Chapter 12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

12.1 Three-dimensional Coordinate systems

A. Three dimensional Rectangular Coordinate Sydstem:
The Cartesian product
R
3
= R R R = {(x, y, z) : x, y, z R},
where (x, y, z) iscalled ordered triple.
B. Distance:
The distance |P
1
P
2
| between two points P
1
= (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and P
2
= (x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) is
|P
1
P
2
| =
_
(x
2
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
y
1
)
2
+ (z
2
z
1
)
2
.
C. Sphere:
An equation of a sphere with center C(h, k, ) and radius r is
(x h)
2
+ (y k)
2
+ (z )
2
= r
2
a.
12.2 Vectors
A. Vector: a quantity that has both of magnitude and direction.
B. (Re)presentation and Notation:

a , < a
1
, a
2
, a
3
>,

AB.
Denition 1. A two dimensional vector is an ordered pair

a =< a
1
, a
2
> with a
1
and
a
2
real numbers. A three dimensional vector is an ordered triple

a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
>
with a
1
, a
2
and a
3
real numbers.
C. Magnitude: Let

a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
>. Then, the magnitude of

a is
|

a | =
_
a
2
1
+ a
2
2
+ a
2
3
.
D. Multiplication of a vector by a scalar:
Let

a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
> and c be a scalar (real number). Then,
c

a =< ca
1
, ca
2
, ca
3
> and |c

a | = |c||

a |.
E. Vector addition/dierence : Let

a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
> and

b =< b
1
, b
2
, b
3
>. Then,

a +

b =< a
1
+ b
1
, a
2
+ b
2
, a
3
+ b
3
>,

b =< a
1
b
1
, a
2
b
2
, a
3
b
3
>
F. Standard Basis vectors :
In R
2
,

i =< 1, 0 >,

j =< 0, 1 > .
In R
3
,

i =< 1, 0, 0 >,

j =< 0, 1, 0 >,

k =< 0, 0, 1 > .
If

a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
>, then

a = a
1

i + a
2

j + a
3

k .
G. Unit Vector :
A vector whose length is 1. If

a = 0, then the unit vector that has the same direction as

a is

u =

a
|

a |
.
12.3 The Dot Product
Denition 2. If

a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
> and

b =< b
1
, b
2
, b
3
>, the dot product of

a and

b
is the number

a

b given by

b = a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ a
3
b
3
.
Note 1: A result of the dot product of two vectors is a scalar (not a vector)
Note 2: The dot product is sometimes called inner product or scalar product.
A. Properties of the dot product
(1)

a

a = |

a |
2
(2)

a

b =

b

a
(3)

a (

b +

c ) =

a

b +

c
(4) (c

a )

b = c(

b ) =

a (c

b )
(5)

0

a = 0
Theorem 1. Let

a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
> and

b =< b
1
, b
2
, b
3
>. If is the angle between the
vectors

a and

b , then

b = |

a ||

b | cos .
2
Corollary 1. Let

a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
> and

b =< b
1
, b
2
, b
3
>. If is the angle between the
vectors

a and

b , then
cos =

b
|

a ||

b |
.
B. Direction Angles and Direction Cosine:
Let the angles betwees

a and x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis are , , and respectively. Then,
if

a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
>,
cos =
a
1
|

a |
, cos =
a
2
|

a |
cos =
a
3
|

a |
.
Then,
a
|

a |
=< cos , cos , cos > .
C. Projection :
C.1. Scalar Projection : component of

b along

a
comp
a

b = |

b | cos =

b
|

a |
.
C.2. Vector Projection:
proj
a

b = comp
a

a
|

a |
=
_

b
|

a |
_

a
|

a |
.
12.4 The Cross Product
Denition 3. If

a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
> and

b =< b
1
, b
2
, b
3
>, the cross product of

a and

b is the vector

a

b given by

b =< a
2
b
3
a
3
b
2
, a
3
b
1
a
1
b
3
, a
1
b
2
a
2
b
1
> .
Theorem 2. The cross product

a

b is orthogonal to both of

a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
> and

b =< b
1
, b
2
, b
3
>.
Note 1: A result of the cross product of two vectors is a vector (Not a scalar). So, the
cross product is sometimes called vector product.
3
Theorem 3. If , 0 , is the angle between

a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
> and

b =< b
1
, b
2
, b
3
>,
then
|

b | = |

a ||

b | sin .
Note 2: the length of the cross product

a

b is equal to the area of the parallelogram

determined by

a and

b .
A. Scalar Triple Product :
The volume of the parallelopiped determined by the vectors

a ,

b , and

c is the magnitude
of the scalar triple product
|

a (

c )|.
12.5 Equations of Lines and Planes
A. Equation of a line L :
A line in a space is determined by a point P
0
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) a vector

n that is parallel to the
line. Let

v =< a, b, c >,

r =< x, y, z >,

r
0
=< x
0
, y
0
, z
0
>, and t is a scalar.
A.1. Vector Equation :

r =

r
0
+ t

v .
A.2. Parametric Equation : x = x
0
+ at y = y
0
+ bt z = z
0
+ ct.
A.3. Symmetric Equation :
x x
0
a
=
y y
0
b
=
z z
0
c
.
B. Equation of a Plane :
A plane in a space is determined by a point P
0
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) a vector

n (normal vector) that

is orthogonal to the plane. Let

r =< x, y, z >,

r
0
=< x
0
, y
0
, z
0
>, and

n =< a, b, c >.
B.1. Vector Equation of a Plane:

n (

r
0
) = 0.
B.2.. Scalar Equation of a plane :
a(x x
0
) + b(y y
0
) + c(z z
0
) = 0
(or ax + by + cz + d = 0 with d = ax
0
by
0
cz
0
).
4
C. Distance D from a point P
1
(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) to the plance ax + by + cz + d = 0:
D =
|ax
1
+ by
1
+ cz
1
+ d|

a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
.
12.6/7 Cylinder and Cylindrical Coordinates
Identify and sketch the surfaces
(1) x
2
+ y
2
= 1 (2) y
2
+ z
2
= 1.
To convert from cylindrical to rectangular Coordinate,
x = r cos y = r sin z = z.
To convert from rectangular to cylindrical Coordinate,
r
2
= x
2
+ y
2
tan =
y
x
z = z.
Chapter 13 Vector Functions
13.1 Vector Functions and Space Curves
A. Vector Function: A vector (valued) function (e.g, in R
3
) is of the form

r (t) =< f(t), g(t), h(t) >,

where all the component functions f, g, and h are real valued function.
B. Limit of a vector function

r : If

r (t) =< f(t), g(t), h(t) >, then
lim
ta

r (t) =< lim

ta
f(t), lim
ta
g(t), lim
ta
h(t) >
provided the limits of f(t) ,g(t), and h(t) exist.
In particular, a vector function

r is continuous at t = a
lim
ta

r (t) =

r (a).
C. Space Curve: Suppose that f, g, and h are continuous functions on an interval I. Let
C = {(x, y, z) : x = f(t) y = g(t) z = h(t)},
where t varies through the interval I, is called a space curve.
The equations x = f(t), y = g(t), z = h(t) are called parametric equations of C and t
is called a parameter.
5
13.2 Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Functions
A. Derivative : The derivative of a vector (valued) function

r is dened by
d

r
dt
=

r

(t) = lim
h0

r (t + h)

r (t)
h
if the limit exists.
The vector

r

(t) is called the tangent vector of

r , and it unit tangent vector is given
by
T(t) =

r

(t)
|

r

(t)|
.
Theorem 4. If

r (t) =< f(t), g(t), h(t) >, where f, g, and h are dierentiable functions,
then

r

(t) =< f

(t), g

(t), h

(t) > .
Theorem 5. Suppose

u and

v are dierentiable vector functions, c is a scalar, and f is
a real valued function. Then,
(1)
d
dt
[

u (t) +

v (t)] =

u

(t) +

v

(t)
(2)
d
dt
[c

u (t)] = c

(t)
(3)
d
dt
[f(t)

u (t)] = f

(t)

(t) + f(t)

(t)
(4)
d
dt
[

u (t)

v (t)] =

u

(t)

v (t) +

u (t)

v

(t)
(5)
d
dt
[

u (t)

v (t)] =

u

(t)

v (t) +

u (t)

v

(t)
(6)
d
dt
[

u (f(t))] = f

(t)

(f(t)) (Chain Rule)

See Example 1-5
B. Integrals : If

r (t) =< f(t), g(t), h(t) >, where f, g, and h are integrable in [a, b], then
the denite integral if the vector function

r (t) can be dened by
_
b
a

r (t)dt =
__
b
a
f(t)dt
_

i +
__
b
a
g(t)dt
_

j +
__
b
a
h(t)dt
_

k .
See Example 6
6
13.3 Arc Length and Curvature
A. Arc Length : Let a t b, and let

r (t) =< f(t), g(t), h(t) > where f

, g

, and h

are continuous on I. Then, the length of the space curve (arc length) from t = a to t = b
is dened by
L =
_
b
a

r

(t)

2
dt
=
_
b
a
_
[f

(t)]
2
+ [g

(t)]
2
+ [h

(t)]
2
dt
=
_
b
a

_
dx
dt
_
2
+
_
dy
dt
_
2
+
_
dz
dt
_
2
dt
See Example 1.
13.4 Motion in Space :Velocity and Acceleration
A. Velocity vector : Suppose a particle moves through space so that its position vector
at time t is

r (t). The the velocity vector at time t is dened by

v (t) = lim
h0

r (t + h)

r (t)
h
=

r

(t).
The velocity vector

v (t) is also the tangent vector and points in the direction of the tangent
line. Further, the speed of the particle at time t is

v (t)

r

(t)

.
B. Acceleration vector : The acceleration of the particle at time t is

a (t) =

v

(t) =

r

(t).
See Examples 1-3.
C. Newtons Second Law of Motion : If, at any time t, a force F(t) acts on an object
of mass m producing an acceleration

a (t), then
F(t) = m

a (t).
See Examples 4 and 5.
7
Chapter 14 Partical derivatives
14.1 Functions of Several Variables
A. Functions of two varialbes:
Denition 4. A function f of two variables is a rule of the form
f : (x, y) D z = f(x, y).
Here the set D is the domain of f and its range is the set {f(x, y) : (x, y) D}.
See Examples 1, 4
B. Graph : Let f is a function of two variables with domain D. Then, the graph of f is
{(x, y, z) R
3
: z = f(x, y), (x, y) D}.
See Examples 6, 8
14.2 Limits and Continuity
Lets think about the two limits
lim
x0
lim
y0
x
2
y
2
x
2
+ y
2
and lim
y0
lim
x0
x
2
y
2
x
2
+ y
2
.
A. Limit :
Denition 5. Let f be a function of two variables with domain D and (a, b) closure(D).
We say that the limit of f(x, y) as (x, y) (a, b) is L, i.e.,
lim
(x,y)(a,b)
f : (x, y) = L
if for any number > 0 there is number > 0 such that

f(x, y) L

< whenever

(x, y) (a, b)

< and (x, y) D.

Remark: Let f(x, y) L
1
as (x, y) (a, b) along a path C
1
and f(x, y) L
2
as
(x, y) (a, b) along a path C
2
. Thn, if L
1
= L
2
, the limit lim
(x,y)(a,b)
f : (x, y) does not
exist.
See Examples 1-4.
8
B. Continuity :
Denition 6. Let f be a function of two variables with domain D and (a, b) closure(D).
The function f(x, y) is called continuous at (a, b) if
lim
(x,y)(a,b)
f : (x, y) = f(a, b).
We say f(x, y) is continuous on D if f is continuous at every points (a, b) in D.
14.3 Partial Derivatives
A. Denition : Let f be a function of two variables. Its partial derivatives are functions
f
x
and f
y
dened by
f
x
(x, y) = lim
h0
f(x + h, y) f(x, y)
h
f
y
(x, y) = lim
h0
f(x, y + h) f(x, y)
h
B. Notations: If z = f(x, y),
f
x
(x, y) = f
x
=
f
x
=

x
f(x, y) =
z
x
= D
x
f
f
y
(x, y) = f
y
=
f
y
=

y
f(x, y) =
z
x
= D
z
f
See Examples 1-5.
Theorem 6. Let f be a function of two variables and dened on D. Let (a, b) D. Then,
if f
xy
and f
yx
are both continuous on D,
f
xy
(a, b) = f
yx
(a, b).
14.4 Tangent Planes and Linear Approximation
A. Denition : Let f be a function of two variables, and assume that f
x
and f
y
are
continuous. An equation of tangent plane to the surface z = f(x, y) at P(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) is
z z
0
= f
x
(x
0
, y
0
)(x x
0
) + f
y
(x
0
, y
0
)(y y
0
).
Dene L(x, y) = f(x
0
, y
0
) +f
x
(x
0
, y
0
)(x x
0
) +f
y
(x
0
, y
0
)(y y
0
). Then L(x, y) is called a
linearization of f at (x
0
, y
0
). Also, the approximation
f(x, y) L(x, y)
is called the linear approximation and the thangent plane approximation.
9
Denition 7. Let z = f(x, y) and z = f(x
0
+ x, y
0
+ y). Then the function f is
dierentiable at (x
0
, y
0
) if z can be written
z = f
x
(x
0
, y
0
)x + f
y
(x
0
, y
0
)y +
1
x +
2
xy,
where
1
,
2
0 as x, y 0.
Theorem 7. Asume that f
x
and f
y
exist near (x
0
, y
0
) and are continuous at (x
0
, y
0
). Then
f is dierentiable at (x
0
, y
0
).
Total dierential: The dierential or total dierential is is dened by
dz = f
x
(x, y)dx + f
y
(x, y) =
z
x
dx +
z
y
dy.
See Examples 1,2, 4
14.5 The Chain Rule
The Chain Rule (Case 1): Assume that z = f(x, y) is a dierentiable function of x and
y, where x = g(t) and y = h(t) are both dierentiable of t. Then
dz
dt
=
f
x
dx
dt
+
f
y
dy
dt
.
The Chain Rule (Case 2): Assume that z = f(x, y) is a dierentiable function of x and
y, where x = g(s, t) and y = h(s, t) are both dierentiable functions of s and t. Then
z
s
=
z
x
dx
ds
+
f
dy
dy
ds
z
t
=
z
x
dx
dt
+
f
dy
dy
dt
.
See Examples 1,3, 5( For General Version)
Implicit Dierentiation : Assume that z = f(x, y) is given implicitly as a function of
the form F(x, y, z) = 0. If F and f are dierentiable and
F
z
= 0, then
z
x
=
F
x
F
z
z
y
=
F
y
F
z
See Examples 9
10
14.6 Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector
A. Denition : Let f be a function of two variables. The directional derivatives of
f(x
0
, y
0
) in the direction of unit vector

u =< a, b > is
D

u
f(x
0
, y
0
) = lim
h0
f(x
0
+ ha, y + hb) f(x
0
, y
0
)
h
if the limit exists.
In the case of three variable function, we can dene the directional derivatives in a similar
manner.
Theorem 8. Let f be a dierentialbe function of x and y. Then f has directional deriva-
tives in the direction of unit vector

u =< a, b > and
D

u
f(x, y) = f
x
(x, y)a + f
y
(x, y)b.
The Gradient Vector : Let f be a function of several (say three) variables. The Gradient
of f is the vector function f fdened by
f(x, y, z) =< f
x
(x, y, z), f
y
(x, y, z), f
z
(x, y, z) >=
f
x

i +
f
x

j
f
z

k
Note that for any

u =< a, b, c >, D

u
f(x, y, z) = f(x, y, z)

u .
See Examples 2, 3, 4
14.7 Maximum and Minimum Values
Denition 8. Let f be a function of two variables. Then, f(a, b) is called local maximum
value if f(a, b) f(x, y) when (x, y) is near (a, b). Also, f(a, b) is called local minimum
value if f(a, b) f(x, y) when (x, y) is near (a, b).
Theorem 9. If f has local maximum or minimum value at (a, b) and f
x
and f
y
exist, then
f
x
(a, b) = 0 and f
y
(a, b) = 0.
A point (a, b) is called a critical point of f if f
x
)a, b) = 0 and f
y
(a, b) = 0.
Second Derivatives Test: Assume that the second partial derivatives of f are continuous
on a disk with center (a, b), and assume that f
x
(a, b) = 0 and f
y
(a, b) = 0. Let
D = f
xx
(a, b)f
yy
(a, b) [f
xy
(a, b)]
2
.
(a) If D > 0 and f
xx
(a, b) > 0, then f(a, b) is a local minimum.
(b) If D > 0 and f
xx
(a, b) < 0, then f(a, b) is a local maximum.
11
(c) If D < 0, then f(a, b) is not a local maximum or minimum. (the point (a,b) is called a
saddle point of f).
See Examples 1, 2, 3, 6.
Theorem 10. If f is continuous on a closed, bounded set D in R
2
, then f attains an
absolute maximum value f(x
1
, y
1
) and an absolute minimum value f(x
2
, y
2
) at some points
(x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) in D.
To nd an absolute maximum and minimum values of f on a closed, bounded set D :
(1) Find the values of f at the critical points of f in D.
(2) Find the extreme values of f on the boundary of D.
(3) The largest of the values from steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum value; The
smallest of the values is the absolute minimum value.
See Example 7.
14.8 Lagrange Multipliers
Method of Lagrange Multiers : In order to nd the maximum and minimum values
of f(x, y, z) subject to the constraint g(a, y, z) = k
(a) Find all values of x, y, z, and such that
f(x, y, z) = g(x, y, z)
g(a, y, z) = k
(b) Evaluate f at all the points (x, y, z) that results from step (a). The largest of the values
is the absolute maximum value; The smallest is the absolute minimum value of f.
See Examples 2, 3
12
Chapter 15 Multiple Integrals
15.1 Double Integrals over Rectangles
Denition 9. The double integral of f over R = [a, b] [c, d] is
_ _
R
f(x, y)dA = lim
m,n

i=1

j=1
f(x
i
, y
j
)A (1)
if the limit exists, where (x
i
, y
j
) is in
R
ij
= [x
i1
, x
i
] [y
j1
, y
j
].
Here the right-hand side of (1) is called s double Riemann sum.
If f(x, y) 0, the volume V of the solid that lies above the rectangle R and below the
surface z = f(x, y) is
V =
_
R
f(x, y)dA.
15.2 Iterated Integrals
Theorem 11. (Fubini) Let f be a continuous function on R = [a, b] [c, d].
_ _
R
f(x, y)dA =
_
b
a
_
d
c
f(x, y)dydx =
_
d
c
_
b
a
f(x, y)dxdy.
The two integrals in the right-hand side of the above identity are called iterated integrals.
More generally, this theorem is true if f is bounded on R, f is discontinuous only on a
nite number if snmooth curves, and the iterated integrals exist.
Special Cases : If f(x, y) = g(x)h(y) on R = [a, b] [c, d],
_ _
R
f(x, y)dA =
_
b
a
_
d
c
f(x, y)dydx =
__
d
c
h(y)dy
_

__
b
a
g(x)dx
_
.
See Examples 1-5.
15.3 Double Integrals over General Regions
Type I : Let f be a continuous on a type I region D such that
D = {(x, y)|a x b, g
1
(x) y g
2
(x)}
then
_ _
R
f(x, y)dA =
_
b
a
_
g
2
(x)
g
1
(x)
f(x, y)dydx.
13
Type II : Let f be a continuous on a type II region D such that
D = {(x, y)|c y d, h
1
(x) x h
2
(x)}
then
_ _
R
f(x, y)dA =
_
d
c
_
h
2
(x)
h
1
(x)
f(x, y)dxdy.
See Examples 1-5.
Properties of Double Integrals : Assume that all of the following integrals exist. Then,
(1)
_ _
D
[f(x, y) + g(x, y)]dA =
_ _
D
f(x, y)dA +
_ _
D
[g(x, y)]dA
(2)
_
D
cf(x, y)dA = c
_ _
D
[f(x, y)]dA
(3)
_
D
f(x, y)dA
_ _
D
[g(x, y)]dA, if f(x, y) g(x, y)
(4)
_
D
1dA = A(D)
(4)
_
D
f(x, y)dA
_ _
D
1
[g(x, y)]dA, +
_ _
D
2
[g(x, y)]dA, if D = D
1
D
2
.
Here D
1
and D
2
dont overlap except (perhaps) on the boundary. Also, if m f(x, y) M
for all (x, y) D, then
mA(D)
_
D
f(x, y)dA MA(D).
15.4 Double Integrals over Polar Coordinates
Change to Polar Coordinates in a Double Integral : Let f be a continuous on a po-
lar rectangle
R = {(r, ) | 0 a r b, }
then
_ _
R
f(x, y)dA =
_

_
b
a
f(r cos , r sin )rdrd).
See Examples 1,2.
15.7 Triple Integrals
14
Theorem 12. (Fubinis Theorem for Triple Integrals) Let f be a continuous function on
B = [a, b] [c, d] [r, s].
_ _ _
B
f(x, y, z)dV =
_
s
r
_
d
c
_
b
a
f(x, y, z)dxdydz =
_
d
c
_
b
a
f(x, y)dxdy.
Triple Integrals over General Regions:
Type I : Let f be a continuous on region D (type I or type II in double integral) such
that
E = {(x, y, z) | (x, y) D u
1
(x, y) z u
2
(x, y)},
then
_ _ _
E
f(x, y, z)dV =
_ _
D
_
_
u
2
(x,y)
u
1
(x,y)
f(x, y, z)dz
_
dA.
Type II : Let f be a continuous on region D (type I or type II in double integral) such
that
E = {(x, y, z) | (y, z) D u
1
(y, z) z u
2
(y, z)},
then
_ _ _
E
f(x, y, z)dV =
_ _
D
_
_
u
2
(y,z)
u
1
(y,z)
f(x, y, z)dx
_
dA.
See Examples 1-3.
15.8 Triple Integrals in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates
Formula for triple integration in cylindrical coordinates:
_ _ _
E
f(x, y, z)dV =
_ _
D
_
u
2
(r cos ,r sin )
u
1
(r cos ,r sin )
f(r cos , r sin , z)rdzdrd.
See Examples 1,2.
15
Chapter 16 Vector Calculus
16.1 Vector Fields
Denition 10. Let E be a subset of R
3
. A vector eld on R
3
is a function F that assigns
to each (x, y, z) E a three-dimensional vector F(x, y, z). We can write F as follows:
F(x, y, z) = P(x, y, z)

i + Q(x, y, z)

j + R(x, y, z)

k .
Gradient Fields: If f is a scalar function of three (or two) variables, its gradient is a
vector eld on R
3
given by
f(x, y, z) = f
x
(x, y, z)

i + f
y
(x, y, z)

j + f
z
(x, y, z)

k .
See Examples 1, 2, 6.
16.2 Line Integrals
Denition 11. Let C be a smooth curve given by the parametric equation
x = x(t) y = y(t), a t b.
If f is dened on the curve C, then the line integral of f along C is dened by
_
C
f(x, y)ds =
_
b
a
f(x(t), y(t))

_
dx
dt
_
2
+
_
dy
dt
_
2
dt.
Remark: If C is a piecewise-smooth curve, that is, C is a nite union of smooth
curves C
1
, C
n
, then
_
C
f(x, y)ds =
_
C
1
f(x, y)ds + +
_
C
n
f(x, y)ds.
Line integral of f along C with respect to x and y:
_
C
f(x, y)dx =
_
b
a
f(x(t), y(t))x

(t)dt
_
C
f(x, y)dy =
_
b
a
f(x(t), y(t))y

(t)dt
See Examples 1, 2, 4.
Line integrals in Space: Suppose that C is a smooth curve given by the parametric
equation
x = x(t) y = y(t) z = z(t), a t b.
16
If f is dened on the curve C, then the line integral of f along C is dened by
_
C
f(x, y)ds =
_
b
a
f(x(t), y(t), z(t))

_
dx
dt
_
2
+
_
dy
dt
_
2
+
_
dz
dt
_
2
dt.
Compact Notation :
_
C
f(x, y, z)ds =
_
b
a
f(

r (t))|

r

(t)|dt.
See Examples 5, 6.
Line integrals of Vector Fields: Let F be a continuous vector eld dened on a smooth
curve C given by a vector function

r (t), a t b. Then, the line integral of F along
C is
_
C
F d

r =
_
b
a
F(

r (t))

r

(t)dt =
_
C
F Tds,
where T(x, y, z) is the unit tangent vector at the point (x, y, z).
See Examples 7, 8.
16.3 The Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals
Theorem 13. Let C be a smooth curve given by the vector function

r (t), a t b. Let
f be a continuous function and its f is continuous on C. Then,
_
C
f d

r = f(

r (b)) f(

r (a)).
Note: We can evaluate
_
C
f d

r by knowing the value of f at the end of points of C.

Denition 12. A vector eld F is called a conservative vector eld if there is a scalar
function f such that F = f. Here f is called a potential function of F.
Note: Line integrals of conservative vector elds are independent of path.
Theorem 14.
_
C
f d

r is independent of path in a domain D i

_
C
f d

r = 0 for
every closed path in D.
17
Theorem 15. Let F = P

i + Q

j be a conservative vector eld, where all the partial

derivatives are continuous. Then,
P
y
=
Q
x
, in D.
Theorem 16. Let F = P

i + Q

j be a vector elds on an open simply-connected region

D. Supppose that all the partial derivatives are continuous and
P
y
=
Q
x
in D.
Then F is conservative.
16.4 Greens Theorem
Theorem 17. Let C be a positively oriented, piecewise-smooth, simple closed curve in the
plane and let D be the region bounded by C. Supppose that all the partial derivatives of P
and Q are continuous on an open region contains D, then
_
C
Pdx + Qdy =
_ _
D
_
Q
x

P
y
_
dA
Application: Line The formulas to nd the area of D :
A =
_
C
xdy =
_
C
ydxa =
1
2
_
C
xdy ydx.
See Examples 1,2,3
16.5 Curl and Divergence
Curl: If F = P

i +Q

j +R

k is a vector eld on R
3
and partial derivatives of P, Q, and
R all exist, then the curl of F is the vector eld dened by
curl F = F
=
_
R
y

Q
z
_

i
_
R
x

P
z
_

j +
_
Q
x

P
y
_

k
Theorem 18. If f is a function of three variables that has continuous second-order partial
derivatives, then
curl (f) = 0.
Theorem 19. If F is a vector eld dened on all of R
3
whose component functions have
continuous partial derivatives and curl F = 0, then F is a conservative vector eld.
18
See Examples 1,2,3
Divergence: If F = P

i +Q

j +R

k is a vector eld on R
3
and partial derivatives of P,
Q, and R all exist, then the divergence of F is the function of three variables dened by
divF = F
=
P
x
+
Q
y
+
R
z
Theorem 20. If F = P

i + Q

j + R

k is a vector eld dened on all of R

3
and P, Q,
and R have continuous second-order partial derivatives, then
div curl F = 0.
See Examples 4,5
19