Scientific Method

Observation
Hypothesis (has to be testable, objective and has the ability to be proven wrong)
Experiment (test 1 variable at a time)
Results
Conclusion
Theory

Water- is considered to be a universal solvent
Deductive- start with observation and ends with theory
Inductive- start with theory and ends with observation
Covalent Bond- is where two atoms share electrons
Ion- is a charged atom
Inert- very stable and does not participate in a chemical equation
Biomolecules- are biologically important molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
nucleic acids.
Monomers- are the smaller or broken down sections of the biomolecules
Benedicts Solution- used to test for sugars; mixture will turn from pale blue to an orange color
if after heated if a sugar is present
Iodine- used to test for starches; mixture will change from its yellow-orange color to a deep
black-brown color if starches are present
Biuret Reagent- used to test for proteins; mixture will turn from a clear blue to a violet if protein
is present
Sudan IV- powder used to test for lipids; the powder will dissolve and stain the test liquid a
reddish color if a lipid is present; if the powder remains clumped together and
does not dissolve then there are no lipids present
OH-characteristics are that it is a hydroxyl and is a component of alcohols and bases
Methane- CH
Ethane- CH
Octane- CH
Ethanol- CHOH

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates General Formula- CHO
Glucose and Fructose- CB0
Sucrose- CH0

Lipids
Glycerol- CH(OH) lipiu
Fatty Acids General Formula- CHB00B
Acetic Acid- CHCOOH
Lauric Acid- CHCOOH





Amino Acids


Consists of Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen and sometimes Sulfur

General Formula: NHCHRCOOH
Glycine: NHCHCOOH

Cell Theory
1) All living things contain one or more cells
2) All cells come from pre-existing cells
3) All cells have a common origin

Types of Cells
Prokaryotic: found in bacteria and has no nucleus
Eukaryotic: found in more familiar plants, animals, fungi and other groups. These have a
nucleus and are much larger sized cells than prokaryotes

Cell Structure
Cell Membrane: is a special layer of molecules the gives the cell shape, support and the ability
to control the passage of various substances in and out of the cell
Ribosomes: are special structures referred to as organelles; they perform the critical process of
protein synthesis
Cytoplasm: is a semi-liquid substance that is primarily water but also contain dissolved
molecules, gases and organelles
DNA: is the molecule that holds the basic cellular blueprint

Microscopes
Miscroscope: is used to increase the resolution of the human eye
Illumination Source: is required for us to be able to view a slide under a microscope
Reflected Illumination: is if the light source comes from above the slide
Transmitted Illumination: is if the light source comes from below the slide
Ocular Lense: is the eyepiece that one looks in to
Objective Lense: are the lenses that are closest to the slide
Iris Diaphragm: is the sliding knob that adjusts the amount of light aloud to the slide


Types of Microscopes
Dissecting Microscope: used to magnify things already visible to the naked eye
Compound Microscope: most common of microscopes, doesnt allow you to see very small
cells, bacteria, viruses and details of internal cellular structures
Electron Microscope: the most powerful microscope available; a.k.a scanning microscope

Not in Animal Cells, In Plant Cells
1) Chloroplasts
2) Central Vacuole
3) Cell Wall
4) Plasmodesmata

Not in Plant Cells, In Animal Cells
1) Lysosomes
2) Centrosomes
3) Flagella

Homeostasis: the ability to maintain an internal environment that is different from the external
environment
Phospholipid: is a plasma membrane with their tails pointing towards each other
Selectively permeable: where some molecules can pass through and some cannot
Transport: the movement of any substance across the cell membrane in either direction
Number of mechanisms for transport?: two; passive and active
Passive: requires no energy from the cell to operate
Active: those that require energy from the cell to operate
Diffusion: movement from a high concentration to a low concentration
What is the driving force behind diffusion or equilibrium?: heat
Tonicity: is the relative concentration of impermeable solutes in a solution on either side of a
SPM (semi-permeable membrane)
Isotonic: is an equal concentration of solutes on either side of a SPM
Hypotonic: where fewer solutes are on one side (thus more water)
Hypertonic: has more solutes on one side of SPM
Dialysis: is the diffusion of a permeable solute across the SPM
Osmosis: is the diffusion of a solvent down its concentration gradient
Plasmolysis: is the water loss when a cell looses water and shrink from a higher solute
extracellular fluid
Lysis: is when cells have excess water and burst
Turgor: is the rigid structure that is formed when a cell with walls has to much water

HO + potato hypotonic ize of potato giew
NaCl (0.9M) + potato isotonic (size of potato stayed the same)
NaCl (20.0M) + potato hypertonic (size of potato shrank)

All life is built on chemical reactions; there is no life without chemistry.

Metabolism: is the term for the entire spectrum of lifes processes; all metabolism involves
work.
ATP: is the indispensable molecular energy source for all life; 90 lbs. of this are used up
everyday by just sitting there; most is produced in electron transport
Enzymes: are a special group of enormously diverse proteins that allows life processes to occur
at high speeds; these are proteins; these act as organic catalysts; all end
in ase; the way enzymes work cannot be changed, but the rate at which
they operate can be changed by environmental factors; reduce the
activation energy of a substrate and the product is much greater than that
without enzymes
Energy: is the capacity to do work
Exergonic: releases energy
Endergonic: stores energy
Catalysts: is a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without altering the
direction of the reaction and without itself being used in the reaction,
and therefore be used over and over again; think of catalytic converter in
your car which converts harmful exhaust into safe exhaust which would
take years in the atmosphere
Energy of activation: amount of energy necessary to get the reaction started; enzymes reduce
this
Active Site: region on enzyme with a specific charge and shape
Substrate: is the substance or substances on which enzymes work; the enzyme is attracted to the
substrate and the two are bonded together allowing the enzyme to break
the substrate apart. When this is done, product or products are no longer
attracted to the active site and are released
Activators: are factors that cause enzymes to work or speed them up
Inhibitors: factors that slow them down or stop them

Three Ways to Alter the Work of Enzymes
1. Denaturation: permanent alteration of an enzymes shape which results in a loss of
function
2. Non-competitive Inhibition: distortion of the enzymes shape by a substance that
attaches to the enzyme at a location other than the active site; the overall shape of the
enzyme changes and is therefore it is non-functional
3. Competitive Inhibition: partial or complete blocking of the active site; this is done by
various chemical substances that have a shape similar to the substrate but on cant be
used by the enzyme

Poisons: are chemical substances that use competitive inhibition or non-competitive inhibition to
block the enzyme active sites
Rate of Enzymes: enzymes are like a like switch, either on or off; enzyme rate is differences in
the overall number of enzymes that are working under specific
conditions.
Optimum: the condition or time frame in which the maximum rate possible is achieved
Substrate: catechol
Enzyme: catechol oxidase
Benzoquinone: is what catechol, when exposed to oxygen, turn into; this is a orangish-brown
color; catechol is clear; this orangish-brown chemical is found when
plants get hurt, it is toxic to bacteria (product in this lab)
Poison: PTU
Electron Transport: where most ATP is produced
Three Processes of Respiration: glycolysis, citric acid cycle and electron transport
Glycolysis: is located in the cytosol
Citric Acid Cycle and Electron Transport: located in mitochondria
Obligate: means the condition is required
Facultative: means the condition can be present or absent
Aerobic Cellular Respiration: is the most common form of cellular respiration
Respiration: CHO+6O6CO+6HO+ ~36ATP
Glucose: is the simplest food molecule
Glycolysis: is the initial breaking of glucose (6 carbon molecule) into two 3 carbon molecules,
which are called pyruvate.
Fermentation Forms: Lactic Acid or Ethyl Alcohol
Lactic Acid: Found in muscles of mammals
Ethyl Alcohol: Grain alcohol or ethanol
Breath in Water: Water becomes more acidic if human breath is injected
Anaerobic Respiration: A catabolic pathway that consumes O and organic molecules,
producing ATP; the most efficient catabolic pathway
Ambient Air in Water: pH of water did not change when ambient air was injected
Fermentation Rates: The larger the bubble on top the easier it is to ferment over a period of
time. The more the sugar, the more fermentation took place.
Monosaccharides only have 1 sugar and are therefore easier to
breakdown and ferment
Monosaccharides: Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
Disaccharides: Sucrose
Maltose
Lactose
Polysaccharide: Starch (least fermentable of all sugars)
Sucrose: Is made up of fructose and glucose
Respiration Rate: mol/g(of organism)/time
Phenolphthalein: pH indicator
Stomata: Is the openings (holes) in leaves that let CO and HO inside the cells
Chloroplasts: Where photosynthesis occurs. They are designed to capture light and turn it into
food.
Grana: Are stacks of thylakoids (the whole stack of nickels)
Thylakoids: Each individual green nickel in a stack of grana
Stroma: Fluid inside chloroplast surrounding stacks of thylakoids
Chlorophyl: Light absorbing pigments; they are embedded in the thylakoid membranes; it is the
main photosynthetic pigment; there are also chlorophylls b, c and
caratenoids
Caratene: One of two important pigments which is reddish-orange
Xanthophyll: A yellow pigment that gives the color of fall leaves; this is because chlorophyll
pigment production ceases and other pigments are unmasked
Chlorophyl A: Absorbs every color besides green and yellow; absorbs blue and red most
abundantly; used to evaluate productivity of an organism or ecosystem;
satellites are used to see amount in oceans; to much chlorophyll is a sign of
pollution
Light Dependent Reaction: First stage of photosynthesis; sunlight is essential for driving the
reaction
Light Independent Reaction: A.K.A Calvin Cycle; CO in the atmosphere is incorporated into
an organic molecule, at the end glucose is formed
Calvin Cycle: Is the second step of photosynthesis; carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is
incorporated into an organic molecule
Photosynthesis: Is the process used by plants and varieties of organisms to capture the energy of
visible light and convert it to chemical energy
Steps of Photosynthesis: 1) Light reaction- in thylakoid membranes
2) Calvin Cycle- occurs in stroma of chloroplast
Photosynthesis Reaction: 6CO+6HO+lightCHO+6O (opposite or respiration)
Light Energy: Is stored in the chemical bonds of glucose
Pigments: Are substances that absorb certain wavelengths of light and reflect others; the larger
(heavier) the pigment, the lower the Rf index; orange traveled the
furthest on our test results for paper chromatography
Rf:


= %
Primary Colors: Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet (ROY G BIV)
White part of Plant: Contains no starch
Green Part of Plant: Contains starch indicated by IKI
Absorption Spectrum: The range of a pigments ability to absorb various wavelengths of light
White: Reflects all colors (wearing a white shirt in summer is cooler than wearing a dark shirt)
Black: Absorbs all colors
Most Absorbance: 400nm-460nm
Lowest Absorbance: 540nm-560nm
Visible Light: 380nm-750nm (380nm=purple 750nm=red)
Wavelength: Shorter wavelengths have more energy than longer wavelengths
Chromosome: Is a complex molecule formed of proteins and RNA that enclose a molecule of
DNA, the source of genetic information
Respiration Rate: The most respiration was created by the crayfish
The Animal Cell Cycle: (I PP on the MAT
1. Interphase: Accounts for 90% of cells life span and is made-up of the following phases:
y G1: Cell growth and normal activity
y S: Duplication of DNA in preparation for division
y G2: More cell growth (replication of organelles) in preparation for division
2. Prophase: The chromosomes begin to condense and become visible as distinct irregular
linear structures
3. Prometaphase:
4. Metaphase: Where the spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the middle of the cell
(between the two poles)
5. Anaphase: The double stranded chromosomes separate at the kinetochore and move to
opposite sides of the cell
6. Telophase and Cytokinesis: Where the single stranded chromosomes arrive at the
opposite poles of the cell and a nuclear membrane forms around them; cytokinesis is the
pinching of the cell (cytoplasm) into two daughter cells
Daughter Cells: The two cells that are formed after cytokinesis
Kinetochore: A structure of proteins attached to the centromere that links each sister chromatid
to the mitotic spindle
Somatic Cell: Any cell in a multi-cellular organism except a sperm or egg
Sister Chromatids: Either of two copies of a duplicated chromosome attached to each other by
proteins at the centromere and sometimes along the arms.
Cleavage Furrow: the first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a small groove in the cell surface
near the old metaphase plate
Centromere: The specialized region of the chromosome where two sister chromatids are most
closely attached
Centriole: A structure in the centrosome of an animal cell composed of a cylinder of
microtubule triplets arranged in a 9+0 pattern
The Cell Cycle Phases:
1. Interphase: Preparation and checkpoints before starting process of cell division (mitosis)
2. Mitosis: Process of cell division
3. Cytokinesis: making of two daughter cells is complete


***Last Practical***
Reproduction: where an organism makes more individuals similar to themselves
Asexual Reproduction: involves only one individual; used when organism is stable and well
adapted to environment; very cheap energy wise; i.e. bulbs, rhizomes and runners
Clone: is a result of asexual reproduction
Binary Fission: splitting of a cell into two
Budding: is an asexual reproduction
Gametes: in sexual reproduction where the original chromosome number reduces by half (sex
cells)
Somatic Cells: have two copies of each chromosome (most cells in body)
Diploid: 2n where n equals the number of chromosomes in one set; somatic cells are diploid
(homologous)
Haploid: have half the number of chromosomes like gametes
Meiosis: is the process of sexual reproduction, eggs and sperm for humans, spores for plants
There are 46 chromosomes in a human cell
Oogenesis: is the process of ovum formation
Zygote: is the end formation when sperm and egg meet
Character: is what the person looks like or appearance (presence or absence of hair)
Traits: the variation of a specific character (brown hair)
Polygenic Inheritance: when two or more genes work together to produce a specific outcome
Pea Plants: used by Mendel because they are diploid and use sexual reproduction
Dihybrid Cross: will always give you a ratio of 9:3:3:1
Blood Type: A,B,AB and O are are polygenetic
Mutation: happens in individuals
Evolution: happens to a population
Reproductive Isolation: affected the Florida panther
Population: individuals of the same species living in the time and place
Species: individuals that share characteristics, can breed, and produce fertile offspring
Gene Pool: sum of genetic variety for a species
Equilibrium: that the frequencies of dominant and recessive alleles remains unchanged
generation after generation
Hard-Weinberg Equation: p^2+2pq+q^2=1 p=freq. of dom. alleles q=freq. of rec. alleles (PG.
100 in lab manual)
Panmixis: individuals in a population mate at random
Natural Selection: effects of an environment on a species
Founder Effect: the reproductive isolation of some portion of an existing population
Colonists/Founders: populations that survive the founder effect
Bottleneck Effect: a catastrophic decline in a population by an unusual factor, i.e. hurricane and
fire
Survivors: is the remaining population that survives the bottleneck effect
in a fixed population, allele frequencies wont change
the larger the sample, the better the results
DNA: Is the blueprint of heredity, and can be thought of as a ladder that has been twisted.
Nitrogen groups are in the middle and Hydrogen bonds hold the strands together.
*In lab with the beads, white represented deoxyribose, rose represented the phosphate group.*
*Urasil is the only one found in RNA*
*RNA is the mirror image of DNA with Urasil substituted for*
DNA Replication: to know what an organism is suppose to do it must have an exact copy for
that type of organism
RNA and Ribosomes: make copies and carry out instructions
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
RNA: Ribonucleic Acid
RNA and DNA: Both are built from nucleotides and contain a 5 carbon sugar, a phosphate
group and a nitrogenous base. *The phosphate group is attached to the 5
carbon*

DNA VS. RNA
2 parallel strands twisted
around each other
(Double Helix)

VS.
Single stranded
molecules (3 types)
Contains pentose sugar of
deoxyribose
VS. Contains pentose sugar
of ribose
Contains: Adenine,
Guanine, Cytosine and
Thymine (A Girl Can
Talk)

VS.
Contains: Adenine,
Guanine, Cytosine and
Uracil (A Guy Can
Utilize)

Adenine and Guanine: Are two bases and are formed as double ringed molecules called purines
Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil: Are single ringed nitrogenous bases called pyrimidines
DNA and RNA: Contain two purines and two pyrimidines each *nitrogenous bases in either
DNA or RNA attaches at the 1 position of the pentose*
Chromosomes: Always duplicate during the S phase of Interphase (DNA synthesis)

Three Characteristics Helping Replicate or Repair DNA Molecule
1. Complimentary Base Pairing: Bases are always paired AG and GC
2. Anti-Parallel Arrangement of Strands: 3 and 5 ends are aligned in opposite
directions. Nucleotides attach together at the 5 of one nucleotide and to the 3 of another
3. Semi-Conservative Nature of Synthesis: DNA helixes are unzipped by breaking H
bonds, then these are used as templates for making strand copies

The 5 end is the phosphate group, 3 end is the hydroxyl group.
DNA replication occurs at multiple locations simultaneously and works in both directions along
the strands.
Strands use DNA polymerase to replicate.
DNA polymerase moves along DNA fro the 3 towards the 5 ends.
The new strand is arranged in a 5 to 3 alignment.
Replication Bubble: Where the strands separate
Initiation Sites: Series of bubbles open all along the DNA
Replication Fork: is the end of each bubble
Leading Strands: Are aligned 35 away from the initial site towards the replication forks
Lagging Strands: Are aligned 35 towards the initiation site and away from the replication
forks
Lagging Strands: create a gap, which DNA polymerases need to jump; DNA replication on the
lagging strands is discontinuous because of these gaps
Each daughter DNA molecule contains one old and one new strand
Continuous synthesis occurs along leading strands

Type of RNA

1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Highly coiled strands of RNA found in ribosomes.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA): Found as free molecules in the cytoplasm. 40 Different tRNA
molecules in human cells. Shaped like cloverleaf. This RNA brings and transfers amino
acids to and from the ribosome that the polypeptide uses for protein synthesis.
3. Messenger RNA (mRNA): Created in nucleus or cytoplasm. It is a single strand of RNA
with various lengths according to the original gene.

Transcription: is the formation of a single strand of RNA
Promoter and Terminator Regions: tell the RNA where to start and stop copying the gene





When RNA polymerase reads: ( ) on RNA, signals

TA
CG
GC
AU

Translation: another name for protein synthesis; coverts the information in the mRNA into a
polypeptide chain or protein
Codons: is the information that the bases are read as; there are 64 codons; 3 stop and 61which
specify what amino acid
AUG: specifies for the amino acid methionine and is the start of protein synthesis; it is also the
first codon on the mRNA (start codon)
Stop Codons: UAA, UGA and UAG (University of Geogia)
A Site: the place where codons are read
Anticodon: a three base sequence that is exposed on tRNA
P & A sites are joined by a peptide bond