The Process and Theories of Learning

The Process and Theories of Learning

Udai Pareek
Learning has been a favourite subject for educators, psychologists, and those interested in change in individuals and organisations. Systematic studies in learning were done on animals in laboratories. Learning was conceptualised as acquisition of new behaviour in an interactional environmental situation. Some of these early studies on animals had significant implications for learning of human beings - children as well as adults. Learning is a vast field, and a large number of theories have been proposed. One source lists 53 theories of learning. Two aspects help us to delimit our discussion of learning theories in this article: our interest in adult learning (and not in animal or children's learning), and the relevance of the theories to management.
What is Learning? Learning has been defined in various ways. However, these definitions focus on the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge. Besides knowledge or skill, other inputs are also involved in learning, like attitudes, orientation, life style, behaviour. To do justice with learning in a comprehensive way, learning may be defined as the process of acquiring, assimilating, and internalising cognitive, motor, or behavioural inputs for their effective and varied use when required, and leading to enhanced capability of further selfmonitored learning. This definition has many implications to make learning more effective, as follows:
The first step in learning is the acquiring of a new input in terms of knowledge and understanding (cognitive), or some physical and motor activity or a new behaviour (including attitudes and values). When this process is quick, learning has been effective. The next step is the assimilation of the new input. It should not only be quickly acquired but should be sustained with the persons for a longer time. If what is acquired is shortlived with the person, learning is not effective. Learning is not a process of the collection of various inputs. If these inputs hang loose, independently of one another, the person
Dr Udai Pareek is Distinguished Professor at Indian Institute of Health Management Research, Jaipur.
IJTD JOURNAL XXXVI : 4, OCTOBER - DECEMBER (2006)
Indian Journal of Training & Development
merely acts as a passive receptacle of knowledge, motor skills, or behaviour. This may often happen. For example, a scientist may acquire some scientific knowledge and skills, and yet he may continue to be superstitious. This is like keeping scientific knowledge in a separate compartment. Or, a behavioural scientist may acquire the skill of helping people to be open, share their feelings and collaborate, whereas in his own behaviour he may be the least understanding, un-exploring and highly competitive and threatening. Development of new technology has increased the danger of such schizophrenic living (living a divided or contradictory life in terms of knowledge and behaviour, or behaviour in different settings, without being aware of such contradictions). Effective learning is characterised by the internalisation of the new inputs. The new inputs are acquired from the outside system. However, after these are assimilated, they should not remain foreign; they become a part of the individual's personality, life style, and psychological world. Internalisation also means that the inputs get transformed according to the individual's psychological and cognitive system, and get integrated.
management techniques and skills should result in better management of the various activities and fields in which the person works.
Once the acquired inputs are internalised, they should be available to the individual for their effective use, when the need arises. If what is learned is only ornamental and not effectively used, learning cannot be said to be effective. For example, the learning of
Effective use of learning also involves creativity. Learning should have "transfer" value. What one has learned in one field, one should be able to apply and use in another field. This is also the concept in internalisation. After a person has learned management techniques, he may be required to take up some other assignment, e.g., administering an agricultural project, or a government department, or a political party. He should be able to use his knowledge and skills in the new situation. This would mean that he has to be creative, making his own contribution to what he has learned. Thus there is continuous enrichment of knowledge and practice. Learning must contribute to this process of development of creativity, generation of new knowledge, development of new fields of application, and building of new theories and conceptual models. In fact, creativity would also imply improvement of practice with new knowledge and skills, and the development of new knowledge from improved action and practice. In addition, learning should increase a person's capability for learning more on his own. This does happen in effective learning. After the child has learned to take a few steps, he, on his own, learns to walk and
balance himself. Similarly, initial learning in a particular field enables a person to organise further learning on his own. Without such self-learning the individual's growth would remain limited and dependent on external resources. Learning Theories Different approaches have been proposed to explain the phenomenon of learning. These have emerged as models or theories. We shall discuss these theories, and their implications for improving the learning process. Stimulus-Response Theories Classical Conditioning: The earliest theory of learning developed around the turn of the century. Russian physiologist, Pavlov, experimenting on digestive system of dogs, gave meat powder to the dogs to salivate them. He discovered a strange phenomenon after sometime. While the presence of food (The eliciting stimulus) in the animals' mouth could reliably predict the flow of saliva (the innate response), the sight of the experimenter who brought the food (who was paired with the food) soon came to elicit salivation. Pavlov termed salivation by the presence of the sight of the experimenter who brought the food (and who was paired with meat powder) conditioned reflex. He distinguished natural reflex (salivation on meat powder) from conditioned reflex (salivation on the presence of the experimenter, who had been paired with meat
powder). This research became pioneering in several ways. Pavlov's theory can also be called stimulus generalisation theory. When a stimulus gets associated with another neutral phenomenon, the neutral phenomenon acquires the quality of the original stimulus to get the desired response. This can be understood in the social setting. If a woman worker has bad experience with two consecutive men bosses, they aroused in her anger, anxiety etc. Through stimulus generalisation other men come to elicit same feelings in her when she encounters them. As a result, she may develop negative attitudes towards men. Instrumental Conditioning: Around the same time as Pavlov worked in Russia, Thorndike was working on cats, chicks and dogs to understand the learning process. He differed in one major way from Pavlov. Thorndike placed his animals in an enclosed "puzzle box" from which they were required to escape, by the manipulation of the correct lever or pulley, in order to obtain food reward. Through the process of "trial-and-error," Thorndike's animals eventually "learned". Since the animal's behaviours were instrumental in escaping from the box and in obtaining food, the paradigm was labelled "instrumental conditioning." For Thorndike response was more important for learning than the stimulus. His theory can, therefore, be called response generalisation theory. Operant Conditioning: Skinner built on
both these traditions of Pavlov (which he called Type S conditioning), and Thorndike (which he called Type R conditioning), and became one of the most influential theorists of learning. He developed a science and technology built upon Type R or, operant conditioning. Skinner differed radically from learning and clinical psychologists. While many learning theorists stressed the importance of the immediately preceding stimulus, for Skinner stimulus did not occupy specific place as an independent variable. Similarly, while clinical psychologists like Freud stressed the past as important antecedent for learning, Skinner focused only on the present. He concentrated his studies on operants (freely emitted behaviours, which operate upon the environment, and which are, in turn, controlled by their environmental consequences, i.e., the events that follow their emission can increase or decrease their future probability of occurrence). Operants are learned behaviours, and can be distinguished from "respondents": a respondent is a behaviour under the control of prior eliciting stimuli, and is a part of the individual's biological equipment (either at birth or as a result of maturation). The knee jerk reflex is an example of a respondent. One key concept in operant analysis is the contingency relationship between an operant and the events that follow it. The relationship of a student's raising hand in a classroom and the teacher's attention to the student is typically a contingent act. The teacher selectively recognises the student; he is not forced to do so.
Hand raising can be considered as operant, under the control of contingent events (including the teacher's response, in addition to the reaction of other students etc.) Reinforcement is another important element in Skinner's theory. Thousands of experiments have been conducted to find out the various factors associated with effectiveness of reinforcement. One important element is the schedule of reinforcement. "Schedules of reinforcement have regular and profound effects on the organism's rate of responding. The importance of schedules of reinforcement cannot be overestimated. No description, account, or explanation of any operant behaviour of any organism is complete unless the schedule of reinforcement is specified" (Reynolds, 1968, p.60). Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future. Skinner achieved amazing results by his research. His pigeons were able to learn to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley. Pigeons were able to work in a pharmaceutical firm as quality control "inspectors", rejecting the defective capsules. The time taken by the pigeons was less, and the level of task accuracy was higher, compared with human beings. He even experimented in delivering accurately missiles on some targets by the pigeons. His experiments led to the technology of operant shaping, usefully employed in attitude change.
Cognitive Theories Stimulus-response theories have their limitations. They disregard the activities of the mind, and so cannot explain all types of learning. Even research on animals has shown that they adapt their reinforced patterns to new information. Experiments on monkeys showed that they changed their behaviour on perceiving change in the environment, without any reinforcement. Many learning theorists recognised the importance of thinking. Their theories can be called cognitive theories of learning. Constructivist Theory: Bruner (1966) has been a very influential learning theorist. According to him, learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, based on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given". Bruner's main work was on children's cognitive learning, and he emphasised the importance of instruction, organisation of learning by the instructor. According to him (Bruner, 1966) a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: 1. predisposition towards learning,
2. the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured, so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, 3. the most effective sequences in which to present material, and 4. the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information. The main task of the instructor is to encourage students to discover principles by themselves. The instructor should engage the student in an active dialogue (Socratic learning), and translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Piaget is another well-known learning theorist, who emphasized the importance of mental models. According to him the developing child builds cognitive structures (mental "maps," schemes, or networked concepts) for understanding and responding to physical experiences within his or her environment. This is true of adults also. Instructors must emphasise the critical role that experiences--or interactions with the surrounding environment--play in student learning.
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Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: Festinger (1957) proposed the cognitive dissonance theory, primarily applicable to learning (or, change) of attitudes. According to this theory, individuals tend to seek consistency among their cognitions (i.e., knowledge, beliefs, and opinions). When there is an inconsistency between attitudes or behaviours (dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance. In the case of a discrepancy between attitudes and behaviour, it is most likely that the attitude will change to accommodate the behaviour. Two factors affect the strength of the dissonance: the number of dissonant beliefs, and the importance attached to each belief. There are three ways to eliminate dissonance: (1) reduce the importance of the dissonant beliefs, (2) add more consonant beliefs that outweigh the dissonant beliefs, or (3) change the dissonant beliefs so that they are no longer inconsistent. Dissonance occurs most often in situations where an individual must choose between two incompatible beliefs or actions. The greatest dissonance is created when the two alternatives are equally attractive. Attitude change is more likely with less incentive for changed behaviour, since it produces dissonance, resolved by shifting of attitude. (Example: students writing essays in favour of police action, against their own belief for payment of $1 changed their attitude in favour of police action, compared with students who were paid
$100 for writing essays). This is contradictory to most behavioral theories, which would predict greater attitude change with increased incentive (i.e., reinforcement). Another example (taken from internet): Consider someone who buys an expensive car but discovers that it is not comfortable on long drives. Dissonance exists between their beliefs that they have bought a good car and that a good car should be comfortable. Dissonance could be eliminated by deciding that it does not matter since the car is mainly used for short trips (reducing the importance of the dissonant belief) or focusing on the cars strengths such as safety, appearance, handling (thereby adding more consonant beliefs). Getting rid of the car could also eliminate the dissonance, but this behaviour is a lot harder to achieve than changing beliefs. Theory of Lateral Thinking: De Bono (1991) popularised lateral thinking, the generation of novel solutions to problems. Lateral thinking is based on the premise that many problems require a different perspective to solve successfully. The main principle of lateral thinking is that breaking up its elements and recombining them, perhaps randomly, in a different way can achieve a different perspective on a problem. De Bono identifies four critical factors associated with lateral thinking: (1) recognising dominant ideas that polarise perception of a problem,
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(2)searching for different ways of looking at things, (3) relaxation of rigid control of thinking, and (4) use of chance to encourage other ideas. De Bono has given the following example of lateral thinking. A merchant who owes money to a moneylender agrees to settle the debt based upon the choice of two stones (one black, one white) from a moneybag. If his daughter chooses the white stone, the debt is cancelled; if she picks the black stone, the moneylender gets the merchant's daughter. However, the moneylender "fixes" the outcome by putting two black stones in the bag. The daughter sees this and when she picks a stone out of the bag, immediately drops it onto the path full of other stones. She then points out that the stone she picked must have been the opposite colour of the one remaining in the bag. Unwilling to be unveiled as dishonest, the moneylender must agree and cancel the debt. The daughter has solved an intractable problem using lateral thinking. Adult Learning Theories So far, the theories we have briefly reviewed were primarily developed with experiments on animals or studies on child development and learning. Some scholars emphatically argued that adult learning had its own dynamics. Knowles' theory of andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory specifically for adult learning.
Knowles emphasizes that adults are selfdirected and expect to take responsibility for decisions. Adult learning programmes must accommodate this fundamental aspect. Andragogy makes the following assumptions about the design of learning: (1) Adults need to know why they need to learn something (2) Adults need to learn experientially, (3) Adults approach learning as problem-solving, and (4) Adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value. In practical terms, andragogy means that instruction for adults needs to focus more on the process and less on the content being taught. Strategies such as case studies, role-playing, simulations, and self-evaluation are most useful. Instructors adopt a role of facilitator or resource rather than lecturer or grader. Andragogy applies to any form of adult learning and has been used extensively in the design of organizational training programmes. The main principles of andragogy are as follows: 1. Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction. 2. Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities. 3. Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life.
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4. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented Knowles (1984, Appendix D) provides an example of applying andragogy principles to the design of personal computer training: 1. There is a need to explain why specific things are being taught (e.g., certain commands, functions, operations, etc.) 2. Instruction should be task-oriented instead of memorization -- learning activities should be in the context of common tasks to be performed. 3. Instruction should take into account the wide range of different backgrounds of learners; learning materials and activities should allow for different levels/types of previous experience with computers. 4. Since adults are self-directed, instruction should allow learners to discover things for themselves, providing guidance and help when mistakes are made. Building on Knowles' andragogy, Cross (1981) proposed the Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) model in the context of her analysis of lifelong learning programmes. The model consists of two classes of variables: personal characteristics and situational characteristics. Personal characteristics include aging, life phases, and developmental stages. These three dimensions have different
characteristics for lifelong learning: Aging results in the deterioration of certain sensorymotor abilities (e.g., eyesight, hearing, reaction time), while intelligence abilities (e.g., decision-making skills, reasoning, vocabulary) tend to improve. Life phases and developmental stages (e.g., marriage, job changes, and retirement) involve a series of plateaus and transitions that may or may not be directly related to age. Learning can be parttime or full-time, and this will affect the administration of learning (i.e., schedules, locations, procedures). Learning being voluntary or compulsory pertains to the selfdirected, problem-centered nature of most adult learning. The following are the main principles of CAL: 1. Adult learning programmes should capitalize on the experience of participants. 2. Adult learning programmes should adapt to the aging limitations of the participants. 3. Adults should be challenged to move to increasingly advanced stages of personal development. 4. Adults should have as much choice as possible in the availability and organization of learning programmes. Social Learning Theories Modelling Theory: The social learning
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theory of Bandura emphasises the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." (p22). Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural, an environmental influences. The component processes underlying observational learning are: 1. Attention, including modelled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), 2. Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal), 3. Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and 4. Motivation, including external, vicarious and self reinforcement.
Because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, social learning theory spans both cognitive and behavioural frameworks. Bandura's theory improves upon the strictly behavioral interpretation of modelling. The principles of Bandura's theory can be summarized as follows: 1. Organizing and rehearsing the modelled behaviour symbolically, and then enacting it overtly, helps to achieve the highest level of observational learning. Coding modelled behaviour into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing. 2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value. 3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modelled behaviour if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behaviour has functional value. Example of social learning (taken from internet): The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behaviour shown in the
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commercial and buy the product being advertised. Theory of Social Cognition: Vygotsky (1978) propose the social cognition learning model, that culture is the prime determinant of individual development. Culture (including the culture of the family environment) affects a child's learning development. Culture makes two sorts of contributions to a child's intellectual development. First, through culture children acquire much of the content of their thinking, that is, their knowledge. Second, the surrounding culture provides a child with the processes or means of their thinking, what Vygotskians call the tools of intellectual adaptation. In short, according to the social cognition learning model, culture teaches children both what to think and how to think. Since children learn much through interaction, curricula should be designed to emphasize interaction between learners and learning tasks. With appropriate adult help, children can often perform tasks that they are incapable of completing on their own. With this in mind, scaffolding--where the adult continually adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the child's level of performance--is an effective form of teaching. Scaffolding not only produces immediate results, but also instils the skills necessary for independent problem solving in the future.
The principles of social cognition theory are as follows:
Cognitive development results from a dialectical process whereby a child learns through problem-solving experiences shared with someone else, usually a parent or teacher but sometimes a sibling or peer. Initially, the person interacting with child assumes most of the responsibility for guiding the problem solving, but gradually this responsibility transfers to the child. Language is a primary form of interaction through which adults transmit to the child the rich body of knowledge that exists in the culture. As learning progresses, the child's own language comes to serve as her primary tool of intellectual adaptation. Eventually, children can use internal language to direct their own behaviour. Internalisation refers to the process of learning--and thereby internalizing--a rich body of knowledge and tools of thought that first exist outside the child. This happens primarily through language. A difference exists between what child can do on her own and what the child can do with help. Vygotskians call this difference the zone of proximal development. Since much of what a child learns comes
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form the culture around her and much of the child's problem solving is mediated through an adult's help, it is wrong to focus on a child in isolation. Such focus does not reveal the processes by which children acquire new skills.
Rogers lists these qualities of experiential learning: personal involvement, self-initiated, evaluated by learner, and pervasive effects on learner. To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. Rogers feels that all human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning. This includes: (1) setting a positive climate for learning, (2) clarifying the purposes of the learner(s), (3) organizing and making available learning resources, (4)balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning, and (5) sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating. According to Rogers, learning is facilitated when: (1) the student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction, (2) it is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, personal or research problems, and (3) self-evaluation is the principal method of
Interactions with surrounding culture and social agents, such as parents and more competent peers, contribute significantly to a child's intellectual development.
Experiential Learning Theories Action Learning Theory: The theoretical framework of action learning (Revans, 1980) has been widely applied to management education. Action learning involves structured projects in organizations rather than traditional classroom instruction. The key elements of action learning are: commitment to learning, social interaction, action plans, and assessing the results of actions Humanistic Theory: Carl Roger's (1969) theory of learning evolved as part of the humanistic education movement Rogers distinguished two types of learning: cognitive (meaningless) and experiential (significant). The former corresponds to academic knowledge such as learning vocabulary or multiplication tables and the latter refers to applied knowledge such as learning about engines in order to repair a car. The key to the distinction is that experiential learning addresses the needs and wants of the learner.
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assessing progress or success. Rogers also emphasizes the importance of learning to learn and an openness to change. The following are the principles of Roger's theory: 1. Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is relevant to the personal interests of the student 2. Learning which is threatening to the self (e.g., new attitudes or perspectives) is more easily assimilated when external threats are at a minimum 3. Learning proceeds faster when the threat to the self is low 4. Self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive. Double-loop Theory: Argyris (1977) has proposed double loop learning theory, which pertains to learning to change underlying values and assumptions. The focus of the theory is on solving problems that are complex and illstructured and which change as problemsolving advances. Double loop theory is based upon a "theory of action" perspective outlined by Argyris & Schon (1978). This perspective examines reality from the point of view of human beings as actors. Changes in values, behaviour, leadership, and helping others, are all part of, and informed by, the actors' theory of action. An
important aspect of the theory is the distinction between individuals' espoused theory and their "theory-in-use" (what they actually do); bringing these two into congruence is a primary concern of double loop learning. Interaction with others is necessary in this regard. There are four basic steps in the "action theory" learning process: (1) discovery of espoused and theory-in-use, (2) invention of new meanings, (3) production of new actions, and (4) generalization of results. In double loop learning, assumptions underlying current views are questioned and hypotheses about behaviour tested publicly. The end result of double loop learning should be increased effectiveness in decision-making and better acceptance of failures and mistakes. According to it, effective problem solving about interpersonal or technical issues requires frequent public testing of theories-in-use, and double loop learning requires learning situations in which participants can examine and experiment with their theories of action Here are two examples from Argyris: A teacher who believes that she has a class of "stupid" students will communicate expectations such that the children behave stupidly. She confirms her theory by asking
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them questions and eliciting stupid answers or puts them in situations where they behave stupidly. The theory-in-use is self-fulfilling. Similarly, a manager who believes his subordinates are passive, dependent and require authoritarian guidance rewards dependent and submissive behaviour. He tests his theory by posing challenges for employees and eliciting dependent outcomes. In order to break this congruency, the teacher or manager would need to engage in open loop learning in which they deliberately disconfirm their theory-in-use. Cyclic Theory: Kolb (1976) proposed the cycle of experiential learning of adults. The cycle has four parts (Exhibit 1), one following the other, in order: Experiencing (a learner has some concrete experience, or is helped to have experience during the training programme) Processing (reflecting on and analysing the experience individually and in a group) Generalising (abstract conceptualisation based on the experience, and forming a tentative theory or a way to explain the data) Applying (active experimentation; trying the new behaviour, or using it in the day-to-day work). Then it is followed by a new experience, and the cycle continues.
Exhibit 1 Kolb's Learning Cycle
Motivation Theories Attribution Theory: Attribution theory is concerned with how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behaviour. Heider (1958) was the first to propose a psychological theory of attribution, but Weiner (1972; 1974, 1986) developed a theoretical framework that has become a major research paradigm of social psychology. Attribution theory assumes that people try to determine why people do what they do, i.e., attribute causes to behaviour. Weiner focused his attribution theory on achievement (Weiner, 1974). He identified ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck as the most important factors affecting attributions for achievement. Attributions are classified along three causal dimensions: locus of control, stability, and controllability. The locus of
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control dimension has two poles: internal versus external locus of control. The stability dimension captures whether causes change over time or not. For instance, ability can be classified as a stable, internal cause, and effort classified as unstable and internal. Controllability contrasts causes one can control, such as skill/efficacy, from causes one cannot control, such as aptitude, mood, others' actions, and luck. Weiner's theory has been widely applied in education, law, clinical psychology, and the mental health domain. There is a strong relationship between self-concept and achievement. Weiner states: "Causal attributions determine affective reactions to success and failure. For example, one is not likely to experience pride in success, or feelings of competence, when receiving an 'A' from a teacher who gives only that grade, or when defeating a tennis player who always loses. On the other hand, an 'A' from a teacher who gives few high grades or a victory over a highly rated tennis player following a great deal of practice generates great positive affect." (p.362). Students with higher ratings of self-esteem and with higher school achievement tend to attribute success to internal, stable, uncontrollable factors such as ability, while they contribute failure to either internal, unstable, controllable factors such as effort, or external, uncontrollable factors such as task difficulty. For example, students who experience repeated failures in reading are likely to see themselves as being less competent
in reading. This self-perception of reading ability reflects itself in children's expectations of success on reading tasks and reasoning of success or failure of reading. Similarly, students with learning disabilities seem less likely than non-disabled peers to attribute failure to effort, an unstable, controllable factor, and more likely to attribute failure to ability, a stable, uncontrollable factor. The principles, in summary, are: 1. Attribution is a three-stage process: (a) behaviour is observed, (b) behaviour is determined to be deliberate, and (c) behaviour is attributed to internal or external causes. 2. Achievement can be attributed to (a) effort, (b) ability, (c) level of task difficulty, or (d) luck. 3. Causal dimensions of behaviour are (a) locus of control, (b) stability, and (c) controllability. Attribution theory has been used to explain the difference in motivation between high and low achievers. According to attribution theory, high achievers will approach rather than avoid tasks related to succeeding because they believe success is due to high ability and effort that they are confident of. They attribute failure to bad luck or a poor exam, i.e. not their fault. Thus, failure does not affect their self-esteem, but success builds pride and confidence. On the other hand, low achievers avoid successrelated activities because they tend to (a) doubt their ability and/or (b) assume success is related
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to luck, or to "whom you know", or to other factors beyond their control. Thus, even when successful, it is not as rewarding to the low achiever because he/she does not feel responsible, i.e., it does not increase his/her pride and confidence. Martin Seligman built on attribution theory and suggested two stable factors (permanent and pervasive), respectively relating to time and space, and two variable factors (temporary and specific). He applied the theory of attribution to learning of helplessness. His book on learned helplessness (1992) was an important contribution to understanding of depression and helplessness. His interest switched to positive aspects. He became interested in how people learn to be optimist or pessimist. Sequel to his earlier book, Learned Optimism (1991), was another important landmark in learning of emotional states like optimism. More recently, he led a group of psychologist to form what is called positive psychology. In attribution framework, optimism is defined as attributing miseries, failures and bad experiences to variable factors (temporary or specific). Pessimism, on the other hand, is defined as attributing miseries, failures and bad experiences to stable (permanent or pervasive) and good experiences and success to variable (temporary or specific) causes. A study of insurance agents showed that less optimistic agents were twice as likely to quit as
more optimistic ones. The agents from the top half scores on optimism sold 20% more than the less optimistic ones (from bottom half); those from the top quarter sold 50% more than those from the bottom quarter (Seligman, 1991, p. 102). When a special force of high optimist agents was created, they outsold the pessimists in the regular force by 21% during the first year, and 57% in the second year (p.104). Regarding learning of optimism, Seligman's advice is to monitor internal dialogue! We are constantly talking to ourselves. When one finds oneself anxious or worried, one should pause for a moment and pay attention to what one is saying to oneself. We tend to have automatic responses to different situations. We need to develop awareness of those automatic responses, and then develop new, more effective ways to interpret life's events. We should start paying attention to your internal dialogue, notice the patterns, and try to optimize our three P's: personalization, permanence and pervasiveness. We should create new habits. Seligman has suggested ABCDE method for learning optimism (changing attributional style, the way one explains life events, from pessimism to optimism). Seligman suggests that people record their reactions to life events, and modify those reactions to be more optimistic. 5. Identify the adversity that you are
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experiencing or have experienced. That is, what bad event has happened to you? 6. Identify the beliefs that you are using to explain that bad event. That is, what attributions do you have about the event? These beliefs might be hard to identify sometimes, because often they occur automatically. We have learned to explain the world using these beliefs so well that the explanations are automatic. 7. Examine the consequences of having that belief. That is, what do you do because of the belief? Many times a pessimistic attributional (belief) style will result in quitting, or avoiding, or ending an activity, to escape the bad feelings that the individual has experienced from facing adversity. 8. Use disputation to change the beliefs that you are using to explain the adversities you are facing; disputation involves the following: (i) examining whether there is any evidence for the beliefs, (ii) identifying what the alternative explanations (beliefs) there are, (iii)what the implications of the belief are (does the belief really justify the consequences?), and (iv) what is the usefulness of the belief (is it really serving some function for me, or am I better off thinking something else?).
9. Generally, the consequences of negative beliefs are negative things, which often involve withdrawal from the situation and decreased enthusiasm for the situation or activity. Thus, changing the beliefs often leads to an energisation, such that the person feels good about what they are doing and they are looking forward to where they are going to go from here. Motivation Acquisition Theory: David McClelland made seminal contribution by demonstrating that people could "learn" motivation. His famous experiment in Kakinada, India demonstrated that even adults in advanced age could learn new motive (1969). A ten-day programme was designed to change affiliation motivation of people from affluent society of Kakinada to achievement motivation. Some theoretical notions of what motive acquisition involves and how it can be effectively promoted in adults have been summarized in the form of twelve propositions. The propositions are Given below (McClelland, 1965). PROPOSITION 1. The more reasons an individual has in advance to believe that he can, will, or should develop a motive, the more educational attempts designed to develop that motive are likely to succeed. PROPOSITION 2. The more an individual perceives that developing a motive is consistent
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with the demands of reality (and reason), the more educational attempts designed to develop that motive are likely to succeed. PROPOSITION 3. The more thoroughly an individual develops and clearly conceptualises the associative network defining the motive, the more likely he is to develop the motive. PROPOSITION 4. The more an individual can link the newly conceptualised associationaction complex (or motive) to events in his everyday life, the more likely the motive complex is to influence his thoughts and actions in situations outside the training experience. PROPOSITION 5. The more an individual can perceive and experience the newly conceptualised motive as an improvement in the self-image, the more the motive is likely to influence his future thoughts and actions PROPOSITION 6. The more an individual can perceive and experience the newly conceptualised motive as an improvement on prevailing cultural values, the more the motive is likely to influence his future thoughts and actions. PROPOSITION 7. The more an individual commits himself to achieving concrete goals in life related to the newly formed motive, the more the motive is likely to influence his future thoughts and actions. PROPOSITION 8. The more an individual keeps a record of his progress toward achieving
goals to which he is committed, the more the newly formed motive is likely to influence his future thoughts and actions. PROPOSITION 9. Changes in motives are more likely to occur in an inter-personal atmosphere in which the individual feels warmly but honestly supported and respected by others as a person capable of guiding and directing his own future behaviour. PROPOSITION 10. Changes in motives are more likely to occur the more the setting dramatizes the importance of self-study and lifts it out of the routine of everyday life. PROPOSITION 11. Changes in motives are more likely to occur and persist if the new motive is a sign of membership in a new reference group. Learning Styles Learning or cognitive styles refer to the preferred way individual processes information. Unlike individual differences in abilities, styles describe a person's typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving. Furthermore, styles are usually considered bipolar dimensions, whereas abilities are unipolar (ranging from zero to a maximum value). Having more of an ability is usually considered beneficial, while having a particular cognitive style simply denotes a tendency to behave in a certain manner. Cognitive style is a usually described as a
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personality dimension, which influences attitudes, values, and social interaction. A number of cognitive or learning styles have been proposed and studied over the years. Some are briefly mentioned below. Field-independence versus fielddependence: This classification is quite well known in the literature. A field-independent person approaches the environment in an analytical way, and is able to distinguish figures as discrete from their backgrounds. On the other hand, a field-dependent person approaches the environment in a global way, and experiences events in an undifferentiated way. In addition, field dependent individuals have a greater social orientation relative to field independent personalities. Studies have identified number connections between this cognitive style and learning (see Messick, 1976). For example, field independent individuals are likely to learn more effectively under conditions of intrinsic motivation (e.g., self-study) and are influenced less by social reinforcement. Levelling versus sharpening: Individual variations in remembering that pertain to the distinctiveness of memories and the tendency to merge similar events. Reflection versus impulsivity: Individual consistencies in the speed and adequacy with which alternative hypotheses are formed and responses made.
Serialist versus holist: Serialists prefer to learn in a sequential fashion, whereas holists prefer to learn in a hierarchical manner (i.e., top-down). 4MAT Framework: Bernice McCarthy has suggested four learning styles (Analytic, Imaginative, Common Sense, and Dynamic). Kolb's Styles: Kolb's theory (1984), already discussed, proposes four stages in experiential learning: concrete experiences (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC), and active experimentation (AE). Proposing CE/AC and AE/RO dimensions as two poles, he has suggested four types of learners (divergers, assimilators, convergers, and accommodators) depending upon their position on these two dimensions. For example, an accommodator prefers concrete experiences and active experimentation (AE, CE). Based on this cycle of experiential learning, Kolb also proposed four learning styles. Concrete experiencers are excited by the new activity or experience and share it with others; they generally combine experiencing and generalising parts of the cycle. Reflecting observers learn from objective observation, reflect on it, discuss it and then generalise. They benefit from processing and generalising parts of the cycle. Abstract conceptualisers rely mainly on logic and rational analysis. They tend to generalise from their exposure to logical material. Active experimenters are pragmatic
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and rely on trying things out in their familiar situation. The applying part of the learning cycle is more appealing to them. Theoretically, cognitive and learning styles could be used to predict what kind of instructional strategies or methods would be most effective for a given individual and learning task. The learning styles theory is based on research demonstrating that, as the result of heredity, upbringing, and current environmental demands, different individuals have a tendency to both perceive and process information differently. The different ways of doing so are generally classified as: Concrete and abstract perceivers: Concrete perceivers absorb information through direct experience, by doing, acting, sensing, and feeling. Abstract perceivers, however, take in information through analysis, observation, and thinking. Active and reflective processors: Active processors make sense of an experience by immediately using the new information. Reflective processors make sense of an experience by reflecting on and thinking about it. Traditional schooling tends to favour abstract perceiving and reflective processing. Other kinds of learning are not rewarded and reflected in curriculum, instruction, and assessment nearly as much.
Based on his cyclic theory, already mentioned, Kolb (1976) proposed four learning styles. Concrete experiencers are excited by the new activity or experience and share it with others; they generally combine the experiencing and generalizing parts of the cycle. Reflective observers learn from objective observation, reflect on it, discuss it, and then generalize; they benefit from the processing and generalizing parts of the cycle. Abstract conceptualizers rely mainly on logic and rational analysis; they tend to generalize from their exposure to logical material. Active experimenters are pragmatic and rely on trying things out in familiar situations; the applying part of the learning cycle is more appealing to them. The Learning Process: An Overview The various elements involved in the process of learning are: the training/teaching organization, the trainer/teacher, the learner, and the technology of training/learning. All these four elements are important. Each of these can be treated as a system or a sub-system. The training/teaching organization, including the training/teaching group, can be called the endosystem. This system has its own culture and dynamics. The main function of this system is to maximize the motivation for learning by creating the culture and climate conducive to such motivation. The system of the teaching/training
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technology is concerned with the mechanics of teaching/training. Methodology and aids help in the various aspects of learning. However, the main function of this system is to help assimilation and stabilization of learning through practice and application. The trainer/teacher is certainly an important person in this whole cycle, and is the main representative of the influence system. Although other elements also produce influence, the main impact is made by the teacher/trainer through his or her behaviour, values, and competence. The way the trainer/ teacher influences the learner may determine the effectiveness of learning to a great extent. The last, but certainly the most important, element in the process of learning is the learner. The learner makes use of the other systems. His or her main function is the development and effective use of processes. Process is the dynamic system of various procedures used in assimilating, internalizing, using, and creating learning. This system may therefore be called the process system. Exhibit 5.2 gives the management process of learning, and the interrelationships among the four elements. As may be seen from the exhibit, the most important element directly contributing to effective learning is the process system. All the other three systems contribute to learning through this system. In other words, all other systems may be able to influence learning only by contributing to the
development of an effective process and helping the learner to do so. As discussed later, the process system consists of discovery and experimentation by the learner, collaborative learning, and the development of a person's own small learning systems. Another important feature of the interrelationship among the four elements is that while three elements-the endosystem, the process, and the influence of trainer/teachermake mutual contributions, the mechanics of learning only receives contributions from the endosystem and the trainer/teacher, while being in a mutual relationship with the process system. This means that the technology of training is not crucial in determining the effectiveness of learning. Because of the glamour of technology, it may draw more attention; but it plays a limited, though important, role in making learning effective. Each element in the learning process is discussed further below. The Endosystem The main focus of a training organization is to create the necessary motivation for learning. Various aspects of the endosystem help in creating such motivation. Some of these are discussed below: Organizational culture: The culture of the organization is very important for learning. If the learning institute functions as a closed, authoritarian system and the trainers
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emphasize the value of democratic and participative methods in their class lectures, learning becomes an ineffective farce. The general atmosphere of the training institute communicates much more and with greater impact than what is taught in the classroom. It may be worthwhile for training institutes to examine whether their own culture reflects what is being taught. Sometimes the institutes do not perceive the glaring contradiction between what is stressed in teaching and what actually happens in the institute. Institutes running effective programmes on teambuilding may themselves be working in watertight compartments of departments and sections, and individual faculty members may not even meet to plan programmes. Moreover, the culture of the institute should encourage participation and experimentation. If the institute has a completely fixed and rigid curriculum without any possibility of change, the students or participants get a certain message. Thus training organizations may like to examine their organizational culture to see whether it encourages self-learning, participation of learners in designing the curriculum (or at least in reviewing and criticizing it) feedback from learners on teaching programmes and methods, openness to different views and disagreement, and creativity (i.e., different and new ways of dealing with the same problems). If the culture is conducive to the development of such values and norms, learning is speeded up.
A non-threatening climate: Equally important is the classroom climate. Learning is faster in a non-threatening climate. If the learner fears being ridiculed from his or her peers or teachers, learning will be slow as the learner will not be able to experiment, take the risk of expressing doubts, or ask questions. Similarly, if results of the evaluation of classroom work are communicated to the organizations which have sent the participants, they will be very hesitant in expressing themselves and their learning will suffer. One of the main advantages of programmed learning is that a learner does not feel threatened in committing mistakes. The learner should not have apprehensions of being laughed at or considered naive and ignorant. Various steps can be taken to create a nonthreatening climate. Distance between the teachers/trainers and the learners creates some threat. Similarly, unknown groups also pose a threat. In the beginning, special programmes can be organized to create a friendly and free atmosphere. An activity called a 'microlab' tries to achieve this. In the microlab a number of activities are planned in quick succession to help the learners get a glimpse of the various ways of teaching-learning likely to be adopted in the programme. The various items are discussed in small groups, which are quickly changed so that interaction amongst the participants is maximized. Sometimes, the teachers/trainers also participate. This can be very helpful in creating a non-threatening
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climate. Microlabs also include activities addressing the individual's personal attributesstrengths, weaknesses, style, values, aspirations, etc. The behaviour of the teachers in the classroom, of course, contributes the most to the classroom climate. If differences of opinion, difficult questions, and doubts are tolerated and appreciated, an encouraging climate may be created. Teachers may deliberately ask silent members to express their opinions. The formation of small groups to discuss topics also contributes to a climate conducive to learning. Challenge in learning: Learning is effective and satisfying if the learner achieves something by overcoming challenges. If learning cannot provide challenge, it ceases to motivate. One way to produce challenge is to develop programmes which encourage new learning. The learner should feel that he or she is learning something new and worthwhile. Technical subjects often appeal precisely because such challenge is provided. Another factor that helps in producing a sense of challenge is the pressure of learning itself. The demand on the learner should be fairly high. Generally speaking, the more demanding a programme is in terms of time and effort invested by the learner, the more satisfaction it produces. Encouraging healthy competition can also create challenge. If healthy competition is
recognized and rewarded, it may create a challenging climate. It may, however, be useful to balance competition and cooperation. Competitive exercises can also promote collaboration. This can be done, for example, by holding competitions between groups so that members collaborate to work together, but compete for the excellence of their collaborative effort with other groups. Collaboration produces mutual support and mutual reinforcement, which are favourable for effective learning. Competition produces challenge and a pressure to give the best of oneself, which is necessary for learning. Thus, a combination of both may be very helpful. Graduated challenging successes: Nothing is more motivating than success in a difficult and challenging job. Easy success does not produce as much satisfaction. Similarly, failure to achieve a goal, however challenging it may be, does not motivate unless it is taken as only an experience to learn from and activities are replanned to attain the target next time. If programmes can be designed to provide successful experiences in a challenging job, learning can be sustained for longer and astonishing results can be achieved. Programmed instruction is based on this principle-to increase difficulty and challenge with every success, so that each time the learner gets both a new challenge and success in overcoming the challenge. This reinforces the success and motivates the learner to proceed to a new success experience. This is illustrated by an incident in Skinner's class (Skinner is
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regarded as the father of learning theory and research). One of his doctoral students was awkward at social dancing, and therefore no girl would date him steadily. An aptitude test showed that he had a very low aptitude for music. Skinner suggested an experiment. The student was first given a very simple task of discriminating various intervals and rhythms, then had to proceed to tones, notes, etc. A graduated programme was thus prepared. At the end of the 'course', not only did he find a date, he got married, and was hired by a newspaper as a critic of musical performances in town to boot! The secret of this miracle lies in the graduated challenging successes which were organized meticulously for the learner. If a learner is helped to succeed on a challenging job, and subsequently the challenge increases a little bit each time, learning can become very effective. Of course, this would require a great deal of work. But if this principle is applied to help individual learners use programmed learning and enough gradually increasing challenges are built into the classroom work, learning can be made more effective. The Mechanics of Learning Learning technology plays an important role in stabilizing learning so that what has been learned is properly assimilated and becomes a part of the individual's normal behaviour. Some of its main aspects are discussed below.
Feedback: Feedback is a necessary condition for stabilizing learning. If a learner does not know how much he or she has learned, the learning will be slow. However, if the learner knows how much he or she has learned, what he or she could not learn, and why, learning will be more effective. The principle of feedback is very effectively used in programmed instruction. After the learner goes through some new information, he or she reads a question on the material learned and chooses one of the responses given there. Then the learner turns a page to find out whether the response chosen was correct. This is feedback. Suppose the learner has chosen the wrong answer. He or she is then asked to find out why that answer is wrong. This is another kind of feedback. In this system, a very effective use of feedback is found. Feedback can be built-in in various other ways. Review exercises, review sessions, short tests, etc., provide similar feedback. It is important that feedback is given as close to the learning event as possible. It should also help the learner to understand the cause of his or her success and/or failure, so that the learner can plan more systematically for future effectiveness. Feedback is important not only for cognitive learning and the learning of technical skills, but also for the learning of behavioural skills and for behavioural change. In the latter case, feedback is much more complex.
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Practice: For effective learning, it is necessary that the learner is able to practise what he or she has learnt. This helps in stabilizing learning. Practice may give the learner an opportunity to test whether learning has been effective, to take steps to improve, and to gain enough confidence to use this learning in future. Enough opportunities should therefore be provided for practice. This is particularly important in the case of skillsboth technical and behavioural. Practice should be accompanied by feedback, so that each period of practice is followed by reinforcement of success. This helps in stabilization of learning. For example, if a participant decides to develop the skill of listening, he or she may be helped to practice the skill several times, and some detailed data (feedback) may be provided as to whether he or she listened or failed to listen to different group members each time. Specific time periods, clearly outlined and effective methods of assessment and feedback group support, and a non-threatening climate are necessary for effective practice. Programmes of mass practice or mutual feedback on the practice of common skills can help in the practice of the skills and their use in behaviour. Application: Learning is of no use unless it leads to action. Knowledge or skills are meant for certain purposes. Unless these are properly used, they are as good as absent. The application of learning implies the development of insight in the learner and an ability to respond to a situation effectively. Training technology can offer various ways of
organizing the application of learning. It may range from applying the acquired knowledge to problems as defined in classroom situations or cases, to its application in real-life situations. Application can also be aided if a demonstration can be organized. Films are a good medium for this. In a film, the use of a particular principle or a set of principles can be effectively shown. The use of a system like MbO (management by objectives) can be shown quite effectively in a film. Demonstration through an actual situation may be equally, and sometimes more, effective. After learning about MbO, if a learner is taken to a unit where MbO is practised, his or her ability to apply this knowledge in real-life situations increases. After having seen the application, the learner may be encouraged to try it himself or herself. A simple exercise of describing situations and asking the learner to apply some part of this knowledge may be useful. A detailed case may be even better. Another step can be taken in preparing a detailed simulation, with the learner being required to work out the details. Such simulation can be either in the form of written material only or an actual organizational situation. The most lifelike way of learning application is to take up an exercise in a company or in the field. For example, after a learner has learned how to diagnose organizational culture and seen its application in a film, he or she may be sent to an organization to apply his or her knowledge and prepare a report. This report may then be critiqued.
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The various mechanics of application need to be planned in a proper sequence. It may, for example, be useful to have several graduated exercises on demonstration followed by several graduated exercises in actual application, testing the ability to apply knowledge and learn from the review of such exercises. For training in applied fields, enough emphasis should be given to application and new ways should be devised to ensure effective application and practice. Even the methodology of teaching contributes to this. The use of cases in teaching increase the probability of application of what is learned. But this alone may not be enough for effective application. In some areas, the use of simulation of entire systems may be effective not only at the application stage but even at the early stage of acquiring learning. Different systems of learning sequences can of course be worked out but the focus on application should never be lost. Self-learning: The teaching/training technology should emphasize self-learning. The learner should develop both the motivation as well as the skills and capability for selflearning. Learners may select some areas in which they are comparatively weak or about which they want to know more, and may proceed at their own pace. Programmed instruction is one device to encourage self-learning. An effective use of programmed instruction can result both in
economy of learning and in faster learning of some kinds of material. Material that requires acquisition of information or knowledge can be better learned through programmed instruction, which can save the valuable time usually spent in such learning in the classroom. More effective use of the teacher/trainer and the learning group can be made after the individual learner has acquired some knowledge and when most learners in the group are at the same level. In many organizations, training can be improved enormously if the concept of training is widened to include the use of selfinstructional material. For example, a company with a large marketing operation may like to design a course on new sales tax laws. It can do this best by designing self-instructional material on the new laws. After most managers have gone through their individual 'courses', short programmes for batches can be organized to discuss doubts, implications, changes needed in marketing strategy, and so on. Face-to-face group time in a classroom is very valuable and should be effectively used in other ways. Instead, self-learning should be included as a necessary component in all learning situations. Enough time should be given to participants to read, consult the library, and select their own material for learning. Assignments requiring self-study and search for relevant material can themselves promote self-learning. Such work can be satisfying and also help in stabilizing what has been learned.
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The Learning Process In learning, the process is the most important factor, which emphasizes creativity. In general, the process is concerned with how learning develops, how the learner and the teacher/ trainer interact, and how the learner is involved in the process. Such concerns are crucial for managing the effectiveness of learning. Some important dimensions of process are discussed below: Discovery Learning can be more effective in the individual's personal development if he or she 'discovers' knowledge rather than 'getting' it from the teacher/trainer. Learning by discovery emphasizes the importance of the learner and expresses trust in the learner's ability to be active and creative. This has implications for technology as well as other systemsthe endosystem and the influence system (the teacher/trainer). If a teacher/trainer provides the minimum necessary guidance and encourages the learner to explore the environment, the field of knowledge, situations, and organizations and to discover various aspects by himself or herself, then learning contributes to creativity. This is, of course, a challenge for training managers and trainers. Discovery also emphasizes the use of the learner's experience in learning. This is particularly true in the case of behavioural skills. Such skills cannot be learned unless the learner, through taking active part and incurring
some risk, discovers for himself or herself the 'principles' of behaviour. For example, learning empathy is not possible if a person learns about it in books. The learner has to 'discover' what empathy is in a situation he or she is involved in, and where the learner takes necessary risks to get feedback and help. Laboratory training, for instance, proceeds on this assumption. This is true of all other learning as well. One may have learned about designing a control system, but the real learning comes about only when one 'discovers' it through sudden insight, which makes the cognitive learning meaningful. It is then that various ideas, techniques, and facts fall into a meaningful pattern like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Experimentation: Related to discovery is experimentationtaking an active role in trying out a new thing or taking some risk. All skills involve experimentation. If learning is to be creative and lead to creativity, experimentation is necessary. It is through experimenting that the learner understands that there are various ways of doing things and discovers alternatives that make him more effective in being able to choose from a variety of alternatives. In fact, he or she learns to create new alternatives. Without experimentation, learning cannot help in the development of a field. If a learner merely learns how to apply some techniques as taught, he or she becomes only a technician. The learner should, instead, become an engineer, able to innovate according to the challenge.
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Experimentation is very important in the learning of behavioural skills. Laboratory training and other types of behavioural training use experimentation to a great extent. When a learner is dissatisfied with his or her present level of a particular skill or behaviour, he or she will be able to develop the particular skill or learn a new skill only by experimenting with his or her behaviour in a group which provides encouragement and psychological safety. Feedback on the experimentation will reinforce the lesson and encourage the learner to practice the skill or behaviour. In all learning situations, enough opportunities should be provided to learners to experiment, to try out new ways, and learn from such efforts. Auto systems design: Learning should also help the learner to learn 'how to learn further'. For this purpose, the learner should be helped to develop his or her own system of self-learning. Each learner uses a particular system. While one person learns by organizing his or her thoughts using a systematic outline, another may learn through application and then conceptualization. Similarly, people develop their own ways of remembering things, preparing notes, preparing records, reference cards, and other material, referencing, etc. Learners should be encouraged to review the effectiveness of their systems and find out about other available methods so that they can finally choose their own system and develop it further. Collaborative learning: So far learning has
been discussed only from the point of view of individual learners. But learning is also a function of the entire group. Also, the group is an important resource for the individual. All learners, and certainly the trainers as well, constitute the group. Learners learn not only from the teacher/trainer but also from one another. The process of collaborative learning mutually helping one another in learning and facilitating this processis very significant. In real-life situations, people work most of the time in groups and influence one another to achieve results. Such situations involve learning. Collaborative learning, therefore, is a very important dimension of growth and of building the skills to help and receive help. All formal learning programmes should stress and strengthen collaborative learning. Such learning should also include the teacher/trainer. Then learning does not debase the learner as an object. Influence: The Trainer The teacher/trainer influences the learning situation a great deal. The trainer's values, general style of interaction, competence, and individual needs matter a great deal. His or her contribution to the learning process is most vital. The main dimensions of his influence are discussed below: Values: The trainer's main contribution is through his or her values. Some trainers/ teachers may not be at all aware of their values; others are. Whether one is aware of them or not,
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everyone has a set of values and behaves according to these. Therefore, it may be useful for teachers/trainers to examine what values they are operating with. Since the main role of the trainer/teacher is to influence the learners and their learning process, the question they should ask themselves is what their model of an ideal human being is. Probably, two factors are important in determining one's model of an ideal human being. One is social awareness, and the other one's concept of human nature. Regarding social awareness, Karl Marx and Max Weber held two extreme positions. While Marx emphatically asserted the primacy of social reality of power held by the different classes, and Weber emphasized the primacy of ideas and institutions. With regard to human nature, contrasting positions are represented by, on the one hand, the classical Western proselytizing stance (human beings are basically ignorant and need to be 'converted' to awareness, or human beings' basic animal nature is motivated by the fulfilment of physical needs) and, on the other, the Eastern faith in the goodness and godliness of humanity, with an emphasis on self-awareness (symbolized so dramatically by Mahatma Gandhi). The former position culminated in Taylorism and work systematization and the latter in humanism, more recently represented by Freire, Maslow, Rogers, and others. Not that these people directly borrowed from Gandhi or other Eastern thinkers, but their impact did percolate. That however is a separate discussion.
In the teaching/learning context, Carl Rogers represents a strong trend regarding values and the model human being. His nondirective teaching emphasized 'nurturing selfdirection and fulfilment' of the learners. His faith in the learner as a resource is immense. Although Bruner comes from a different tradition, his emphasis on exploration and enquiry has made a significant contribution to the theory of instruction. He emphasizes that cognitive learning takes place best through enquiry, through the learner's own motivations. He emphasizes also the 'autonomy of selfreward' as against outside rewards. Paulo Freire, mixing a Marxian understanding of society with humanism, has contributed the concept of 'conscientization'arousal of a positive self-concept in human beings, in relation to their environment and society through a liberating education that treats learners as subjects (active agents) and not objects (passive recipients). Skinner, the best-known person in the field of learning, held a peculiar position. He emphasized the role of external conditions of the environment in human behaviour, and accordingly proposed a theory of shaping behaviour through manipulation of external conditions. He made a tremendous contribution to the technology of learning (he is considered the father of programmed instruction technology) as well. However, the Skinnerian model of humanity is a passive one, even though it is the human being who manipulates the environment in it.
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It may be useful for teachers/trainers to become aware of some of these thinkersand others in their own countries and traditionsand consciously develop their own model of humanity. If they do not exercise their conscious choice, the choice gets determined without their awareness. There is no escape. Style: The trainer's style is very important in the learning process. However, the trainer's style will be determined to a great extent by his or her values and concept of humanity. One dimension of the trainer's style is the type of influence he or she uses. Teachers/trainers can be classified as having a 'direct influence style' or an 'indirect influence style'. Various other ways of looking at style can also be consideredhow much use the trainer makes of the different training methods; what reviewing devices he or she uses; whether the trainer deals with his or her subject in isolation or builds linkages with other subjects; the trainer's degree of emphasis on theory and application respectively, etc. The interaction process between the trainer/ teacher and the learner is very important. In the words of Paulo Freire, 'it is important whether the trainer/teacher treats learners as subjects (active agents) or as objects (passive recipients) in the process of learning'. This is reflected in their process of interaction. One simple and useful system of classification for the interaction process is that based on the influence of the trainer. The trainer influences learners in various
ways. The main question is how does he or she influence them? Is the trainer's influence 'liberating' or 'prescriptive'? Is his or her influence indirect or direct? Does the trainer's influence result in expressive behaviour or coping behaviour? Several thinkers have dealt with this important aspect and have raised similar questions. Using Bales's interaction process categories, Flanders developed the categories of 'direct' and 'indirect' influence behaviour for teachers in a classroom situation. Direct influence restricts the freedom of the learner, is prescriptive, and develops coping behaviour. Indirect influence increases the learner's freedom, is liberating, and develops expressive behaviour. Several studies show this to be true. The interaction analysis method gives valid, observable, and highly reliable data about these two categories of behaviour (and some other relevant data). Direct influence behaviour by the trainer includes negative reinforcement (criticizing, reprimanding, punishing), ordering and giving directions, asking specific testing questions, lecturing, defensive behaviour (justifying), expressing anger, and so on. Indirect influence behaviour includes accepting feelings, expressing feelings, accepting ideas, building on the learner's ideas, positive reinforcement (praising, encouraging), asking exploring questions, sensitivity (encouraging silent members to participate), and so on. Studies show that if indirect influence behaviour by the
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teacher/trainer is rewarded (feedback and satisfaction are also rewards), his or her style will change. Teachers/trainers must therefore examine how they can use more indirect influence behaviour and encourage creativity and development of potential in learners. This would in fact mean providing minimal guidance and recognizing the learners are important resources in learning. Learning then become a process of mutual influence and the teacher/trainer is as much in the learning role as the learner. The whole approach to teaching and training then changes. Much more emphasis is given to helping learners to discover, innovate, develop their own systems, and develop their capability for self-learning. Needs: The trainer's own motivation and needs are equally important in the learning process. If the trainer has a high need recognition and acceptance, he or she may become charismatic and try to create dependence. The trainer should therefore examine what his or her motivational pattern is, and what needs this is creating and arousing in the learners. The trainer is in a very influential rolehis or her expectations will also influence the behaviour of the learners to a great extent. If the trainer's expectations are high, the learners are likely to fulfil these expectations. As has been shown by Rosenthal and Jacobson, expectations influence the style and general
behaviour of teachers and they help the learners to fulfil their expectations. The experiment reported by them is too well known to require detailed reference. Briefly, some primary school children were 'selected' as potential geniuses and this was made known to their teachers, parents, and peers. In fact, they were picked out at random. But the effect of raising expectations was dramatic and the children did show marked improvement in all dimensions, including their IQ. It was the miracle of expectations at work. The high expectations of teachers changed the teachers' behaviour, which became more supportive and helped the children fulfil the psychological prophecy. Competence: Of course, the competence of the teacher/trainer in his or her own field is very important in the learning process. A teacher/ trainer commands the students' respect to a great extent through his or her competence. The trainer can be of great help to the learners in discussing creative ways of applying knowledge if he or she knows the field wellthe importance of this factor cannot be overemphasized. In sum, the effectiveness of learning can be defined in terms of learning being quick and sustained, effectively used, leading to creativity, and the development of a capacity for self-learning. The following conditions are conducive to such learning: 1. Authentic and open system at the training institution
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2. Non-threatening climate 3. Challenging learning tasks 4. Collaborative arrangements for mutual support of learners 5. Organization of graduated experiences of challenging successes 6. Mechanisms for supportive and quick feedback 7. Opportunities to practice skills learned 8. Opportunities to apply learning 9. Opportunities for and encouragement of self-learning 10.Opportunities experimentation and support for
Summary Learning involves acquiring, assimilating, and internalizing various inputs and making effective and varied use of them. Different learning theories emphasise the role of planning, reinforcement, modelling, motivation, and experiencing. People have different learning styles. There are four elements in the learning process: the process system (which is central), endosystem (the culture and the climate), training mechanics, and the facilitator/facilitation process. Effective learning will involve using these in practice. References Agyris, C. and D.A. Schon. (1978). Organisational learning: A theory of action perspective. Reading, MA: AdditionWesley. Argyris, C. (1977). Double loop learning in organizations Harvard Business Review, (5). Bandura, A. (1977).Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Cross, K.P. (1981). Adults as learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. DeBono, E. (1991). Teaching thinking. London: Penguin Books.
11.Emphasis on learning through discovery 12.Trainer's indirect and liberating influence through minimum guidance 13.Trainer's human values and faith in humanity 14.Trainer's high expectations from learners 15.Trainer's openness to examine own needs 16.Trainer's competence The better such conditions are, the more effective the learning can become.
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Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Flanders, Ned A. (1974) Teacher influence, pupil attitudes and achievement. Washington D.C.: Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Freire, Pauolo (1987). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: The Continuum Publishing Corporation. Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley (1959). Knowles, M. S. et al (1984). Andragogy in Action. Applying modern principles of adult education, San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Kolb, D.A. (1976). Learning style inventory: Technical manual, Boston: McBer. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall. McCarthy, Bernice & Dennis McCarthy (2006). Teaching around the 4mat. Cycle. About Learning Inc. McClelland, David C. (1965). Achievement motivation can be developed. Harvard Business Review (November-December), 6-24. McClelland, David C. (1967). Achieving society. Simon & Schuster.
McClelland, David C. & D C Winter (1969) Motivating economic achievement. New York: Free Press. Messick, Samuel (editor) (1966). Individuality in learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Revans, R. (1980). Action learning. London: Blond & Briggs. Rogers, Carl (1969). Freedom to learn. C. E. Merrill Pub Co. Seligman, M.E.G. (1991). Learned optimism. New York: A.A. Knopf. Seligman, M. E. P. (1992). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. New York: W. H. Freeman. Skinner, B. F. (1973) Beyond Freedom and Dignity, London: Penguin. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag. (1972; 1986). Weiner, B. Ed. (1972). Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press. Weiner, B (1974) (Ed.) Attribution theory and achievement motivation. New York: General Learning Press.

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The Process and Theories of Learning