EM 2. Electric Currents Electrical Conduction in Metals A solid metal consist of ions and free mobile electrons in a crystal lattice.

Without voltage difference, the motion of electrons is random (go to any direction), it is called thermal motion. And there is NO net displacement of the electrons, thus no current. With voltage difference, the electrons have a net movement in the direction from lower potential to higher potential, and that velocity produced by potential difference is called drift velocity. Of course, the electrons still have the thermal motion, but it now have a net movement, and thus charge flows, and thus current. (the speed for thermal motion is much higher than the drift velocity.)

The resistance of a piece of metal is due to collisions between the free electrons and the metal ions. During a collision, some of the kinetic energy possessed by the electron can be transferred to the ion. Therefore, resistance causes the temperature to increase, electrical energy converted into thermal energy (internal energy). In higher temperature, the lattice vibrations increases, and ions vibrates more vigorously, when electrons hits the ions, lose more energy, and thus the resistance of a piece of metal should increase with temperature. (Note: the resistance of semi-conductors (e.g. silicon and germanium) decreases with temperature) Electrical Current Electrical Current is the flow if charge per unit time.

I =Q/t
I is current in Ampere A, Q is charge in Coulomb C, t is time in Second s. A current in a metal is due to the movement of electrons. In a conducting solution, the current is due to the movement of ions. Current is measured using an ammeter. An ammeter measures the rate of flow of charge. The unit of current is the Ampere, A. An ammeter is always connected in series with other components. The resistance of an ammeter must be low compared with other components in the circuit being investigated.

Potential Difference Potential difference between two points is the electrical energy converted to other form of energy per unit charge.

V =E/Q
To measure voltage we use a voltmeter. The unit of voltage is the volt. A voltmeter gives us the amount of energy lost by each unit charge between the two points to which the voltmeter is connected. 1V means 1JC-1. A voltmeter is always connected in parallel with other components. The resistance of a voltmeter must be high compared with other components in the circuit being investigated.

Resistance

Units of resistance VA-1 or Ohms, Resistance depends on

i) ii) iii)

the length of the piece of metal, the cross-sectional area of the piece of metal, A the type of metal.

Resistivity of the metal, , units Ohms Law

m.

For a metal conductor at constant temperature, the current flowing through it is directly proportional to the voltage across it.

Current in Series Circuits

The current is the same at all points in a series circuit. Since charges has no else where to flow. Voltages in Series Circuits

Consider the simple series circuit above. Energy lost by each Coulomb of charge moving from A to B is V1. Energy lost by each Coulomb of charge moving from B to C is V2. Energy lost by each Coulomb of charge moving from C to D is V3. total amount of energy lost by each Coulomb of charge from A to D = V1 + V2 + V3 (= V). The total voltage across components connected in series is the sum of the voltages across each component. (Note: this statement does not depend on what the components are, including battery in opposite direction.) Resistors in Series

In circuit A The current through all the resistors is the same, I. Voltage across R1 is V1 V1 = IR1 similarly, V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3 V1 + V2 + V3 = I(R1 +R2 +R3) =IV In circuit B V = IRE Combining these two gives IRE = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

RE = R 1 + R2 + R3

Currents in Parallel Circuits

If the three current I1, I2 and I are measured it is found that I1 + I2 = I This result is called Kirchhoffs current law, The total current flowing towards a junction in a circuit is equal to the total current flowing away from that junction. Voltage across Components in Parallel All points inside each dotted ellipse have the same potential. Because the wires have no resistance, and thus no dissipation in energy . So the three voltmeters are measuring the same voltage.(if no internal resistance in battery)

Components connected in parallel with each other all have the same voltage. Resistors in Parallel

In circuit A Voltage across all the resistors is the same, V. The current through R1 is I1 I1 = V/R1 similarly, I2 = V/R2 I3 = V/R3 Also, I= I1 + I 2 + I 3 = V(1/R1+1/R2+1/R3) In circuit B I = V/RE Combining these two gives V/RE = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3 So,

Potential Dividers In the circuit shown below, let V1 be the voltage across R1 and V2 the voltage across R2. Circuit in series, same current I, Resistor R1 : V1 = I R1 Resistor R2 : V2 = I R2

The ratio:

This type of circuit is often called potential dividers. A variable potential divider can be made using all three connections of a variable resistor. (A variable resistor can also be called a rheostat.) Variable Resistors i) Rotating variable resistor (internal view)

ii) Linear variable resistor

Using Variable Resistors Consider the circuit below.

The maximum resistance of the variable resistor is 100 . Case 1, sliding contact S is moved to A, the voltmeter will read 6V (battery voltage(if no internal resistance)). Case 2, sliding contact S is moved to B? It would be like this,

Voltmeter reads 3V. Electrical Power and Energy Any component which possesses resistance will convert electrical energy into thermal energy. Consider the simple circuit shown below.

Power P = VI P = V2 /R P = I2 R

E=Pt The Internal Resistance of a Battery A battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy. When the voltage of a battery is measured, the result is called as the terminal potential difference of the battery. The electrical energy given to each Coulomb of charge is called the emf, battery. In the following circuits, the voltmeter is ideal infinite resistance , of the

In open circuit(not a complete circuit), If we measure the terminal p.d. of a battery, the result is the emf of the battery. There exists internal resistance inside a battery. A more complete symbol to represent a battery is shown below.

The resistor, r, represents the internal resistance of the battery. In a complete circuit with current,

The energy supplied to each Coulomb of charge by the chemical reactions in the battery is , also, due to the internal resistance, energy also drawn by that internal

resistance, there is a drop in voltage. The terminal p.d. of the battery,

The terminal potential difference is only equal to the emf of the battery if the current flowing through the battery is zero. Also, V = IR, where R is the external resistance. Therefore, we have