Int. J. Mech. Sci. Pergamon Press Ltd. 1960. Vol. 2. pp. 48 75.

Printed in Great Britain

REVIEW

LOSSES AND

EFFICIENCIES TURBINES
J. H. HORLOCK

IN AXIAL-FLOW

D e p a r t m e n t of M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t y of Liverpool

(Receired 16 October 1959)

S u m m a r y - - C a l c u l a t i o n s of efficieneies of axial-flow s t e a m t u r b i n e s h a v e b e e n b a s e d for m a n y y e a r s u p o n e x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d v e l o c i t y coefficients. A g r e a t a m o u n t of u n c o r r e l a t e d d a t a is available. Efficiency c a l c u l a t i o n s for axial-flow gas t u r b i n e s h a v e b e e n b a s e d o n loss coefficients o b t a i n e d f r o m t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l cascade tests, a n d some corr e l a t i o n of t h i s d a t a h a s b e e n a t t e m p t e d , n o t a b l y b y A i n l e y a n d M a t h i e s o n L T h e p r e s e n t p a p e r a t t e m p t s to b r i n g t o g e t h e r t h e two sets of d a t a a n d t h e differing n o m e n c l a t u r e a n d a p p r o a c h e s of t h e s t e a m - t u r b i n e designer a n d t h e g a s - t u r b i n e designer. Areas are ind i c a t e d w h e r e f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h wouhl be useful. 1.0 N O T A T I O N

P force p density A area c velocity % axial velocity co tangential velocity w relative velocity w o relative tangential velocity ~? efficiency -% nozzle efficiency m mass flow rate velocity coefficient, (stators) velocity coefficient (rotors) p pressure P0 stagnation pressure h enthMpy h 0 stagnation enthMpy U blade speed ~: "enthMpy-loss" coefficient Y loss coefficient based on stagnation-pressure loss s entropy CL lift coefficient CL~ tangential-force coefficient CD drag coefficient air angle (absolute)
48

Losses and effieieneies in axial-flow tin'hines (Review) air angle (relative) blade angle (absolute) blade angle (relative) temperature reaction blade-speed ratio (based on isentropic velocity) blade-speed ratio (based on nozzle velocity) blade-loading coefficient work o u t p u t viscosity velocity of sound blade spacing blade chord blade t hvoal blade axial-chord bb~de height blade thickness blade clearance b o u n d a r y - l a y e r thickness at ent, ry aspect ratio ReynoMs n u m b e r specific-heat ratio gas constant Math n u m b e r hydraulic mean d i a m e t e r (leitexion

,49

T R
Vis V 7T

AW
(I

L
0

b tt
t

8 81
A.R. = H/b

Re Y

R
M

1)~,
,f.

Subscripts and super,script.s

I "~ 3 T~' TT p upstrean~ of nozzle betweell nozzle a,nd rotor downst, re~m~ of rotor total-tostatic total-to-total profile

,',' socotl(|ary ; clearal]ce

'~t~ lnean

'," * is e

referring to loss-coefficient correlation "nolnina] " isentropic trailing edge

2.0 I N T R ( ) ] [ ( T I O N

M u c ~ of the early information on flows in steam-turbine nozzles and blades has been brought together in the works of Stodola 2 and K e a r t o n a. In these books the values of leaving-angles and losses are presented for a wide variety 4

50

J.H.

I-IORLOCK

of impulse stators (both nozzles and blades) and impulse rotors (or buckets), and for Parsons (50 per cent) reaction blading. In the gas turbine the sharp distinction between impulse and reaction (50 per cent) disappears, for the reaction varies along the blade, which is usually twisted from root to tip. The reaction may approach zero (impulse) at the root and exceed 50 per cent at the tip. Gas-turbine designers have used tests of blade aerofoils in cascades to provide data on leaving-angles and losses. Experimental data on losses obtained from static tests on steam nozzles have usually been presented in the form of a velocity coefficient, the ratio of the "observed" velocity to the so-called "isentropic steam v e l o c i t y " - - t h e velocity obtained in a hypothetical isentropic expansion to the exhaust back pressure. The "observed" velocity is usually based on a force measurement (the impulsive force of the jet on a plate, or the reactive force on the nozzle row) and a flow measurement. The force is

P = fpc dA
and the flow rate is m=

fpc dA fpc ~dA

-

p
The "observed" velocity ~-

/pc dA

and is the velocity of a uniform stream having the same mass flow and the same momentum as the actual stream. The velocity coefficient is

e
d/) ---

fpc edA Clefpc dA

cis

Kearton a and Keenan 4 have pointed out that the energy of such a uniform

stream (p~aA) is not the same as the energy of the actual stream ( f pc3dA).
The nozzle efficiency in three-dimensional flow

f pcSdA c pc dA
is therefore not the square of the velocity coefficient in a three-dimensional flow. Kearton quotes experiments by Hodkinson and Devey 5 in which the following values of the discrepancy between ~/W. and 5 were obtained: 1 0 0.98 0.3 0.96 0.6 0.94 0.9

Losses and efficieneies in axial-flow turbines (Review)

:,i

O a k d e n 6 p o i n t e d out t h a t in a "' strip t h e o r y " of the flow t h r o u g h a turbine stage (in which the axial velocity profile remains unaltered across the rotor) the work delivered by the stage is the same as t h a t delivered by a stage x~ith uniform nozzle velocity 8. In fact, the \,~riation <}f work along the blade wilt alter the velocity profile considerably. E x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a on losses obtained from gas-turbine cascades are usuatlv presented in the form e t a mean stagnat.ion pressure loss across the cascadco (Wirt 7 and Aekeret +t al. s were a m o n g the first to test turbine blading in a wind tunnel, and the latter p o i n t e d out the limitations of using such d a t a in steam turbines. These limitations are discussed later.) The mean stagnation pressures are base<l on flow averages,

P%.PodA fo (P% d,4

A s t a g n a t i o n pressure loss, based on such a v e r a g e d s t a g n a t i o n pressures, is the loss of a uniform s t r e a m with the same mass flow and overall losses as those observed in the e x p e r i m e n t . While the early s t e a m - t u r b i n e designers recognized the existence of s e c o n d a r y losses and clearance losses ag root and tip, the n a t u r e of the experim e n t a l d a t a available to t h e m (an overall force measurement,, which is related to a m e a n velocity coefficient) m e a n t t h a t t h e y were not able to split, down the losses into separate components. The gas-turbine designers, and. lat, cr s t e a m - t u r b i n e designers, have h a d more i n f o r m a t i o n on which to base correlations of the separate c o m p o n e n t s of the losses. A t h i r d m e t h o d of obtaining design d a t a on losses in turbines is to assemble i n f o r m a t i o n on the overall efficiencies of a wide v a r i e t y of turbines and t,~ calculate back to the individual blade-row e o m p o n e n t losses. This has been a t t e m p t e d b y Soderberg 9, and it is his correlation, as used b y Storming "), which is used as a basis for comparison in this paper. Differences of a p p r o a c h also exist in the s t a t e m e n t s and definitions ,)t' efficiency and in the relations between measured losses and the efficiency, These are due largely to the use of t.hc concept of stagnation e n t h a l p y and pressure b y the gas-turbine designer, instead of the use of "carry-over" kinetic energy. This p a p e r a t t e m p t s to re-define the efficieneies and relate the differing t e r m s and concepts. F u r t h e r , ~m attenlpC is m a d e to bring t o g e t h e r d a t a on losses k n o w n to the author, i n e v i t a b l y there will be omissions in this a t t e m p t , for m u c h industrial d a t a r e m a i n unpublished, a n d a n y f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n which would increase the scope and usefillness of this work would be welcome. 3.0 T U R B I N E EF:FICIFN(?Y

Definitions and analyses of t u r b i n e efficiency are presented below, using t h e concepts of stagnation e n t h a l p y , pressure and t e m p e r a t u r e . All flows are assumed to be adiabatic, and the stagnation e n t h M p y remains constant across

52

J. I-I. HORLOCK

a s t a t i o n a r y row. Across a moving row, the " a b s o l u t e " stagnation e n t h a l p y drop is equal to the shaft-work output.
3.1. T h e e n t h a l p y - e n t r o p y d i a g r a m f o r a t u r b i n e stage

The stagnation e n t h a l p y relative to the moving row remains constant across t h a t row. This m a y be illustrated by reference to Fig. l, which shows a set of velocity triangles for a turbine in which the streamlines m a y move radially. (The angles are measured from the axial direction, and the sign convention is such t h a t angles and tangential velocities are taken as positive as drawn.) The work o u t p u t per unit-flow rate is
hoe - boa = U e Co, + U 3 Co. (1)

where
POl / P02 ;./P,

ho2 = h e + c~/ 2 ] t
ho3 h3 + c~/ 2

(2)

ci2

OI "0 ~

Stator

,?'q t p~

~
05ss

Po3

S'
$

FIG. 1. Notation. I f the relative stagnation enthalpics are defined as

ho2r~1 = h 2 + w~/2 t

h03rel then

ha + W32/2

J
'2

(3)
+

h02r~1- h03r~, = 5~ co, + U3 %, ~ 2

w~ w~
2

'2

(4)

F r o m the velocity triangles

W2 = 2 ,2 Cx+~O, Cx~-CO '

C2 z

w e _ c2 = w~ - G

and

wl-cl
,

-(Co,-

U ~2 - c o, 2 "2,

= u~-~Gco,,

(5)

w , ~ - c~ = u~ + 2 G co.

Losses and efIieiencies in t~xial-ftow turbines (H.eview)

and

5:~
({~)

hO2rel --/~03re 1,

= [':2 Cos -4-, [ ~q Or&,_c 2)~ __ ~ ~ Co: __ i)3 __ U3 co " = [.,,22!,.0 _ [ ,:2311_0

I f the radial shift is sm~ll, as i~l an axial turbine, t h e n 1 i, = ~i~ an(t

h02re 1 : ]t03re I.

The e n t h a l p y - e n t r o p y diagram tbr a stage ma.y now be drawn and is illustrated, in Fig. 2, for the stage with velocity triangles as shown in Fig. I T h e s t a g n a t i o n e n t h a l p y remains constant ~eross the nozzle or s t a t i o n a r y row (h0i = h02), a l t h o u g h the stagnation-pressure m a y drop. The stagnatione n t h M p y relative to the moving row remains constant, a l t h o u g h the relative stagnation-pressure (the pressure t h a t would be obtained after complete isentropie diffusion of the relative velocity) will drop.

02reI

05re~

-ff

!g

[//3,
2s,Sss

l:l~:. "2. b

(tiagram (impulse).

3.2. Irreversibility and losse,s The irreversibilities in the flow t h r o u g h stators a.nd rotors m a y be expressed in a n u m b e r of ways : (1) The vetoeity coefficients (, tor s t a t o r and r o t o r respectively) which are defined as the ratio of the aet.ua.l velocity to the velocity t h a t would be o b t a i n e d in isentropic flow to the same back-pressure

,=

h 0~r~l-~h3't

(2) The nozzle efficiency (~1,,)which m a y be defined in three ways (Keartona) : The gain in kinetic energy ha -h, 2 (i) ~1,,~= The gain in kinefic energy in isentropic = Jh-h2,~ expansion to the same back pressure Final kinetic energy h0a- h 2 (ii) ~,,~ = M a x i n m m kineiiC e n e r g y o b t M n e d ] n an = hol - h ~ isentropic expansion to the same back pressure

(s)

(,~t)

54 (iii) ~

J . H . HOI~LOCK Final kinetic e n e r g y - - " c a r r y - o v e r " kinetic energy = The gain in kinetic energy obtained in an isentropic expansion to the same back pressure

= (hi - h2) - "qc(hl- hi) ( 1O) (h I - h2s ) where ~e is the efficiency of conversion of the inlet kinetic energy. (3) The " e n t h a l p y - l o s s " - - t h e difference between the static enthalpies h 2 and h2, , and h 3 and h3~--and the " e n t h a l p y - l o s s " coefficients
~\: -- h2 - h2s _ h2 - h2,`.

~c2 21
~R -- h 3 - h3s 2W3
1 ,2

hoI _ h2
h 3 - h3s
h02rei -- h 3

(11)

(4) The increase in e n t r o p y

82 - - 81 ~ 83 - - 82 ~ 82 - - 82s 83 - - 83s

(5) The stagnation losses

/901 -/902
YP -1 2 ; ~P2 82

P02re -- P03re1 1
1 ,2 ~P3 ~/13

(6) The blade-drag coefficients

c.-

Drag
~p2C2

or

Drag
1 2 ~P3 w3

(12)

These various forms of expressing the irreversibility m ~ y be related as follows : ~,,: = 2 (13) c~-- = 6 '~- 1
1

(14) (15) (16)

1 ([7)

-- ,/(1 + ~.,-)
82 -- S ~ h 2 - h 2 ~ - ~_c~_ ~ N T R M 2 T2 2T2 2
.

P 0 1 _ _ P 0 1 P2 -- {Tol~ "//`y-I, ( T 2 ~ Y / ( ' / - l '

Poe

P2s P02

~T2s ! APo
P01

~T02,!

(h2 - h2s) T

c , T2( - 1)
y(h2 - h28) _ ~:x M2 7 Cp T2(~ - 1) 2 ~N [ 1+ V~--~M2] v i ( ' - l )
X

(18) (19) (19a) (19b) (20)

Y - 1 A P 2~P2C2

--~N]I+~]

for

M2<l

- ~N, for incompressible flow

Co -- ~pc21 L cos 2 a 2 2

@0

S COS3 C~m

- ~N S C0Sa~m, for incompressible flow cos2 a2

Losses and efficiencies in axial-flow turbines (Review) where

55

H e r e the different forms of expressing the losses in the sta.tor row have been related b y assuming the fluid to be a. perfect gas. Similar relationships in t e r m s of relative properties m a y be obtMned for the rotor. These loss coettieients are for an imaginary, uniform, two-dimensionM flow having the same flow rate a n d overall losses ~s the actual stream. The differences betweer~ ~l~ and ~ in a three-dimensionM flow. for example, are ignored.

3.3. Definitions of e~cieney

The definition of the stage efficiency depends on the application. In ~: multi-stage machine the efficiency is best defined as a ~' t o t a l - t o - t o t M " efficiency, Actual work o u t p u l hoa-ha ~TT = M ~ x i m u m adiabatic work ou-tput in = hot - ho.~' operation to the same back pressure (21)

[The difference between h.0a,, (at. Poa, sl as indicated on Fig. 1) and (ha, ` + %,,/2) is usually neglected. I n isentropic expansion to the pressure Pa, the density (Pa,,) a n d therefore the velocity (ca,) leaving the stage would be slightly different from Pa, ca, and the stagnation-pressure would not. be P0a.] This efficiency m a y be expressed in t e r m s of the work done and the loss coefficients for s t a t o r and rotor, ~x a n d ~R, (Haw~hrnOa) :

l+t

,]

+t2(ho -ho:,)jJ

" "

F u r t h e r , the loss coefficients are for the complete flow process t h r o u g h each row. The separation of the losses into a " c a r r y - o v e r " loss and a Made loss is artificial, for the b o u n d a r y - l a y e r b e h a v i o u r within the nozzle is strongly d e p e n d e n t u p o n the e n t r y flow. I f the exhaust, kinetic e n e r g y is not used (e.g. as in a single-stage t u r b i n e w i t h o u t an exhaust, diffuser) t h e n the efficiency should be defined as a totalto-static efficiency, the ratio of the aetuM work to the isentropic work obtained in expansion to the e x h a u s t back-pressure at zero-leaving velocity, for this is the m a x i m u m work t h a t could be o b t a i n e d in adiabatic flow. Thus ~TS -- he1 _ hz,,

h01 --

h,03

l+

hel_h0:~

These separate concepts of turbine efficiency are not new, for both Stodola 2 and K e a r t o n z present efficiency curves on the two bases. T h e concept of blading or diagram efficiency is useful only in the ease where t h e e x h a u s t kinetic e n e r g y is not used.

56

J. I-[. HORLOCK The diagram efficiency ~n is defined as Work output ~D = Kinetic energy available to t h e b l a d e s (24)

I f the second definition of nozzle efficiency is used, t h e n the diagram efficiency m a y be related to the total-to-static efficiency for an impulse-turbine stage (a stage with zero pressure drop across the moving b l a d e s - - F i g . 2)
he1 - he3

~TS -- he 1 _ h3,,
h0X -- he3
x

box - h 2
h.ol ha, '

he1 - h 2 = ~D x ~,~

(25)

The blading efficiency for the impulse stage can be related to the basic loss coefficients described above
hl-h3
7.-

- [l

~(~RW2)/2-~-C2/21]-1

ho,-h

+I (h0;-h03) t]
4.0 R E A C T I O N

The classical definition of reaction is related to the pressure drop across moving and s t a t i o n a r y rows. The impulse condition, in which the force on the moving blades is impulsive and results from change in tangential m o m e n t u m across the blades, is t h e n defined as one of zero r e a c t i o n - - t h e r e is no pressure drop across the m o v i n g blades. The a u t h o r considers t h a t it is more useful to define reaction, which is effectively only a s t a t e m e n t on blading geometry, as the ratio of the static enthalpy-drop t h r o u g h the moving blades to the static e n t h a l p y - d r o p t h r o u g h the stage, i.e. R - h 2 - h3 hl_h 3 (27) I f the velocity leaving the stage (%) is the same as t h a t entering the stage (cI), t h e n R - h ~ - h3 hOl - h03

wg-w
= 2u(%+%)

(2s)
,2

and if the axial velocity remains constant t h r o u g h the stage

R =

u~---~ w' 2U(co, + Co~) 2U

,2

__ Wos -- ~1)0~

= 21/(tanfi3-tanfl~)
c~ (tanfl~ - t a n a2) I f f13 = fie the reaction is zero, and if/33 = a2 the reaction is 50 per cent. (29)

Cx

Losses a n d e N e i e n e i e s in axial-flow t u r b i n e s (R,eview)

57

The (h,*) diagram for a stage of zero reaction defined on this basis ,s sho~m in Fig. 3. T h e r e is a pressure drop across the moving row, and tlm stage is not t r u l y impulse. The (b,,) diagram for an ' i m p u l s e " stage of zero pressure-drop is shown in Fig. 2. There is an m~thMpy increase across the moving row, and the stage is strictly" one of negative reaction on the at)o~, definition of reaeti(m. I t should be n o t e d t h a t in a reversible stage the definitions of reael;ion. based on iu'essure - and e n t h a l p y - d r o p , a,re identieM, but: only b y basing tim definition on e n t h a l p y - d r o p is it possihle to relate the reaction direeth" to the blading angles and the flow coefficient c / l '.

..... * w~

! w3 e

2s~
3ss

3s
W3S

Wv : W3 = ~

FI(:. 3. h--8 d i a g r a m (zero react, ion).

W ~ 2
50%

C
u reaction, *a'=l

m ue :2 i p s~ l,
-,.0 T H E BI~ADE-SPEE1) HA'FI()

F1(,*. 4. Velocity t r i a n g l e s for m a x i m u m 71,r~.

The blade-speed ratio is widely used by s t e a m - r u r b i n e designers. Tile definition is t a k e n as the ratio of blade speed to the velocity t h M would be o b t a i n e d in isentropie expansion t h r o u g h the stage pressure-drop, <"~ = % = < ( / q - h a , ) la())

or sometimes as the ratio of blade speed to nozzle-leaving velocity v = (:/%. These p a r a m e t e r s are widely used in choosing the operating condition of a turbine. T h e m a x i m m n total-to-static efficiency of a reversible turbine is obtained when the leaving velocity is axial. For example, Fig. 4 shows the velocity triangles for zero and 50 per cent reaction designs with axial leaving velocity.

58

J. ~[. HORLOCK

The work done in the two cases is 2U 2 and U s respectively. Assuming there is no change in kinetic energy across the stage, the static enthalpydrops are 2U 2 and U 2 and
vi. ~

U ~/4U2

(impulse)

vi~ - ~/2U - ~/2 (50 per cent reaction) 2 These well-known results have been modified to give the velocity ratios for maximum total-to-static efficiency, using nozzle- and blade-velocity coefficients which are assumed to be constant (e.g. Kearton a pp. 180, 213). Essentially, such analyses give the optimum reaction for a given work loading on the stage, but only if the total-to-static efficiency is the criterion of performance. A further point may be made concerning the use of the velocity ratio. Not only are the usual plots of efficiency against the velocity ratio (e.g. Keenan 1~ p. 156) for total-to-static efficiency, but also they are designefficiency plots. They do not represent the off-design performance of turbines designed for the conditions of maximum efficiency. For example, one of the plots of total-to-static efficiency given later in Fig. 17 is for a zero-reaction stage, and all points on the curve represent possible designs for zero reaction. B u t a turbine stage designed at ( v ) = 0.5 would be required to operate at reactions other than zero off-design, and the curve does not represent its off-design performance. In the majority of turbine applications it is the "total-to-total" efficiency which is important, and the variation of efficiency with reaction at a given stage-loading is not too critical (see Section 7). The gas-turbine designer usually uses a blade-loading criterion AW
r U2 -

hOl-hOa -- h l - / t 3
U2 U2 - ~?TT/2V~s

(31)

or

= 1/(2v 2) for an impulse stage

= 1/v 2 for a 50 per cent reaction stage

6.0 C O R R E L A T I O N OF LOSS C O E F F I C I E N T S For incompressible flow through a row of blades the stagnation pressure loss might be expected to be a function of several parameters,

~P0 = f (blade geometry, S, L, H, p, t, c2, #, 3, entry-boundary-layer

parameters and turbulence level),
~0
= f (Re, blade geometry, S / L , t / L , H / L , $ / L , entry-boundary-layer para-

meters and turbulence level).

(32)

Losses and efficiencies in axial-flow turbines (Review}

5!~

In compressible flow of a perfect gas the ~'enthalpy loss" (h 2 - h~) will be a function of the same parameters plus others allowing for changes in density:
Ah s = f (blade geometry, ~b', L, H, t, P2, % /~, 6, 7- ]). a._,. e n t r y - b o u n d a r 5 laver parameters and turbulence level).

Ah~ or V2vd = f (Re, blade geometry, S/'L. t;L. It~L, g~/L. M 2, 7, M. entrv-I:)oundarv~C 2 . . . . . , ~ layer parameters and turbulence level). (33) In early work the Reynolds number was based on the exit velocity ~md the hydraulic m e a n diameter at, the throa.t section.
Dt~ = 2 H S cos ~a/(g cos ~2 + H)

This implies t h a t the flow is similar to a pipe flow, and t h a t a Reynolds n u m b e r defined in such a w a y might be used to correlate losses, eliminating parameters such as H / L from the correlation. In fact, the losses are boundarylayer p h e n o m e n a and at least two parameters, such as Re = pc2L/t, and H / L . m u s t be used. In this paper the Reynolds n u m b e r based on the hydraulic m e a n diameter has been retained, but only because most d a t a on the vuriation of losses with Re is presented in this way.
6.1. Soderberg's correlation

Soderberg 9 has correlated the losses on a basis of space-chord ratio. Reynolds number, aspect ratio, thickness ratio and blading geometry. Soderberg uses the work of Zweifel la to obtain the o p t i m u m space-chord ratio for a given change of direction t h r o u g h a cascade. Zweifel suggests that the lift. coefficient based on the tangential loading
Cl.,, = (2S/b) (t~m ~,, - t a n ~1) es'~ =x2

(34)

should be a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.85. The o p t i m u m space-chord ratio is obtained from this equation, for given gas flow angles ~1 and ~2. For turbine rows operating at this design tangential-lift coefficient (at a Reynolds n u m b e r of 10 a a n d with an aspect ratio (H/b) of 3 : 1), the " n o m i n a l " loss-coefficient is ~* and is related to gas deflexion e = ~1+ ~2 alone b y the relation plotted in Fig. 5. For turbine rows operating at zero incidence, the basis of Soderberg's correlation, the gas deflexion is little different from the blading deflexion (~I + ~1), since the deviations (c~ ~ ) are, in general, 2-small (see sub-section 6.9). For aspect ratios other t h a n 3 : 1 ~:'= ( l + ~:*) (0"975 + 0"075 .b) .... 1 and for Reynolds numbers other t h a n lOa (3;))

a,,= (lh'a, ,R~t

(,36)

60

J . H . HORLOCK

Soderberg's correlation implies that the effect of profile shape is limited. Fig. 5 shows how the basic ~*-E* correlation is affected by thicknesschord ratio, but no effect of trailing-edge thickness is included. Further, it is implied that the degree of reaction (or stagger) is unimportant, so long as the optimum space-chord ratio is chosen. A correction on the efficiency for clearance losses is included by multiplying the final calculated stage-efficiency by the ratio of "blade " area to total area, including leakage space.
0"18 0"16 0"14

0.12 0.10 :~ 0.08 0"06 0"04 0.02 20 40 60 80 deg. I00 120 140

zo u i J

'o-~ 2 S J

Deflexion ~-,

FIG. 5. Soderberg's correlation.

Soderberg's correlation is somewhat oversimplified because the effect of reaction, the Mach number and the non-dimensionM parameters of the fluid (specific-heat ratio and molecular weight) have been neglected. Further, the aspect ratio alone cannot be expected to be the only important parameter in the secondary loss-correction, for the entry-boundary layer and the blade geometry must be vital parameters. However, it is understood that the correlation gives turbine effieiencies to within 3 per cent over a wide range of Reynolds number and aspect ratio, and the method followed here is to eompare it with other data. Hawthorne 11 refers briefly to a correlation similar to Soderberg's. Apparently an analytical simplification of Soderberg's work, the correlation may be written

This implies that the secondary loss (~ - ~)) is equal to the profile loss (~s)) at an aspect ratio of 3-2, for all reactions and deflexions. The analytical expression fits Soderberg's curve well at low deflexion but is inaccurate for high-deflexion i mpulse-blading.

Losses and efficieneies in axial-flow turbines (Review) 6.2. A i n l e y ' s correlation

+;I

Ainley a n d Mathieson ~ first correlate the profile drag. Figs. 6 and 7 show the profile drag for nozzles and impulse-blading at various values of the outlet angle a n d various space-chord ratios. F o r blading of the same s p a ( e chord r~tio b u t between impulse and reaction the profile loss is given b y

};,,,-o, = -L,~,-,,) + (~,/~.~)" (};,,~,~ ,~.l -15,,~.~:,,~)

. . . .

It,' Li"
~)'2~

~:~)
"
'

where the correlation for thickness-chord ratios a w a y from t/L = 0.2 is alsu included.
I
.~'. . o.,o . L---J

I
i

Nozzle blades(a, I :0]

o o.o~
'

-T-~,[ /

I -iMi~m:: / nimu tO i ~ L i

i
j ,

? ;!
IVolues ! _-480

~- i!
of outlet-

l~'.,e~ ', do,o.~

i I ~ o

i - l ~o, o.~,~.~!
o o q

]I /

+o "t~

oo~

0.~

0.4

0-6 Pitch/chord

0.8

I0

!2

FIG. 6. Profile loss tbr conventional section-blades at zero incidence (t/L = 20 per cent; Re = 2 x 10s; M <0.6) (Ainley and Mathieson).
0 20 ! t ' ~ impuls e bl des"(,6"9,8"* II ----J I ~ 3 r i
I ,/

} 70

I
1

~?"

o.,6p-4I . . . . .I /
,

~ - +
',~\ I
:,'.J

. i

-~- -I z~,:-~
l..r

-/

J -" ,

J" 65 ~.
:-

~ o

J
!

~.8

O.14~--+~--~e~N---.--ff/--

- -~--..t-~

5 t

O'OS[ ]

-@---I~linimum for Ain'ley's'do,a~ " ~ : ~ " ! ! J L J ! J

1!

1 I

I
0

Soh,6,.e
0-2

o,=o).,io,. ~ -7
0.4

2s~
0-8

/
~.2

',

06

',

1.0

i 1

Pitch/chord ]~I(~. 7. Profile loss for conventiona| section-blades at zero incidence

(t/L = 20 per cent; Re = 2x lOS: 3l <0.6) (Ainley and Mathieson).

Ainley correlates s e c o n d a r y and clearance losses (}~.+]r~) on the basis of lift coefficient,
][~n_F }, e

( "~ + B H " ~" )

I(I./(S/L)]-cos3~i~i

~ , ,1

2 c 0 s 2 or2

(40)

where (i) ~ is a f u n c t i o n of'

(A2/A1) 2 1 + (inner dia./outer dis.)

62

J . H . HORLOCK

(Fig. 8), A 1 and A s being the areas normal to the entering and leaving flow, and (ii) B is 0.5 for a radial clearance and 0.25 for a shroud clearance. Ainley's d a t a are for a m e a n Reynolds n u m b e r (based on blade chord) of 2 x 105. H e suggests t h a t the stage losses (1--~TT) v a r y as Re -1/5 down to R e y n o l d s n u m b e r s of 5 x 104.
0,03

0.02 ~,(~

0-01

0-1

0-2

0"3

0-4,

0.5

(~2/A,)2

~+(I.D./O.D.)]
FIo. 8. Secondary losses in turbine blade-rows (Ainley and Mathieson).

6.3. Comparison of the data of Ainley and Soderberg A first comparison is made between the d a t a of Ainley and Soderberg's correlation. This is shown in Fig. 9, in which Soderberg's loss coefficients for Re = 105 and an aspect ratio of 3 : 1 are shown compared with the m i n i m u m profile losses picked off Figs. 6 and 7. On Figs. 6 and 7 are shown the calculated space-chord ratios for m i n i m u m loss as estimated from Zweifel's 13 formula for the tangential-lift coefficient. The profile losses given b y Ainley for these space-chord ratios are also p l o t t e d in Fig. 9. Also shown is the Soderberg loss-correlation corrected for infinite aspect ratio, and to a Reynolds n u m b e r of 2 x l05. I t should be n o t e d t h a t Ainley's d a t a are for a m e a n Reynolds n u m b e r of 2 x 105, based on the blade chord. At large aspect ratios the hydraulic mean diameter becomes 2S cos ~2 = [2(S/L) cos ~2] L The factor 2(S/L)cosa e varies from a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.2 to 1.4 for the m i n i m a of Ainley's data. I t is clear t h a t the Zweifel 1~ relation for the o p t i m u m space-chord ratio is at variance with Ainley's cascade data, although the trends of increased loss with deflexion are similar. The m i n i m u m losses for impulse and nozzle blades of the same deflexion (80 ) are of the same order, but it would be unwise to conclude from this one result that, for the chosen o p t i m u m spacing, the reaction has no effect on the losses.

Losses and effieieneies in axial-flow tm'bines (tgevie~) I t should be p o i n t e d out again t h a t the Soderberg loss coefficient is e s s e n t i ally a " c o m p r e s s i b l e " irreversibi]ity e s t i m a t e being based on high-speedt u r b i n e d a t a while Ainley's cascade d a t a are for Maeh n m n b e r less t h a n Ii.< O t h e r evidence (wee below) suggests t h a t for the aerofl)il-type cascades there is little v a r i a t i o n in loss coefficient with Mach n u m b e r s in the range 0.6-1.0, A c o m p a r i s o n of the s e c o n d a r y and ~)ther losses e a m l o t be m a d e generMl3, because of t h e difference in the m e t h o d of correlation, but two e x a m p l e s given b y Ainley ~re calculated on the Soderberg basis ~md t h e results oom pared. T h e R e y n o l d s n u m b e r based ()n the h y d r a u l i c m e a n d i a m e t e r is 1.8 x 10 ~ in each e x a m p l e , if the g e y n o l d s n m n b e r based on the blade chord is 2 x l0 ~. A c o m p a r i s o n is m a d e on the t)a,sis (}f both H,eynolds n u m b e r s being 2 x 10 ~, a n d for zero clearance,
0.15
014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i -T -T " ;

o.13

()"12. . . . . .

il . . . . .

: .......... : i

~ : ~/
F

"
"-~---7 "

"
"

"1

i 7/l

i-

"

" 7 7 "" I

///+'~f~,~ ~ ~" "V

l,I+"~
'

"

'
"'1i I

o.,o
-_ o.o~ ....

_L L
~,....... ~ - - ~ . . . . .

.D,,.=..,,.,
- - ~ - - ~ o / - - .

o 4
J
0.07 i
' 0-04

;W ;Y-E
~i7~o,

7 f
. .

:"
"~

~
'

<
i

'

I,>~'

>-'Y/
~"'~/--/it
f

!
" "

I
'

<~V' ,~,,o~.

....T X / - " rrlinlmuw = . . . . . ple~

. . . . . . . . . .

._

001

l
150 In.f" 150 160

i
0

20

50

,4.0

50

60

70

S0 %

90

100

IIO

120

Deflexion

deg.

Fro. 9. Conlparison bet~een th(, correlations of Ainley and Soderberg.

Example 1. Nozzle row

~1 = o,

NIL = ti}-739, t L = 4}-2(}, ~spect ratio = H/(L cos 32 ) = 1.5.

-~2 = 63.5, }~) = ~, = 0.0288, }~ = ~.~ =: 0.i}295, Y = o.U5~3.

Ainley gives

Soderberg gives ~:* as 0-064 for a R e y n o l d s n u m b e r of l05 a n d a n a s p e c t r a t i o o f 3 : 1. :For an infinite aspect ratio, ~ at this R e y n o l d s n u m b e r w o u l d be 0.039 and, at a R e y n o l d s n u m b e r of 2-0 l05, ~, -- 0.033. The aspect-ratio

64

J . H . HORLOCK overall loss a s s u m e d to be valid up t h e division

correction for an aspect ratio of 1-5 at Re = 2 x 10 z gives the coefficient (~) as 0.0765, of which 0 . 0 7 6 5 - 0 . 0 3 3 = 0.0435 m a y be be s e c o n d a r y loss (~,+), if the a s p e c t - r a t i o correction is a s s u m e d to to large aspect ratios. The t o t a l loss is g r e a t e r on the Soderberg correlation, a l t h o u g h b e t w e e n s e c o n d a r y a n d profile loss is a p p r o x i m a t e l y the same. Example 2. R o t o r row /~2 = 3 6 , /33 = 48"6,

S/L = 0.749,
Ainley gives Soderberg gives

fi2/fi3 = 0.074,
YI, = ~p = 0.041, -.~v = ~s -- 0"091.

t/L= 0.15.

Re
~:* = ~:p* = ~r~ = = ~s = 0.074 0.049 0-041 0"084 0"043 105 105 2 x 1()~ 2 x 10 ~ 2 x l0 s

A.R. 3 : 1 oo 1"5 1-5

T h e profile losses are c o m p a r a b l e , b u t the Soderberg correlation gives a v e r y small s e c o n d a r y loss for this i m p u l s e - t y p e blade.

o.22L
' ' ! [ [ i

]~

i,

:,

040

'

o . o s , ~ . ~ .
0 004
0.02

:~

--

X]O4 ~Re = 5xlO 4 - - I0 20 30 40 50

[
r

6'0

70

80 90 deg.

I00

I10 120 150 i40 150

[Jeflexion e-,

FIe. 10. Steam-turbine data. 6.4. Steam-turbine data T h e r e are n u m e r o u s e x p e r i m e n t a l results o b t a i n e d f r o m tests of s t e a m t u r b i n e nozzles a n d blade rows. I n general, the d a t a are difficult to c o m p a r e w i t h t h a t of Soderberg a n d Ainley, for the testing was not done w i t h reference to R e y n o l d s n u m b e r or aspect ratio as i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r s .

I,osses

a n d effieiencies in axial-flow t u r b i n e s ([4eview)

65

>_

...k

~ ' '

"w
J: _

"~

>.~

.~_

....

~ ~'S

~'.2

~>

-i

2
4.
,.4-

k
.:,
'vl ~;

'{-"

v m X - -

4~ .Q

4--,

o
~q ra

T.

~q

~4~ ~4

= o.

~"?~.

.2
,~ I o c"

~ & p~.~

.a ~.

:2
..G

~4

;4

66

J.H.

HORLOCK

The presentation adopted here is to convert the velocity coefficients to loss coefficients and to plot the results on a graph of ~* against e* (Fig. 10) together with a grid based on Soderberg's correlation. Where the Reynolds number and aspect ratio are known they are stated in the associated table. In comparing results the following points should be borne in mind: (i) Most of the steam results are based on force measurements; the velocity coefficient is essentially a measure of the total irreversibility, and the loss coefficients calculated are total-loss coefficients. (ii) The steam results are usually presented in the form of velocity coefficient against the isentropic exit-velocity (e.g. Fig. 11, which is a typical result from Kraft's 15 paper). Most of the results for " c o n v e r g e n t " blade rows designed for subsonic and transonic operation show that the velocity coefficient is constant over a wide range,t from exit Mach numbers of the order of 0-6 up to well beyond the sonic speed. They indicate t h a t it is possible, for subsonic and transonic operation of convergent rows, to ignore the effect of Mach number in equation (33). The velocity coefficients presented in Fig. l0 are mean values taken over the range 0.6 < M e < 1.0. There is some disagreement on the variation in velocity coefficient at lower Mach number (Kearton 3 p. 160).
FO0 [ i

o+8
o.96 _

i
L ~

:
~

=0.9o
,

i~!
'o I
(n')~

~"

i
0 500 I000

1500

= =

2000

2500

I J

\
5000 5500

I seni'ropic velocity,

ft/sec

FIG. l l . N o z z l e v e l o c i t y c o e f f i c i e n t ( K r a f t ) .

Some of the very early data (e.g. that of Christlein 16 and Faltin 17) show considerable variations with Mach number, presumably because of the bluff profile shapes. In these cases the maximum-velocity coefficient is used. (iii) Equation (33) shows that the compressible-loss coefficient is dependent upon the fluid molecular weight and the specific-heat ratio. This dependence is usually ignored, for results with air at low velocities (7 = 1.4, 211-28.8) are used in steam turbines ( 7 - 1.3, ~$/= 18) and in gas turbines ( 7 - 1.33, M - 29 at high temperatures). (iv) Most of the steam-turbine cascade or " l a t t i c e " data were obtained with three or four blades in the cascade. It is unlikely t h a t uniform conditions along the span were established in such tests. Further, some of the blade shapes have large thickness-chord ratios and trailing-edge thicknesses when judged by modern standards.
t E q u a t i o n (15) s h o w s t h a t if t h e velocity coefficient is c o n s t a n t , t h e u t h e " c o m p r e s s i b l e " loss coefficient ~: is constazlt. B u t e q u a t i o n (19) s h o w s t h a t t h e coefficient Y, b a s e d on s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e loss, will n o t be c o n s t a n t b u t will v a r y w i t h t h e M a c h n u m b e r .

Losses and efficiencies in axial-flow turbines (tleview)

~17

T h e main sources of d a t a are (i) the work of the Steam Nozzles Research C o m m i t t e e TM and that, of Metropolitan Vickers 19, both r e p o r t e d extensively by K e a r t o n , (ii) tile Swiss work reported by Stodola 2, (iii) the work of Dollin ')~ nt Parsons, and (iv) the work of Kraft, ~z at the General Electric Compan 5 of America. T h e latter is the most comprehensive but also the most difficult to interprel and to correlate. F o r example, tests b y K r a f t which are stated to show the variation of loss with aspect ratio, in fact show the w~riation with aspect, ratio and R e y n o l d s n u m b e r combined, tbr as the aspect ratio was changed, so too was the R e y n o l d s number. F u r t h e r results of Ackeret et al. s, K e a r t o n 3, Seholz 2~ and F a l t i n 17 are showm Data obtained b y R a t e a u 22, (~hristlein TM and Briling '~a on impulse-type blades are open to some criticism and are not plotted. R a t e a u ' s blades had v e r y large trailing-edge thickness and Briling and Christlein worked wit.h.a. large difference in height, between nozzles and blades. In general, it. appears t h a t tbr nozzle-type rows the d a t a of Soderberg, Ainley and the Steam Nozzle Research (~ommittee are reasonably consistent, F o r the impulse t y p e blades the d a t a of Soderberg, Ainley, Brown BoverP "~ and K e a r t o n are similarly consistent, although there is less experimental d a t a available. Some of K r a f t ' s experiments at low aspect ratios are c o m p a r a b l e with the nozzle d a t a listed above, b u t most of his results, t o g e t h e r with those of Guy 19 (correlated b y K e a r t o n and r e p r o d u c e d in Fig. I0) and those of Dollin 2 at. low Reynolds n u m b e r (l 104-5 x l04) give considerably lower losses t h a n the main b o d y of the data. The m i n i m u m of the impulse d a t a of Faltin ~7 appears consistent with results of other workers, but, the losses o b t a i n e d by Christ.lein, Briling and R a t e a u are high, p r o b a b l y for the reasons given above. 6.5. I~[.']?ct of Rey~old,s numbt, r Workers who have studied the effect of R e y n o l d s n u m b e r on losses include Aekeret et al. s, I)ollin e, K e a r t o n a and A r m s t r o n g 24. Cheshire e5 also gives d a t a on the effect of t~eynolds number. Some losses are shown in Fig. 12, t o g e t h e r with the Soderberg's R e y n o l d s - n u m b e r correlation, which is a correction for the total loss. Both Armstrong's and Ackeret's cascade results are for profile loss alone; the results of Dollin and K e a r t o n are for the total loss. It is clear t h a t the simple relation = c 10'~ ~

is quite a good a p p r o x i m a t i o n at Reynolds n u m b e r s less t h a n 105, although Dollin's work show's a greater variation t h a n this. H o w e v e r , it gives no indication of a " c r i t i c a l " Reynolds n u m b e r above which the loss is substantially constant. The existence of such a critical Reynolds n u m b e r (based on Dh) a r o u n d 10 a is implied in K e a r t o n ' s data, and in Ackeret's work w i t h s m o o t h blades. Aekeret f u r t h e r showed a lower " t r a n s i t i o n " Reynolds n u m b e r for

68

J . H . I-[ORLOCK

rougher blades. Only Cheshire's cascade tests show substantial variation above Re = 10~. Armstrong tested a cascade-section similar to a steam-turbine impulse blade of large deflexion. He found little variation in loss between 2.5 105<Re(chord)<4 l05, but a very large increase in Y~ (up to 0-5) at Reynolds numbers below 2 105. The peculiar performance of this cascade m a y be related to the blade profile which was made up of circular arcs and straight lines, with a " t r a n s i t i o n " between arc and straight line half-way along the chord on the suction surface.

2 " O J ~
I7

~erg

1,~.~

1.4

-"t/e) e"o.

o.

bT

u~

1"3 I-2 I.I

o o rr

0-9 0.8 0-7 0"6 0"~ i0 4

I ~

(Sased on hydraulic

7 8

IO5

tO6

FIG. 12. Effect of Reynolds number on losses.

6.6. Calculation of the profile losses Schlicting e6 has calculated the pressure distributions around turbine blades in cascade, and has estimated the growth of the boundary-layer momentum thickness over the blade surfaces. Results of such calculations for low-camber impulse blades (e = 28 ) are shown in Fig. 7 for varying space-chord ratio. The results appear consistent with Ainley's cascade data. The minimum, calculated, profile-loss coefficient is also shown on Fig. 10, and is of the order of t h a t given by Soderberg for low-camber blades. 6.7. Secondary losses and the effect of aspect ratio The secondary flow in turbine rows is an extremely complex phenomenon. Detailed experiments on the nature of the secondary flows in a nozzle have recently been performed by Senoo 27, and in an impulse-type blade by Armstrong 2s. Senoo suggests t h a t the rapid acceleration in a nozzle row m a y laminarize the boundary layer and he is able to calculate the secondary velocities in the nozzle.

Losses and efficieneies in axial-flow turbines (Review)

~V.~

A r m s t r o n g has f b u n d v e r y large s e c o n d a r y m o t i o n s in t h e m a i n s t r e a m associated w i t h t h e g r o w t h of s e c o n d a r y v o r t i c i t y , which m a y be predicted quite a c c u r a t e l y . T h e v o r t i c i t y in the w a k e region is m a d e up of two corn ponents, a trailing-filament v o r t i c i t y t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h the row fl'om u p s t r e a m , a n d a shed v o r t i c i t y associated with change of lift along the blade, L a r g e c o n t r a - r o t a t i n g vortices are o b s e r v e d d o w n s t r e a m of the cascade. While t h e s e c o n d a r y m o t i o n s can be p r e d i c t e d using inviscid analyses ( H a w t h o r n e a n d A r m s t r o n g 29) no a t t e m p t has been m a d e to e s t i m a t e the toss coefficients. H a w t h o r n e 30 has shown t h a t the drag coefficient associated wit h t h e induced velocities (i.e. the loss associated with viscous dissipation of these velocities) m a y be expressed ~,s analytical flmctions of ~he following p a r a m e t e r s tbr small deflexions ~-(~/L)" o+ ~

where S1 is t h e inlet b o u n d a r y - l a y e r thickness. In practice t h e s e c o n d a r y losses are far g r e a t e r t h a n t h e losses associated w i t h the dissipation of the i n d u c e d velocities, b u t t h e expression gives a guide to an empirical correlation of losses. S o d e r b e r g ' s correlation m a y be written, tbr a given R e y n o l d s n u m b e r ,
l + : + 3b t

- H!t

At infinite a s p e c t ratio so t h a t

~, - ~* - 0.(t25 0.I)75
~'~ = ~ - ~+' ~ H/b

I n A i n l e y ' s correlation of s e c o n d a r y loss, the f a c t o r A increases w i t h reduced a s p e c t - r a t i o , a n d t h e loss is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the s q u a r e of t h e lift coefficient

i.e. to (tan 01 -~-tall ~2) 2, Ys = ~:s = i-S)):f) ~ cos3

(~mJ

(The lack of d e p e n d e n c e on deflexion in S o d e r b e r g ' s correlation is a weakness, a n d is i l l u s t r a t e d in t h e e x a m p l e s calculated above.) T h e p r e d o m i n a n t effect of aspect ratio is clear in K r a f t & tests, which are r e p l o t t e d in Fig. 13. Most of the d a t a is tbr nozzles w i t h outlet angles in the r a n g e of ~2 = 76-80, so no ehie is given to the v a r i a t i o n o f s e c o n d a r y loss w i t h deflexion. B u t the v a r i a t i o n with a s p e c t ratio is s u b s t a n t i a l l y as S o d e r b e r g predicts, a l t h o u g h t h e t o t a l losses are m u c h lower. T h e v a r i a t i o n s w i t h R e y n o l d s n u m b e r also a p p e a r to be along the lines of S o d e r b e r g ' s predictions, t t Mr. D. G. Ainley has informed the author t ha~ he and Mr. G. C. R. Mathieson analysed Kraft's results in an earlier paper, A n Examination of the Flow and Pre~'sure Losses in Blade Rows i n A x i a l Flow Turbines A.R.C. R &M 2891 (1955). Ainley concludes that the increase m loss coefficient at low aspect ratio observed by Kraft (and Scholz) is not an aspect-ratio effect as such, but an effect due to changing the ratio 3I/H.

70

J.H.

HORLOCK

Scholz 2~, on the basis of a series of tests with varying aspect ratio, has suggested that the overall loss-coefficient may be written

This is basically the same as Soderberg's expression. The latter implies that ~:w~nis constant, and indeed, Scholz's experiments show t h a t ~ n is constant over a large range of deflexions, for aspect ratios of l, 3 and 5. t
I ! [ \
0'20 - \~ - -

0"24

I
Ie Kraft /x [ Scholz 0
Soderberg

0"22 - -

i,,

Re > 3xlOs

2x105 <SXlO 5 <2xlO 5 >SxlO 5 8xlO 4

~=76-80

~.=72.5 o ~4115

\
0.18 - -

0.16

0"14

\
-+\

I\ x x , xx

c "~ 0"12

o _J

0-10

0'06

.+ . . . . . .

o-o4
0"02

r
L I
0'5 I'0 1.5
Aspect i

2.0
ratio

2-5
(H/b)

5"0

5-5

4.0

L
4"5
5-0

5-5

FIG. 13. Effect of aspect ratio on losses. Seholz's results have been added to Figs. 10 and 13. Soderberg's prediction gives a greater loss than t h a t observed by Scholz, particularly at the lowest aspect ratio, but a criticism of Scholz's work is that the loss coefficient is based upon area integration rather than mass-flow integration. 6.8. Effect of incidence variation Variation of loss away from the zero-incidence condition is given by Ainley as a function of ( i - i8) where i s is the stalling incidence (this may be obtained from Ainley's paper). Soderberg's prediction is simpler (Fig. 14), the rate of variation with incidence being controlled by the thickness-chord ratio. Two of Ainley's cascade results are shown on the same graph for comparison.

Losses and efii(tieneies in axial-flow turbines (Review)

71

25

- ....

Soderberg Typical cascaae results (Binley~

120

. . . .

g, g

115

"S
o

g:

t/k =15%

'

105

, ~k

.
~ .

/S=15O/o
t .~ i i

09St

j
+40 +20 0 20 -40 deq. -60

.-80

I n c i d e n c e (c,,-c,~ ),

FI(~. 14. Effect of ineidenee on losses.

........

................ i ..............

20

50

40

50 cos J( 0 / 5 " ) ,

60 dec]

70

80

FIG. 15. Relationship between gas-outlet angles and cos 1 (O/*.~') tbr " s t r a i g h t - b a c k e d " blades operating at low Maeh numbers (M. <0-5, Re - 2 x 10s) (Ainley and Mathieson).
6.9.

EJ~ct of trailing-edge thickness

A i n l e y o b s e r v e d a. s u b s t a n t i a l v a r i a t i o n o f loss w i t h t h e t r a i l i n g - e d g e t h i c k n e s s - s p a c e r a t i o a s i n d i c a t e d o n F i g . 15. K r a f t m a d e t w o t e s t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t t h i c k n e s s - s p a e e r a t i o s o f 0.95 per' c e n t a n d 3.2 p e r c e n t , all o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s r e m a i n i n g t h e s a m e . T h e loss i n c r e a s e d b y 28 p e r c e n t in t h e l a t t e r case. A i n l e y ' s c o r r e l a t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e s h o u l d b e 16 p e r c e n t for these cascades.

72

J.H.

HO[tLOCK

6.10. Angle variation For the subsonic operation (0 < M s < 0.5) of cascades such as those considered here, Ainley and Mathieson provide Fig. 16, showing the variation in outlet angle with cos-l(o/S). They suggest t h a t cosas=o/S at M s - - 1 , and that a s varies linearly between M e = 0.5 and M s = 1.0.
1"8 i 1.6: 1.4.

/
/
/

~.~ 1.0 0.8

0-6
0

i
0-02 0"04 0-06 0-08 0.I0 0.12

FIG. 16. Effect of trailing-edge t h i c k n e s s on blade-loss coefficients (Ainley a n d M a t h i e s o n ) .

6.11. Clearance loss

Soderberg's correlation, as used by Stenning 1, suggests that a correction for clearance loss is obtained simply by multiplying the calculated efficiency for zero clearance by the ratio of (" blade" area)/(" blade" area plus clearance space). Ainley's clearance loss is B~ _ / $ t s cos 2a s

where B is 0-5 for a radial clearance and 0.25 for a shroud clearance.
7.0 D I S C U S S I O N

The surprising conclusion from the assembly of loss data for turbine rows is that correlations such as that devised by Soderberg, on the basis of relatively few parameters, can be reasonably accurate. Some of the steam-cascade data is consistent with Ainley's and Soderberg's work, but the data of Guy 19, Kraft 15 and Dollin s appear to be optimistic. The following general conclusions emerge : (i) Zweifel's13 criterion for optimum space-chord ratio is not consistent with Ainley's work, although large increases in loss are not involved with use of Zweifel's criterion. (ii) The minimum profile-losses for impulse and reaction blades are strongly dependent upon overall gas deflexion. Soderberg and Ainley agree on this statement. (iii) The weak effect of Mach number was established by early investigators, for subsonic-type nozzles and blades.

I,osses and ettleiencies in axial-flow turbines (Review)

73

(iv) A R e y n o l d s n u m b e r dependence sc/~10ocR e "~ where 0.2 <,n < 0.35. appears to be s u b s t a n t i a t e d by several results. It, appears t h a t there is les,variation of ~ with Re tot Re > lit a. (v) The secondary and clearance losses are difficult to correlate, and there is a considerable diversity in predictions based on Ainley's work and Soderberg'~ data. The p r e d o m i n a n t effect of aspect ratio is clearly indicated in K r a f t ' s d a t a and Scholz's data.t Finally, it is of interest to use Soderberg's correlation to calculate the total-to-total and total-to-static efficiencies for turbine stages of given stage= loading (= = A W / I : 2) and v a r y i n g reaction (Fig. 17). It is a p p a r e n t t h a t the simple analyses referred to in Section 5,t1 give a valuable guide to the bes! reaction for a given loading when the total-to-static etticiency is i m p o r t a m (when the e x h a u s t kinetic energy is not used) but t h a t the choice of reacli(m is not critical in most multi-stage-turbine applications, when total-t~-t,)tai etticiency is the criterion which should I)e used.

t ~0o/oeoction50% 0% ~
80 70 60 50 40

~TT

.IO0 %

5O% I 0 0 /,

}.

Blade

loading,

Fro. 17. Etficieney as a function of blade-loading and reaction. 8.0 R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S FOR RESEARCH

D a t e on profile losses and R e y n o J d s - n u m b e r effects below Re = 10 ~ a p p e a r to be readily available, although there is some d o u b t a b o u t the variation of loss with Re in the Re = 1-2 10 5 range. F u r t h e r experiments to establish the R e y n o l d s - n u m b e r effect in this range would be useful. Cheshire's 25 and A r m s t r o n g ' s 24 results serve as a warning t h a t losses m a y increase rapidly at R e y n o l d s n u m b e r s below a critical value, tbr some blade profiles. I t is clear t h a t the secondary losses require f u r t h e r investigation. T h e effect of profile shape is considered to be of little i m p o r t a n c e in the profile loss at high g e y n o l d s numbers, owing to the high acceleration (although it m u s t
. ~tenning's e x p e r i m e n t s with axial-flow t u r b i n e s of low aspect ratio indicate t h a t ~ o d e r b e r g ' s prediction of secondary loss is pessimistic for aspect, ratios less t h a n unity.

74

J . H . HORLOCK

be more significant in the low-reaction blading). However, it is probable that profile shape and even local twisting may produce drastic changes in the secondary loss. (Martin al, working with the author, has shown that the secondary losses in a low-stagger, low-deflexion compressor cascade may be substantially reduced by reducing the deflexion through the boundary-layer region.) The relation between the clearance losses and the secondary losses requires further investigation. The most useful work that could be done would be to correlate interstage traverses on turbines with the data given here. The old controversy, on the effect of the centrifuging of the surface boundary layer (an outward movement on most rotor blades and an inward movement on the stator blades) and the effect upon profile and secondary losses, remains to be settled.
REFERENCES 1. D. G. AINLEY and G. C. R. MATHIESON,A i~lethod of Performa~ce Estimatio.y~for Axialflow Turbines. Aeronautical Research Council, R. & M. 2974 (1957). 2. A. STODOLA,Damp.f- und Gas-Turbinen (6th Ed.). Peter Smith, New York (1945). 3. ~7. j . KEARTO~, Steam Turbine Theory a,nd Practice (Tth Ed.). Pitman, London (1958). 4. J. H. KEENA~, Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs. 71, 773 (]949). 5. B. HODKINSON and A. E. DEVEY, J. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 120, 609 (1931). 6. J. C. OAKDEN, J. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 120, 603 (1931). 7. H. L. WIRT, Ge~. Elect. Rev. 27, 780 (1924); Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. E.~grs. 46, 981 (1924). 8. J. ACKERET, C. KELLER and F. SALZMANN,Schweiz. Bauztg. 104, 259, 275, 292 (1934). 9. C. R. SODERBERG, Gas Turbine Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Unpublished Note (1949). 10. A. H. STENNING, Design of Turbines for High Energy Fuel, Low Power Output Applications. D.A.C.L. Report 79, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1953). 11. W. R. HAWTHORNE, Thermodynamics of Cooled Turbines. Part I: Tl~e Turbine Stage. A.S.M.E, paper 55-A-186 (1955). 12. J. H. KEENA~, Thermodynamics. Wiley, New York (1941). 13. O. ZWEIEEL, The Spacing of Turbo-l~laehine Blading Especially with Large Angular Deflection. Brown Boveri Review, December (1945). 14. W. R. HAWTHORNE,Some Formulae for the Calculation of Secondary Flow in Cascades. Aeronautical Research Council Report No. 17,519 (1955). 15. H. K]~AFT, Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs. 71, 781 (1949). 16. P. CHRISTLEIN, Z. Ver. dtsch. Ing. 55, 2081 (1911). 17. H. FALTIN, Z. Ver. dtsch. Ing. 70, 1582 (1926). i8. Reports of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Steam Nozzles Research Committee. J. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 1, 1 (1923) (Report No. 1); 1,311 (1923) (No. 2); 1,455, 2, 715 (1924) (No. 3); 2, 747 (1925) (No. 4); 1, 31 (1928) (No. 5); 1,215 (1930) (No. 6). 19. H. L. GuY, J. Instn. Civ. Engrs. 13, 91 (1939). 20. F. DOLLIN, Proc. Inst. ~Wech. Engrs., Lond. 144, 147 (1941). 21. N. SCHOLZ,J. Aero. Sci. 21, No. 10, 107 (1954). 22. A. RATEAU, Mode du Calcul des Turbines dt Vapeur. Association Technique Maritime, Paris (1909). 23. N. BRILING, Z. Vet. dtsch. Ing. 54, 265, 352, 389, 474 (1910). 24. W. D. ARMSTRONG, The Non U~iform Flow of Air Through Cascades of Blades. Ph.D. Thesis, Cambridge University (1954). 25. L. J. CHESHIRE, Gas Turbi~e Principles and Practice (Edited by Sir H. ROXBEE COX) Section 8. Newnes, London (1955). 26. H. SCHLICTING,J. Aero. Sci. 21, No. 3, 163 (1954). 27. Y. SENOO, Tra,r~s. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engr8. 11, 1711 (1958).

Losses a n d effieieneies in axial-flow t u r b i n e s (Reviewl

~5

28. W. I). ARMSTRONG, The Seco~dary F l o w i~ a Cascade qf T~trbi~e Blades. A e r o n a u t i c a l R e s e a r c h Council, R. & M. 2979 (1957). 29. W. R . HAWTHOn~E a n d W. D. ARMSTRON(~, (t)uart, J . JUec/~. 8, 281) (1955~. 30. W. R. HAWTHORNE, Qua~'t. J. Mech. 8, 266 (1955), 31. P. M. E. MAIITIN, Seco~dary Flow thro~gb a Cascade of T~t,i,vted Blades. A e r o n a u t i c a l R e s e a r c h Council R e p o r t No. 19,986 (1958'i.