CHAPTER 4 - VEHICLE TO GRID CONNECTION

(Joao Peas Lopes, Zbigniew A. Styczynski) The basic concept of Vehicle to Grid (V2G) is that Electric Vehicles (EVs) can absorb or provide power to the grid while parked, acting as dispersed storage [84]. Several uses for this type of storage can be described as either applied to ancillary services delivery or by providing load shifting and peak shaving capabilities. V2G can supply both primary reserves and secondary reserves as ancillary services. For primary reserve, each EV has to react to frequency deviations and inject or absorb active power proportionally to the frequency change. For secondary reserve, the EVs are not autonomous, thus they have to respond to a hierarchical structure of control [85],[86] In this case the DSO may interact, through intermediate control structures, with individual Vehicle Controllers (VC). When secondary reserve is requested by the Transmission System Operator (TSO) its request will be received by the DSO that go through the referred hierarchy using setpoints to activate the reserve. V2G storage capability can also be used to perform peak shaving. DMS can enforce EVs to recharge during valley hours and require that they inject power into the grid during peak period. Nevertheless, this management approach is limited by vehicles owners needs that give permission to do so. This control strategy, if properly applied, allows simultaneously reducing load and generation required in peak hours. Obviously, the opposite happens in valley hours, i.e. load and generation required increases. The load shifting and peak shaving described will have an impact on the technical, environmental and economic level. First, it might decrease pollutants emissions and energy generation costs by keeping the most dirty and expensive generators disconnected during peak hours. Second, investment deferrals can be

achieved by postponing the installation of peak generators, since load decrease in peak hours will make the amount installed of power that is currently available enough to feed all the consumption for some more years. Finally, V2G can play a major role in the renewables expansion, once without some form of energy storage the amount of renewables that can be safely and reliably connected into the grid is limited [87]. All the potential benefits described, arising from the dispersed storage that V2G can provide, are directly dependent on battery development. Among all the emerging technologies available on the market nowadays, the main contenders for V2G usage are Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA), Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd), Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH), Lithium-ion (Li-ion) and sodium nickel chloride (ZEBRA) [88]. Due to the fact that VRLA batteries are one of the cheapest technologies available, their use for V2G is attracting growing attention as they offer the possibility to cycle in a partial State Of Charge (SOC). VRLA batteries number of life cycles is similar to NiMH and Li-ion technologies, but their specific energy and specific power values are much lower, 25-35 Wh/kg and 150 W/kg, respectively [89]. NiCd batteries have as main disadvantages their high cost, extreme toxicity and thermal issues when charging. However, they have much higher energy density than VRLA and tolerate deep discharge for long periods, which results in larger usable energy. The specific energy and power of the NiMH batteries are much higher than the VRLA, 40-60 Wh/kg and up to 1100 W/kg, respectively. They are more cost effective than NiCd technology but the number of life cycles is much smaller. Li-ion batteries have very high specific energy and power values, 80-120 Wh/kg and 500-800 W/kg, respectively. They need an extra circuit to shut down the system 70 when the battery is discharged below a predefined threshold, given that very deep

discharges can provoke irreversible damages. They have a reduced number of life cycles, similar to VRLA technology. Starting from time of manufacturing, regardless of whether it was charged or the number of charge/discharge cycles, this kind of battery declines slowly and predictably in capacity. With a specific energy of 100-120 Wh/kg, ZEBRA seems to be the most cost effective technology. These batteries have a specific power of 150-180 W/kg and they are by far the technology with the highest number of life cycles. They operate at high temperatures (235-350 C), which demands a preheating mechanism and some kind of thermal management. In general there are some problems common to all battery technologies, which need to be dealt with when using V2G [90], [91]. These problems are not inherent to the V2G usage only but also apply to the problems that occur with road usage of EVs. The first major issue deals mainly with security. The limitations imposed by temperature rise and non-uniformity of temperature distribution behave as a bottleneck for the potential of the usage of the EV batteries. This effect was first described for the road usage but the stress batteries are subjected to when performing this activity is also present when providing primary reserve. Constant changes on the systems load reflect different operating states, which leads to thermal runaway of the batteries. The second problem is related to vehicle autonomy, as the primary function of the vehicle is mobility. This problem is strongly bonded to the state of charge estimation, which for a very intensive usage is difficult to determine. The last major issue is related with battery lifetime. Batteries have a finite number of charge/discharge cycles that in EV road usage with regenerative braking or reserve delivery impose an aggressive operation regime due to frequent shifts from injecting to absorbing modes. Finally, regarding the grid conditions it is likely that in order to enable fast charging/discharging modes, the grid may have to be reinforced. The present grid

was planned for typical values for the maximum load per type of consumer. It may not be capable of responding to the demand from the addition of a new high power element. Some national studies; concerning the E-mobility 8 have been already finished. The results of the German study show that 1 Mio. of E-vehicles is expected to be in use in Germany by 2020. Nevertheless it will not have a significant influence on the power system operation (1Mio E-vehicles is about 400 MW which is less the 1% of normal power network demand in Germany). The infrastructure of the power system is able to support this amount of new demand. Moreover the study points out that the use of EVs for supporting the integration of renewable energy sources is very limited. The German study could be use as a benchmark for other countries.
8 Elektrofahrzeuge.

Bedarf, Stand der Technik, Handlungsbedarf. VDE ETG. Frankfurt Juni

2010.

71

CHAPTER 5 - USE OF STORAGE IN THE FUTURE POWER SYSTEM TAKING INTO ACCOUNT REPRESENTATIVE SCENARIOS
5.1 METHODOLOGY OF INVESTIGATION
(Zbigniew A. Styczynski, Pio Lombardi) In order to design the capacity of a storage system, specific parameters such as the type of storage, its functionality and investment costs are needed. For a general estimate of the storage capacity it is possible to use a universal storage model, e.g. reservoir model, and adopt specific parameters of the storage as charging-discharging efficiencies, depth of discharging-charging and the discharging gradients. Taking these parameters into account, storage capacity for some specific scenarios can be calculated.
Table 5-I Total installed storage capacity world wide and their application [139]

Technology Total installed Size ranges Potential application

One example concerning a necessary storage size for a wind farm is provided here. It corresponds to a typical situation for some European regions. A 3.5 GW wind generation supplies a region which has a 1-GW maximum and 300 MW minimum load. Both the yearly produced energy by the wind generation (1600equivalent full load hours) and energy consumption are equal. In order to supply the maximum load of 1 GW, a Net Transfer Capacity (NTC) connection of 1-GW is necessary for reliable supply (2-GW physical capacity is necessary to fulfil the n-1 conditions). Calculating the energy flow during one year it is possible to obtain the storage capacity (statistically), which is necessary for the full integration of the produced wind energy without Net Security Management Systems (NSM) activities (Figure 5-1). The required storage size will be smaller if the NTC of the interconnection is increased by network extensions. For example, if 1 GW NTC is considered, and if the renewable generation is fully integrated, storage of 70 GWh is needed. If the NTC changes to 1.5 GW and 2 GW a storage capacity of, respectively, 35 GWh and 15 GWh is required. Setting the storage costs at 0.10 /kWh the generation costs of a wind farm, 72 connected by a line with NTC 1 GW, will almost double if the strategy for full

integration of the wind energy is assumed. Depending on the connection length, to increase the NTC could also be a good strategy for the integration of renewable generation, from a region with overcapacity to those where the load can be economically transported. The optimal (technical and economically) capacity of the storage in the analyzed generation region will also depend on the utilization of the storage (number of cycles) which was not considered in this example. Therefore, a complex control strategy of the storage device has to be modelled, which should also include system services in order to lower the costs. The negative consequence of the full integration of wind overcapacity without storage or necessary NTC capacity was demonstrated on November 4th, 2006 in Europe and ended in a pan European power system disturbance close to blackout. The costs of this disturbance could be specified close to the cost of the storage calculated here.

Figure 5-1 Calculation of the storage capacity for the surplus wind generation

In the following section, an example on the estimation of the storage capacity world wide will be given. Three scenarios have been analyzed: Scenario 1, the wind energy covers 50% of the total electricity demanded; Scenario 2, the wind energy covers 70% of the total electricity demanded; Scenario 3, the wind energy fully covers all of the electricity demanded. The input data for the estimation are the electricity consumption and the installed power. For Germany the data collected in [140] were considered, while for North

America, Central & South America, Europe, Eurasia, Middle East, Africa and Asia & Oceania data collected in [141] were used. The German data concerns the year 2008, while for the other geographic lands data concerns the year 2006. As before, a wind generation profile was used that is characterized to have a full load of 1600 hours and a conventional power plant was used with a profile of 5450 full load hours. Both the electricity generation profile and the electricity demand profile come from measured data of two German networks and from data found in literature [142]. The electricity demand profiles concern both residential and industrial sectors. Table 5-II shows the results of the simulation for the three scenarios. 73
Table 5-II Result of the storage analysis for the three scenarios

It is important to note that these results have only an indicative value since they consider a unique wind and load profile. With reference to Europe and to the first scenario, a total storage capacity of 886 GW is needed. Assuming a charge-discharge efficiency of 80% a reservoir capacity of 111,7 TWh is also required. According to [144], in 1998 the hydro pumped reservoir capacity in Europe was 179,7 TWh which is mainly concentrated in the Scandinavian countries. It is possible to conclude that hypothetically in Europe it is possible to supply 50% of the total electricity demand with wind energy. It should also be

mentioned that the actual NTC between Scandinavia and Central Europe is only a few GW and the generation capacity from hydro power in these countries is only in 74 the order of a few tens of GW only whereas a charging power of 887 GW would be necessary. Considering a distributed location of storage systems, i.e. batteries in electrical vehicles with a storage capacity of 18 kWh (three phases charging), and the first scenario, then more than 50 million EVs should be connected to the network in Europe in order to absorb the electrical surplus power of nearly 900 GW produced by wind turbines. Table 5-III shows the necessary number of electric vehicles. With respect to the stored energy, these 50 million EVs would only represent a storage capacity of less than 5TWh even if a huge car battery of 100 kWh would be considered.
Table 5-III Number of electric vehicles used as storage system

In conclusion, the above simulations give a rough estimate of the requirede storage capacity in different geographical areas. Three different scenarios have been analyzed taking in consideration the wind energy as the only renewable source which supplies the power to the grid. Both the storage capacity and the storage capacity

reservoir have been estimated. Moreover, a rough evaluation of the number of electric vehicles that could also work as a storage system has also been estimated.

5.2 TECHNICAL ASPECTS (examples)

(Suresh Chand Verma) The current status of major storage technologies and their characteristics along with their suitability for such functions have been discussed in Chapter 3 of this report. In addition, the applications of different storage technologies for grid stability and operation support (frequency regulation, voltage support etc.), power quality support, load leveling and peak shaving have been described elsewhere. Hence, the focus here is on the main technical aspects by considering two projects in Japan relating to the energy storage usage to integrate the intermittent renewables to the grid. 1. Rokkasho-mura Futamata Wind Farm with NAS Battery. Since 2008, the Japan Wind Development Co. has been operating a large scale wind farm located in Rokkasho-mura in Japan. The installed capacity of this wind farm is 75 51 MW and is combined with a 34 MW sodium-sulphur (NAS ) battery system supplied by NGK Insulators, Ltd. In this wind farm, the NAS battery system has been primarily used to achieve the following objectives: To stabilize power output fluctuating from wind power; To increase the firm capacity of wind power.

Figure 5-2 NaS battery application for Wind farm (Source: NGK)

From the field data shown in Figure 5-2, it is clearly demonstrated that the NAS battery system is quite effective in stabilizing the fluctuation in the power output and delivering the scheduled firm capacity. The battery system can store the surplus power during night and release during peak hours during the day. The micro weather forecast system, energy storage management system, wind farm management system and power management system have been quite instrumental in achieving these objectives. 2. Wakkanai Mega Solar Project with NAS Battery Besides to the Rokkasho-mura Futamata Wind Farm, Wakkanai Mega Solar project with a final PV installation capacity of 5MW and NAS battery of 1.5MW is underway to test the grid stabilization functions with large scale PV power generation. The project is sponsored by the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) and is being carried out by the Hokkaido Electric Power Co., Inc. (HEPCO). The NAS battery would be used to absorb the surplus PV generation up to noon (12:00 noon) and release energy during peak demand which is around 2 hours later (2:00 p.m.) in summer. The NAS battery combined with the electric double layer capacitor (EDLC) due to be installed is to smooth the fluctuation in power generation. In order to bridge the supply demand gap as well as to smooth power output fluctuation. It is planned to add a NAS battery system with a capacity 1.5 MW. Figure 5-3 and Figure 5-4 show the operating performance of the 2MW PV with 0.5MW NAS battery. The PV output can be made constant and firm capacity can be maintained during 9 hours with the help of NAS battery system. 76
Figure 5-3 Fluctuation suppression using NAS battery for PV generation (Source: NGK)

Figure 5-4 output by NASbattery for PV generation (source: NGK)

In conclusion, the NAS battery offers applications that include the suppression of power fluctuation and constant power output by matching supply demand or peak shifting etc. for integrating the intermittent renewable resources. The NAS batteries used in both the projects have been an on-site installation, and the main factors that influence the decision about the dimensions of the NAS battery system are as follows; Stabilize power output fluctuating (fluctuation data of demand and supply); Increase the firm capacity or constant power (Supply demand match on daily basis). Finally, it is expected that as the number of large scale wind farms and mega solar plants with storage systems increase, the following additional aspects to optimize the storage systems may become important and require proper attention;

 Hybrid storage system; Clustered/Distributed storage installation; Centralised/Distributed control; Coordination of functionality.