Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119 – 137

www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Review

Household hazardous waste in municipal landfills:

contaminants in leachate
R.J. Slacka, J.R. Gronowb, N. Voulvoulisa,*
a
Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Imperial College, Prince Consort Road, London, SW7 2BP, UK
b
Environment Agency, Block 1, Government Buildings, Burghill Road, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol, BS10 6BF, UK
Received 13 November 2003; received in revised form 10 June 2004; accepted 2 July 2004

Abstract

Household hazardous waste (HHW) includes waste from a number of household products such as paint, garden pesticides,
pharmaceuticals, photographic chemicals, certain detergents, personal care products, fluorescent tubes, waste oil, heavy metal-
containing batteries, wood treated with dangerous substances, waste electronic and electrical equipment and discarded CFC-
containing equipment. Data on the amounts of HHW discarded are very limited and are hampered by insufficient definitions of
what constitutes HHW. Consequently, the risks associated with the disposal of HHW to landfill have not been fully elucidated.
This work has focused on the assessment of data concerning the presence of hazardous chemicals in leachates as evidence of the
disposal of HHW in municipal landfills. Evidence is sought from a number of sources on the occurrence in landfill leachates of
hazardous components (heavy metals and xenobiotic organic compounds [XOC]) from household products and the possible
disposal-to-emissions pathways occurring within landfills. This review demonstrates that a broad range of xenobiotic
compounds occurring in leachate can be linked to HHW but further work is required to assess whether such compounds pose a
risk to the environment and human health as a result of leakage/seepage or through treatment and discharge.
D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Xenobiotic organic compounds; Heavy metals; Municipal solid waste disposal; Endocrine disruptors; Pharmaceuticals; Pesticides

1. Introduction landfill (OECD, 2001; Zacarias-Farah and Geyer-

Household waste, any waste produced from a
domestic source, represents over two-thirds of the
municipal solid waste (MSW) stream (OECD, 2001).
Internationally, almost 70% of MSW is disposed of to
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 207 594 7459; fax: +44 207
594 6016.
E-mail address: n.voulvoulis@imperial.ac.uk (N. Voulvoulis).
0048-9697/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.07.002
Allely, 2003). MSW contains hazardous substances in
the form of paints, vehicle maintenance products,
mercury-containing waste, pharmaceuticals, batteries
and many other diffuse products which are discussed
in the review paper by Slack et al. (2004). Unlike the
waste streams originating from industrial sources,
hazardous substances in household waste are not
strictly controlled under hazardous waste regulations
such as the US Resource Conservation and Recovery
120 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137
Act 1976 (RCRA) and the European Hazardous Waste
Directive 91/689/EEC (US Code, 1976; European
Council, 1991). As such, household hazardous waste
(HHW) is disposed of to landfill along with general
household waste. The amounts and significance of
this disposal are poorly understood. Generally, it is
assumed that amounts are small and therefore risks of
disposal are negligible. Nevertheless, disposal infor-
mation is lacking or, at best, unreliable and ambig-
uous. Changes to legislation requiring the separate
disposal of MSW, industrial and other wastes, raises
the importance of the hazardous element contained in
MSW. Previous studies have found that, even without
landfill co-disposal, leachates from MSW are very
similar in composition to those from mixed or
hazardous landfills (Schrab et al., 1993; Kjeldsen et
al., 2002).
Emissions from landfill take a number of forms:
gaseous emissions of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), airborne particulate matter and leachate. The
contamination of groundwater by landfill leachates has
been recognised by a number of researchers (Chris-
tensen et al., 2001; Kjeldsen et al., 2002). Leakage
potential may be mitigated by a number of factors,
many enshrined in legislation, including landfill
capping. In Europe, the recent Landfill Directive has
further enforced the treatment of emissions from
landfill sites (European Council, 1999). The European
Council Decision setting out the criteria and proce-
dures for waste acceptance at landfills (European
Council, 2002) utilises the leaching limit values for
the three landfill types listed in the Landfill Directive
(European Council, 1999). Only MSW and separately
collected non-hazardous fractions of household
wastes, according to Chapter 20 of the EWC, can be
considered non-hazardous without testing.
Failure of any of the engineered control measures
can result in the release of a cocktail of chemicals, as
reported by Schwarzbauer et al. (2002). For older
landfills, the implementation of measures to prevent
release to the environment is less well defined with
the result that aquifer contamination was far more
common as were elevated levels of localised VOCs
(Reinhard et al., 1984). Leachate treatment and
discharge also possesses risks to the environment
through ineffective treatment and/or discharge to
particularly sensitive receiving waters (Silva et al.,
2004).
Whilst leachate contamination of the groundwater
environment is less likely from modern landfills as
a consequence of engineered barriers and leachate
collection, the risk still exists. Knowledge of
leachate composition is necessary for the implemen-
tation of site remediation following barrier break-
down and for installation of practicable treatment
processes. Although major components of landfill
leachate, especially ammonical nitrogen, can be
predicted with some certainty using models to
predict the possible typical leachate resulting from
the deposition of generic waste groups, the trace
composition of leachate is inherently variable due to
the heterogeneity of specific waste composition and
other factors relating to the landfill (Reinhart, 1993;
Robinson, 1995; Blight et al., 1999). Leachate
composition is also an indication of the types of
waste disposed and the processes occurring within
the landfill. The presence in leachate of heavy
metals and hazardous organic contaminants, such as
halogenated aliphatic compounds, aromatic hydro-
carbons, phenolic compounds and pesticides, are
direct indicators of the disposal of hazardous wastes
in MSW (Christensen et al., 2001; Kjeldsen et al.,
2002; Isidori et al., 2003). However, care must be
taken with MSW leachate analyses that reveal the
presence of harmful substances due to the co-
disposal of industrial liquid wastes and manufactur-
ing wastes with MSW. The co-disposal of hazardous
and non-hazardous wastes is a practice soon to be
banned in EU Member States through the imple-
mentation of the Landfill Directive, effective from
July 2004 (European Council, 1999). The conse-
quences of HHW disposal are therefore obscured in
many leachate studies. Where it is possible to
differentiate waste sources, leachate composition
has the potential to act as a useful tool in HHW
risk evaluation.
As concern about chemicals in household prod-
ucts increases (Blundell, 2003), the potential con-
sequences to the environment from the disposal of
HHW are also moving to the fore. It is therefore
important to ascertain the level of risk inherent in the
disposal of HHW to landfill, as permitted by current
legislation. This work focuses on the analysis of the
possible routes for environmental contamination
from which the risks to environment and human
health can be evaluated. A review of leachate
 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137
analyses together with an assessment of landfill
biogeochemistry permits extrapolation from leachate
contaminant back to HHW disposal, with leachate
composition potentially acting as an indicator for
landfill discarded HHW. The contamination risks
associated with the disposal of HHW at each stage of
the disposal-to-landfill-to-emissions pathway have
not been examined in detail before.
2. Landfill leachate composition
Leachate contains inorganic and organic elements.
Xenobiotic organic compounds (XOCs) and heavy
metals are generally classified as the hazardous
substances occurring in leachate. Hazardous XOCs
and heavy metals can be toxic, corrosive, flammable,
reactive, carcinogenic, teratogenic, mutagenic and
ecotoxic, among other hazards, and can also be
bioaccumulative and/or persistent. MSW landfill
leachate analyses permit identification of the com-
monly found XOCs and heavy metals derived from
waste with a domestic origin. Extrapolation back to
the original source is often possible, allowing the risks
of discarding certain wastes to landfill to be assessed.
Environmental and human health risks arise from
exposure to hazardous substances in groundwater,
surface water, gaseous emissions and dust evolution
as a result of leakage through the barriers of new
engineered landfills, dispersal from older landfills
without barriers or as a result of ineffective leachate or
gas treatment prior to discharge.
However, the types of waste discarded do not
solely determine leachate composition. Conditions
existing within the waste body also contribute to the
type of landfill emissions. Chemical and biological
transformations of the waste and interactions of
plant-derived matter and XOCs/heavy metals, influ-
enced by the various redox phases undergone
through the life of a landfill, affect emissions at
any point in time (Robinson and Gronow, 1993). To
fully assess the risk of landfill disposal of HHW, the
life span of the landfill requires continual monitoring
and leachate analyses. If the phases are well under-
stood, as indicated by the extensive literature
concerning conditions within the landfill, then it is
possible to dmapT the degradation of particular waste
streams and the possible emissions that result.
121
XOCs derive directly from the waste discarded to
landfills. However, conditions within the landfill
determine the final composition of leachate. Biode-
composition of putrescible waste increases general
levels of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) (Reinhard
et al., 1984). The higher the levels of DOC, the greater
the elution through sorption to organic matter of
hydrophobic XOC pollutants such as phthalate esters
(Bauer and Herrman, 1997; Bauer et al., 1998; Oman
and Rosqvist, 1999). DOC concentrations also affect
the mobility of metals (Van der Sloot, 1998; Meima et
al., 1999).
Ammonical nitrogen is produced in much higher
concentrations than XOCs with levels consistent
across the different landfill phases (Robinson and
Gronow, 1993; Christensen et al., 2001). Whilst not
classified as hazardous, ammonical nitrogen has the
potential to act as one of the dominant environmental
pollutants produced from landfills containing putres-
cible wastes and hence poses problems for the
management of all landfills. It has frequently been
described as the most frequent pollutant of ground-
water, emanating from landfills at concentrations of
greater magnitude than other emissions (Christensen
et al., 2001; Barlez et al., 2002; Baker and Curry,
2004).
Biological or chemical transformations in the solid
phase or leachate can lead to the formation of toxic
substances from relatively innocuous organic com-
pounds. 1,4-dioxane (Yasuhara et al., 1997), a
controlled substance, could result from such a trans-
formation, whilst carbon tetrachloride, another toxic
compound, is a principle constituent of PVC (Health
and Safety Commission (HSC) 2002).
Results from various studies reveal different
degrees of degradation for a variety of XOCs under
the various redox conditions found within and
adjacent to the landfill, as reviewed by Kjeldsen et
al. (2002). As anaerobic conditions persist in capped
landfills, any leachate plume progresses from strongly
reducing methanogenic conditions in the landfill
through the progressively weaker reducing redox
zones marked by sulphate, iron and nitrate reduction
to aerobic conditions in the aquifer (Reinhard et al.,
1984; Read et al., 2001). Various of the compounds
found in HHW have been dmappedT through these
zones such that determination of the specific degra-
dation patterns and interactions is possible. Dichlor-
122 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137
oethene and vinyl chloride are examples of the
chlorinated solvents attenuated in the anaerobic
conditions by abiotic redox environments and the
biotic microbes found therein (Bradley and Chapelle,
1996; Bradley and Chapelle, 1997). The low levels of
chlorinated organic compounds generally detected in
leachates result, at least partially, from the reductive
dechlorination of hazardous compounds, such as
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), during the acid
formation and methanogenic phases within the landfill
(Reinhart and Pohland, 1991). The aromatic hydro-
carbons exemplified by the BTEX compounds (ben-
zene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes) can degrade
under aerobic conditions but demonstrate little anae-
robic degradation activity, raising the possibility of
groundwater contamination, particularly in the case of
benzene (Nielsen et al., 1996; Christensen et al.,
2001). Phenols and pesticides often demonstrate
contradictory behaviour regarding degradation in
anaerobic and aerobic conditions. Pentachlorophenol
is reported to degrade in anaerobic conditions
(Kjeldsen et al., 1990) but the pesticide mecoprop
resists degradation under anaerobic conditions, which
helps to explain its common occurrence in leachate
analyses (Heron and Christensen, 1992; Rugge et al.,
1999; Williams et al., 2003). Schwarzbauer et al.
(2002) reported that phthalates and other plasticisers
do not significantly decline in either anaerobic or
aerobic conditions.
The heavy metal content of leachate shows a
reduction from acid phase to methanogenic phase due
in part to increased sorption to DOC and metal
precipitation with sulphates and carbonates (Robinson
and Gronow, 1993; Christensen and Christensen,
1999; Christensen et al., 2001; Kjeldsen et al.,
2002). Work by Suna Erses and Onay (2003) found
that 90% of all heavy metals present in a landfill
simulation were attenuated within 10 days of meth-
anogenic onset through heavy metal precipitation. The
application of heavy metal balances to landfills has
revealed that less than 0.02% of heavy metals
disposed of to landfill are leached within the first 30
years of the lifespan of the landfill due to metal
immobilization by organic/inorganic sorption and
precipitation (Belevi and Baccini, 1989; Flyhammer,
1995). For instance, mercury in landfills is predom-
inately found as an insoluble sulphide precipitate and
is therefore resistant to leaching. However, it is
reported that the anaerobic conditions of modern
landfills may encourage the biomethylated trans-
formation of mercury into more soluble and volatile
methyl mercury (Jones and McGugan, 1978; Com-
peau and Bartha, 1985), with the result that Lindberg
et al. (2001) argue that landfills may be a dominant
source of atmospheric mercury. However, the Envi-
ronment Agency for England and Wales report that
volatile mercury has not been detected above toxicity
thresholds in gaseous emissions, determining loss
from landfills predominantly through adsorption to
particulate matter released as dust (Parker et al.,
2002).
Transformations and degradation of the waste
types disposed to landfills can cause landfill-discarded
waste to become more-or-less hazardous. Landfill
processes should therefore be considered when
assessing leachate composition, described in the
following section. Tables 1 and 2 include many of
the chemicals identified in leachate from MSW
landfills that possess hazardous properties, several of
which can be traced back to their original waste
source through consideration of the reactions occur-
ring within the waste body of the landfill.
2.1. Organic compounds
More than 200 organic compounds have been
identified in municipal landfill leachate (Yasuhara et
al., 1997; Paxéus, 2000; Schwarzbauer et al., 2002),
with upwards of 35 compounds having the potential to
cause harm to the environment and human health
(Paxéus, 2000). More than 1000 chemicals have been
identified in groundwater contaminated by landfills
generally (Christensen et al., 2001; Kjeldsen et al.,
2002). The majority of these compounds are derived
from decomposing vegetation and degradation prod-
ucts of natural materials (Reinhard et al., 1984;
Schwarzbauer et al., 2002), with cellulose and hemi-
cellulose alone comprising up to 60% of the total dry
weight of MSW (Barlaz et al., 1989). Such com-
pounds, aliphatic and aromatic acids, phenols and
terpenes, have a tendency to degrade as any leachate
plume migrates from a site (Reinhard et al., 1984;
Leenheer et al., 2003). Ammonical nitrogen and
dissolved organic matter, as total organic carbon
(TOC), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and
chemical oxygen demand (COD), encompass the
 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137
primary organic degradation products (Robinson and
Gronow, 1993; Christensen et al., 2001; Kjeldsen et
al., 2002).
A large number of the degradation compounds can
be described as XOCs and result from the disposal of
waste containing BTEXs, chlorinated aromatics,
chlorinated/non-chlorinated hydrocarbons, nitrogen-
containing compounds, alkylphenol ethoxylates and
alkyl phosphates (Schwarzbauer et al., 2002). Table 1
lists selected XOCs frequently identified in landfill
leachate. Types and concentrations of XOCs differ
across leachates studied, from dilute (Ag/l) to con-
centrated (mg/l), a reflection of the differences in
landfill age, waste composition and landfill manage-
ment processes occurring at the site (Oman and
Rosqvist, 1999; Christensen et al., 2001).
Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes
(BTEX compounds) are found in the highest concen-
trations reflecting their common usage as solvents in a
range of products and waste generating processes,
along with the halogenated hydrocarbons tetrachloro-
ethylene, trichloroethylene and dichloroethanes (Rein-
hard et al., 1984; Krug and Ham, 1991; Kjeldsen,
1993; Christensen et al., 2001; Kjeldsen et al., 2002).
Table 1 demonstrates their almost universal occur-
rence in leachate. These compounds, aside from being
among the simplest to analyse for, have been
designated US Environmental Protection Agency
priority pollutants based on aquatic pollutant capa-
bility (Kjeldsen et al., 2002).
The occurrence of plasticisers in leachate has been
widely reported (Bauer and Herrman, 1997; Bauer et
al., 1998; Mersiowsky et al., 2001; Yamamoto et al.,
2001; Mersiowsky, 2002; Jonsson et al., 2003;
Marttinen et al., 2003). Principle among this group
of compounds are phthalates, of which di-(2-ethyl-
hexyl)phthalate (DEHP), diethyl phthalate (DEP),
diisononyl phthalate (DINP) and dibutyl phthalate
(DBP) have been extensively used in the manufacture
of consumer goods (Mersiowsky, 2002; Schwarzbauer
et al., 2002). Nevertheless, other phthalates are
commonly recorded in both co-disposal and MSW
landfill leachates, as shown in Table 1. The degrada-
tion product, phthalic acid, has generated the highest
leachate concentrations, levels reaching 14 mg/l
(Kjeldsen et al., 2002). Concern for these compounds
has developed over recent years due to their classi-
fication as endocrine disruptors (Jobling et al., 1995;
123
Fukuoka et al., 1997) and phthalates, as phthalic acid
esters, are listed as dpriority pollutantsT by the US EPA
(Keith and Telliard, 1979). A tendency to persist in the
environment and bioaccumulate in organisms are the
main contributory factors to their priority status
(Schwarzbauer et al., 2002). Xenoestrogens are
metabolites of various widely used substances that
are preferentially adsorbed onto sewage sludge
(Marcomini et al., 1989), suggesting one possible
entry route to landfill. Other plasticisers, phosphates
and sulphonamides, are also categorised as environ-
mental pollutants (Albaiges et al., 1986; Oman and
Hynning, 1993). Robinson failed to detect significant
levels of DEHP in 26 leachate samples and concluded
that plasticisers were not considerable contaminants of
leachate in the UK at the time (Robinson, 1995).
Bisphenol A (4,4V-(1-methylethylidene)bisphe-
nol), originating from plastics and epoxy resins, acts
as an oestrogen mimic (Krishnan et al., 1993). It is
also a common contaminant of landfill leachate in
some countries, often occurring at high detection
levels (Yasuhara et al., 1997; Yamamoto et al., 2001;
Schwarzbauer et al., 2002; Coors et al., 2003).
Landfill leachates in Sweden have been identified as
sources of other endocrine-disrupting substances
found in aquatic ecosystems (Noaksson et al., 2003).
The occurrence of pharmaceutical products in
landfill leachate has also been reported, with
propyphenazone, ibuprofen and clofibic acid identi-
fied in leachate leaking through the faulty bottom
seal of a domestic landfill in Germany (Schwarzba-
uer et al., 2002). Holm et al. (1995) describe the rapid
methanogenic degradation of a group of pharmaceut-
icals in groundwater contaminated by landfill leachate
including propyphenazone, sulphonamides and barbi-
turates. Phenazone, an analgesic similar to propyphe-
nazone, was identified in soil and groundwater below
a MSW landfill by Ahel and Jelicic (2001). Eckel et
al. (1993) further identified pentobarbital in ground-
water from a landfill. Work by Schecker et al. (1998)
investigated the elimination of ifosfamide, a cytostatic
drug falling under the auspices of the European Waste
Catalogue (European Commission, 2000), from a
sanitary landfill. Approaching 50% of the ifosfamide
added to a methanogenic landfill was eliminated after
120 days. More general assessments of groundwater
contamination not necessarily linked to landfill seep-
age have identified a greater variety of products
124 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137

Table 1
Xenobiotic organic compounds frequently found in MSW and co-disposal landfill leachates with a possible origin in HHW
Compounds CAS no. Use Presence Landfill type
in HHW and reference
Halogenated hydrocarbons
Bromodichloromethane 75-27-4 Chlorinated water, some as manu. X 2
substrate
Chlorobenzene 108-90-7 Industrial solvent and substrate X 1, 3, 5, 8, 15
1,4-Dichlorobenzene 106-46-7 Toilet-deodorisers and mothballs Y 1, 3, 5, 7, 8
1,3-Dichlorobenzene 541-73-1 Insecticide/fumigent; chlorophenol X 1, 7, 8
substrate
1,2-Dichlorobenzene 95-50-1 Pesticide, manu. substrate, deodoriser, Y 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 15
solvent
1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene 87-61-6 Insecticide, substrate, solvent X/Y 1, 2, 7
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 120-82-1 Insecticide, substrate, solvent X/Y 1, 2, 7, 8
1,3,5-Trichlorobenzene 108-70-3 Chemical intermediate, explosives, X/Y 2
pesticides
Hexachlorobenzene 118-74-1 Industrial by-product of solvent, X 1
pesticide and wood preservation
Hexachlorobutadiene 87-68-3 Manu. of rubber/lubricants X 2
and industry
1,1-Dichloroethane 75-34-3 Paint solvent, degreasant, breakdown X/Y 1
of 1,1,1-trichloroethane
1,2-Dichloroethane 107-06-2 Vinyl chloride manufacture: paint, Y(old) 1, 2, 7, 8
adhesives, pesticides and cleaning
products: solvent to remove petrol lead.
Tribromomethane 75-25-2 Degreasent and substrate—no longer X 2
used
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 71-55-6 Solvent esp. paint and adhesive; Y 1, 2, 3, 5
cleaning products and aerosols
1,1,2-Trichloroethane 79-00-5 Solvent, unknown use: X/Y 1
1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane
breakdown product
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane 79-34-5 Industrial solvent and substrate: was X/Y 1
used in paint, pesticides and degreasant
trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene 156-60-5 Solvent and manu. X/Y 1
(pharmaceuticals, etc.)
cis-1,2-dichloroethylene 156-59-2 Solvent (perfumes, etc.) and manu. X/Y 1
(pharma, etc.)
Trichloroethylene 79-01-6 Solvent, substrate, degreasant: Y(old) 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
solvent in tipp-ex,
paint removers, adhesives
and cleaners
Tetrachloroethylene 127-18-4 Dry-cleaning and degreasant X 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
Dichloromethane 75-09-2 Solvent in paint stripper, aerosols, Y(old) 1, 5, 7, 8
cleaners, photographics, pesticides
Trichloromethane 67-66-3 Solvent and substrate: forms from X 1, 5, 7, 8
Cl in water
Carbon tetrachloride 56-23-5 All uses stopped? No longer a Y 1, 2, 8
refrigerant, etc. Used for plastics?
Chloroethene 75-01-4 Plastics and vinyl production—house, Y 8
drugs, etc.
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Benzene 71-43-2 Multitude of uses—manufacturing Y 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 15
of dyes, pesticides, drugs, lubricants
and detergents
 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137 125

Table 1 (continued)
Compounds CAS no. Use Presence Landfill type
in HHW and reference
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Toluene 108-88-3 Solvent in paint, paint thinners, Y 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 13, 15
nail varnish, etc.
Xylenes 1330-20-7 Plastics manu.: solvent in paints, Y 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 15
nail varnish
Ethylbenzene 100-41-4 Pesticides, varnishes, adhesives Y 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 15
and paints
Trimethylbenzenes N/A Solvent, substrate X/Y 1, 3, 5, 8, 13
(paint, perfume, dye), fuel
n-Propylbenzene 103-65-1 Solvent and manu. X 1, 8, 13
t-Butylbenzene 98-06-6 Solvent and manu. X 1, 8
Ethyltoluenes e.g. 622-96-8 Solvent and manu. X 1, 8, 13
Naphthalene 91-20-3 Moth repellent, toilet deodoriser, manu. Y 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 15
of dyes and resins
2-Methylnaphthalene 91-57-6 Insecticides, chemical intermediate Y 3, 7, 8, 13, 15
(dye/vit. K)
1-Methylnaphthalene 90-12-0 Insecticides, chemical intermediate Y 3, 7, 8, 13, 15
(dye/vit. K)

Phenols
Phenol 108-95-2 Slimicide, disinfectant, drugs and manu. X/Y 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 12, 13, 15
Ethylphenols 90-00-6 Solvent, naturally occurring in some X/Y 1, 3, 15
foods
Cresols 1319-77-3 Wood preservatives, drugs, disinfectant Y 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 12, 13, 15
and manu.
Bisphenol a As phenol Manufacture of epoxy resins, coating Y 1, 6, 7, 15
on food cans?
Dimethylphenols 105-67-9 Solvent X(Y) 1, 12, 15
2-Meth/4-methoxyphenol 90-05-1/50-76-5 Manu. antioxidants, drugs, plastics, Y 1
dyes: flavouring
Chlorophenols 95-57-8 Pesticides, antiseptics, manu., Cl-treated X(Y) 1, 7, 12, 13, 15
water
2,4-Dichlorophenol 120-83-2 Manu. herbicides, PCP: mothballs, Y 7
disinfectant
3,5-Dichlorophenol 591-35-5 Manu. herbicides, PCP: mothballs, Y 1
disinfectant
Trichlorophenols N/A PCP and organochlorine pesticide X/Y 15
metabolites
2,3,4,6-Tetrachlorophenol 58-90-2 Pesticides, wood preservative X 1, 15
Pentachlorophenol 87-86-5 Wood preservative no longer used in Y(old) 2, 15
households
Polychlorinated biphenyls 1336-36-3 Transformers and capacitors: b1970s X 2
used in consumerables paint,
adhesives, fluorescent lamps, oil, WEEE

Alkylphenols
Nonylphenol 104-40-5 Surfactants X/Y 1, 15
Nonylphenol ethoxylate 9016-40-9/NA 31 Detergents, wetting/dispersing agents, X/Y 15
emulsifier
Pesticides
Aldrin/dieldrin 309-00-2/60-57-1 Banned insecticides X 2
Ametryn 834-12-8 Herbicide X 1
(continued on next page)
126 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137

Table 1 (continued)
Compounds CAS no. Use Presence Landfill type
in HHW and reference
Pesticides
Ampa N/A Glyphosate X 1
Atrazine 1912-24-9 Herbicide—US licenced Y 2, 7
Bentazon 25057-89-0 Herbicide X 1
Chloridazon 1698-60-8 Pyridazinone herbicide X 1
Chlorpropham 101-21-3 Carbinilate herbicide X 1
DDT {DDD, DDE} 50-29-3 Banned insecticides X 2
{72-54/55-8/9}

Dichlobenil 1194-65-6 Herbicide Y 1

Dichlorvos 62-73-7 Insectide (indoor) and veterinary care Y 2
N,N-Diethyltoluamide 134-62-3 Insecticide (body) Y 6
Endosulfan (a/h) 33213-65-9 Insecticide and wood preservative X 2
Endrin 72-20-8 No longer used (insect/rodent/avicide) X 2
Fenpropimorf 67564-91-4 Morpholine fungicide X 1
Glyphosate 1071-83-6 Herbicide Y 1
Hexazinon 512-350-42 Non-agricultural herbicide X 1
Hydroxyatrazin 2163-68-0 Atrazine metabolite X 1
Hydroxysimazin NA 1063 Simazine metabolite X 1
Isoproturon 34123-59-6 Phenylurea herbicide X 1
g-Hexachlorocyclohexane 581-89-9 Insecticide and lice treatment Y 1, 2
Malathion 121-75-5 Insectide, flea and lice treatment Y 2
Mecoprop 7085-19-0 Herbicide Y 1, 4, 5, 6, 13, 14
Methyl parathion 298-00-0 Insecticide—agricultural X 2
MCPA 94-74-6 Herbicide Y 1
Propoxur 114-26-1 Acaricide/insecticide X 1
Simazine 122-34-9 Herbicide Y 2
Tridimefon 43121-43-3 Fungicide X 1
4-CPP 3307-39-9 Herbicide X 1
2,4-D 94-75-7 Herbicide Y 1
2,4,5-T 93-76-5 Herbicide (agent orange) X 1
2,4-DP 120-36-5 Herbicide (alongside mecoprop) Y 1

Phthalates
Monomethyl phthalate – Plastics Y 1
Dimethylphthalate – Plastics Y 1, 7
Diethyl phthalate 84-66-2 All plastic consumerables, insecticides, Y 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 15
drugs, cosmetics
Methyl-ethyl phthalate – Plastics Y 1, 9
Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) – Plastics Y 1, 9
phthalate
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) 117-81-7 All plastics including medical ware Y 1, 6, 7, 9, 10, 15
phthalate
Mono-butylphthalate – Plastics Y 1, 9
Di-n-butylphthalate 84-74-2 PVC plastics and nitrocellulose Y 1, 5, 6, 7, 9, 15
lacquers (varnish)
Di-isobutylphthalate – Plastics Y 1, 6, 9
Mono-benzylphthalate – Plastics Y 1, 9
Butylbenzyl phthalate 85-68-7 Plastics Y 1, 9, 15
Dioctylphthalate 117-84-0 All plastics, pesticides and cosmetics Y 1, 6, 15
Phthalic acid N/A Phthalate breakdown product Y 1, 6, 10
Diheptyl phthalate 3648-21-3 Plastics Y 7
 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137 127

Table 1 (continued)
Compounds CAS no. Use Presence Landfill type
in HHW and reference
Aromatic sulphonates
Naphthalene sulphonates – Azo dyes, detergents, plasticisers Y 1
Benzene sulphonates 68411-30-3 Azo dyes, detergents, plasticisers Y 1
p-Toluenesulphonate 80-40-0 Azo dyes, detergents, plasticisers Y 1

Sulphones and sulphonamides

Diphenylsulphone 127-63-9 Plasticiser and intermediates Y 6
N-Butylbenzene 3622-84-2 Plasticiser Y 6, 15
sulphonamide

Phosphonates
Tributylphosphate 126-73-8 Plasticiser, solvent, antifoaming agent Y 1, 3, 5, 6, 15
Triethylphosphate 78-40-0 Plasticiser, solvent, antifoaming agent Y 1, 3, 6, 7, 15

Terpenoids
Terpenoids (general) N/A Plant by-product, chemical intermediate Y 11
Borneol 507-70-0 Chemical, perfume, flavouring Y 6
intermediates
Camphor 76-22-2 Perfume and incense additive Y 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 13, 15
1,8-Cineole 470-82-6 Flavours and fragrance Y 3, 6
Fenchone e.g. 1195-79-5 Flavouring Y 1, 3, 6, 13
Limonene 5989-27-5 Flavouring Y
Menthol 15356-70-4 Flavours and fragrance Y 3
Pinene e.g. 80-56-8 Flavours and fragrance Y 15
a-Terpineol 98-55-5 Flavours and fragrance Y 6, 7
Tetralins N/A Flavours and fragrance Y 15
Thymol 89-83-8 Flavours and fragrance Y 6

Pharmaceuticals
Ibuprofen 15687-27-1 Anti-inflammatory/analgesic-OTC Y 6
Propylphenazone
Phenazone 479-92-5/60-80-0 Analgesic—rarely used today X 6, 15
Clofibric acid 882-09-7 Plant growth reg. and drug intermediate Y 6

Pyridines
Methylpyridine (2–?) 109-06-8 Solvent and substrate for dyes, X 6
resins, drugs
Nicotine 54-11-5 Insecticide, tobacco X/Y 1, 6
Cotinine 486-56-6 Formed from oxidation of nicotine X/Y 6

Carboxylic acids
Benzoic acid 65-85-0 Food preservative, perfumes, Y 3, 6, 15
creams/drugs, manu.
Phenylacetic acid 103-82-2 Fragrance/flavour, drugs (penicillin) Y 3, 6
Benzenetricarboxyl acids e.g. 528-44-9 Plastic softeners Y 3, 6
Palmitic acid 57-10-3 Food, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals Y 3, 6, 15
Stearic acid 57-11-4 Food, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals Y 3, 6, 15
Linoleic acid 60-33-3 Food and fragrance Y 3, 6

Aliphatics
n-Tricosane 638-67-5 Plastics and intermediate X 6, 7
n-Triacontane 638-68-6 Intermediate X 6, 7
(continued on next page)
128 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137

Table 1 (continued)
Compounds CAS no. Use Presence Landfill type
in HHW and reference
Alcohols and ethers
Glycol ethers e.g. 111-76-2 Solvent {paint, varnish, inks, pesticides, Y 6
antifreeze}
General alcohols N/A Solvents Y 1
Diphenylethers 101-54-8 Flame retardant, plasticiser, herbicide Y 6

Aldehydes and ketones

Aldehydes N/A Solvents {plastics, paints}, Y 1, 6
stain remover
Ketones N/A Preservative, resin/dye manu., Y 1, 6
intermediate

Miscellaneous
Acetone 67-64-1 Solvent and in manu. of plastics, Y 1
drugs and fibres
Analines N/A Ink/dye, resins, drugs, agrochemical X/Y 3, 6, 7
intermediate
Benzonitrile 100-47-0 Solvent: dye, drugs, rubber, lacquer Y 3, 4, 7, 15
manu.
Benzthiazoles N/A Manu. of drugs, rubber, Y 6, 7
agrochemicals, etc.
Dibenzofuran 13-26-49 From fossil fuel combustion—incl. X 7
Diesel fuel
Caffeine 58-08-2 Food additive, drugs Y 1, 7
Esters 110843-98-6 Many uses during manufacture Y 6, 15
Tetrahydrofuran 109-99-9 Food additive, reagent Y 1
(drugs, perfumes), solvent
Indane 90989-41-6 Fuel and metal cleaning Y 1, 6
Indene 95-13-6 Solvent and intermediate Y 8
Indoles N/A Intermediates, food colourant, Y 6, 15
drugs/hallucinogenics,
perfumes, etc.
MTBE 1634-04-4 Solvent used as additive in unleaded X(Y) 1
petrol
Siloxanes N/A Silicone polymers—varnish, Y 6, 15
oils/waxes, rubber
Styrene 100-442-5 Naturally occurring, used for Y 8, 15
plastics/rubber manu.
Trifluralin 158-20-98 Herbicide X 2
Presence in HHW: X=non-municipal/household use, Y=municipal/household use, X/Y=either/or but generally non-municipal/household use,
X(Y)=non-municipal/household but possibly occurring in MSW, Y(old)=no longer used in municipal/household products but possibly
occurring in MSW.
Landfill types: (1) co-disposal landfills cited by (Kjeldsen et al., 2002); (2) MSW landfills although co-disposal likely in all (Robinson, Gronow,
1993); (3) co-disposal landfills (Reinhard et al., 1984); (4) simulation using household waste (Oman and Rosqvist, 1999); (5) co-disposal
landfill (Christensen et al., 2001); (6) no details supplied (Schwarzbauer et al., 2002); (7) co-disposal landfill (Yasuhara et al., 1997); (8) co-
dispoal landfill (Zou et al., 2003); (9) mixed landfills receiving different wastes (Jonsson et al., 2003); (10) simulation using household waste
(Bauer and Herrman, 1997); (11) MSW landfill (Leenheer et al., 2003); (12) co-dispoal landfill (Ask Reitzel and Ledin, 2002); (13) co-disposal
landfill (Baun et al., 2003); (14) co-disposal landfill (Lyngkilde and Christensen, 1992); (15) co-disposal landfill (Paxéus, 2000).
 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137 129

Table 2
Heavy metal concentration ranges detected in landfill leachates
Metal Use Concentration US drinking water UK drinking water References
range (mg/l) standards (mg/l) standards (mg/l)
Cadmium Batteries, appliances 0.0001–0.4 0.005 0.005 (Christensen et al., 2001)
Nickel Batteries, appliances 0.0036–13 N/A 0.05 (Christensen et al., 2001;
Kruempelbeck and Ehrig, 1999)
Zinc Batteries, packaging 0.003–1000 5 5 (Christensen et al., 2001)
Copper Electrical appliances 0.002–10 1.3 3 (Christensen et al., 2001;
Jensen and Christensen, 1999)
Lead Batteries, appliances 0.001–5 0 0.05 (Christensen et al., 2001)
Chromium Electrical appliances 0–1.62 0.1 0.05 (Jensen and Christensen,
1999; Robinson, 1995)
Mercury Batteries, appliances 0.00005–0.16 0.002 0.001 (Christensen et al., 2001)
Arsenic Appliances 0.01–1 0 0.05 (Christensen et al., 2001)
Cobalt Appliances 0.005–1.5 N/A N/A (Christensen et al., 2001)

(Jones et al., 2001) such as the analgesics diclofenac
and ketoprofen (Heberer et al., 1997; Sacher et al.,
2001); antibiotics sulfamethoxazole, dehydroerythro-
mycin and sulfamethazine (Hartig et al., 1999; Hirsch
et al., 1999); the antiepileptic drug carbamazepine
(Seiler et al., 1999; Schwarzbauer et al., 2002); and
the h-blocker sotalol (Sacher et al., 2001).
Pesticides and herbicides are frequently recorded
in MSW landfill leachate. N,N-Diethyltoluamide
(DEET), bentazon, MCPA and particularly mecoprop
(2-(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)propionic acid) are
common and persistent in anaerobic landfill con-
ditions (Schultz and Kjeldsen, 1986; Gintautas et al.,
1992; Lyngkilde and Christensen, 1992; Kjeldsen,
1993; Oman and Hynning, 1993; Christensen et al.,
2001; Kjeldsen et al., 2002). Christensen et al.
(2001) and Kjeldsen et al. (2002) cite the discovery
of at least a further 40 different pesticides in landfill
leachate, including the Red Listed aquatic pollutants
atrazine and simazine (Alloway and Ayres, 1997),
with the most frequently occurring being listed in
Table 1. Naphthalene and related compound con-
tamination of leachate is also commonly reported
(Reinhard et al., 1984; Yasuhara et al., 1997): this
compound is a recent addition to the UK’s Approved
Supply List (Health and Safety Commission (HSC),
2002), a classification system applied to chemicals
considered to be dangerous. 2-Butylphenyl methyl-
carbamate (BPMC) and benthiocarb have also been
detected (Yasuhara et al., 1997).
Detergent surfactants are reported from leachate
analyses, particularly sulphonates and alkylphenol
polyethoxylates (Riediker et al., 2000; Kjeldsen et
al., 2002). Such surfactants occur in laundry deter-
gents and personal care products, although the latter
surfactant, particularly as nonylphenol ethoxylates, is
not commonly used due to concerns over environ-
mental and health problems, especially endocrine
disruption (Jobling and Sumpter, 1991). Nevertheless,
nonylphenol has been reported to be present in
municipal landfill leachate in some countries (Paxéus,
2000; Behnisch et al., 2001; Coors et al., 2003).
Synthetic musks, used to fragrance detergents and
personal care products, are reported to possess toxic
capabilities and, although not yet monitored in
leachate, have been recorded in sewage receiving
waters in a number of countries, but first found in
Japan (Yamagishi et al., 1981, 1983; Ford, 1991;
Daughton and Ternes, 1999).
Other significant representative xenobiotic com-
pounds distinguishable in leachate include more
chlorinated organics (Reinhard et al., 1984; Yasuhara
et al., 1997; Paxéus, 2000; Schwarzbauer et al., 2002)
such as pentachlorophenol, one of many such com-
pounds considered to be a dpriority pollutantT by the
US EPA (Pohland et al., 1998). 2,4-Dichlorobenzoic
acid, together with other chlorinated aromatics includ-
ing benzene and methylphenol, occur in varying
quantities in leachate (Schwarzbauer et al., 2002).
Leachate concentrations of chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) tend to be low compared to other organic
compounds due to high rates of attenuation (Reinhart
and Pohland, 1991; Hohener et al., 2003). Even so,
CFCs have been recorded as gas and leachate
130 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137
emissions from MSW landfills in Germany and
through Canadian landfill simulations (Lesage et al.,
1993; Deipser and Stegmann, 1994), predominantly in
the acid phase before the onset of methanogenesis but
detail about concentration and volume is lacking
(Hohener et al., 2003). Whilst CFCs possess a low
level of toxicity in the aquatic environment, their
breakdown products are more reactive and inherently
more toxic or carcinogenic (Hohener et al., 2003).
Complex fractions containing nicotine and benz-
thiazol together with their oxidation products
(Schwarzbauer et al., 2002) and caffeine (Albaiges
et al., 1986) are common contaminants of leachate,
often existing at high concentrations in the German
and Spanish landfills studied. Kjeldsen et al. (2002)
highlight the discovery of levels of the gasoline
additive methyl-tert-butyl-ether (MTBE) found at
significant concentrations in some Swedish landfills.
Dioxanes (glycol ethylene ether) such as 1,4-dioxane
and dioxolans, originating from alkyd resin produc-
tion wastes and discarded paint and similar products,
are reported to occur in MSW leachate from Japanese
and Swedish landfills (Yasuhara et al., 1997; Paxéus,
2000). Robinson, however, failed to detect many dRed
ListT substances (Department of the Environment,
1988) in any of the landfill leachate samples collected
across England and Wales: other hazardous substan-
ces were detected at very low levels (Robinson,
1995).
Although concentrations of XOCs are only a small
fraction of the total carbon content of leachate, the
levels observed in a multitude of studies indicate that
concern for aquifer contamination is justified
(Albaiges et al., 1986; Lyngkilde and Christensen,
1992; Kjeldsen, 1993; Kjeldsen et al., 1998; Chris-
tensen et al., 2001; Schwarzbauer et al., 2002). With
water quality levels in many countries set as low as
0.1 Ag/l for certain XOCs, the concentrations achieved
in leachate may therefore be perceived as a potential
threat to public health if incorrectly managed (Kjeld-
sen et al., 2002).
2.2. Inorganic components
The inorganic element of leachate has been studied
alongside organic constituents (Yasuhara et al., 1997).
Heavy metals found in the inorganic fraction are of
particular interest due to their hazardous nature
(European Commission, 2000). Commonly occurring
heavy metals in landfill leachate include zinc, copper,
cadmium, lead, nickel, chromium and mercury (Rein-
hart, 1993). Heavy metals can form metal colloids or
complexes, particularly with organic matter, removing
the metal from direct detection as free metals
(Gounaris et al., 1993; Christensen and Christensen,
1999; Jensen and Christensen, 1999). As such, the
heavy metal content of leachate can be significantly
higher than free metal detection studies allow, and
calculations based solely on the water solubility
constants of the pollutants will underestimate their
concentrations (Jonsson et al., 2003).
Generally heavy metals, demonstrating high levels
of sorption and precipitation, do not constitute a
groundwater pollution threat due to poor migration
into the leachate plume and low initial concentrations
leached from the solid waste (Table 2). Heavy metals
can, however, reach problematic levels despite
depressed concentrations relative to other substances
evolved into the leachate. Ehrig (1983), Kjeldsen et
al. (2002) and Robinson (1995) found that heavy
metal levels, particularly mercury and cadmium, in
domestic waste landfill leachate are barely detectable
and pose little threat to groundwater. Zinc, however,
is usually recorded at concentrations orders of
magnitude greater than other heavy metals (Chris-
tensen et al., 2001). Heavy metal contamination of
aquifers is almost exclusively as soluble high molec-
ular weight organic complexes. Such contamination of
groundwater can be of environmental and potable
drinking water concern, as the drinking water stand-
ards provided in Table 2 demonstrate (Reinhard et al.,
1984). This concern is heightened by the identifica-
tion of concentrations of heavy metals exceeding
legislative permits in leachate sampled in the USA
and Eastern Europe, including drinking water limits
shown in Table 2 (Lu et al., 1985; Mikac et al., 1998).
Even with the maximum permissible levels for heavy
metals as high as 5 mg/l (US Drinking Water Standard
for zinc), weak leachate concentrations can often
approach this limit (Kjeldsen et al., 2002). Never-
theless, particulate matter contaminated with heavy
metals has been cited as one of the primary sources of
heavy metal emissions from landfills (Parker et al.,
2002).
Other contaminants of landfill leachate can be
referred to as inorganic macrocomponents (Christen-
 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137
sen et al., 2001). As occurs for dissolved organic
matter and the less concentrated subgroup xenobiotic
organic compounds, inorganic macrocomponents
occur at much higher concentrations compared to
heavy metals. Iron and manganese fall into this group
as they cannot be considered to be heavy metals,
along with calcium, sodium, potassium, ammonia/
ammonium and others. Ammonical nitrogen (ammo-
nia and/or ammonium) is recorded at high levels in
most landfill leachate studies with Robinson (1995)
and Kjeldsen et al. (2002) both describing it as the
dominant pollutant.
3. Landfill gas
During the methanogenic phase of landfill
decomposition, many of the degradation products
resulting from waste decomposition in the acid
anaerobic stage can be volatised from the leachate
(Christensen et al., 2001). As a result, landfill
gaseous emissions can contain similar hazardous
compounds to the leachate. Whilst the dominant
proportion of landfill gas is methane (~50–60%)
followed by carbon dioxide (~ 40%), many trace
VOCs are also released (Kreith, 1995). VOC
emissions, including saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons, acidic hydrocarbons and organic
alcohols, aromatic hydrocarbons, halogenated com-
pounds and sulphur compounds as identified in
leachate, can present health and environmental
concerns (Kreith, 1995). Zou et al. (2003) identified
up to 60 VOC species in one landfill, 16
compounds of which were US EPA priority
pollutants including benzene and derivatives, and
chlorinated hydrocarbons and aromatics. Specific
compounds occurring at higher levels, although
together rarely exceeding 1% v/v, were naphthalene,
chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethane and
chlorobenzene as well as benzene. The volatile
heavy metals, arsenic and mercury, have been
detected at trace levels in landfill gas, although
association with particulate matter has been demon-
strated to contribute more to the emissions of heavy
metals from landfills (Parker et al., 2002). Allen et
al. (1997) recorded over 140 VOCs, whilst James
and Stack (1997) and Assmuth and Kalevi (1992)
found 33 and 30 VOCs, respectively, with benzene
131
in the former study and carbon tetrachloride in the
latter being recorded at levels in excess of guideline
limits. However, the comprehensive sampling strat-
egy reported by Parker et al. (2002) identified 557
trace components in landfill gas, 178 of which are
inherently toxic. Nevertheless, levels detected were
below statutory guidelines, specifically of the more
toxic substances such as mercury.
4. Discussion
The composition of leachate is an indicator of
the disposal of hazardous waste to landfills. Many
of the substances recorded in landfill emissions
have the potential to act as environmental contam-
inants. It is important to recognise the potential
contribution made by hazardous waste from a
domestic origin to landfill emissions particularly in
light of the growing and ever-changing variety of
chemicals used within the home (Blundell, 2003).
Results of numerous studies indicate that the range
and amounts of hazardous substances present in
leachate from MSW landfills, while only a fraction
of the total organic and inorganic content of
leachate, can be seen to approach the drinking
water standards set by many countries (Mikac et al.,
1998; Gendebien et al., 2002; Kjeldsen et al., 2002;
Schwarzbauer et al., 2002).
Leachate is a consequence of water entering the
landfill and leaching biological and chemical compo-
nents from the body of the waste. When evaluating the
disposal of HHW, the conditions within the landfill
must be acknowledged to determine the nature of the
components and the likelihood of occurrence in
leachate. Substances not found in HHW at disposal
can occur in leachate as a result of degradation and
other transformations. Quantities of hazardous sub-
stances will vary according to landfill conditions,
particularly moisture content and ionic strength of the
leachate. Charting the contamination of groundwater
through leakage requires not only knowledge of the
leachate composition as it left the landfill, but
application of the attenuation processes known to
affect leachate in sub-surface strata (Christensen et al.,
2001).
It is only possible to ascertain the presence of
particular substances selected for by the experimen-
132 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137
tal design (Isidori et al., 2003). The sampling
procedure may easily overlook certain groups of
hazardous components and hence their contaminant
capability will remain unevaluated. Synthetic musks
are one such group thus far untested in landfill
leachate and yet identified in sewage receiving
waters. The quantities of the hazardous chemicals
so far detected in leachate vary from study to study,
from trace levels to amounts exceeding established
limits. Such variation is the result of differences in
disposal practice, levels of regulation, landfill design
and ultimately a reflection of the purchasing patterns
of consumers (market forces, availability, culture,
etc.) in different countries. Alternatively, sampling
error might play a significant role through the
inappropriate application of certain methodologies
and analytical techniques (Parker, 1994; Paxéus,
2000; Kjeldsen et al., 2002). As XOCs and heavy
metals occur at trace levels, accurate quantification
is often difficult. The heterogeneity of landfills also
complicates sample selection. Landfill age is an
important contributory factor and as Robinson
(1995) explains, leachate composition is variable
over time and hence analyses should incorporate a
time axis.
The affects of the hazardous fraction of MSW
on leachate composition in all but a very few of
the studies reviewed here (see Tables 1 and 2)
have been obscured through the co-disposal of
industrial and manufacturing wastes with MSW.
Table 1 reveals that many of the MSW landfills are
in fact co-disposal sites, industrial and manufactur-
ing solid and liquid wastes having been integrated
into the domestic refuse. The hazardous compounds
linked directly to MSW are therefore few in
number and variety, a reflection of the limited
number of compounds analysed for and the use of
experimental landfill simulations (Oman and
Rosqvist, 1999). The pesticide mecoprop and
phthalates DEHP and DEP are the substances most
commonly linked to MSW (Gintautas et al., 1992;
Bauer et al., 1998; Jonsson et al., 2003). Whilst a
large proportion of the XOCs listed in Table 1 and
all of the heavy metals from Table 2 are found in
household products, the significance of the contri-
bution made by MSW or even household waste to
the final leachate make-up is uncertain. It can be
supposed that certain of the substances, particularly
some solvents, will be present in barely detectable
amounts in the absence of industrial waste (Baxter,
1985). Other chemicals, exemplified by phthalates,
may maintain the concentrations recorded in co-
disposal leachates. Recent changes to legislation
may make it possible to observe a change in
leachate composition as co-disposal of hazardous
with non-hazardous waste ceases and domestic
landfills accept non-hazardous wastes only (Euro-
pean Council, 1999).
With increasing EU-led legislation implementing
regulations on product composition and disposal
practices, such as the Restrictions on Hazardous
Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment
(RoHS) Directive and the Waste Electrical and
Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive (European
Parliament and Council, 2002a, b), leachate from
existing and new landfills can be expected to be
very different to that of older/closed sites, with the
potential for a rapid decline in the landfilling of
biodegradable substances and a resulting shift in
landfill-contained chemical processes. The conse-
quences for the hazardous component of MSW
requires further evaluation, although a decline in
organic matter through implementation of the Land-
fill Directive can be expected to result in leachates
containing predominantly inorganic ions and a
consequent change in leachate treatment techniques.
The impact of DOC sorption on XOC and heavy
metal attenuation may similarly be reduced.
Current European legislation tends to the treat-
ment of all landfill emissions preventing many of
the potentially hazardous substances from entering
the environment at large. As a result, the pollution
risk is allayed to a variable extent. Methane is often
used for electricity generation, whilst leachate is
currently treated in systems comparable to sewage
treatment works. Use of ozonation plants and UV
radiation are increasingly recognised as effective
additions to leachate and wastewater treatment
operations given the low efficiency of conventional
processes regarding chemical removal. As a result,
pesticide, pharmaceutical and even phthalate
removal (Bauer et al., 1998) will increase, possibly
reducing the likelihood of groundwater contamina-
tion by these substances. However, such measures
are costly and unlikely to occur unless specific
legislative drivers are in place, particularly for
 R.J. Slack et al. / Science of the Total Environment 337 (2005) 119–137
MSW landfills. Other risk mitigation measures
applied to landfill leachate include combinations of
biological processes, coagulation/precipitation,
adsorption and membrane processes, all of which
utilise the physical, chemical and biological proper-
ties of the hazardous substances (Enzminger et al.,
1987). Research also cites the benefits of traditional
treatment using microbial anaerobic decomposition
(Pohland, 1991; Staples et al., 1997; Gavala et al.,
2003; Jonsson et al., 2003). However, a need for
more non-biological techniques for leachate treat-
ment is predicted. A comprehensive understanding
of the wastes disposed of, the underlying landfill
processes and, the emissions from landfills, now
and in the future, can contribute to the assessment
of the economic and environmental necessity of
taking such steps.
Further work is required to quantify the amounts
of hazardous substances emitted from MSW landfill
and ascertain the links to HHW disposal. Leachate
concentrations can potentially act as a guide to
amounts of the hazardous substances disposed in
household waste and provide an indication of the
chemical pathways operating/occurring within the
landfill body. The risks from the release of such
substances into the surrounding environment, either
as a result of leakage or through insufficient leachate
treatment, require assessment to evaluate the poten-
tial harm to health and the environment from
continued disposal of HHW to landfill. Prioritization
of the most harmful will enable waste managers to
provide the most appropriate leachate treatment
options on identification of the hazardous substance,
or permit alternative disposal practices to be devel-
oped. As more waste is diverted from landfill, it will
be important to assess how this will affect HHW
disposal and potential leachate toxicity.
5. Conclusions
Leachate is a potential indicator of the disposal of
hazardous substances in MSW. A number of leachate
studies have revealed the presence of potentially
harmful chemicals in the leachate of MSW landfills,
and of VOCs in landfill gas, albeit at trace
concentrations. Many of the substances can be traced
back to the possible original sources entering the
133
disposal pathway, particularly when conditions and
processes within the landfill are understood. The
awareness of the waste types disposed of is
insufficient for determination of leachate composi-
tion without subsequent consideration of the fate and
behaviour of hazardous substances within the body
of the landfill. Leachate is a consequence of the
waste types disposed and the conditions prevalent
within the body of the landfill determining degrada-
tion/transformation processes.
Data relating directly to MSW or household waste
landfill sites are few, with most information deriving
from co-disposal landfills. The analytical techniques
applied to leachate samples can also impose limi-
tations on the determination of the contaminants
arising from HHW. As co-disposal of hazardous
industrial waste with MSW is soon to be banned, the
impact of the hazardous element of MSW or HHW
requires further assessment. The hazardous nature of
certain types of MSW has the potential to rival
certain industrial wastes as pollutant risks. The
changing state of legislation also will impact on
HHW behaviour within landfills and the quantities of
HHW disposed to landfill.
Further work in this area is needed to clarify the
origins of the MSW leachate contaminants recorded
and the possible affects of legislatively driven changes
to landfill management on landfill composition.
Crucially, the risks to environment and human health
from HHW disposal to landfills requires further
attestation through the quantification of emissions
and likelihood of release after leachate/gas treatment
or as a consequence of leakage or seepage. This latter
point is needed before further legislation relating to
HHW disposal to landfills, such as the WEEE
Directive, is considered.
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