Fig. 4.2b. The rst and last resistance marked as Rf,h and Rf,c are due to fouling, which occurs because of deposition of impurities (such as salts and minerals) in the uid on the heat transfer surface. These deposits increase the thermal resistance. The resistance marked as Rh and Rc are convective resistance on the hot and cold sides and are related to the respective heat transfer coefcients. The resistance Rcond at the center is the conduction resistance in the tube wall which is usually negligible as thin walled tubes are commonly used in heat exchangers. The total resistance in the above circuit yields 1/U A, which is given by 1 Rf,h 1 1 Rf,c = Rtot = + + Rcond + + , UA (o A)h (o hA)h (o hA)c (o A)c where Rf,h and Rf,c are the fouling factors which are usually tabulated in heat transfer data book. Its typical value varies from 0.0001 to 0.001 m2 K/W. For a clean surface it is zero. o is the overall surface efciency or temperature effectiveness of a nned surface. It is given by o = 1 Af (1 f )/A, with Af is the n area with efciency f (see theory of ns in heat conduction). If there are no ns, then o = 1. Rw is the conduction resistance given by [ln(ro /ri )/(2L)] for a circular tube of length L having outer and inner radii as ro and ri with thermal conductivity . (4.1)
56
The LMTD = Tlm is obtained via control volume analysis. Let us consider the coow (both hot and cold uids ow in the same direction) situation shown in Fig. 4.2a. The counterow of hot and cold streams can also be considered but the nal result will exactly be the same. For the case shown in Fig. 4.2a, the balance of the total energy transfer, Q, from the hot to cold stream is mc cc (Tc,o Tc,i ) = mh ch (Th,i Th,o ) = Q, the subscripts i and o respectively denote inlet and outlet conditions. The energy balance across dx:
Cc Ch
(4.2)
mc cc Tc = mh ch Th = Q = U A(Th Tc ),
(4.3)
where A is the differential area, which is Px with P as the wetted perimeter. Using Eq. (4.3), Ch dTh = U P(Th Tc ), dx Cc dTc = U P(Th Tc ) dx
d(Th Tc ) 1 1 = U P(Th Tc ) + . (4.4) dx Ch Cc Integrating this equation over the full length of the heat exchanger taking U and the heat capacities to be constant along L, = Th,o Tc,o To = = exp U PL Th,i Tc,i Ti 1 1 + Ch Cc . (4.5)
If Ch = Cc then it is called balanced ow condition.2 For a general case, the overall energy balance in Eq. (4.2) gives, Cc = Q , Tc,o Tc,i and Ch = Q . Th,i Th,o
Using this in Eq. (4.5) and rearranging Q = U PL

A
To Ti = U A LM T D, ln(To /Ti )
LM T D
(4.6)
LM T D is the log mean temperature difference and U is taken to be a constant in the above analysis.3
The condition Ch = Cc is called balanced ow condition. Under the balanced ow condition 2(Tc,o Tc,i ) LM T D for parallel ow is . For counterow case, To = Ti and thus the variation ln(To /Ti ) of Th and Tc along the length of the heat exchanger will be linear. 3 U can vary along the length due to entrance effect and uid property variation with temperature. Then Eq. (4.3) should be integrated numerically. If the concern is only with the entrance effect then an average value of U , dened as 1 L U dx, U= L 0 can be used in Eq. (4.6).
2
57
The variation of temperature along the heat exchanger length is shown in Fig. 4.3 along the with T denitions. Because To for counterow arragement is larger than for the parallel ow arrangement, the LMTD for counterow case is larger than (a) Parallel Flow:
Th,i T Tc,i
hot
dq
(b) Counter Flow:

Tout = Th,o Tc,o
Th,o Tc,o Th,i Tc,o T
hot
dq
cold
Tlm =
(Tout Tin ) ln(Tout Tin )
Figure 4.3: Variation of temperature along the length of the heat exchanger in (a) parallel and (b) counterow arrangements. for the co-ow. Thus, the size of heat exchanger with counterow arrangement will be smaller for given operating conditions and so it is used as a basis for comparison and evaluation of heat exchanger performance. The heat transfer rate in multipass and cross ow heat exchanger (other than the double pipe arrangement) is obtained using Q = U A(F LM T Dcf ) = U ATlm , where F is the correction factor because of complicated ow conditions. The calculation of F involves advanced analysis (see Appendix 4.1 if you are interested) but the nal results are given in graphs which can be found in text and data books on heat transfer. A typical graph is shown in Fig. 4.4.
1 ( F
Cc ) Ch Th,i
0.5 0 Tc,o Tc,i Th,i Tc,i
Figure 4.4: Typical variation of correction factor F for the ow arrangement shown on the right. The hot and cold streams can be swapped or reversed. mc cc is denoted as Cc .

cold
Tin = Th,i Tc,i
Th,o Tc,i
Tout = Th,o Tc,i Tin = Th,i Tc,o Tlm,cf > Tlm,pf
Tc,o Th,o Tc,i
58
4.1.2
NTU method
The LMTD method requires the inlet and outlet temperatures to be specied a priori, otherwise an iterative method needs to be employed to determine the heat transfer rate and the outlet temperatures. NTU method is preferred when the outlet temperatures are not specied. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger, , is dened as = = where actual heat transfer rate maximum possible heat transfer rate (4.7)
Q Cc (Tc,o Tc,i ) Ch (Th,i Th,o ) = = Cmin (Th,i Tc,i ) Cmin (Th,i Tc,i ) Qmax Cmin = min(Cc , Ch ).
Qmax = Cmin (Th,i Tc,i );
The effectiveness will be a function of Cmin /Cmax and the Number of Transfer Units (NTU). Equation (4.5) can be written as Th,o Tc,o Cmin = exp NTU 1 + Th,i Tc,i Cmax with NTU = UA , Cmin = exp [NTU (1 + Rc )] ; and Rc = Cmin . Cmax (4.8)
From the overall energy balance in Eq. (4.2) Th,o = Th,i Rc (Tc,o Tc,i ) substituting this into Eq. (4.8) and rearranging yields = 1 eNTU(1+Rc ) , 1 + Rc and NTU = 1 1 ln 1 + Rc 1 (1 + Rc ) (4.9)
Using the above equation is equivalent to using the LMTD approach. A similar analysis for counterow arrangement gives = 1 eNTU(1Rc ) , 1 Rc eNTU(1Rc ) and NTU = 1 ln Rc 1 1 1 Rc . (4.10)
In the above analysis, it is implicitly assumed that there is no phase change of the uids. In boiling and condensation processes, the uid temperature remains essentially constant or the uid acts as if it has innite specic heat capcity. In these cases Rc 0 and the above -NTU relations become simply with Cmin = mc cc for condenser, Cmin = mh ch for boiler. (4.11) In heat exchanger calculation, one is usually set out to nd the required heat transfer area A (sizing of the heat exchanger). This can be obtained from NTU for a given condition ( and Rc are known). The overall heat transfer coefcient is obtained from the correlations noted in the pervious chapter. = 1 eNTU ,

Problem 4.0: For the heat exchanger arrangement shown below,
L
59
oil Tc,i = 30o C 0.1 kg/s oil Property U = 60 w/m2-K (kg/m3) Cp (J/kg-K) (m2/s) water 1000 4200 7E-07 0.64 4.7 oil water
Th,i = 100o C 0.1 kg/s
= 25 mm
= 45 mm
800 1900 1E-05 0.134 140
(w/m-K) Pr
(a) Calculate the heat transfer rate, q and Tc,o if Th,o = 60 C (b) Determine L required to achieve Th,o = 60 C using (i) LMTD method; (ii) NTU method. Solution: (a) Energy balance on the hot side: Q = mh ch (Th,i Th,o ) = 0.1 1900 (100 60) = 7.6 kW on the cold side: Q = mc cc (Tc,o Tc,i ) = Tc,o = 48.1 C (b) (i) Using LMTD method: Q = U ATlm = U (DL)Tlm To Ti (60 30) (100 48.1) = 40 C, = L = 40.32 m ln(To /Ti ) ln(30/51.9) (ii) Using NTU method: mh ch = 190 J kg K = Cmin ; mc cc = 420 J kg K = Cmax Cmin = 0.452 = Rc = Cmax Q Qmax = Cmin (Th,i Tc,i ) = 13.3 kW = = = 0.571 Qmax Tlm = NTU relationship in Eq. (4.10) NTU = 0.999 = UA Cmin L = 40.32 m
Note: IF U is not given then you need to nd the convective heat transfer coefcient h using appropriate N u relations (see previous chapters) for the cold and hot side conditions and then calculate U .
60
Chapter 5 Natural convection

This is class of problem differs fundamentally from forced convection where the ow is driven by pressure gradient created by an external source and the ow problem is decoupled from the thermal problem when the uid properties are taken to be temperature independent. But in natural convection, the ow is driven by buoyancy forces and thus the ow and thermal elds are coupled strongly to each other. Consider the case shown in Fig. 5.1, the plate is at a temperature Ts > T , the stagnant environment temperature. The environment is at pressure p and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Now, we ask what is the heat transfer rate from the hot plate? The answer is simply Q = h A (Ts T ), as we noted earlier. From chapter 1, we also note that h f /T , ie., h is inversely proportional to the thermal boundary layer thickness. Thus our task here is to nd the variation of the thermal boundary layer thickness, T , using conservation principles.
5.1 Laminar Cases - External Convection

The boundary layer equations with body force included govern the natural convection case shown in Fig. 5.1. These equations are u v + =0 x y v v dP 2v u + v = + 2 g x y dy x 2 v = 2 + ( )g x T 2T T +v = 2. u x y x Note that the hydrostatic equation dP = g dy 61 (5.1)
(5.2) (5.3)
62
y, v
CHAPTER 5. NATURAL CONVECTION
Ts
g H T y 1/4
T , p
x, u
Figure 5.1: Natural convection along a vertical wall at Ts > T . Since the uid next to the wall is lighter than the surrounding uid, an upward motion is setup because of buoyancy. is used to relate the pressure gradient to the body force. The momentum equation can be simplied further using Boussinesq approximation which consists of two parts 1. = - the local uid density is constant and is equal to its value at T , for the inertial or advective terms 2. the buoyancy term is simplied as follows using Taylor series for small (T T ): = + = ( ) = (T T ), where T (T T )+H.O.T
p
,
p
(5.4)
with as the volumetric coefcient of thermal expansion. With the above two approximations, Eq. (5.2) becomes u v v 2v +v = 2 + g(T T ), x y x (5.5)
which clearly shows the strong coupling between the ow and thermal elds and the driving potential for the ow is the buoyancy force.
5.1.1 Scale analysis

In a steady state, heat conducted from the wall horizontally into the uid is swept upward inside the boundary layer by the uid motion. Let us take the following representative scales: x T , y H, u u, v v
5.1. LAMINAR CASES - EXTERNAL CONVECTION

Now, mass : energy (after using Eq. 5.6) : moment. : = vT vT + H H v2 + H H T
4
63
u T v 2 T
4
T 2 T
v , H v
(5.6) H , 2 T (5.7) (5.8) (5.9)
v2 H
gT , Ra1 H 1,
Ra1 P r1 H
intertial
H T
viscous
where RaH RaH = g T H 3 , (5.10)
is the Rayleigh number based on H. From Eq. (5.9), one can make the following observations: 1. When the buoyancy term is of order one, then the inertial term is of order Ra1 P r1 and the viscous term is of order Ra1 H H 2. the competition between the inertial and viscous term is determined by P r. Thus for (i) P r 1, viscous term buoyancy:
1/4
H T
Ra1 1 H
T HRaH
this gives T at a given y as T y 1/4 (see Fig. 5.1)
Now, the Nusselt number is N uH H 1/4 RaH T since h f T (5.11)
(ii) Simillarly for P r T HRaH
1, inertia buoyancy
1/4
H T
Ra1 P r1 1 H
1/4
P r1/4 ,
and
N uH RaH P r1/4 . (5.12)
Equations (5.11) and (5.12) gives the surface heat ux as qs y 1/4 ,
with appropriate P r correction. This variation is shown in Fig. 5.2. If the plate is cold compared to the surrounding then the ow will be reversed (from top to bottom,
64
y, v
g T T , p
qs y 1/4
x, u
Figure 5.2: Variation of surface heat ux in TS = const case. the boundary layer will grow from the top and the above analysis applies. For this case, one can see that the boundary layer thickness will be large at the bottom and thus the heat transfer rate will be small. This physics causes the condensation droplets to occur at the bottom of the window pane as we observe in our homes. It is quite common to use Grashof number, GrH RaH Pr
in the scale analysis. The Grashof number is generally interpreted as the ratio of buoyancy forces to viscous forces. It is clear from the above analysis that RaH is the natural scaling parameter for the natural convection problems and thus this parameter shall be used. The Boussinesq number dened as Bo Ra P r is some times used in the analysis instead of Ra and P r for P r 1 cases. The scaling analysis gives only the order of magnitudes and the constants missing in the above equations are to be found using experiments or advanced analysis.
5.1.2 Integral approach

Integrating Eqs. (5.3) and (5.2) across the boundary layer and after using the appropriate boundary conditions, one gets1 d dy
0
v 2 dx = d dy
v x
+g
0 0
(T T ) dx T x
(5.13)
v(T T ) dx =
0
(5.14)
0
One requires v and (T T ) to solve the above equations. But the scale analysis suggest a dependence on P r. The prole method we adopted for forced convection
1
This can also be obtained via the integral momentum balance over a control volume.
5.1. LAMINAR CASES - EXTERNAL CONVECTION
65
case can also be used here. This process is outlined in the Appendix 5.1. From that analysis, the Nusselt number is N u = 0.783Ra1/4 y N u = 0.689Ra1/4 P r1/4 y for for Pr Pr 1. 1. (5.15) (5.16)
5.1.3 Uniform wall heat ux

In the above case, the surface was taken to be isothermal at Ts . This condition will be a good approximation if the plate is massive and highly conductive along y (see Fig. 5.1). From engineering points of view, walls with uniform heat ux are also important (ex. in the cooling of electronic components). Regardless of the boundary condition, the wall heat ux is qs = h T f T , T = T qs T . f
Substituting this T in the denition of Ra and rearranging Eqs. (5.11) and (5.12), one gets (i) P r 1: 1/5 T H RaH Nu = H 1/5 RaH T (5.17)
(ii) P r
1: 1/5 T H RaH P r1/5 Nu = H 1/5 RaH P r1/5 , T (5.18)
where RaH is a Rayleigh number based on qs : g qs H 4 RaH . f Since the wall heat ux is constant, the above equations give T = (Ts T ) y 1/5 , as shown in Fig. 5.3. Note that this gure is drawn for P r = 1. For other values of P r, advanced analysis yields 1/5 N uH = f1 (P r) RaH , with f1 (P r) = 0.616 Pr 0.8 + P r
1/5
(5.19)
66
y, v
g qs T , p
T y 1/5
x, u
Figure 5.3: Variation of T in qS = const case.
5.1.4 Inclined walls

In the case of inclined walls, the gravity is acting at an angle, , to the plate as shown in Fig. 5.4. The analyses in the previous sections can be simply extended to this case by considering the appropriate component of the body force. This implies that N u expressions obtained in the previous section can be used after replacing Ray by Ra : Ra = Ray cos and Ra = Ray cos .
y, v
g cos
x, u
Figure 5.4: Natural convection along an inclined wall.
5.2 Laminar Cases - Convection in Enclosures

When the convection occurs in enclosures such as between two parallel vertical or horizontal walls, inside a box, in the annular region between two concentric cylinders, etc., the boundary layer development is constrained because of the geometry. Thus, the boundary layers developing from the opposite walls will eventually interact with one another. the enclosures can be broadly classied into two types, viz.,
5.2. LAMINAR CASES - CONVECTION IN ENCLOSURES
67
1. semiinnite size two ends of the enclosure are open to ambient and thus there are direct uid mechanical and thermal interactions between the uid inside the enclosure and in the ambient, and 2. nite size - the uid medium inside the enclosure is completely separated from the ambient uid and their thermal interaction occurs via the enclosure walls.
5.2.1 Semiinnite size

This class includes the natural convection ow in channels of various cross section when the channel walls are at temperature Ts > T . Let us consider the channel formed between two vertical parallel plates with temperatures Ts . The natural convection ow enters the channel at T and exits at Ts . The variations of ow and temperature in the channel is shown in Fig. 5.5. The boundary layers developing from the individual plates interact at a height yT . The region 0 < y yT is entry region and y > yT is the fully developed region. A simple criterion like (D/2) can be used to determine the size of the entry region.
D
g
Fully developed region
v yT
Entry region
y, v x, u
Figure 5.5: Natural convection in a channel formed between two vertical heated plates of width L for P r 1. The ow and T (T T ) variation across the channel at various cross sections is also shown. In the fully developed region viscous force is balanced by buoyancy force. Thus, from Eq. (5.5) g (T T ) dv 2 = , (5.20) 2 dx dv with v = 0 at x = D/2; and = 0 at x = 0. dx as boundary conditions.
68

To obtain v one requires T . Let us write
(T T ) = (Ts T ) (Ts T ) (Ts T ),
if (Ts T )
(Ts T ),
which can be taken to be constant if the wall is isothermal and T is also invariant with y. Now, Eq. (5.20) becomes dv 2 g (Ts T ) , = 2 dx which can be integrated to give v(x) = g(Ts T )D2 1 8 x D/2
2
(5.21)
to satisfy the boundary conditions also. The heat transfer rate per unit area, qs , is qs = total heat transferred mcp (Ts T ) Q = = Area 2H L 2H L
D/2
where, the mass ow rate is
m = 2L
0
u dx
g D3 (Ts T ) 12 (5.22) (5.23)
= qs = =
g D3 (Ts T ) cp (Ts T ) 24H hy qs y RaD = = , f (Ts T ) f 24
Nu
which is valid in the fully developed region for all P r. At y = yT , the thermal boundary layer thickness is given by Eq. (5.11) as T yT Ra1/4 . yT Rearranging this for yT , the condition H > yT for the fully developed ow can be written as H RaD > for P r 1. D 16 A similar condition can be obtained for P r 1 as H BoD > . D 16 The above method of analysis and the conditions deduced can be extended to channels of different crosssection. In the case of horizontal channel formed between a hot and cold plates, the convective motions are setup when the temperature difference exceeds a critical value and the bottom plate is hotter. If the temperature difference is below the critical value then the uid is quiescent and the temperature decreases linearly from Th to Tc . The heat transfer process is by conduction and thus N uH = 1. This case is shown in Fig. 5.6(a). The condition for the onset of convective motion is RaH 1708,
5.2. LAMINAR CASES - CONVECTION IN ENCLOSURES
69
where RaH is the Rayleigh number based on H and (Th Tc ). When RaH > 1708, the convective ow consists of counter rotating two dimensional rolls with almost square crosssection (see Fig. 5.6).2 These cells are called B nard cells and the e convective ow becomes more complicated when RaH is very large.
Quiescent, thermally stratified fluid Tc H Th (a) Cellular flow pattern (b)
RaH < 1708
Nu H = 1
RaH > 1708
Nu H > 1
Figure 5.6: Natural convection in a channel formed between two horizontal plates heated from below.
5.2.2 Finite size

In this case, the natural convection is as varied as the geometry and orientation of the enclosure and these cases can be loosely organised into two large classes, viz., 1. enclosures heated from the sides Ex. solar collectors, cavity wall insulations, air circulation in a room, 2. enclosures heated from below Ex. heat transfer through a at roof attic space, cooking processes. The rst category is more of engineering importance and application. A typical setup is shown in Fig. 5.7(a), where the top and bottom walls are adiabatic and thus no heat transfer through them. The left wall is heated while the right wall is cooled with a temperature difference of T . Before the establishment of T across the cavity, the uid is isothermal at T and motionless. Hence, the establishment of the convective ow eld is unsteady and it will eventually attain a steady state. For a very small time interval in the beginning, conduction alone will occur. Thus, T t, (5.24) which is the well known thermal diffusive layer thickness from the theory of heat conduction. As the ow develops, the buoyancy will be opposed and balanced by the viscous forces in the region close to the heated wall. Thus, when the Prandtl number is large g T
2
v , 2 T
2 g T T ,
(5.25)
In heat transfer and uid mechanics literature this problem is referred to as Rayleigh-B nard e convection.
70
horizontal jet H
(a) (b) Heated Th = T + T/2 T
Cooled Tc = T - T/2
t
Th
vertical jet v y, v
t
x, u
Figure 5.7: Natural convection in a rectangular enclosure with isothermal side walls. The development of thermal and velocity boundary layers is shown in (b). Using Eq. (5.24) in the above equation for T , one realises that v increases linearly with time. But the ow will eventually attain a steady state. To nd the time required to achieve the steady state, we make use of energy balance convection diffusion: 1/2 v H 2 , = ts . (5.26) H T g T After this time, the heat transfer is dominated by the convection process and there will be boundary layers associated to thermal and velocity elds. The thermal boundary layer thickness is T HRaH
1/4
see Eq. (5.11).
The velocity and the momentum boundary layer thickness are respectively, 1/2 vs RaH , and ts = P r1/2 T . H These results suggest that the variation of T and v inside the enclosure as shown in Fig. 5.7(b). These structures lead to the ow pattern sketched in Fig. 5.7(a), consisting of a vertical plume and horizontal jet like ows. Depending on the value of RaH , one of these ows will play dominant role in the heat transfer process. The vertical plume will be dominant when T < L and the horizontal jet becomes important when the heat conduction across the top and bottom plates is dominated by the convection. Using this physical picture, the following conditions can be written, 1. Vertical Plume: T < L H L
1/4
< RaH
(5.27)
5.3. MIXED CONVECTION

2. Horizontal Jet: Qcond < Qconvec T f L < (vs T )cp T H
71
H L
> RaH
1/4
(5.28)
The above two conditions identify four different regime of natural convective ow inside a rectangular cavity depending on the values of (H/L) and RaH as shown in Fig. 5.8.
Q / depth ~ f ( T / L) H
Tall system
1.E+04
H/L
I
1.E+02
Q / depth ~ f ( T / L) H
III
1.E+00 1.E+00 1.E-02 1.E+04
Q / depth ~ f (T / T , f ) H
1.E+08
Shallow system
Q / depth ~ f (T / T , f ) H
1.E-04
T IV
Figure 5.8: The regime of heat transfer for natural convection in a 2D enclosure with isothermal side walls.
5.3 Mixed Convection

Both natural and forced convection occurs simultaneously and they interact with one another in mixed convection situation. The heat loss from a building via its roof may be considered to be a natural convection on a calm day. However, if there is wind then the heat loss may no longer be a natural convection and will depend on the wind attributes. How to calculate the heat loss when the convection occurs in mixed mode? Let us consider an isothermal wall. Since the solid surface will leak (gain) heat to (from) the nearest heat sink (source), the type of convection mechanism is decided by the smaller of the two thermal thicknesses, T,N C and T,F C . The subscripts N C and F C respectively stand for natural convection and forced convection. If T,N C < T,F C then the natural convection mechanism will dominate the heat transfer process and viceversa. This condition can be translated into the following statements using Eqs. (2.14), (2.16), (5.11) and (5.12). 1. P r 1: Ra1/4 y Re1/2 P r1/3 y > 1, N C; < 1, F C. (5.29)
conduction
Ra H
II T Blayer regime
1/4
Ra H
1.E+16
1.E+12
RaH -1/4
72 2. P r 1: Bo1/4 y Re1/2 P r1/2 y
> 1, N C; < 1, F C.
(5.30)
The Nusselt number in the mixed convection case is approximated by N un = N un N un FC NC with n 3. The positive sign applies for assisting and transverse ows while the negative sign applies for opposing ows.
5.4 Effect of Turbulence

The laminar boundary layer formed on a heated vertical plate will become turbulent if the local Grashof number, Gry is higher than 109 for all Prandtl numbers of practical interest. The natural convection ow will become complex and simple analysis is difcult. Thus, a large number of Nusselt number correlations have been developed based on experimental data and are available in the heat transfer literature. However, analysis using the integral approach were carried out in the past. This analysis uses Eqs.(5.13) and (5.14) for time averaged velocity and temperature along with an assumed prole for v and T . This relatively simple integral analysis yields N uy Ra2/5 while the experimental data suggests Ra1/3 scaling for N uy . y y However, we shall use the following average Nusselt number correlation for our purpose here, N u0y = 0.387Ray 0.825 + [1 + (0.492/P r)9/16 ]8/27
1/6 2
(5.31)
for isothermal plate, over the entire Rayleigh number range: laminar, transition and turbulent.
5.4. EFFECT OF TURBULENCE
73
Problem 5.0: Consider an electronic packaging of size L H W as shown in the gure below. W is the width in the direction perpendicular to the page. This package has n = L/D number of boards placed at equal spacing of D with electronic components which generate heat. Let us take each board to be isothermal at Ts . Our objective is to nd the optimum spacing, Dopt , so that the rate of heat transferred from the board via natural convection is maximum. The entry temperature for air is T while its exit temperature is Ts .
L
Solution: Two possible limits are - (i) fully developed ow when T (ii) boundary layer ow when D > T (i) Fully developed ow regime: g (Ts T )2 D3 cp Heat transferred per channel = Qc = qs (2 H W ) = W 12
area per board
from Eq. (5.22) L 2D 2 3 L = g(Ts T ) D W cp L Total heat transfer rate Q1 = Qc 2D 24 D Q1 D 2 number of channels = n = 2 (ii) Boundary layer limit: per plate: q = h A Eq. (5.11)
2H W
hH 4 = N u = N u = 1.044 Ra1/4 H f 3

D 2 , and = from
74
q = 2.088f Ra1/4 W T H =q L L = 2.088f Ra1/4 W T H D D =
Total heat transfer rate Q2 = qNo. of plates 1 Q2 D
Q1 D 2 Q
Q2 1/D Dopt D
at Dopt
Q1 = Q2
3 g (Ts T )2 Dopt cp L L W = 2.088f Ra1/4 W T H 24 Dopt Dopt
3 = Dopt = 50.11 H 3 RaH
3/4
Dopt = 3.69 H RaH
1/4
using Q2 expression above Qmax = 2.088f Ra1/4 W T H L 1/4 RaH , 3.69 H LW 1/2 = Qmax = 0.566f T RaH H
The same expression for Qmax will result if Q1 is used instead of Q2 . Note: One should not simply consider the fully developed regime alone, as has been routinely done in many text books, while analysing internal ows with heat transfer (see problem 4 in example sheet 3).
Chapter 6 Convection with Phase change

This class of problem includes boiling and condensation. These processes involve phase change of the uid and thus the heat transfer occurs without inuencing the uid temperature. This is quite unusual from what we have learnt so far in this module. This mode of heat transfer can transfer large amount of heat over small temperature difference which is advantageous for modern engineering application such as heat pipes. In boiling the heat is transferred from a solid surface to a liquid and in condensation the direction is reversed. Since phase change is involved, the latent heat, hf g , effects are signicant compared to the convective effect. There are also other parameters playing important roles. These parameters are the buoyancy force due to difference in liquid and its vapor densities g (l v ), the surface tension , thermophysical properties of the uid (, cp , , l ) and an appropriate temperature difference T . Thus, the heat transfer coefcient, h, is1 h = h[T, hf g , (l v )g, , L, , cp , , f ], N uL = F g[l v ] L3 cp T cp g[l v ] L2 , , , , 2 hf g f g[l v ] L3 , Ja, P r, Bo , 2 (6.1)
N uL = F
where Ja is called the Jackob number which is the ratio of sensible heat to latent heat and this number is usually a small number (of the order of 101 ). Bo is called Bond number and it is the ratio of buoyancy to surface tension forces. The rst group of parameters (has some resemblance to Rayleigh number) is because of the natural convection due to buoyancy. P r is the Prandtl number. The above four nondimensional parameters govern the behavior of N uL in boiling and condensation processes. The governing equations for boiling heat transfer are complicated as twophase uid ow is involved. We shall understand important phenomena associated with the boiling heat transfer.
from the Buckingham theorem, 10 variables and 5 independent dimensions = (10 5) = 5 dimensionless numbers or groups
1
75
76
CHAPTER 6. CONVECTION WITH PHASE CHANGE
6.1 Boiling Regimes

Consider the experiments shown in Fig. 6.1, where the saturated liquid is heated by two different methods. In the rst method, the liquid is heated up by passing electric current through a ne wire which gives a constant heat ux at the wire surface. In the second setup, the liquid is heated by passing superheated steam through a tube immersed in the liquid. In this setup, the outer surface temperature of the tube remains constant. In both experiments the surface temperature can be varied by changing either the amount of current owing through the wire or by changing the conditions of the steam. Let us say, we can measure the surface temperature, Ts , as well as the heat ux, qs .2 Then, one can plot the variation of qs with T (Ts Tsat ) as shown in Fig. 6.1 for both experiments. These curves are commonly known as boiling curves. For very low values of excess temperature, T = (Ts Tsat ) 5 C, the heat transfer occurs via natural convection as the liquid near the surface becomes hot. The relationship between qs and T depends on the shape and orientation of the heating element. Thus an appropriate natural convection correlation can be used to determine the heat transfer rate.
Ts Liquid, Tsat Ts Liquid, Tsat
Hot fluid V Power Controlled (Nukiyama, 1934) Temperature Controlled (Drew & Mueller, 1937)
(a)
Burn out point
(b)
qs &
qs &
Figure 6.1: The pool boiling curve in (a) power controlled and (b) temperature controlled experiments. As the excess temperature increases further, the liquid starts to boil locally at discrete locations forming vapor bubbles. These locations are called nucleation sites. The bubbles formed at these sites grow in size until the buoyancy force overcomes the surface tension force at the wallbubble interface. They, then, break away from the surface and rise through the hot liquid. Depending on the liquid temperature the bubbles can collapse or grow further, which is a complex process. In a steady state, the upward mass ux of the vapor must be balanced by the downward ux of the liquid. These movements create enthalpy ux and thus for energy
i2 Rw (W/m2 ), where i is the current owing through the wire of diDL m cp (Tin Tout ) ameter D and length L with electrical resistance Rw . In the second setup, qs = , DL where m is the ow rate of hot uid with specic heat capacity cp entering the tube of diameter D and length L at temperature Tin and exiting at Tout .
2
In the rst setup, qs =
6.1. BOILING REGIMES

conservation vapor enthalpy ux = liquid enthalpy ux = total heat transfer, Q = v Vv hf g ,
77
where the density of the vapor is v and its upward volume ow rate is V . If one approximates the bubbles to be spheres of radius R, which are formed at a frequency of f in a nucleation site and there are S nucleation sites per unit area of the surface, then the heat ux is 4 3 qs = R S f v hf g . (6.2) 3 The bubble radius is determined by the balance among buoyancy, surface tension and viscous drag forces. For example, the buoyancy and surface tension forces are competing at the moment of detachment and thus
R Vapor bubble, v l
CR
4 3 R g (l v ) 3
C R.
The constant C depends on the surfaceliquid properties such as the contact angle, etc. The above expression gives R C1 g (l v )
1/2
(6.3)
As the excess temperature is increased further, the frequency of the bubble formation increases and the vapor bubbles start to interact forming slugs and columns. This boiling is called nucleate boiling and it occurs for 5 < T 30. The simple treatment given above outlines the basic elements involved in the analysis of nucleate boiling and there are many details which are beyond the level of this module. If one carefully accounts for them then a relationship of the form given in Fig. 6.2 results for the surface heat ux. Up to T 30, the boiling curve behaves in the same way in the above two experiments and the surface heat ux attains a maximum value, which is called critical heat ux (this is about 106 W/m2 for water). As the excess temperature increases further, a thin vapor lm is formed on the surface. The heat transfer occurs mainly by conduction through the vapor layer and thus one gets, in simple terms, T v lm , (6.4) qs for the lm thickness. However, the vaporliquid interface is unstable and thus vapor bubles escape intermittently leading to unsteady nucleate boiling. Also, the droplets can descent into the lm layer intermittently (this will modify the above equation for lm ). Thus, this region is called transition regime. From the above equation, one sees that the lm thickness increases if T is increased. This impedes the heat transfer rate leading to a decrease in the heat ux and qs attains a minimum value at T 120 C. Under these conditions, the droplets are suspended near
78
the surface, but they are not allowed to touch the surface by the vapor layer and the vapor layer acts as a lubrication layer. This effect is called Leidenfrost effect and the corresponding T is called Leidenfrost temperature, where the heat ux attains a minimum. After this the heat ux continues to increase with T because of the greater role played by radiation heat transfer across the lm. This high temperature mode is called lm boiling. In the power controlled experiment (see Fig. 6.1), the transition regime is absent. As the imposed heat ux increases slightly above the maximum value, qmax , the surface temperature increases abruptly to the value associated with the lm boiling portion of the boiling curve. In most cases, this temperature will usually be above the melting point of the surface material and thus the heating surface burns up. Hence, qmax is often called burnout point or boiling crisis. When the power controlled experiment is run in reverse by decreasing the heat ux, the excess temperature decreases along the lm boiling portion of the boiling curve until qmin is reached. After attaining this point, the surface temperature suddenly drops to the value associated with the nucleate boiling regime. Thus, the boiling curve in power controlled mode not only depends on qs but also on the history, ie., on the previous value of qs , showing a hysteresis.
q s = l h fg g( l v )
1/ 2
c p ,l T
q s ,max = 0 . 146 h fg v
g( l v )
2 v
log ( q s )
Free convection
chapter NC
q s ,min = 0 . 09 h fg v
Nucleate
Bubbles Slugs
law er w Po
Transition
10
30
120
Figure 6.2: The regimes of boiling curve and ow pattern in pool boiling of saturated water at atmospheric pressure. hrad is the heat transfer coefcient for radia4 tion, hrad ([Ts4 Tsat ])/(Ts Tsat ), with as StefanBoltzmann constant. The above discussion can be summarised as in Fig. 6.2 along with the following points: 1. the surface heat ux varies as g in nucleate boiling regime and it varies as g 1/4 for lm boiling regime. However, experiments show that the heat ux is nearly independent of gravity in nucleate boiling regime.
E "
q s as in the previous
g( l v )
( l
+ v )2
Film Boiling
@ 9 9 A
C B B D !
3 2 2 4
6 5 5 7
C sf h fg Pr ln
& % ' %
3
8
) ( & ( ' % 0
) ( 0
1/ 4
4/3 h 4 / 3 = hconv + hrad h 1 / 3 3 h = hconv + hrad if hconv > hrad 4
1/ 4
6.1. BOILING REGIMES
79
2. the maximum heat ux strongly depends on the pressure via latent heat and surface tension. For example near critical pressure, qmax approaches zero since hf g approaches zero. The surface roughness will play an important role in boiling heat transfer by promoting nucleate boiling and this effect will come via C1 in Eq. (6.3). This effect of surface roughness suggests that it can be used in some form for augmentation of nucleate boiling.
80
Problem 6.0: In the case shown below determine (a) Ts , using your conduction theory, (b) qs , and (c) Ts using boiling heat transfer correlation in Fig. 6.2.
Saturated water at 1 atm. & qv = 7 E07 = 50 W/m-k W/m3 & qs 15 mm Ts
insulated T = 270 o C
Solution:a) d2 T 2 + qv = 0 with dy T (0) = 270 C and qv 2 y 2 dT dy =0

0
= T (y) = 270 = Ts = T (H) = 270
7 107 (15 106 )2 = 112.5 C 2 50
b) surface heat ux qs =
dT dy
= 1.05 106 W m2
H
c) Using boiling heat transfer correlation: T = Ts Tsat = 112.5 100 = 12.5 C = nucleate boiling with slugs (see Fig. 6.2) q s = l h f g
6
g(l v )
1/2
cp,l T Csf hf g P rln
9.8 (961.5 0.596) 1.05E06 = 27810 2256.7E03 58.9E 03
1/2
4.216E03 T 0.006 2256.7E03 1.7231
(numerical values are taken from Tables in ref. 1, 2. Also note that the value of Cs,f will depend on liquidsurface material combination. In the above example the plate is taken to be copper.) = Ts = Tsat +T = 108.92 C (error = 3.2%)
6.2. CONDENSATION
81
6.2 Condensation
Condensation is the reverse of boiling and it occurs when a vapor comes in contact with cool surface at a temperature below Tsat for the given pressure. You may have noticed water droplets formed on glass window panes in your home during cold winter days. These droplets are because of dropwise condensation, which occurs when the surface has substances that inhibit surface wetting. Usually, the condensate form a lm on the surface, as shown in Fig. 6.3(a), and move downward due to gravity. The condensate ow has three distinct regions: laminar, transition, and turbulent.
x, u Laminar Re 30 Vapor at Tsat Re 1800 Ts < Tsat x, u
y, v
(a)
L
y, v
(b)
Vapor at Tsat linear T Ts v Tsat x
Ts < Tsat
Turbulent & qs dy
& h m
& hg dm
& & m + dm
v g dy
dx + d
l g
Figure 6.3: Film condensation over a cooled vertical surface. (a) Different regimes and (b) laminar lm condensation and its attributes. In all cases, the condensate provides resistance to heat transfer between the vapor and the surface. Thus to maintain high heat transfer rates, dropwise condensation is better than lm condensation at least by an order of magnitude. However maintaining dropwise condensation is difcult because of its unsteady nature, effect of surface tension, the uncertainty associated with the location of nucleation sites, etc. Because of these factors analysing dropwise condensation is difcult. The condenser design is often based on the principles of lm condensation.
6.2.1 Laminar lm condensation

This case is shown in Fig. 6.3(b) and the following approximations are made: 1. the ow is laminar with constant uid properties and the uid is Newtonian,
82

2. the vapor is at unifrom saturation temperature, Tsat and it is pure,3 3. the heat conduction at the liquid-vapor interface is negligible, 4. there is no shear4 at the edge of the liquid lm boundary layer, and 5. the temperature variation inside the liquid lm is linear
The heat transfer rate is qs l (Ts Tsat ) = H (Ts Tsat ).
We follow control volume analysis to obtain H. The mass balance across the CV in Fig. 6.3b gives: condensation rate = dm,
y
condensation rate at y =
0
dm.
The force balance gives5 l 2v + (l v )g = 0, x2 (6.5)
v with v = 0 at x = 0; and = 0 at x = . x By integrating the above equation, v= g(l v ) 2 l x 1 x 2

2
(6.6)
and the condensate ow rate per unit width of the plate is

m=
0
dm
=
o
l v dx =
l g (l v ) 3 . 3l
(6.7)
The energy balance across the control volume gives dm (hg hl ) qs dy = 0, = qs dm = dy hg hl l (Tsat Ts ) , hf g = l (Tsat Ts ) (hf g + cp,l (Tsat T )
subcooling
3 4
if cp,l (Tsat T )
hf g .
(6.8)
a single component vapor v/x = 0, v, velocity of the condensate is maximum at x = . 5 Eq. (6.5) can also be obtained from l u v v +v x y = dp 2v + l 2 + l g, dy x (6.A)
with dp/dy = v g and neglecting the advective (inertial) terms.
6.2. CONDENSATION
Using Eq. (6.7) in the above equation and solving for gives 4l l (Tsat Ts ) = g hf g (l v ) and
1/4
83
y 1/4 .
1/4
(6.9)
3 g hf g (l v ) l H= = l 4 l (Tsat Ts )
y 1/4 .
(6.10)
The average Nusselt number is N uL = HL 1 , with H l L

3 L o
4 H dy = HL 3
1/4
L g hf g (l v ) N uL = 0.943 l l (Tsat Ts )
(6.11)
which is within 3% of the experimentally measured values when the uid properties at lm temperature, Tf = (Tsat + Ts )/2, and the latent heat at Tsat are used. The following points are to be noted: 1. Relaxing assumptions 4 and 5 introduces a small correction to the above result which can be ignored. 2. To account for the sub-cooling effect, see Eq. (6.8), the augmented latent heat of formation hf g = hf g [1 + 0.68 Ja] with Ja as the Jacob number,6 should be used instead of hf g in Eqs. (6.10) and (6.11). 3. Also, Eq. (6.11) can be used for condensation over plates inclined at an angle , with respect to vertical axis, by replacing g by g cos for moderate values of . 4. The process of condensation on the inner and outer surfaces of a vertical tube of radius R can also be analysed using Eq. (6.11), if R . 5. Equation. (6.11), can also be used for laminar lm condensation on horizontal cylinder of diameter D after replacing 0.943 by 0.729 and L by D. The average rate of heat transfer per unit width of the plate is Q = HL(Tsat Ts ) = l (Tsat Ts )N uL = mL hf g [1 + 0.36 Ja], (6.12)
which shows that the average heat transfer rate increases with the degree of subcooling and the latent heat of the condensate. The condensate moving down because of graity become turbulent when Rey 4my /l > 1800.
6
Ja =
cpl (Tsat Ts ) hf g
84
A number of correlations are available, see books on heat transfer, for this situation to calculate the average condensation rate. Another case of engineering interest is the condensation of vapor owing through tubes. Examples for this are, condensers used in refrigeration and airconditioning systems and steam power plants. The condensation process in this situation is complicated and depends strongly on the velocity of vapor ow. If this velocity is small (v Vv D/v < 3.5104 ), then the condensation process is dominated by the natural convection and thus Eq. (6.11) can be used to obtain the average heat transfer rate. However, at higher velocities, the two phase ow becomes annular and the analysis becomes complex because of inertial effects.
6.2.2 Scale analysis

Let us consider the case shown in Fig. 6.3(b). The mass conservation inside the boundary layer will yield u v U V + = 0, = + 0, x y L U V , L (6.13)
where U , V , and L are representative scales for u, v, x and y respectively. From the momentum balance, Eq. (6.A), V2 L
inertia
V 2
l v l
Buoyancy
g,
(6.14)
viscous
the boundary layer thickness is to be obtained using energy balance. But two obvious limits are (i) the balance between the viscous and buoyancy forces and (ii) the balance between the inertial and buoyancy forces. It is apparent that near the plate the rst limit is more likely to apply. Thus the velocity V scales as V From the energy balance, Eq. (6.8), l V (hf g + cp,l T ) L l T , . (6.16) l v l g 2 . l (6.15)
g L3 (hf g + cp,l T ) l l T
1/4
(6.17)
The above equation is the same as Eq. (6.9) except for the constant. Using the above scales for and V , Eq. (6.14) becomes hf g P rl cp,l T
convec. 1
1
visc.
1 .
buoy.
Thus, it is clear that the buoyancy is balanced by the viscous forces only if the lm prandtl number is large otherwise the inertial forces will also play a role in the condensation process. For water, P rlm 40 for T = 30.
6.2. CONDENSATION
Problem 6.1:
85
1111111 0000000 D 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000
coolant at Ts
attening the round tube Design modication to change the condensation rate
surrounding is stagnant saturated vapor
laminar lm condensation on a thin walled circular tube
Determine the change in the condensation rate. Solution: laminar lm solution, Eq. (6.11): for attend case : for cylinder : hD L = 0.943(C L3 )1/4 l with C = L = D 2 ghf g (l v ) l l (Tsat Ts )
hD D = 0.729(C D3 )1/4 , l
Area for condensation is D W = 2L W, Heat transfer rate = condensation rate hf g = QL mL = , mD QD
but Q = hA(Tsat Ts )
hL 2L(Tsat Ts ) mL = = 1.155 mD hD D(Tsat Ts )
Therefore the change in the condensation rate is about 16%.
86
Reference
1. Holman, J. P. Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill. 9th edition, 2002, ISBN 0-07240655-0. 2. Incropera, F. and Dewitt, D. P. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 5th edition, 2002, ISBN 0-471-38650-2. 3. A. F. Mills. Basic heat and mass transfer, Prentice Hall, 2nd edition, 1999, ISBN 0-13-096247-3. 4. Kays, W. M., Crawford, M. and Weigand, B. Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 4th edition, 2005, ISBN 007-123829-8. 5. W. M. Kays & A.L. London. Compact heat exchangers, McGrawHill, New York, 1984 6. S. Kakac, R. K. Shah, & W. Aung. Handbook of singlephase convective heat transfer, Wiley, New York, 1987.
Chapter 7 Appendix
Appendix - 2.0: A close at energy conservation equation
The energy is contained in the uid as internal (thermal) energy, e, and as kinetic (mechanical) energy, KE. The internal energy is obtained from thermodynamic consideration. The kinetic energy per unit mass is given by the well known form 0.5(u2 + v 2 + w2 ). The sum of these two quantities is called total energy and is denoted by et = e + KE in Fig. 7.1. The rate of energy ux, given by uet , enu zx + u zx dz z u yx y
u yx +
dy
-[ xx p ]u
ug x
[ xx p ]u +
uet + x
u yx
[ xx p ]u dx x x
[ uet + x ] + [ uet + x ] dx
u zx
Figure 7.1: Rate of work performed by the surface stresses and body forces acting in the x direction on the uid in a control volume. tering into and leaving the control volume is shown by the block arrow in Fig. 7.1. This gure also shows the rate of work performed by the surface stresses and body forces acting in the x direction. Similar expressions can be written by considering the surface and body forces acting in y and z directions. Now the law of conservation of energy, the rst law of thermodynamics, can be applied to the uid in the control volume. This law states that the sum of the rate of energy uxes entering the control volume through its boundaries must be equal to the rate of increase of energy contained in the uid inside the control volume. This energy balance can therefore be written as dEi = dW + dEc + dEM . (7.1) The dot above the individual term represents that this equation is a rate equation. The rate of energy increase inside the control volume is dEi . The energy transferred 87
88
CHAPTER 7. APPENDIX
by the forces acting on the uid in the control volume is given by dW . dEc is the energy transported with the uid which crosses the control volume boundaries by the bulk uid motion. All other forms of energy transported across the boundary by molecular movements, for example heat conduction, is given by dEM . For our purpose, the work added to the uid will be considered positive (in Thermodynamics work done by the uid is +ve). The rate of work performed by the forces acting in the x direction on the volume element per unit area is shown in Fig. 7.1. This work is positive when the forces act in the ow direction and negative when they act in opposite to the ow direction. The energy transport by the molecular movement represented by dEM is denoted by i in Fig. 7.1. Taking the stock of the rate of energy entering and leaving and the work done on the control volume one can write the following et dEi = dx dy dz t ui et dEc = dx dy dz xi i dEM = dx dy dz xi ij ui pui dW = dx dy dz ui gi + . xj xi (7.2) (7.3) (7.4) (7.5)
Substituting Eqs.(7.2)-(7.5) into Eq. (7.1), one obtains a balance equation for total energy, et , as et ui et i pui ij ui + = + + ui gi . t xi xi xi xj (7.6)
The two terms on the lefthandside of the above equation are respectively the temporal and the convective changes in the total energy of the uid. The rst term on the righthandside is because of the energy transport by heat conduction and other molecular processes. In a single component uid, which is of interest here, i is totally given by the Fouriers law of heat conduction: i = f (T /xi ), where f and T are respectively thermal conductivity and temperature of the uid. The next two terms represent the work performed by the surface forces while the last term denotes the work performed by the body force. As noted above et is the total energy which includes the thermal and kinetic energy of the uid. We are interested in studying the heat transfer which directly depends on the temperature distribution in the uid as note in Eq. (1.1). Thus, it is instructive to obtain a balance equation for temperature variation which can be obtained from the internal energy, e, or enthalpy, h, equation. By subtracting ui times the momentum equation from Eq. (7.6), the transport equation for the internal energy can be obtained as De i ui ui = p + ij . Dt xi xi xj (7.7)
The momentum equation is Dui p ij = + + gi . Dt xi xj (7.8)
89 Using Eq. (7.7) and the thermodynamic relations: e = hp/ and dh = cp dT + [1 + ( ln / ln T )p ]dp/1 one can write cp DT 2T = f Dt xi xi ln ln T ui Dp + ij . Dt xj (7.9)
after using the Fourier law of conduction for i . If one assumes the uid to be an ideal gas then the coefcient for Dp/Dt term becomes unity. The last term in Eq. (7.9), which can be shown to be a positive denite quantity, is the viscous dissipation term representing the conversion of mechanical energy into heat by the action of uid viscosity. The magnitude of this term and Dp/Dt are signicant only if the uid is moving at a speed comparable to the speed of sound. However, the Dp/Dt term becomes important in some cases where there is a large variation of pressure in the ow as in the internal combustion engines. Also, if the uid is very viscous, signicant heat can be produced even at relatively low speeds, for example as in oil lubricated journal bearings.
Appendix - 2.1: Nondimensional Equations and Parameters

The governing equations obtained earlier in this chapter describes the ow and thermal elds in viscous uid ow. A complete analysis of these equations is a difcult task even for computer simulation. Thus, it is highly desirable to simplify these equations. The simplications can be made for very small and very large Reynolds numbers. The ows which are of engineering interest are usually at high Reynolds number, Re. In high Re ows involving heat transfer from or to the uid and the viscous effects occur over a thin region of size adjacent to the solid boundary. This observation was rst made by Ludwig Prandtl and he called this thin region as boundary layer. Figure 2.3 shows this situation for a ow, at free stream velocity U and temperature T , over a at plate which is at temperature Tw . The thickness of the thin region can be different for ow and thermal elds. Generally, this thickness is dened as the thickness over which the quantity of interest attains 99% of its free stream value. We will introduce a more formal denition later. We take the ow to be steady and two dimensional for simplicity purpose. We make the governing equations for mass, momentum and temperature dimensionless by using a reference length scale L, a reference velocity, uref , and uid density, o . The temperature is made dimensionless using a suitable temperature difference T , so that the dimensionless temperature T + varies from zero, on the surface, to unity, in the free stream. The dimensionless governing equations are mass :
1
+ u+ + v + + = 0, x+ y +
(7.10)
From thermodynamics dh = cp dT +
1 T
This relationship can be obtained as follows.

v T p ln ln T dp .
+ v dp and v = 1/. Using these two expressions, it is straight forward to write

p
dh = cp dT + 1 +
Also dh = cp dT + [1 T ] dp , where =
is the
coefcient of volumetric thermal expansion. In some text books, the second form for dh may be used while deriving the energy conservation equation
90 momentum: x: y: + u+ + u+ u+ p+ 1 u+ ++ v + + = + + x+ y x Re v + v + p+ 1 ++ v + + = + + + x y y Re
CHAPTER 7. APPENDIX
2 u+ 2 u+ 1 + + + + + + gx , x+ x+ y y Fr (7.11) 2v+ 2v+ 1 + + + + gy , x+ x+ y + y + Fr (7.12) 2T + 2T + + + + + Ec P r + x+ x+ y y p+ p+ +Ec u+ + + v + + (7.13) . x y
energy :
+ u+
T + T + 1 + + v + + = + x y P r Re
The dimensionless viscous dissipation is denoted by + in Eq. (7.13). There are four non-dimensional parameters in the above equations. They are Reynolds, Froude, Prandtl and Eckert numbers which are dened respectively as o uref L Re ; u2 F r ref ; go L cp Pr = ; f u2 Ec ref . cp T
The Froude number is the ratio of inertial force to body force. In forced convection problems, Froude number is usually large and thus the body force term (due to gravitational effect) can be neglected. However, we will retain it to make the equation general. The Prandtl number of uids varies in a wide range from a value of order 0.01 for liquid metals to a value of order 1000 or more for viscous oils. The Eckert number is the ratio of uid kinetic energy to its thermal energy. This number is of appreciable magnitude only if the uid moves at speed comparable to the speed of sound. One should note that in some applications such as hydrodynamic bearings involving liquids with high Prandtl number, the viscous dissipation can not be neglected even the uid velocities and velocity gradients are moderate. The product of P r and Ec is called Brinkman number Br which signies the ratio of viscous dissipation to thermal conduction, ie., (u/y)2 /f (T /y).
Appendix - 2.2: Functional form of solution

A close examination of dimensionless boundary layer equations will allow us to expect the solution to momentum and temperature equations of the form u+ = F x+ , y + , Re, dp+ ,Fr dx+ dp+ ,Fr dx+ (7.14)
and
T + = G x+ , y + , Re, P r, Ec,
(7.15)
respectively. The appearance of the pressure gradient in the above solution form represents the inuence of geometry of the surface on the velocity and temperature distributions. The above solution forms apply to laminar as well as turbulent ows and are also known as similarity solutions. The specic forms of these solutions
91 are very much dependent on the problem. The interest of heat transfer analysis is to nd these solutions. As remarked in chapter 1, the objective of convective heat transfer analysis is to nd the heat transfer coefcient, h. From Eq. (1.1), one can write hL = f T + n+ Nu
n+ =0
(7.16)
to dene a dimensionless parameter called Nusselt number, N u. This parameter physically signies the ratio of heat transferred by convection to the amount of heat transferred by conduction in the uid. The Nusselt number can be expressed as N u = G1 x+ , Re, P r, Ec, dp+ ,Fr . dx+ (7.17)
For a prescribed geometry, Nusselt number will not depend on the pressure gradient. This functional form implies that the Nusselt number must be a universal function of the ve parameters. If this function was known, it could be used to compute the values of local heat transfer coefcient, h, for different uids and different ow conditions. This information will then enable us to compute the local heat transfer using the Newtons law of cooling. Also, the average heat transfer between the solid body and the uid can be computed by integrating over the surface of the body. This average value must be independent of the spatial position x+ . Thus, the average Nusselt number is Nu = hL = G2 (Re, P r, Ec, F r) . f (7.18)
Now our task is reduced to nding the functional forms G1 and G2 for the problems of our interest. However, to nd these solutions, we require the ow eld as well. The analysis of self similar boundary layers are treated in detail in many uid mechanics text books. We will borrow these results as we require for analysis. Another important parameter in the boundary layer is the shear stress at the wall. In the dimensionless form, this is given by Cf = w 2 = 2 uref /2 Re u+ n+ .
n+ =0
(7.19)
From Eq. (7.14), Cf = F1 (x+ , Re, dp+ /dx+ , F r). Under some circumstances, we can get a direct relationship between N u and Cf . We shall explore these relations in the next chapter and understand why it occurs.
92
CHAPTER 7. APPENDIX
Appendix - 3.0: Solution to laminar thermal boundary layer on a at plate

To nd a solution to Eq. (3.18), let us follow the prole method used for momentum transfer problem. From Eq. (3.21) = 3 2 y T 1 2 y T
3
(7.20)
Using Eqs. (3.13) and (3.21), the energy thickness, e , and the Stanton number, Stx , respectively become e = 3 r2 r4 20 280 , and Stx = 3 , 2T U
where r = T /. Substituting the above expressions into Eq. (3.18) and carrying out the required algebra one gets r3 + 4xr2 13 dr 13 1 = = , dx 14 14 P r (7.21)
4 dr 3 x dx 3
for r 1. This condition implies T which also means P r 3 r = , the above equation can be simply written as d 3 + = dx 4x which has a general solution: = r3 = C1 x3/4 + 13 14P r 3 4x 13 , 14P r
1. Substituting
(7.22)
The value of C1 is obtained by imposing the boundary condition on r. If one considers the situation shown in Fig. 2.3 or 3.1, where the thermal and velocity boundary layers start to grown from the same location then evaluating C1 is not possible. Alternatively, let us consider the situation shown in Fig. 3.2, where the plate is initially unheated upto a distance xo . Now r = 0 at x = xo since the thermal boundary layer starts to grow from xo . For this condition, one get C1 = 13 3/4 x , 14P r o = r= T 1 xo = P r1/3 1 1.025 x r=
3/4 1/3
1 P r1/3 . 1.025 Thus, for unity Prandtl number T as shown in Fig. 3.1. Also when xo = 0,
93
Appendix - 3.1: Structure of turbulent boundary layer

Hydrodynamic boundary layer To emphasis the structure of turbulent boundary layer over a smooth at plate is considered in Fig. 7.2a. The relative roles played by molecular and turbulent viscosity in different layer are also noted in that gure. The velocity variation shown in Fig. 7.2b is normalised using the wall variable u and as U+ = where U , u and w y+ = and y , y . u
u =
y =
If one makes an assumption w , which is observed to be reasonable, in the near wall region then Eq. (3.45) can be written as 1+ t dU + 1, dy + with U + = 0 at y + = 0. (7.23)
From this simple equation, a number of observations can be made: 1. For dU + 1 = U + y + . dy + The velocity varies linearly with the distance inside the viscous sublayer, which is typically lies in the region 0 < y + < 5 t t t dU + 2 1. The mixing length model gives t = K 2 y + dy + = U+ 1 ln y + + B, K (B is a const.). dU + dy
2. For
There is logarithemic variation in the turbulent (outer) layer - 30 < y + < 400. Experimental measurements give U + = 2.5 ln y + + 5.5 3. In the buffer layer (5 < y + < 30), both molecular and turbulence viscosity plays equally important role. Experiments give U + = 5.0 ln y + 3.05 Thermal boundary layer The thermal boundary layer in turbulent ows has many similarities to the momentum boundary layer, see Eq. (3.45). Similar to w , let us say q qw and using the Prandtl number (P r = /), one gets 1 t 1 + P r P rt T qw , Dene : y T
+
= (Tw T )
c p u , qw
94
U
CHAPTER 7. APPENDIX
outer layer U inner layer
turbulent layer ( buffer layer ( t ) viscous sub-layer (
t )
a)
30
t )
25
20
viscous wall layer Outer layer
Wake region
+ 15
10 Viscous sub-layer
Buffer layer
0 1.E+00
1.E+01
1.E+02
1.E+03
1.E+04
b) Figure 7.2: Structure of turbulent boundary layer over a at plate. where P rt is the turbulence Prandlt number and its typical value range from 0.7 to 1. + 1 1 t dT + 1 (7.24) = P r P rt dy + From this equation, the following observations can be made. 1. 1 1 t - molecular conduction mechanism plays important role. This Pr P rt region is called thermal sublayer or molecular diffusion layer. 1 Pr 1 t - turbulence transport dominates molecular conduction P rt
2.
3. a buffer layer will exsists between the sublayer and the turbulent layer.
95
Appendix 4.1: A method to obtain the correction factor F

Let us consider a simple case of one-pass shell side and two-pass tube side heat exchanger shown in Fig. 7.3. The method involves obtaining an expression for an appropriate mean temperature difference between hot and cold uids, m = Th,m Tc,m , via energy balance analysis. Equating this expression to F times the LMTD for counterow arrangement yields the required result. The steps involved
hot Th,i
Tc,2 dTc Th + dTh Tc,1 + dTc 0 x dx
Tc,2 Th Tc,1 L
Tc,o Th,o cold Tc,i
q = (UA*L)m = (UA*L)Tlm,cf F &
Figure 7.3: Parallel ow heat exchanger: onepass shell side, twopass tube side. are: 1. The over all energy balance is mh ch (Th,i Th,o ) = mc cc (Tc,o Tc,i ) = 2(U A L)m mh ch (Th,i Th,o ) 2(U A L) = . m
(7.25)
2. The energy balance across the differential length, dx, yields, after some algebra, d2 Th 2 dx2 U A mh ch dT + dx U A mc cc
2
(Th,i Th ) = 0,
(7.26)
with B.C: Th = Th,i at x = 0 and Th = Th,o at x = L. 3. Solution to the above second order ODE gives an expression for 2(U A L) which can be used in Eq. (7.25) to obtain m . 4. Equating m to F Tlm,cf denes F . As one can observe that the nal result for F will depend on the number of passes on the shell and tube sides. The laborious analyses have been performed in the past for a number of cases and the results are summarised in graphical form in many heat transfer text books and hand books. A typical result is shown in Fig. 4.4 which show that the heat transfer rate decreases as the heat capacity of the cold stream increases for given inlet temperatures of hot and cold streams.
96
CHAPTER 7. APPENDIX
Appendix 5.1 - Prole method for natural convection boundary layers

Since the veloctiy and temperature variation inside the boundary layer depends on P r, we consider P r 1 and P r 1 cases individually. Pr 1 case: From Fig. 5.2(a): v = V (y) exp and x 1 exp x T x T , ,
(T T ) = (Ts T ) exp
Substituting these form into Eqs. (5.13) and (5.14) and letting the upper limit, : d dy and V 2 q 2 2(1 + q)(2 + q) = d dy V q + g(Ts T ) q V = , (1 + q)(1 + 2q)
involving three unknowns, V, and q (/T ). The third appropriate equation to consider is the balance between the friction and buoyancy in the region adjacent to the wall. Integrating this equation from zero to T yields an algebraic equation. Solving this equation with the above two ODEs after noting that y 1/4 and V y 1/2 yields an expression for N u = y/T . The algebra involved is lengthy and thus only the nal result for N u is given below as N u = 0.783Ra1/4 y Pr 1 case: According to Fig. 5.2(b) v = V (y) exp and x , v x (T T ) = (Ts T ) exp , T 1 exp x T for P r . (7.27)
with V , T and v as unknown functions of y which are to be found. Following the procedure given above for P r 1 after noting that T y 1/4 , v y 1/4 and V y 1/2 from the scale analysis, one obtains N u = 0.689Ra1/4 P r1/4 y for P r 0. (7.28)

3a6 Heat Transfer

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1 Cambridge University Engineering Department Engineering Tripos Part IIA

3A6: Heat and Mass Transfer

Convective Heat Transfer

It is a good idea to read your IB Heat transfer - Lab. handout

HOT COLD FLUID Forced Convection

1.2 Types of Flows

Heat conducted into uid = Heat convected away f A T y = h A (Tw T )

1.2. TYPES OF FLOWS

Heat Exchanger Hot

1.3 Equivalent electrical resistance for convection

The principles of serial and parallel resistances also apply here.

Chapter 2 Principles of Convection

2.1 Mass Conservation

u (dx dy dz) = u(dy dz) u + dx (dy dz) + t x

CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF CONVECTION

2.2 Momentum Conservation

2.3. THERMAL ENERGY CONSERVATION

2.3 Thermal Energy Conservation

Figure 2.2: Control volume for energy conservation.

CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF CONVECTION

2.4 Boundary Layer Equations

2.4. BOUNDARY LAYER EQUATIONS

CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF CONVECTION

2.5 Scale Analysis

2.5. SCALE ANALYSIS

T P r1/2 ReL 1/2 L

N u P r1/2 ReL 1/2 . Case 2 :

T P r1/3 ReL 1/2 L

N u P r1/3 ReL 1/2 .

CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF CONVECTION

fully developed region T D y,v x, u

2.5. SCALE ANALYSIS

3. In the entrance region the above result is invalid because T /r T /T and T D. 4. UD 1.

CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF CONVECTION

Chapter 3 Forced convection

3.1 Laminar Flows

CHAPTER 3. FORCED CONVECTION

3.1.1 External ows Flat Plate Case

3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS

after using Eq. (3.7) and allowing Y = d 2 U dx

The mass ow across AB =

Equating this to U , the displacement thickness is dened as =

By considering the momentum owing in and out of the control volume,

the momentum thickness is dened as

such analogy for mass transfer also exsists

24 Using this 1 , Eq. (3.8) can be written as

CHAPTER 3. FORCED CONVECTION

d1 (u/y)0 s = = , 2 2 dx U U = d1 Cf,x = , dx 2 if Cf,x = 2s . 2 U (3.11)

3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS

after using Eq.(3.7) and denition and allowing Y = d U (Ts T ) dx

CHAPTER 3. FORCED CONVECTION

Now, the heat transfer coefcient, hx , is given by hx = f =

hx x xo 1/2 and N ux = = 0.331 P r1/3 Rex 1 f x

3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS

Peclet number number is P e = Re P r.

CHAPTER 3. FORCED CONVECTION

111111111111111 000000000000000 111111111111111 000000000000000

111111111111111 000000000000000 111111111111111 000000000000000

0.331P r1/3 Re1/2 T 1

111111111111111 000000000000000 111111111111111 000000000000000

f 0.331P r1/3 Re1/2 T 1 x

111111111111111 000000000000000 111111111111111 000000000000000

3.1. LAMINAR FLOWS