Gandhi and the Indian Anti-Colonial Movement (Lecture 1) British Rule in India y British Trading Presence from 1600

o They established ports to trade spices and export opium to China o Engaged in debates with local rulers Conquest (1757 onwards) o British begun to take land away and rent it out to farmers to make money and draw avenue Consolidation (1820s onwards) Supremacy (1858 onwards) o There was a major revolt against British rule which began with the dispute/ rumour that they used Cow/ Pig fats in gun cartridges o Although it was put down in 1858, it was not fully resolved o British set up civil service of the military and police complex bureaucracy o Maintained some ties with the princely states Dyarchy split the functions of government into two. Although the central government remained wholly under British control, in provinces some areas, among them agriculture and education, along with responsibility for raising the necessary taxes were transferred to Indian ministers responsible to local legislatures

y y

The Rise of Indian Nationalism y From 1880s among growing educated elites in large cities o Discrimination in higher position of government hence they wanted the some moderate reforms of transfer of power o Hence the formation of Indian National Congress in 1885. Indian elites within the Congress were to control pressure. British saw this as a social safety net and thus encouraged it From 1905 onwards in the Indian middle classes & merchants o Division on Congress between the moderate and the radicals o B.G. Tilak emphasis greater national identification to the masses, not just educated ones o Radical demands included Self Rule, Self-Reliance (no need to turn to British rule), Boycotting foreign goods and Changing National Education (British s education cast a negative image of India thus they wanted a national education system o Partially successful, there were limitations in the rural areas as they were never able to penetrate the countryside o Result: Congress split and divide between groups that are moderate and radical British Response o Divide and Rule introduced special voting rights for Muslims, had certain seats reserved for Muslims in the parliament in short, dividing India through religious lines o Carrot-Stick Policy towards Nationalist Movement  Repression of Radicals  Supporting moderate demands o It worked as there were less conflicts and threats after World War I

Gandhian Nationalism y Background o Left India to go England to study law. But upon return, he found out he could not compete with the lawyers in Bombay and hence left for South Africa. There he was

deeply affected by feelings of racial discrimination in South Africa by the Whites and hence was determined to change the situation Socio-political Ideas o Non-Violence & Passive Resistance  Gandhi s family s close ties with Jainism emphasis on non-violent form of Hinduism, emphasis on vegetarianism  Commitment to pacifism, critique of the masculine West Gandhi repudiated the idea of feminine qualities as weak  This idea was a depiction of strength which won hearts of people who want to take over India  Gandhi thought of an Independent India but he must not just get rid of the British but also involve a change so India could develop according to their own ideas o Notion of Indian unity, opposition to racial discrimination & religious equality  This was shaped by his South African experience provided insights into the complexity and coherence of their homeland. He organized Indians against racial discrimination in South Africa  The emphasis on an overarching Indian identity, over regional, religious and caste identities that were particularly salient in the Indian context  Emphasis on equality of religious sarva dharma sambhava as an instrument to challenge religious bigotry o Critique of Western materialism & competition that led between individuals  Beyond opposition to the purchase of English goods, against industrial development. True independence was beyond simply replacing British with Indians but a moral transformation of Indian society  The ideal of a simple life in his imagined self-sufficient traditional village where each member unselfishly looked after other and the emphasis is on spiritual development  Hence he came up with homegrown produce of each individual spinning their own cloth (khadi) united, disciplined and cohesive movement which took on organization form (All-India Spinners Association) y Eradicating distinctions of region along with those of caste, class and religion. It defines the wearer as a member of a universal Indian nation o Saryagraha ( Truth-Force ) Look inwards  Emphasis on truths in settling disputes respect even love for one s opponent  Avoid violence at all cost  Deeply personal discipline of passions, advocated fasting of alcohol and smoking, vegetarian diet, sexual abstinence  Gandhi changed the different aspects of Indian society and try to create a worthwhile India Gandhian Political Campaign o Settled village-level issues  Landlord taxation issues, Organised improvements of village facilities, schools and hospitals. Encouraged village leaders to condemn untouchability and alcoholism  Organised civil-disobedience campaigns (protests and strikes) that were relatively successful in limiting revenue hikes and greater compensation for crops o Non-Cooperation Movement (1912)  Rowlatt Act (1919) enabled the British to hold Indians in dentention without trials Congress leaders organized strikes against it

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) British army soldiers begun shooting at an unarmed gathering of men, women and children without warning y Wreching loss of faith in Britain s good intentions  Gandhi in response, launched non-cooperative campaign where he joined hands with Muslims supporters of the Khilafat campaign a pan-Islamic movement to protect the Ottoman Caliphate y Drew more Indians supporters, people withdrew from the government  The campaign was suspended in 1922 when 23 policemen were killed y Wanted non-violent way to settle the issue Salt Satyagraha  Dandi Salt March (1930) protest against the British salt monopoly. It was impactful and caused much upstir  1931 Gandhi-Irwin pact and Gandhi was invited to a roundtable conference in London y Tried to divert the issue but nothing came out of it

It s Resonance & Limitations y Gandhi s mass appeal o Political programe people felt more connected o Political astuteness & style of agitation o The Gandhian image, Hindu symbols & popular belief in his magical abilities  People perceived him as a saint o Most committed followers were those closest to him in background and sentiment Limitations o Little support in Princely states and in the Madras Presidency (because of his advocacy of Hindi as a national language)  The princes were determined to keep their states walled off from nationalism o The ambivalent attitude of educated elites towards Gandhi o Pan-religious unity between Hindus and Muslims difficult to sustain. Over time Gandhi attacked by communal leaders from both sides.

Cultural Traditions and Secularism aka Caste (Lecture 7) The Normative Meaning of Caste y y y y Caste is a form of social stratification determined by the social ranking of a person s community based on ascribed status (born into it and hence inherited) It is a closed social group one cannot convert or be converted The word originated from the word Casta in Portuguese In Hindu Traditions, it is Varna and Jati o Varna major classification of social groups determined at birth  Main yardstick for social classification  It is a positional label imposed on different caste which tells socio-economic information about them  There are 4 varnas Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Sudra  Untouchables were not considered a Varna even though they were part of the Hindu society o Jati normative professional status of that group includes numerous/ thousands sub groups and communities of Varna  Hereditary profession  Marriage rights  Regional variations do not speak the same language, eat the same food etc

Caste (Varna) Groups y Brahmins o Keeper of knowledge, religions and traditions o Control religious and knowledge based industry o Practice strict self-discipline purity, dietary (most were vegetarian depending on Jati) o Religious and moral authority o According to the code of Manu, Brahmins had to attain spiritual perfection and maintain religious order o E.g. Priests and scholars Kshatriya o Commanded to protect the people and provide gifts and land to the Brahmins as they thought they would be blessed since the Brahmins were economically capable o Offer sacrifices and be heroic Religious sacrifices to win the war o E.g. Rulers, kings, military, important political positions Vaishya o Could trade, lend money and perform religious sacrifices o Could not marry women from upper castes o Kept the economy going and money flowing into society o E.g. Traders, merchants, businessmen Sudra o Provided very important manual labor function for the 3 other cases o Not allowed to marry up or perform Vedic rituals o Under the reservation system, they are now categorized mainly as backward castes o E.g. Artisan, peasant, agriculturalists, laborers Untouchables/ Dalits (illegal to call anyone that anymore) o Renamed Harijans by Mahatma Gandhi o Classified as scheduled castes under India s reservation system o Very poor, kept away from everyday social activities and did dirty and difficult jobs nobody wanted to do or were considered polluting

o They inherited their caste and were not able to climb the social ladder due to extreme and dire poverty and social exclusion o Exception: Dr B R Ambedkar was the first Dalit to get a college degree. He wanted to improve his caste status and abolish the caste system  Wanted political and legal reform-solidarity. E.g. Separate electorate  Mahatma Gandhi wanted social reform instead ideological: united based on nationalism instead of caste  Poona Pact (1932) no separate electorate for the untouchables instead reservations for the backward caste British & Caste y y y Helped the untouchables to some extent Srinivas (1962) conferred economic benefits but it was more usual for these benefits to go to the upper castes Reinforced the caste system by assigning Varna to Jatis 1931 Census: divide and rule policy solidified caste system of Varna and Jati recognition castes as endogamous groups

Changes in the Caste System after Independence y Influenced by secularism, democracy and constitutional rights of all Indians, caste was now more complex and varied across the nation o Industrialisation, political parties and politics made caste more complicated Class interfered with caste producing many challenges inherited socioeconomic class Socio-economic status of Jatis are now under negotiation which meant new opportunities Dirks (2001) caste remains the single most powerful category for reminding the nation of the resilence of poverty, oppression, domination, exclusion, and the social life of privilege. Dirks (2001) caste became the colonial form of civil society; it justified the denial of political rights to Indian subjects and explained the necessity of colonial rule

y y y y

Reservation y It is a type of affirmative action that tries to allocate fixed number of seats in educational and social institutions for various under-represented castes o Meant to end discrimination but reinforces the caste system as it gave benefits on the basis of caste o Srinivas (1962) Heighten inter-caste tensions because of the way the Untouchables are able to raise their collective status o Flaw: assumes that people in the upper castes are rich and people in the lower caste are poor hence there are hardly any reservations for the upper class brain drain for the smarter people in higher caste because they would rather go overseas to study/work o Flaw: Untouchables by and large seem to be unable to take advantage of it

Mandal Commission 1979 y y y The commission estimated that 54% of the total population were backward There was a cap on reservation hence it was not proportional to the number of people cannot exceed 50% though people and political parties are fighting for higher quotas Srinivas (1962) caste system is the greatest hindrance to progress towards an egalitarian society and the recognition of the specified castes as backward may serve to maintain and even perpetuate the existing distinctions on the basis of caste

Caste & Religion

y y y

Caste has somewhat permeated into other religions Hindus who convert to other religions tend to retain the same caste. But new discriminations emerge where they may lose their reservation privileges Dirks (2001) caste I the sign of India s fundamental religiousity, a marker of India s essential different from the West and from modernity at large.

Caste & Politics y y Caste allow lower caste groups to attain political empowerment to get more reservations Provide a strong basis for mobilization o Created their own parties and leaders e.g. DMK Party (Tamil Nadu); Communists o First empowered in South India and later in North India because there were more upper and dominant castes. Also, Zamindari (Landlord) system existed. Lower castes in North India depended on the Congress Party till 1970s.

Caste & Economic Mobility y y y y Dalits own less land that higher caste groups Industralisation has led Dalit villages in Uttar Pradesh to be better off than the rest Business is rising Building of roads all over India enabled castes to organize as they had never done before. Economic liberalization could be on its way

Reasons why the Caste System still Persist y y Srinivas (1962) Constitutional safeguards for the SC & ST new lease of life to caste Mencher (1992) Economic exploitation where upper caste needs lower casts to do jobs for them o Srinivas (1962) Occupational specialization stressed this interdependence to cooperate with each other as each caste was dependent for its livelihood on the work done by the other castes. Dirks (2001) Central symbol of Indian tradition and basic form of Indian society. Defines the core of Indian tradition and is seen today as the major threat to Indian modernity Education is also unable to end the caste divide even though India spends about 3-4% of GDP on education o Elite bias in education policies o Family income o Formal education and jobs o Poor are neglected - Srinivas (1962) high castes had a tradition of literacy hence were in a more advantageous position to exploit the new opportunities than those which did not

y y

More Facts y Dirks (2001) nevertheless, whether in relation to the history of gender, the victimization of Dalits, or the rise of anti-Brahman and backward-caste politics, caste has worked to compromite the easy affiliations of nationa unity and civilizational history. Caste has become the focus of progressive movements and of debates about the character of post-colonial politics. It serves as a reminder that community is always segmented by class, gender and region, that the nation might be threatened less by religious difference than by other pervasive grounds of different. It is a reminder that all claims about community are claims about privilege, participation, and exclusion.

Gender in Contemporary India (Lecture 8) Sex and Biology y y y y Gender y y y y Socially expected behavior of men and women hence discrimination happens. It is complicated but changeable. Gender Roles a set of perceived behavioral norms associated and expected of males and females in a given social group In India, the poverty shows gender inequality where women are more likely to be poor Third Gender, Hijras o In plural India shows how India still accepts out of the norm despite harsh gender roles o Used to protect harem by performing neo-religious rituals o 2009: legalized the third gender, categorized as other o New religion, caste? Not traditional but has their own identity Primary Sex Characteristics: Those that we are born with Secondary Sex Characteristics: Those that develop during adolescence These differentiate men from women main purpose is to facilitate reproduction of the species Biology interfere with social roles: are there really only 2 sexes?

Social Norms of Sex & Gender y y Chastity-venerated traditional despite modernization. It is a controversial and sensitive topic as chastity is highly valued in society hence no pre-marital sex unless they are very westernized. Arranged marriages are the norm in India Institute of Arranged Marriage is still important and significant even amongst urban educated people. o Family o Procreation expectation of forming a family unit hence most marry before 30 o Patriarchal values male-dominance, women expected to perpetuate this fact. Males are expected to be providers regardless of marital status o Legality of marriage all marriages must be registered with the court to protect women o Dowry (illegal) selling your daughter o Fertility pressure for females to bear male children and a lot of them o Women and the power of sacrifice For family etc to protect the family and elevate the social status of the family

Measuring Gender y y Gender Power Ratio relative power of women within societies: the more developed, the greater the equality of men and women Sex Ratio number of female births per 1000 males o Males>Females men unable to find wives and hence migrate or import wives

Gender Inequality y Key Challenges (Amartya Sen in 2001) o Mortality women live longer than men in general yet in India mortality rates are higher because they get less urgent care, less resources allocated to them and less nutrition in their food

y y y

o Natality technology sexism where sex selected abortion takes place either because a family wants a boy or because a female child has to take more burdens hence parents refuse o Basic Facility education are given to boys>girls because needs of females are ignored. Expenditure on female vocational students comprises less than 1& of the education budget which highlights how limited and constrained women are and explain much of their invisibility in the economic sphere in particular. o Professional India women need to catch up with Westerners lowest literacy rates o Special opportunity tertiary education which is required for social mobility and to rise up ranks are even mostly to boys especially if the family has less resources as boys tend to pay off more o Household double shift jobs where they hardly get help, even if they do, domestic help are also females. Economic contribution is scarcely acknowledged at the national level. o Ownership land and property rights are given mostly to males Poverty, violence and political participation were identified as the priority issues of concern for SN. Other issues include trafficking of women and girls, disability, ageing, regugee women and the girl child. Gender inequality is reinforced by gender stereotypes by men and mother in laws, and patriarchy that is occurring in India Women largely study the arts and the humanities for social mobility to migrate and find a better husband In order for women to find a way out they need: equal access to resources and networks, property rights, political rights (Muslims v.s. Christians), cultural rights (cultural normal must change & women must fight for their rights), fertility rights (the right to contraception), economic rights and education rights (National Plans of Action) NGOs help by providing education and resources but women are scared to come out and face the fact that change is possible

Patriarchy y y y y Marx and Engels men want to control women in order to determine their true offspring Patriarchal ideologies and practices pervade political, economic, legal, socio-cultural and religious structures around the world. Limits women s ownership and control of property and other economic resources hence constraining her mobility and hindering their access to education and information. Women became victims of oppression/ seen as a liability o Dowry girl child is very expensive to raise o Infanticide thus happen o Sati when Hindu husband dies, the wife would emulate on her husband s grave. This is a highly respected ritual Male is seem as an asset as they bring in wealth and have economic value

Matriarchy y y Female power. In Hindu culture, women are reversed as wives, mothers and saints. There are many female Gods and worship of the feminine. E.g. Kali, Saraswati etc. Women s movements o Maitreye: questioned the existence of patriarchy thus was respected and treated well o Female celibate: received less attention as women are meant to get married o 1850-1915: Colonial ideas of freedom and democracy and equality to all. Women were treated in the same category as the disadvantaged castes. Issues such as sati, child marriage, property rights were addressed

o 1915-1947: Nationalism helped improved lives. Mahatma Gandhi supported women and encouraged them to use their attitudes of sacrifice and service for the nation, not just family. Groups such as the All India Women s Conference and National Federation of Indian Women emerged. Gender & Post Independence y y y The Indian Constitution granted equality and freedom from discrimination based on gender or religion, and guaranteed religious freedom. 7 5-Year Plans were developed to provide health, education, employment and welfare to women. India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh have had female leaders. These women came from political families which had power and influence. 7% of SN parliamentarians are women. Even so, they face tokenism and exclusion from certain partfolios that are still male bastions. o Indira Gandhi: 3rd Prime Minister of India (4 times), daughter of Nehru, studied in England (upper caste women never left the house), married someone of a different caste, suspended the Constitution for a while. o Mayawati: Bahujan Samaj Party leader which represents the Dalits. 4th term as Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh. o Phoolzn Devi Scheldued caste, joined a gang and shot many guys (molested many times), wanted to gain more respect for her caste women hence became a politician

Issues faced by educated and middle class women y y y y Have greater negotiating power because they are able to get degree break jati Can become quite a force to reckon with for the male partner Unmarried women and divorced women may face stigma. Arranged marriages still prevail Beauty Pageants heavily criticized because of the Western notions (wearing bikinis and fair>black)

Indian Movie Icons: From Stars to Gods aka Cinema (Lecture 9) Indian Cinemas y One of the largest film producers in the world not only those of Bollywood - ~ 13 million daily patrons and ~ 800 films produced every year. Carved a big niche in the global arena of cinema o There is no economic sense in this business, it runs of glamour, on its own solipsistic appeal and its self-generated aura. The industry is divided according to language and region and exports films to over 100 countries significant impact and is increasingly with the advent of technology Cinema came to India almost as soon as it had started in the USA and Europe. o Colonial leaders brought cinema as it brought entertainment even though films were silent. European and Indian elites watched it for social gatherings despite movies being jerky because of poor technology then o Found out cinema had mass value and can attract a lot of crowd therefore the Indians mass produced and made it affordable o The first films made in India were short newsreels Nandy (1998) popular cinema creates a space for the global, the unitary and the homogenizing, but does so in terms of a principle of plurality grounded in traditions Films produced were on religious, social, political and historical subjects which were changing to suit local culture and used as a tool for nationalism Popular themes were adapted from plays Parsi drama because they had fabulous plots and draw large groups (commercialism) In the 1920s and 30s, Indian cinema spread to the Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. Hollywood influenced Indian cinema in the early years but changed over the years as they didn t want to copy and hence came up with their own stars Move stars were created because they could effectively communication emotions through the screen made audience cry. Dance were also integrated to fascinate audience Audience likes to watch a spectacle-grand show everything packed into 3 hours with emotional outbursts

y y

y y y y

y y

Cinema & Social Issues y Realism in Indian cinema Savkari Pash (1925): moneylenders exploiting the poor rural and also the urban people o Such social films appealed more to the educated upper class who did not necessarily want to watch religious or mythological films o Western collaborations in order to bring in technology for movie making to make it real Indian audience had a huge memory for songs Indrasabha (1932) had 70 songs Hindi films challenged actors in a way. Once they played a God on screen, they can no longer play normal roles again. They also challenge genre of films, making less commercialized films.

y y

Postcolonial Cinema y 1950s o Neo-Realistic cinema audience and producer were quite euphoric to be independent but the country had to deal with many issues and hence brought out such problems in films o Socialist o Nehruvian o Modernist challenging different aspects of society

o Parallel serious content that are real, a more elite class of viewer was sought, one that would be familiar and more likely to be influenced by critical reviews and word-ofmouth reports. 1960s o Era of hairspray had cool hairdos like big hair o Foreign and Indian locales (exotic) o Twist and Rock and Roll Music o Women in traditional clothing but more glamorous and colorful

Movie Stars y Amitabh Bachchan (1970s) o Instant revolutionary success came up with movies of 2 people finding/ chasing each other o New role of angry young men o Fight scenes & drunken scenes brought him to stardom; emotional o Were quite tall compared to others image present o Now play a fatherly role with romantic hero o 1969: Saat Hindustani; 1973: Zanjeer (catapulted to fame); 1977-82: Amar Akbar Anthony, Muqaddar ka Sikander, Trishul, Don, Mr. Natwarlal, Coolie (Major Hits); 21st Century: Sarkar, Baghbaan, Cheeni Kum (Return to Stardom) Sharukh Khan o Grew to enormous stardom due to his charm on screen o Television actor films e.g. Darr, Dilwale Dulhaniya etc. o Matched the ideas of the new middle class and the NRI Indian (bridged the gap) o Broke the mould of good v.s. evil challenged the notion that heros should always be a good guy o Addressed India middle class and rising middle class through his movies o Very famous in Malaysia and Indonesia have non-Indian fans as well

Bollywood y y y y y y Hindi cinemas only, made in Mumbai People see movies over and over as a result of the songs Movies became the medium to enforce moral values good v.s. evil Fights where the brave hero saves the troubled girl Lost and found separated twins, brothers Addressed social issues: o Conflict between the rich and poor o Caste wars o Gender issues Love and romance Tragedy and sentiments Sex-glamour but no kissing on screen in the past

y y y

Diasporic Indian Film y y y y Made for foreign audience and may/ may not represent India culture accurately In English but there are local and global influence Distance, nostalgia, time warp E.g. Bride and Prejudice, Bend it like Beckham

There are films that appeal to the diaspora for NRI and wider global markets which illustrate family values, glamour, love, conflict, emotionalism o Try to put NRI in the forefront to show successes of NRI. Glorify Indian weddings

Tamil Films y y y y y 2nd largest after Bollywood Industry operates out of Chennai since the 1950s Mass influence on politics and the poor Influences on nationalism language as a political tool Tamil Superstar - Rajanikanth o Was a bus conductor but because he flicked cigarettes in style, was advised to join film industry o Iconic status: fans said there is no social issues he can t solve

Masculinity and its Expressions y y y y y Protect woman from villain Get the poor and the weak justice Willing to suffer for the right cause Both strong and romantic at the same time In newer films, there is some blurring of the villain and the hero

Iconization of Stars y y y The celluloid idol is larger than life used to be capsulated in posters but now on media platforms as well Films provide a scope for escape from harsh realities of poverty and social injustice Charm and screen personality help actors to make it big in the industry unique identity and win the hearts of millions of fans world wide

The New Heroes y y Sensitive, metrosexual, urban, great physique Play rich & spoilt, disgruntled hero

Bollywood Women y y y y y Required to dance some were ex-models or ex-beauty queens Long hair and have different styles, dress glamorously Thin and skinny Influence diets, workouts and fashion In current films, breakups, divorce and dating is accepted is society changing?

Men Versus Women Men Longer acting careers Older man but female co-stars get younger Tend to become directors and mentors Iconization Gods Marriage has little or no effect on their careers Women Shorter careers Tend to become mothers and aunts when they get older Paid less than men Tend to retire when they get married

Cinema and Social Gaps y y y y y y y y y y A temporary relief from the harsh realities of poverty promote fantasy Social justice Social inadequacies Poetic justice solve everything in 3 hours Political reforms Voices of the subaltern poor, females and the voiceless Romance across class, caste and culture Address social taboos and culturally sensitive topics Foreign locales to many who cannot afford to travel Time and space compression modern technology bring audience to different time periods

Bollywood Music and Dialogues y y y Music can influence either success or failure of the film Song and dance is essential as it promotes a sense of fantasy Bollywood music has become a must in many celebrations hence more expensive weddings

Cinema s Influence on Popular Culture in India y y y Ray (1976) Indian films need to be more reflective of life in India rather than copy the West Nandy (1998) Films affect lower middle class aspirations and views of social life and politics glorification of vigilantism Traditions are changed to accommodate Bollywood weddings