Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

Lesson 06

Operational Amplifiers (Op-amps)

6.1 Introduction

Voltage amplification is a main application of an operational amplifier. It can also be used to perform mathematical operations. Considering these two main applications, this electronic device is termed as operational amplifier(Op-amp).Operational amplifiers can be constructed from discrete components, mainly transistors, which provide a stable and high voltage amplification. But commonly they are available as monolithic integrated circuits(ICs) as shown in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1: Top view of an Op-amp IC Op-amps can be used in electronic circuits to perform a number of linear and nonlinear mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation. They are also used as video and audio amplifiers, oscillators, etc. Because of their versatility, Op-amps are widely used in all branches of electronics; both digital and analogue circuits. One of the most common Op-amp IC is CA 741. Figure 6.2 shows the symbol for an Op- amp. It has two inputs named as inverting (V-) and non-inverting (V+) and one output.
V_ Inputs V+ Vo Output

Figure 6.2: Symbol of an operational amplifier

69

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

The Op-amps originally behave as differential amplifiers, which provide a high linear gain on the voltage signal, applied to the non-inverting (V+) input terminal with respect to the inverting signal voltage(V-). The linear voltage gain of this behavior is known as differential gain (Ad ) or open loop voltage gain.

Ad = Vo /( V+ - V- )

An Op-amp shows this linear voltage amplification under certain conditions. The low frequency of the input signal and the low input voltage difference (V+ - V- ) are prominent of them. An Op-amp IC is activated by applying a dual DC power supply (approximately 15V and +15V). In the symbol it is not usually mentioned.

6.2

Open loop and closed loop amplifiers

Figure 6.3 shows a complete diagram of an open loop operational amplifier circuit. On the diagram +VCC = +15V and -VCC = -15V.
+VCC
V_ Inputs V+ Vo Output

-VCC

Figure 6.3 Complete diagram of an open loop operational amplifier circuit For a linear amplifier the output voltage (V0) is Ad x ( V+ - V- ) When non inverting input (V+) is grounded(= 0V) V0 = - Ad x V- ie; the sign of the output signal is the inversion of V- . When both input terminals bear the same voltage signal V0 = 0V When inverting input (V-) is grounded(= 0V) V0 = Ad x V+ ie; the sign of the output signal is same as the input signal (V+)

70

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

The above relationships between the input and output voltage signals of an open loop amplifier is graphically represented by Figure 6.4.
Vo +VCC Saturated region

V+ - V-V1 +V2

Saturated region -VCC

Figure 6.4: Voltage amplification of an open loop Op-amp Linear region A Linear amplifier is one that has an output voltage (Vo) which is directly proportional to the input voltage (V+ - V-). According to the above graph, the linear amplification is valid within the input voltage range of -V1 to +V2 and out of that the output voltage saturates around +VCC and -VCC . The voltage range of the input signal corresponding to the linear amplification of an Op-amp is typically a few Vs . However in most of the applications, Op-amps are used in closed loop amplifier mode which consists of negative feed back (a portion of output voltage is negatively fed back to the input voltage signal) and reduces the voltage gain.In closed loop amplifiers, the input voltage can take up to few mV s in the linear amplification region. Figure 6.5 shows the general form of a closed loop (negative feed back) amplifier circuit.
Closed loop
V_ Inputs V+ Vo Output

Figure 6.5: Closed loop operational amplifier circuit

71

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

In amplifier circuits the feed back path of the closed loop mode consists of a resistor which controls and stabilizes the amplifier gain. The closed loop gain depends on the components connected externally and not on the amplifier characteristics .

Q1: The output of an Op-amp saturates at +15 V and 15V. The open loop voltage gain (Ad) is 105. What would the output voltages be when the non inverting input (V+) and the inverting input(V-) terminals are connected to the following voltage signals? (i). V+ = 5.0 V (ii). V+ = 10.0mV (iii). V+ = -20 V (iv). V+ = 2.0 mV V- = 2.0V V- = 5.0 mV V- = -100 V V- = 5.0 mV Answer : 0.3V Answer : 15V Answer : 8V Answer : -15V

Q2: What are the disadvantage of an open loop amplifier ?

6.3 Ideal Op-amp approximations

An ideal operational amplifier has the following characteristics:

Infinite input impedance (any signal can be supplied to the Op-amp without loading problems) Zero output impedance (the power supplied by the Op-amp is not limited),

Infinite voltage gain (the output voltage exceeds the power supply voltage) Flat frequency response ( voltage gain does not depend on the input voltage frequency)

Two Golden rules can be derived by following the above approximations.They are , Rule 1: The voltages at the inverting and non inverting terminals are equal; V- = V+ Rule 2: The input bias are zero; I - = I + = 0A

72

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

To apply the 1st rule requires negative feedback. The external negative feed back network (a resistor connected across an input teminal and output terminal )brings the input voltage difference to zero (if possible).Deu to high input impedance of the Op-amp, the 2nd rule indicates that the input current through the inverting and non inverting terminals can be negligable. These two rules provide a simple way to find the approximations of Op-amp circuits like resultant voltage gain.

6.4

Op-amp applications

Op-amps are used as basic building blocks to build different linear and non linear analogue electronic systems. The linear circuit applications include amplifiers, voltage to current and current to voltage converters, inverters (dc to ac or dc to ac) , active filters, sample and hold circuits, logarithmic amplifiers etc. In addition, they are used to perform various mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, differentiation and integration. Some of these applications are discussed in the following paragraphs.

6.4.1 Inverting amplifiers

Figure 6.6 shows a basic inverting amplifier circuit using a negative feed back resistor (Rf).
If
Rf Rin Vin

Iin

Vout

Figure 6.6: Inverting amplifier circuit. The input signal is applied to the inverting input through a resistor (Rin) and a fraction of the output is fed back into the input through the feed back resistor (Rf), limiting the
73

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

voltage gain. The input current (Iin) through the resistor; Rin and the current Iif through the feed back resistor are equal because of the high input impedance of the Op-amp. ie Iin = If
V Vout Vin V = R in Rf

Kirchoff's current law, Iin = I- + If Iin= If ( Because I- = 0, Golden rule 2) (I= V / R)

V Vout Vin V = R in Rf Vin Vout = R in Rf

(Because V- = V+ = 0 , Golden rule 1)

Vout = - Rf ( Vin) Rin The negative sign indicates that the polarity of the output signal is the opposite of the input signal ( out of phase; 180 phase change ). Therefore the amplifier is called an inverting amplifier. The magnitude of the voltage gain of an inverting amplifier is defined by the ratio of two resistors (Rf and Rin)..

Q3: A sinusoidal voltage signal with an amplitude of 8 mV is connected to a inverting amplifier circuit. The values of input and feed back resistors are 50k and 100k respectively. Draw the circuit diagram and input, output voltage signals in scale.

74

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

6.4.2 Summing amplifiers

Figure 6.7 shows the circuit arrangement of an Operational amplifier used as a summing amplifier or an adder.

V1 V2 V3

R1 R2

I1 I2 I3

If

Rf

Vout

R3

Figure 6.7 : Summing amplifier circuit A summing amplifier circuit is a modification of an inverting amplifier circuit. Kurchoff's current law; If = I1 + I2 +I3

V V V Vout V1 V V V + 2 + 3 = R2 Rf R1 R3 Vout V1 V2 V = + + 3 (Because V+ = V- = , Golden rule 1) Rf R 1 R 2 R 31 V V V Vout = R f ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) R 1 R 2 R 31

if R1= R2= R3 =R

Vout = -Rf ( V1 + V2 + V3 ) R

It is seen from the above equation that the amplifier out put is proportional to the sum of the input signal voltages. Therefore it is known as summing amplifier(adder ) circuit.

75

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

6.4.3 Non-inverting amplifiers

It is possible to operate the Op-amp as a non inverting amplifier by applying the input voltage signal to the non inverting input terminal. A basic non-inverting amplifier is shown in Figure 6.8.
If Rf Rin Iin Vin Vout

Figure 6.8: Non-inverting amplifier circuit. In this circuit the feedback resistor is still connected to the inverting input to limit the voltage gain of the Op-amp. Two resistors; Rin and Rf which are connected across the ground and output terminal behave as a voltage divider. Iin = But
V R in
V R in

and If = Iin = If

V Vout Rf

The

V Vout Rf

Vin Vin Vout = ( Because V- =V+ = - Vin ) R in Rf

Therefore

Vout = ( 1+ Rf )Vin Rin

76

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

According to the above equation the polarity of the output signal is the same as the input signal ( in phase). Therefore the amplifier is called a non inverting amplifier. The voltage gain of a non-inverting amplifier is 1+Rf/Rin.

Q 4: What are the main differences between an inverting and a non-inverting amplifier circuit. Q 6:Give a suitable circuit diagram of an amplifier with a gain of +10, using an Op- amp.

The following circuit diagram shows a special case of a non inverting amplifier. Its Rin is infinite and Rr is zero.

Vin

Vout

Figure 6.9: Unity-gain follower (Buffer) circuit According to the above equation the voltage gain of this non inverting amplifier is one unit and the out put follows the input. Therefore it is known as a unity-gain follower (Vout = Vin). However this circuit is very useful as a buffer. When a voltage source with a high internal resistance has to be loaded with a low resistor, this buffer circuit can be used as a interface to prevent the drain of high current from the source as shown in the following figure.

High resistive source

Low resistive load

Figure 6.10 : Buffer circuit as an interface According to the Golden rule 2, no current flows into the positive input, and therefore the source resistance is not loaded at all.
77

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

6.4.4 Differential amplifiers

The voltage difference at the two inputs of the circuit is amplified by a finite value in the differential amplifier circuit. Figure 6.11 shows a simple one Op-amp differential amplifier circuit.

I1

I3

I2

I2

Figure 6.11: One Op-amp differential amplifier circuit The current, I2 flows from V2 through R1 and R2 to the ground. By Golden rule 2, current does not flow into the non inverting terminal of the Op-amp. Here resistors R1 and R2 act as a simple voltage divider. Then the voltage at the non inverting terminal (V+);
V + = V 2 x R2 = V 3 R 1 + R2

By Golden rule 1, what ever voltage that appears at the non inverting terminal (V+) also appears at the inverting input terminal(V-).Therefore the currents through the resistors R1 and R2 from V1 to V+ ;I1 and V+ to Vo ; I3 are given by the following equations
I1 = V1 V+ and I3 = V+ Vo R1 R2

Where I1 = I3 (Golden rule 2 and Kirchoffs current law) By solving the above three equations

VO = (V2- V1 ) x R2 R1
78

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

The relationship between the input and the output voltage signals of an one Op-amp differential amplifier is given by the above equation. The one Op-amp differential amplifier is quite satisfactory for low resistance sources ( V3 and V4). But when the input currents ( I1 and I2) are consumed by the circuit , the sources which have high resistance drop their actual voltages internally. Therefore high resistive sources should be connected with the high impedance differential amplifiers which has zero input bias currents. Figure 6.12 shows the three Op-amp differential amplifier circuit.

Figure 6.12. Three Op-amp differential amplifier (Instrumentation amplifier) This amplifier circuit is regularly used in most of the analytical and bio-medical instruments. The first two unity-gain follower circuits provide the high input impedance for the differential amplifier circuit. The amplification factor of this instrumentation amplifier is the same as the one Op-amp differential amplifier given above.

6.4.5 Logarithmic amplifiers

Figure 6.13 shows the use of an Op-amp with a feed back resistor replaced by a diode.

R
Vin Vout

Figure 6.13: Logarithmic amplifier

79

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

This circuit is employed when an output voltage is desired to be proportional to the logarithm of an input signal. Considering the relationship between the variation of the current through a P-N junction diode and the voltage applied across it , the following equation can be derived for the above logarithmic amplifier circuit.

Vout = k1 Log(k2 Vin)

Where k1 and k2 are constants

6.5.7 Integrators
The Op-amp can also be used to perform the mathematical operation of "integration" by using a capacitor in the feedback path. The basic circuit of an integrator is shown in Figure 6.14.
C Vin R

Vout

Figure 6.14: Integrator circuit By applying Op-amp Golden rules and equations related to capacitors it is possible to derive the following equation.

Vout = - 1 0 Vin dt RC The output of this electronic circuit is the integration of input voltage signal with respect to time as shown in above equation.
80

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

Q7: Starting from a DC voltage signal, how do you obtain a voltage signal which automatically increases linearly with time? Answer: By connecting a DC signal to the input of an Op-amp integrator circuit. Then the output voltage increases gradually, because the integration of a constant(C) with respect to time(t) gives C x t

6.5.8 Differentiators
Differentiation is the opposite of integration. Therefore, the differentiator circuit is obtained by interchanging R and C components of the integrator circuit.. The basic component connection of a Differentiator circuit is shown in Figure 6.15.

R C Vin Vout

Figure 6.15: Differentiator circuit By applying the Op-amp Golden rules the following equation can be derived for the above differentiator circuit.

Vout = - RC d (Vin) dt

Thus the out put voltage is the differentiation of the input signal.

81

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

6.6 Details of Op- amp IC-CA741

CA 741 is the most widely used operational amplifier IC which is constructed using more than 25 bipolar junction transistors. It is also one of the cheapest you can buy. CA 741 has the following characteristics.

input impedance 2M

output impedance 50 Input bias current 500 nA Flat frequency response from DC to several MHz.

voltage gain 105 at DC

CA 741 possesses 8 - pins in a dual line integrated circuit package as shown in Figure 6.16. Pin No: 1 Off set null Pin No: 2 Inverting input Pin No: 3 Non inverting input Pin No: 4 Negative power supply 1 8 Pin No: 5 Off set null 2 7 CCA7 411 Pin No: 6 Output 3 6 Pin No: 7 Positive power supply 4 5 Pin No: 8 No connection

Figure 6.16: Pin configuration of the CA 741 Op-amp Op-amps are often powered by both a positive and a negative supply so that the output can swing above and bellow ground. For the CA 741 operational amplifier, the dual power supply should be in the voltage range of +/- 5 and +/- 18 . Negative voltage must be connected to Pin No: 4 and positive voltage to Pin No:7. The two inputs; non-inverting and inverting are Pin No:2 and Pin No:3 respectively. The output is taken at Pin No:6. In addition , there are "offset null" inputs at Pin No: 1 and Pin No:5 which is used to calibrate the constructed Op-amp circuit. End terminals of a variable resistor are connected to Pin No: 1 and Pin No:5.The mid terminal is connected to the negative voltage (Pin No: 4)
82

Operational Amplifiers Lesson 06

A sample circuit of an inverting amplifier to illustrate the pin connection of CA 741 IC is shown in the following figure.

150k 1k Vout Vin 10k

-15V

0V

+15V

Figure 6.17: Inverting amplifier circuit

Q4: An inverting amplifier circuit is designed selecting 2.2k, 220 resistors as feedback and input resistors respectively. This amplifier circuit gives 52mV as the output voltage when 5mV is applied as the input. Calculate the error of the amplifier circuit .

83