Modelling a 2.

5 MW direct driven wind turbine with permanent magnet generator Report for the final examination project of the Nordic PhD course on Wind Power by Thomas P. Fuglseth Department of Electrical Power Engineering Norwegian University of Science and Technology NO-7491 TRONDHEIM, NORWAY 2 Introduction This report is the conclusion of the post-course work following the Nordic PhD-c ourse on Wind Power, which was held on Smla 5th 11th June 2005. The goal of the project wa s to construct a Simulink model of a 2.5 MW wind turbine with direct-driven permanent magnet generator connected to the grid via a back-to-back three-phase converter. The mo del was then to be tested in simulation runs. 3 Contents Introduction.................................................................... ........................................................... 2 Contents........................................................................ ............................................................. 3 1 System description and modelling ............................................. ........................................ 4 1.1 Mechanical dynamics ........................................................ ......................................... 4 1.2 Permanent magnet generator ................................................. ..................................... 5 1.3 Generator-side converter.................................................... ........................................ 6 1.4 Grid side converter and inductance ......................................... ................................... 6 1.5 DC-link dynamics ........................................................... ........................................... 7 1.6 System parameters........................................................... ........................................... 8 1.7 Wind model.................................................................. .............................................. 9 2 Control strategies............................................................ .................................................. 10 2.1 Generator side control...................................................... ........................................ 10 2.2 Grid side converter control................................................. ...................................... 12 3 Simulation results ........................................................... .................................................. 13 Conclusions and further work ................................................... ............................................... 19 References ..................................................................... .......................................................... 20 4 1 System description and modelling This chapter sums up the equations which were implemented in the simulink model. The system in its entirety consists of the following components. A wind turbine gene

rates torque from wind pressure. The torque is transferred via the generator shaft to the rot or of the generator. The generator produces an electrical torque, and the difference betwe en the mechanical torque from the wind turbine and the electrical torque from the gener ator determines whether the mechanical system accelerates, decelerates or remains at constant speed. The generator is connected to a three-phase converter which rectifies the curren t from the generator to charge a DC- link capacitor. The DC- link feeds a second three-phas e converter which is connected to the grid through a transformer. 1.1 Mechanical dynamics It is not a part of this exercise to model the wind turbine itself and the pitch ing action of the blades. Instead it is assumed that the turbine is run at variable speed to ensur e that the tipspeed ratio remains at a constant optimal point ?opt=7.5 with a power coefficient Cp=0 .474. The mechanical torque delivered by the wind turbine is given by: 2 3 12 ( ) t air wt p M pr R C l v = (2.1) Here, ?air is the density of air, in kg/m3. Rwt is the radius of the wind turbin e rotor in meters and v8 is the wind speed far away from the turbine. That is, the wind speed befo re it is slowed down by the wind turbine. Cp(?) is the coefficient of power as a function of the tip-speed ratio ?. Normally this will also be a function of the rotor pitch, but pitching dynami cs are not modelled. The tip speed ratio ? is calculated as: mek wt R v w l = This value is fed to a look- up table to find values of Cp(?). The turbine is connected to the rotor of the generator via a shaft. The turbine, shaft and generator are modelled as a single rotating mass: 1 mek ( ) e t total d M M dt J w = + (2.2) ~ ~ = = 3 V j Grid Transformer inductance

+ _dc V PM generator Back-to-back converter figure 1 System overview 5 where Me is the electromechanical torque developed by the electrical machine (wh en the electrical machine is operated as a generator Me will be negative) and Jtotal is the moment of inertia of the entire mechanical system. In p.u. values equation (2.2) becomes: 1 ( ) e t m dn m m dt T = + (2.3) For more accurate results, the mechanical dynamics could be modelled as a two-ma ss-system with a spring and damper between them, but this was not done due to constraints in time and in available information. 1.2 Permanent magnet generator The generator model is implemented entirely in dq-coordinates. That is to say, t here are no AC-states in the model. The generator is modelled with dc voltages and currents in a rotorfixed rotating coordinate system with the d-axis being in the direction of the flux fr om the permanent magnets. This model is a scaled per-unit model, and essentially the sa me as that shown in [Nilsen, 2005]. The equations for the d- and q-axis voltages are as follows: 1 s s d d sd q n d u ri n dt y y w = + - (2.4) s s 1 q q sq d n d u ri n dt y y w = + + (2.5) Here, id, iq, vd and vq are the p.u. d- and q-axis currents and voltages respect ively, rs is the p.u. stator resistance. ? n is the basic electrical frequency of the generator, n is the p.u. frequency og the generator and ? d and ? q are the d- and q-axis fluxes respectively.

The d- and q-axis fluxes are given as follows: s d d d m y =x i +y (2.6) s q q q y =x i (2.7) We see that by keeping the q-axis current equal to zero, we can orient the flux entirely in the d-axis direction. More on this will follow later. Next, (2.6) and (2.7) are inserted into (2.4) and (2.5) to get the following: s s s d d s d s d q q n x di u r i n x i w dt = + - (2.8) ( ) s s s q q s q s q d d m n x di u r i n x i dt y w = + + + (2.9) Transforming these equations a bit we get: ( ) s d n s s s d s d q q d di u r i x n i dt x w= + ( 2.10) ( ( )) s q n s s s q s q d d m q di u r i n x i dt x w = - - +y (2.11) The p.u. torque developed is given by: s s e d q q d t =yi-yi (2.12) 6 These equations are implemented in the simulink diagram shown below. 1.3 Generator-side converter

When working with a simplified dq- model it is common to neglect switching dynam ics, ripple currents and other fast dynamics in the electrical system. In this case, we foll ow the example of [Nilsen, 2005] and model the generator side converter as a simple time delay. That is, the voltages on the generator clamps are given as: s() ,( ) ( ) d contd v dc u t=u t-t u t (2.13) , s() ( ) ( ) q contq v dc u t=u t-t u t (2.14) where ucont,d and ucont,q are the control signals given as output from the contr oller. 1.4 Grid side converter and inductance For the grid/transformer inductance, the model given in [Molinas et al. 2005] is used: g g g d g c d g d g g g q d di u r i l n l i u dt = + - + (2.15) g g g q g c q g q g g g q q di u r i l n l i u dt = + + + (2.16) Here, the superscript g stands for grid, to differ from the generator variables. vd c and vq c are the voltages on the clamps of the front-end converter. id psid iq psiq n 3 iq 2 Me 1 id psiq*id -Cpsim psid*iq n*psiq n*psid wn/xd Wn/Xd 1 s I_q 1 s I_d rs xq

Gain4 wn/xq Gain3 xd Gain2 rs 3 n 2 uq 1 ud figure 2 Simulink model of permanent magnet generator 7 By transforming these equations we get: g 1 ( ) d g c g g d d g d g q g di u u r i n i dt l = - - + (2.17) 1 ( ) g q g c g g q q g q g d g di u u r i n i dt l = - - - (2.18) Which is the model implemented in the simulink diagram shown in figure 3. The grid side converter is modelled as a time delay just like the generator side converter. 1.5 DC-link dynamics The equations for the DC-link dynamics are taken from the lecture notes given at the Smla course [Norheim, 2005], and are as follows: ( ) , , 1 dc ( s s s s) ( c c c c) ( ) d d q q d d q q rloss dloss dc du u i u i u i u i P P dt C u = + - + - + (2.19) This follows easily from the principle of conservation of energy. The total powe r flowing into the capacitor bank must equal the sum of the power flowing out of the capacitor and the losses in the conductors. (2.19) can also be written as 1 d ( ) v d du I I

dt C = - (2.20) where , 1 (s s s s ) v d d q q rloss dc I u i u i P u = + - is the current converter and , 1 (c c c c ) d d d q q d loss dc I u i u i P u = + - is the current converter. This means that ese will both be negative. 4 Q 3 P 2 iq 1 id Product u_dq_grid i_dq P Q Power calculations 1 s Integrator [2x2] Gain2 R Gain1 1/L Add1 Gain 5 n_grid 4 uq_converter 3 ud_converter 2 uq_grid 1 ud_grid i_dq figure 3 grid inductance 8 The losses are modelled as 2 2 , (s s)

flowing out of the generator side

flowing into the grid side in when the PM machine is operating as a generator th

model simple resistances, IE

rloss v d q P =ri +i and 2 2 , (c c) d loss d d q P =ri +i This loss model gives a simple approximation to the real losses in the system, b ut for more accurate simulation a better loss model that includes switching losses and nonli near losses in the generator would be preferable. 1.6 System parameters The p.u. values used in the simulation are based on a 2.5 MW wind turbine. The t urbine itself is 80 meters in diameter, and with a moment of inertia 9.0 106 2 wt J = kgm [DAW E 2004]. As mentioned earlier, the pitching dynamics are not modelled. It is assumed that th e blades are pitched to maintain optimum energy capture. The objective of the generator contr ol is to keep the turbine running at a rotational speed corresponding to a tip-speed ratio whi ch gives us the optimal power coefficient Cp,opt=0.474. In reality this is similar to controllin g a fixed-pitch turbine. The Cp-table data are taken from [DAWE, 2004]. The generator is a permanent magnet generator with surface mounted magnets and symmetrical rotor. In other words, the reactance is the same in both the d- and q-axis. The p.u. values that have been used in this simulation are: 0.02 s r = 0.5 d q x =x = These are approximate values that are reasonably representative of a synchronous PM machine in the 2.5 MW range. If we assume that 1 p.u. speed and no load torque r equires 1 p.u. stator voltage, we get a p.u. flux of 0.865 m y = Physically, the rotor of the generator is assumed to consist of three cylinder s ections: a center section with a radius of 0.25 meters and a length of 0.5 meters, a disc section with an outer radius of 2.1 meters and a length of 0.4 meters and an outer cylinder with an ou ter radius of 2.5 meters and a length of 1 meter. For the purpose of calculating moment of ine rtia, the rotor is assumed to consist of homogenous steel. Using the formula for moment of inert ia for a cylinder 4 4 12 ( ) steel outer inner J = pr lr -r with a density ?steel of 7850 kg/m3 we get a total moment of inertia Jtotal = 9. 193106 kgm2. The per unit mechanical time constant is total m e k, n m n J T S w

= where ? mek,n is the nominal rotational frequency in rad/sec, which in this case equals , 16 1.676 30 rad mek n s rpm p w = = and Sn is the nominal power, in this case 2,5 MW. This gives us a time constant of 6 6 9.193 10 1.676 10.3 2.5 10 mT s = = 9 The DC- link capacitor is dimensioned using an empirical rule that is commonly u sed in literature: 2 , 2 dc rated dc n C U S t = (2.21) Here, C is the capacitance of the DC- link capacitor, Udc is the nominal DC-link voltage and Sn is the nominal power of the generator. The time constant tdc is generally select ed to be a proportion of a full cycle for the grid voltage. A full cycle for a 50 Hz grid i s 20 ms, and a time constant of 6-8 ms seems common. (2.21) gives us: 2 , 2 n dc dcrated S C U t = Next, we know that the per unit capacitive reactance is: , , dcrated c dcrated I x

w C U = (2.22) If we insert the expression for C into (2.22) and take into account that , , / d crated n dcrated I =S V we get: , 2 , , 1 2 2 n dc rated c n dc dc dcrated dc rated S U x S U U w t w t = = We see that the per unit capacitive reactance is independent of the physical rat ed voltages and currents. If we chose the DC- link time constant to be 7.2 ms (0.36 cycles) we g et an xc value of: 3 1 0.221 2 (2 50 ) 7.2 10 c x p Hz -s = = In testing, this proved to be a bit too small. In the end, xc was set to be 0.5, which yielded better results. 1.7 Wind model The wind model used is one developed at the Ris National Laboratory in Denmark. T he simulink implementation is designed at the University of Aalborg, and is availab le from http://www.iet.aau.dk/ as part of the Wind Turbine Blockset beta, a toolbox for wind turbine simulation in Simulink. 10 2 Control strategies This chapter details the strategies used in the control systems of the generator and the grid side converter. 2.1 Generator side control The generator side control is based on the stator voltage equations (2.10) and ( 2.11). To simplify the control design we divide the control system into two parts: a decou pling controller and a PI controller. In other words, we give the input voltages the f

orm: s s s ud =udI +udII (2.1) s s s q qI qII u =u +u (2.2) We see that if we give udII s and uqII s the following form: s s dII q q u =-nxi (2.3) s qII d d m u =nx i +ny (2.4) then we get the following first order systems to control: s d n s s n s d dI d d di r i u dt x x w w =- + (2.5) s q n s s n s q qI q q di r i u dt x x w w =- + (2.6) Equations (2.5) and (2.6) represent two first order systems with one control var iable each. In short, we use the control system to decouple the d- and q-axis equations from ea ch other, as well as removing the speed-dependent terms. The d- and q-axis currents can now b e controlled with two ordinary PI controllers. The decoupling controller is depend ent on measurements of the currents as well as knowledge of the impedances xd and xq an d the flux generated by the permanent magnets. However, by using PI controllers, any errors introduced by minor inaccuracies in the assumed values of ?m, xd and xq are compensated for by the integrating controller. As shown in [Nilsen, 2005], the system defined by (2.5) and (2.6) can be represe nted by the following simplified transfer functions: 0 ( ) ( ) () (1 ) (1 ) d n d d dI d d sum is T h s u s x T s T s w

= = + + (2.7) 0 ( ) ( ) () (1 ) (1 ) q n q q qI q q sum is T h s u s x T s T s w = = + + (2.8) where d d n s x T w r = and q q n s x T w r = Tsum is the sum of all the smaller time constants in the system such as filterin g of current measurements and linearized switching delays. The current controllers are PI controllers with limited output and anti-wind-up features. Antiwindup is implemented by disabling the integrator while the output from the controll er is equal to the upper or lower limit. The general transfer function of the PI contr oller is as follows: 11 1 ( ) i pi p i T s h s K T s + = (2.9) Controller design follows the guidelines given in [Nilsen, 2005]. Since the gene rator has a symmetrical rotor with xd=xq the controller design for both axes will be the sam e. We start out with what is termed the numerical optimum design, which gives us:

, 2 d p d n sum x K w T = i,d d T =T When numbers are inserted, we get: , 5.65 p d K = , 0.085 i d T = During testing, it was revealed that these controller values gave a controller t hat was too aggressive, leading to rapid saturation and overshoot. After some testing and tu ning, the following current controller parameters were selected: , 2.0 p d K = , 0.05 i d T = which yielded better performance. The speed controller is quite interesting compared to most regular motor drives, as what we are really interested in controlling is the tip speed ratio. While this works qu ite well in simulations, tip speed ratio can be difficult to control in a real turbine. The rotational speed of the turbine can be measured with a high degree of accuracy, but wind speed measu rements (which are necessary to calculate the tip speed ratio) are easily affected by tu rbulence and other factors. In this simulation we assume perfect wind speed measurements, but in reality some form of estimation based on measurements and modelling will probably have t o be used. This will again lead to some loss of production, as the controller is unable to perfectly optimize the production. For speed control, the system was tested with a PI-type controller designed usin g the symmetrical optimum strategy, again taken from [Nilsen, 2005]. This method gives the following controller parameters: , , 2 m p n sumn m T K T y = , , 4 i n s u m n T = T Tm is the mechanical time constant of the generator and turbine, as detailed in section 1.1. Tsum,n is the sum of the smaller time constants: sum,n e q,i f i,n T =T +T . Tfi ,n is the speed filter time constant, while Teq,i is the equivalent time constant for the electrical system. In other words, the time constant we find if we represent the electrical dynamics as a single fi rst-order system:

, , 2( ) e q i v f i T = T +T . This method gave the following controller paramet ers: , 39780 p n K = , 0,0012 i n T = This illustrates that while methods for obtaining controller parameters are a us eful tool for initial controller design, they are not perfect. In this case the high proportio nal amplification meant that the controller for all practical purposes worked like a hysteresis co ntroller. The result was a lot of overshoot and a high degree of oscillatory behaviour of the system, and the controller had to be tuned manually. Unfortunately none of the PI controller des igns gave satisfactory behaviour. Generally the system dynamics were either too slow, or u nstable. 12 In the end, after a lot of testing and trial and error, it was decided to go for a limited PID-type controller. The transfer function of a PID controller is 1 2 ( ) i i d PID p i T s T T s h s K T s + + = (2.10) The structure of a PID controller with limited derivative control is illustrated in figure 4. The limitation in derivative is implemented with a rate limitation simulink block. T he purpose of this limitation is to avoid controller saturation caused by high frequency signa ls. Controller parameters were selected mostly through manual tuning to be: , 1 p n K = , 0.8 i n T = , 0.01 d n T = These were found to give satisfactory performance. 2.2 Grid side converter control The controller structure for the grid side converter is taken from [Norheim, 200 5]. The original design consists of two PI controllers, one for the amplitude and one fo r the phase angle of the converter voltage. That is: 2 j c dc u =m u ea (2.11) The amplitude m2 controls the reactive power to the grid, while the phase angle a controls the DC-link voltage. In this case, the system was difficult to stabilize with only PI controllers. In particular, m2 was prone to oscillatory behaviour. A relatively common occurrence was that m2 would oscillate, while a steadily dropped. This would continue up to a point where a would drop s harply, causing high grid currents, and making the DC-link voltage to drop almost immedi ately to zero. Naturally, this would not happen in a physical system. This behaviour was

only possible because of the simplifications done in modelling the system. However, it should still be avoided. Eventually, a solution with a PI controller for a and a PID controller for m2 wa s settled upon, and was found to give satisfactory performance. The controller parameters were: , 2 0.25 p m K = , 2 0.05 i m T = , 2 0.15 d m T = , 1 p K a = , 0.5 i T a = p K 1 i T d T d dt + + + figure 4 PID controller 13 3 Simulation results The results in this chapter are based on a 150 second simulation with a mean win d speed of 6 m/s. Simulation over a longer time frame would have been better, but simulation time was limited by the amount of memory on the PC used to run the simulation. The first illustration, figure 5, shows the wind speed time series, and the corr esponding generator speed: As we can see, the speed controller does a good job of controlling the speed dep ending on the wind speed. The next illustration, figure 6, shows the corresponding tip speed r atio: 0 50 100 150 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 v w ind [m/s] 0 50 100 150 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 n t [s] [p.u.] figure 5 wind speed and corresponding rotational speed 0 50 100 150 7 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8

tip speed ratio t [s] figure 6 tip speed ratio 14 As we can see, the controller managed to keep the tip speed ratio within an acce ptable region of the desired tip speed ratio of 7.5. Next, we look at the generator currents and voltages. Figure 7 shows the generat or dq-axis currents, while figure 8 shows the corresponding voltages. 0 50 100 150 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 id [p.u.] 0 50 100 150 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 iq t [s] [p.u.] iq iqref figure 7 d- and q-axis generator currents 0 50 100 150 -2 -1 0 1 2 ud [p.u.] 0 50 100 150 -2 0 2 4 uq [p.u.] t [s] figure 8 d- and q-axis generator voltages 15 In figure 7, the d-axis reference is constantly equal to zero. While the d-axis current stays reasonably close to zero the entire time, the controller performance probably co uld have been a bit better. The q-axis reference depends on the commanded torque from the spee d controller, and is shown in red in the lower plot of figure 7. The obtained q-axis current i s shown in blue. In general, the obtained current follows the commanded current quite well, but w e see that it overshoots the reference most of the time, so perhaps a slightly less aggressive controller

would have been better. On the grid side, we get the currents shown in figure 9. The q-axis current stays quite well around zero, while the d-axis current varies with the power produced by the wind turbine. Note that the d-axis current is negative because t he turbine produces power, in other words we are using a load reference for the converter s ystem. The grid side converter voltages are shown in figure 10. These show pretty much what we would expect, with the d-axis voltage staying nearly constant around 1 p.u. whil e the q-axis voltage varies with the reactive power required to control the dc- link voltage. Figure 11 shows the active and reactive power while figure 12 shows the commanded voltage vector given by m2 and a. 0 50 100 150 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 id,grid [p.u.] 0 50 100 150 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 iq,grid t [s] [p.u.] figure 9 grid d- and q-axis currents 16 0 50 100 150 0 0.5 1 1.5 ud,grid [p.u.] 0 50 100 150 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 uq,grid [p.u.] t [s] figure 10 grid side converter voltages 0 50 100 150 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 Active power P

[p.u.] 0 50 100 150 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 Reactive Power Q t [s] [p.u.] figure 11 active and reactive power 17 0 50 100 150 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 m2 [p.u.] 0 50 100 150 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 alpha [rad] t [s] figure 12 m2 and a 18 Finally, figure 13 shows the DC-link voltage, as well as the currents Iv and Id. While the controller does a reasonable job of controlling the DC-link voltage ar ound the set point of 1.75, performance could be better. A simple way of stabilizing the DClink voltage is by selecting a bigger capacitor, but there probably is room for some controller improvement as well. 0 50 100 150 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 Udc [p.u.] 0 50 100 150 -0.5 0 0.5 Iv [p.u.] 0 50 100 150 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 Id t [s] [p.u.]

figure 13 DC-link voltage and current flowing into and out of the DC-link capaci tor 19 Conclusions and further work The simulations show that the model and controller are functioning well. The con trol strategy works well, altho ugh the DC-link voltage ideally should be controlled more accu rately. While the controllers worked very well during initial testing with simple wind conditi ons (constant or slowly varying wind speed), simulations with more complex wind conditions sho w that the controllers are not quite perfect yet. While the wind turbine model does a reasonable job of simulating a real turbine, accuracy can be improved in some respects. Implementation of a better loss model would improv e the quality of the model greatly. Also, it would be interesting to have data from a real wind turbine to base the model parameters on instead of approximate values. The controller structure should be improved by adding a power limiting controlle r for when the wind speed increases above nominal wind speed. This should be coupled with a model including pitching dynamics and better modelling of the aerodynamics to improve the controllability of the model. Now that a working wind turbine model is in place, it would be interesting to te st it with different controller structures. One area that could be explored is in the use o f nonlinear control of the DC-link voltage, as this is a system that is inherently nonlinear in nature. Also, it could be interesting to compare the current solution with a pair of PI-contro llers and a decoupling grid for generator control with a multivariable nonlinear controller that includes the cross-coupling terms. 20 References [Nilsen, 2005] Roy Nilsen, Elektriske Motordrifter, Department of Electrical Pow er Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology 2005 [Norheim, 2005] Ian Norheim, Dynamic modelling of turbines (2), Generators, conv erters and control, Presentation from the Nordic Wind Course, Smla 7th June 2005 [DAWE, 2004] Various authors, DAWE PhD Course/Advanced school 2004, Compendium and course material, Institute of Energy Technology, Aalborg University 2004.