Forrest Gump: 75; Einstein: 160; Stephen Hawkings: 280

NEUROLOGICAL BASIS OF INTELLIGENCE

The attempt to date intelligence dates back to Though I have not assigned any meaning to Aristotle, and even today the definition is not these numbers, it is likely that you have already universal. The most comprehensive definition of guessed to what I am referring: IQ. However, intelligence is one which focuses on human the belief that these numbers indicate adaptability. Therefore, the working definition absolutely the intelligence of one individual of intelligence is that it is the ability to master a relative to another is faulty. We need to do particular environment (Lawler, 1978) using away with the popular belief that IQ indicates abstract and reasoning skills, and to learn from how much intelligence you have. Therefore, we the response (Flanagan, 2005; Lawler, 1978). need to appropriately define intelligence, root it However, there is debate as to the basis of in neurology and intelligence between determine whether its heritability and basis is largely hereditary Intelligence is the ability to master a environmentalism. or environmental. particular environment using Heritability argues that Thereafter, whether IQ is abstract and reasoning skills genetics alone determine an accurate determinant of intelligence; however, how is intelligence and, if not, how it that there is so much our social attitudes towards intellectual variation in intelligence and so little in blood segregation are astray.

type, which is genetically determined? Environmentalism, which argues that environmental factors act on an individual since conception (Vernon, 1979) to determine intelligence, on its own, cannot explain intelligence since there are limits to which an environment can affect IQ. Therefore, in order to determine an individual s uniqueness , you must examine the dissimilar elements in their environments: genetics (Locurto, 1991). Biology has even shown that specific genotypes have a phenotypic range of gene expression; thus, that genetics and environment interact (Vernon, 1979). The most significant variables in individual variation in mental ability were polygenic inheritance, genetic, and kinship correlations, environmental. The most wellsupported theory is the interactionist theory in which an individual requires the appropriate social and physical environment in order to reach maximal neural development; more specifically, it is 69% genetic and 25% environmental, where the most important environmental factors were parents IQ, family environment, and school attendance (See Figure 1) (Jensen, 1981). Figure 1: Factors of Child s IQ

This hereditary-environmental debate is relevant to the neurological basis of intelligence since it relates to neuronal development: genetics pass on the characteristically large number of neurons, which are developed through an individual s interaction with the environment (Vernon, 1979). Cognitive neuroscience is the study of how the brain is intelligent using neuroimaging studies. It was found that the frontal cortex contains neurons capable of processing information in a flexible and adaptive manner, which allows for broader processing than other regions of the brain (Geake, 2005). The frontal cortex is also responsible for spatial, verbal and perceptuomotor tasks (Duncan, 2000). From an evolutionary perspective, a large frontal cortex is what distinguishes humans from other animals. Humans are also associated with a greater variety of sensory and motor neurons, a greater memory bank for previous experiences and coding which allows for facilitated information retrieval, and the ability for abstract reasoning based on experience (Vernon, 1979). These developments make it easier for humans to receive, store and interpret information; thus, it renders humans more able to master their environment, which would make humans more intelligent. Once it was established that the frontal cortex was responsible for certain aspects of intelligence, studies found correlations between IQ scores and frontal lobe development; therefore, IQ scores might really be indicative of general intelligence.

Source: Jensen, 1981, p. 174

However, considering the criticism of IQ tests, how accurately do they portray overall intelligence?

they were conducted according to Wechsler s definition of intelligence from 1958 (Rich, 2000). The structure of these tests and those that followed remained unchanged for 8 decades, until the 1970s (Darrough, 1983). However, current CLINICAL METHODS TO TEST IQ efforts are being Before we can address the clinical made to close the The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) methods to test IQ, you might be gap between measures an individual s wondering what it is that these tests are cognitive theory intelligence relative to their measuring. The Intelligence Quotient and intelligence population. (IQ) measures an individual s testing; therefore, intelligence relative to their population. by using a basis of Originally, it was calculated by taking science, which the quotient of a child s estimated involves revising mental age over their chronological age. theories and instruments of experimentation, However, this method did not apply to anyone IQ testing more accurately represents past the age of 16. IQ now reflects an intelligence (Flanagan, 2005). The effects of this individual s percentile ranking in a bell curve change can be seen in intellectual distinctions estimation of the IQ of the population (Rich, between races: During the early history of IQ 2009). testing, it was popularly believed that blacks were less intelligent than whites based on IQ The earliest tests for IQ were the Wechsler test scores; however, this belief was disproved when and the Stanford-Binet test. The Wechsler test more modern tests did not show significant is divided into three parts in order to test intellectual differences between races. appropriately for each age: the WPPSI-III, WISCIV and WAIS-IV. It includes verbal scales, such as The more recent tests, based on scientific information and comprehension, performance theory, measure for intelligence based on scales, such as object assembly or picture factual knowledge, short-term memory, arrangement, and another category dedicated abstract reasoning, visual-spatial abilities, and to visual interpretation. The main criticisms of common sense (See Figure 2) (Rich, 2000). They this test were that it was heavily culturally are classified into general-ability, aptitudes, biased and it was atheoretical. The Standordachievement, speed, power, group, individual, Binet test divides intelligence into four verbal, nonverbal and performance tests measurable components: verbal reasoning, (Jensen, 1981). They include Kaufman abstract/visual intelligence, quantitative Assessment Battery for Children, Woodcockintelligence and short-term memory. It was Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery, Cognitive used to measure IQ in individuals aged 2.5 years Assessment System, Universal Nonverbal to young adult. However, these earlier tests Intelligence Test, and Reynolds Intellectual focused heavily on measurable and operational Assessment Scales (Flanagan, 2005). Most concepts of intelligence, but were departing recent studies have suggested that IQ tests from scientific theory on intelligence. In fact, cater towards those who speak English as their

Figure 2: What an IQ test measures in intelligence

Shortterm memory Abstract Reasoning VisualSpatial Abilities

Factual knowledge

IQ test
Source: Rich, 2000

Common Sense

first language, putting them at an advantage over others. Therefore, new tests were developed to measure intelligence without the verbal element. They include the Leiter test, the Test of Nonverbal Intelligence and Raven s Progressive Matrices; therefore, it can be used for all languages for ages of 2.5 years to young adult (Rich, 2000). The modern IQ tests show no evidence of significant cultural bias in IQ tests (Vernon, 1979). However, considering the sheer number of IQ tests and the specificity of each test, it seems virtually impossible to take all of these tests to accurately determine your level of intelligence. As it turns out, there may not be a need to take all IQ tests. It was found that there was a positive correlation between testing well on one test and testing well on others (Jensen, 1981); therefore, an IQ test is a good predictor of general intellect. Most IQ tests measure a general intelligence factor, known as the g factor; therefore, this g factor has a high validity as it has been repeatedly measured in a variety of conditions, thus the scientific method has been applied to it (Jensen, 1981). In addition, intelligence is not just measured by IQ scores since individuals with high levels of intelligence think about everything differently relative to others, not just when it comes to IQ questions (Geake, 2005).

The most recent criticisms of IQ testing are that certain people require individual intelligence tests, such as children with learning disabilities (Flanagan, 2005). Moreover, these IQ tests only measure operational and quantifiable forms of intelligence, whereas the definition of intelligence requires adaptability and problemsolving (Darrough, 1983). As such, these tests cannot measure skills linked to primitive cognition or complex problem-solving. In addition, IQ results have been found to change weekly and yearly by up to 10 points! (Rich, 2000) These criticisms have led to the questioning of their viability as a measure of intelligence. Therefore, this raises ethical issues about the treatment of patients based on their IQ scores. For example, what would be the academic and career implications for someone taking the SAT test if it were not representative of their intelligence?

THE ETHICAL ISSUE BEHIND IQ SCORES What do IQ tests measure? What is their accuracy? Are they good predictors of academic/job performance? (Jensen, 1981) These are some of the questions that have arisen throughout the discussion of intelligence and the intelligence quotient. The pertinence of these questions to social policy is significant since scientific thinking impacts public policy, particularly when an aspect is heavily debated (i.e. intelligence and the hereditaryenvironmental debate) (Vernon, 1979). In fact, IQ testing has become one of the biggest problems of American society (Lawler, 1978). IQ scores set thresholds by which people are limited. For example, at an IQ of less than 50, people cannot attend regular school, at an IQ of approximately 75, people cannot master a

subject at elementary school, and at an IQ of This gives rise to another question of ethical approximately 115, people cannot importance: Should we treat students graduate from college with differently based on their IQ level? adequate grades to Should we provide them IQ < 50 Cannot go to school become a professional with the same IQ 75 Cannot master (Jensen, 1981). In the educational elementary subject th early 20 century, opportunities? IQ 115 Cannot become a this same Considering the neural professional thresholding occurred: development of an IQ over 113 was a individuals, it appears that, predictor of success, while a with the appropriate low IQ gave warrant for legalized stimulation, an individual could reach sterilization of the individual (known as the their maximum potential intellectual Sterilization Laws of the United States). This development. Therefore, each person should be thresholding process can have further offered the same opportunities for enrichment psychological implications: it can lead to in order to reach their maximum potential. feelings of inferiority or superiority, which can Don t forget that past racial and gender affect their level of motivation throughout their divisions have led to the creation and life, which, in turn, affects their career plans for preservation of economic inequality. Who is to the future (Vernon, 1979). IQ scores are used to say the same won t occur for IQ and intellect? indicate whether someone meets a threshold to (Darrough, 1983) In fact, IQ tests have often led determine their likelihood of success. However, to racism due to blacks performing more poorly since IQ scores are not fully representative of on administered tests than whites (Vernon, intelligence, individuals are lumped together in 1979); thus, intellectual segregation gave way groups and treated on the basis of their group. to racism. This intellectual segregation has IQ is only representative of intelligence if the existed throughout much of history, and is test is universal for a given culture and each IQ thoroughly engrained in our capitalist society test has its limitations. Each brain is unique, between the working and intellectual classes which produces a unique personality and a (Lawler, 1978). However, with the ability to unique intelligence, some forms of which quantify intelligence using IQ tests, the cannot yet be measured. Don t forget that the intellectual segregation of the nation will definition of intelligence is not universal, so accelerate since we can regard people simply as intelligence is interpreted differently from numbers as opposed to a thinking, breathing culture to culture and presents itself differently organism. This intellectual segregation has from person to person. From this perspective, already been used as a scapegoat for the the concept of quantifying someone s failings of the educational system. After trying intelligence without consideration of their to improve the intelligence of the students and uniqueness seems immoral and unethical. To failing, instead of turning to institutional treat everyone as a number is like removing a reform, the system blamed its malfunction on dimension of the human self: the individuality those who were feeble-minded (Lawler, 1978) of a self.

However, should we eliminate the concept of testing intelligence altogether? Would we Figure 3: Steps to reduce resolve the case of unequal opportunity? intellectual segregation Apparently, we would not. We already perceive that when intelligence is below a Moral Give Education concern for Allow for certain level, certain tasks cannot be opportunity based on the maximum Individualized for IQ intellectual completed (Jensen, 1981); therefore, development education development development of others regardless of official testing, we are able to rank people based on their capabilities. Biological differences are assigned social Source: Locurto, 1991; Lawler, 1978; Vernon, 1979; Darrough, 1983 significance in order to distribute society s most valuable goods such as jobs, status, prestige, power, or income; therefore, certain References: characteristics are very meaningful to society, but not all (i.e. blood type is not meaningful) Darrough, M. N., & Blank, R. H. 1983. Biological differences and social equality: Implications for social policy. Westport: (Darrough, 1983). This further suggests that the Greenwood Press; 255 p. problem is not the IQ test since the tests themselves make no interpretations, they only Duncan, J. 2000. Neural Basis for Intelligence. Science 289: 457460. measure individual differences. This implies that it is up to us to change social perception of IQ Flanagan, D. P., & Harrison P. L. 2005. Contemporary intellectual assessment, Second Edition: Theories, Tests, and Issues. New York: test results. Firstly, it must be acknowledged The Guilford Press; 667 p. that higher IQ does not necessarily mean Geake, J. G. 2005. The neurological basis of intelligence: A greater success in school since students have to contrast with brain-based education. Gifted and Talented 9: 8. be given the opportunity in the first place (Locurto, 1991). As such, education must be Jensen, A. R. 1981. Straight talk about mental tests. New York: The Free Press; 269 p. based on basic laws of intellectual development so individual differences and natural talent are Lawler, L. M. 1978. IQ, heritability and racism. New York: International Publishers; 192 p. not stifled (Lawler, 1978). Third, we must allow, in certain cases, for individualized education Locurto, C. 1991. Sense and nonsense about IQ: A case for that will provide an alternative route to learn uniqueness. New York: Praeger Publishers; 195 p. material that will cater to a student s Rich, J. 2009. Psychological testing: A guide to psychological capabilities (Vernon, 1979). And lastly, we must testing and assessment. World Wide Web. http://www.psychologicaltesting.com/iqtest.htm Accessed 2010 develop a moral concern for allowing each 15 Oct. individual s to reach their maximum intellectual Vernon, P. E. 1979. Intelligence: Heredity and environment. San potential for their own personal fulfillment Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company; 390 p. (Darrough, 1983). This is how we will change our societal views on IQ and break the cycle of intellectual segregation (See Figure 3).