March 22-24, 2004

Symposium on Interdisciplinary Shock Wave Research

Sendai, Japan

Blast waves attenuation in two-phase media

B.E. Gelfand Institute of Chemical Physics, RAS, Kosigina str. 4, Moscow, 119991, Russia; e-mail: detonation7@rambler.ru Abstract. Criminal usage of explosives has been growing and a range of blast protection equipment that protects against armful blast wave eects and fragments is required. Upgrading protective devices and increasing their eectiveness presents the main direction of scientic investigations based on understanding the key features of blast loads and the methods for their attenuation. It is found experimentally that blast waves produced by HE burst weaken while passing through a liquid screen. The energy of the blast is consumed for protective device destruction and acceleration of the liquid. The blast wave is a sharp jump of pressure with a delayed pressure decrease. Blast wave amplitude in space near the inhibition device diminished several times in comparison with blast at the same distance for a bare HE charge. The crucial role of the liquid compressibility in blast wave attenuation and transformation was shown. The eciency of blast inhibitors increases with replacing the liquid by a relaxing media, for example by a two-phase gas-liquid system. Partial increase of liquid screen compressibility may be achieved due to the use of an elastic envelope conning liquid. Introduction of gas bubbles into the liquid changes the liquid compressibility and decreases the sonic velocity depending on the pressure. Multiple reduction of linear and nonlinear pressure wave speed provoked a pressure prole extended in time. This is the reason that protecting devices with two-phase ller instead of a pure liquid will not only attenuate the amplitude of the blast but also change its temporal-frequency investigated. Based on testing data, it was conrmed that two-phase screens are eective gain frequency transformers of blast eects created by HE charge bursts.

Processes such as gun ring, explosions, ignition of rocket motors, explosive welding and cutting and also mining produce large quantities of excess energy which are released to the surroundings [1-14]. This energy release perturbs the local atmosphere and large pressure and temperature changes can occur. Any shock and blast waves (SBW ) that result may be harmful to biological and mechanical systems and other engineering structures. In the explosive, eld it is imperative that there be a safe method for shipping small quantities of explosives which may be uncharacterized materials sent for laboratory evaluation or standard explosives for test comparisons. This problem is urgent because terrorism has become a 150

disappointing reality of the present day, and great care must be exercised in rendering harmless any dangerously explosive objects placed inside enclosures or in a crowded territory [15,16]. These damaging explosion eects can be decreased by degrading the high ow energy into low temperature thermal and /or chemical energy [1] . There is considerable interest in the use of two-phase suspensions of dusts [18], mists [53], sprays [42,49] and liquid or solid foams [2-13,23,24,27,31,32,34,35,36,38,39,50] to eect this conversion. Indeed, aqueous foam is noted for its ability to damp pressure (including acoustic) disturbances, but the physical mechanisms of the process are little understood. The simpler systems of dust or droplet air suspensions [49] and bubbly liquids [44] have been the subject of more or less deep theoretical and experimental study, but energy exchange in liquid foams has received little attention. To date, most research into mitigating demolition eects has concentrated on near-eld phenomena, particularly the damaging eects of BW [1-3]. For this purpose, vermiculite may be used as a ller to absorb explosive energy [1]. The near-eld is the region within a hundred explosive charge radii of the explosive charge. Little has been done to measure and evaluate BW eects in the far-eld. The dissipation of detonation energy in plastic [20,31,34,35] or liquid foams has not attracted much attention yet. The far-eld eects are becoming a serious environmental issue. Annoyance and damage complains from individuals and communities subjected to increased environmental noise levels can restrict, or eliminate blast producing activities. To address this problem of the far-eld eects of demolition, it is useful to consider several methods of reducing blast noise including the use of water-based foams as a mitigating agent. It is also useful to discuss past near-eld investigations [12,13] when they can be related to far-eld measurements. Spherically or half spherically symmetric BW resulting from HE- burst in air can cause serious damage to both structures and personel located in the vicinity and even many charge radii from the center of the explosion. Consequently the areas where blast producing activities can be conducted safely are limited [12,13]. An investigation into ways and methods of BW attenuation has aroused considerable interest. The problem is of great practical use and results obtained can be applied to blast technology of cutting and welding for various constructions. One of the most important goals in special combat operation for mine clearance is to provide protection of military and civilian personnel against various harmful HE blast eects. Recently interest in the attenuation of underwater explosion has also been renewed. The reason is that the acoustic properties of the human body are close to those of water [62,71] and study of underwater blast behavior is requested for applications of SBW to medical practices. Better understanding of blast propagation and attenuation in liquid is essential in developing new medical applications of SBW. It is strange, but the behavior of underwater blasts (propagation, reection) is not studied as much as those in gases. The choice of the methods of blast waves (BW) attenuation must use the known data on their characteristics. At rst sight it is convenient to use the empirical dependencies of BW amplitude on the distance and charge weight. For example one can take the Sadovsky equation [19] for TNT 151

explosion in air P = 0.085G1/3 /R + 0.3G2/3 /R2 + 0.82G/R 3 or P = 1 (R0 /R) + 2 (R0 /R)2 + 3 (R0 /R)3 . Here: P = P2 P1 -pressure amplitude, P1 - initial pressure, P2 - pressure at BW front, G- weight of charge, R- distance from explosion epicenter, R0 - radius of charge, 1 3 coecients. The basis of such formulas is the so called cube root scaling principle [56,57] . Unfortunately, the cube root scaling principle is much better known than its limitations. Persons involved with Civil Defense or other protective organizations need to be interested in blast pressures at signicant distances from the epicenter. Huge errors in estimations of blast pressures occur if one follows the usual practice of scaling, which take into account only distance and explosive energy, and ignore weather conditions [21,57]. The cube root scaling principle ignores the pressure, sound velocity, the density of the medium accepting the blast load. With such type dependence P = f (R/G1/3 ) it is impossible to point out the ways blast can be attenuated. Dewey [21] suggested taking into account the variation of the initial atmospheric pressure Pc and introduced the corrected weight of HE charge as Gc = G1 (P1 /Pc )1/3 . Here P1 = 0.1M P a - normal atmospheric pressure and Pc = P1 . Recently [36], an additional correction Gc1 = G1 (P1 /Pc )1/3 (Tc /T1 )1/3 was suggested. The pressure correction term is the same as in [21], but form of temperature correction term was not explained. However, the input of correcting parameters does not explain the properties of the donor and acceptor of explosion, which inuence the characteristics of BW. Sachs [22] extended the scaling low for explosive blast to include the inuence of ambient pressure and temperature. His result for BW with amplitude P = P2 P1 as a function of distance R, time t, released explosion energy E, ambient pressure P1 and ambient sound velocity A1 is conveniently written as P/P1 = f ((P1 /E)1/3 R; A1 t/R). Characteristic size of HE explosion in air: = (E/P1 )1/3 = R0 (E1 /P1 )1/3 = = R0 (1 E1 /1 A2 )1/3 , 1 3 3 when E = 4/3HE E1 R0 = E1 R0 , HE -density of HE. Characteristic time of explosion: = (E/P1 )1/3 A1 . 1 2 Characteristic impulse of explosion :I = P1 = (E/P1 )1/3 A1 . 1 Representation of the BW parameters in the frame of similarity theory [45,46,69] with 2 nondimensional values P = P/P1 ; = tA1 (E/P1 )1/3 ; I = IA1 (EP1 )1/3 ; R = R 1 allow the eect of ambient surroundings on BW behavior to be understood. Let the explosion parameters at P1 , T1 , A1 be known. At P11 = P1 ; T11 = T1 or A11 = A1 the BW parameters will change. Sound speed in air is A11 = 340(T11 /273)0.5(1+0.49pv /P11 ) [ m/s] (water vapor pressure pv ). The change of initial pressure takes place when rising above the sea level and is accompanied by a change of the characteristic explosion scale by a factor of (P11 /P1 )1/3 . The change of the amplitude and duration of BW lead to a change of the pressure impulse as I11 /I1 (P11 /P1 )2/3 (A1 /A11 ). The duration of the compression phase will change as 152

11 /1 (P11 /P1 )1/3 (A1 /A11 ). With the rise of initial pressure in surroundings, the characteristic explosion scale = (E/P1 )1/3 diminishes. Similarity theory does not describe the dependence of BW amplitude on the sound speeds in the explosion products (energy donor) A4 and in the surrounding atmosphere A1 (energy acceptor). Such a dependence is known for shock tubes P4 P2 1 = 0.5 0.5 P1 P1 (21 ) [21 + (1 + 1) (P2 /P 1 1)] (4 1) (A1 /A4 ) P2/P1 1
24 (4 1)

Here: P4 is the pressure of the explosion products, 1 - ratio is the specic heat capacities in the surrounding atmosphere , 4 - the ratio of specic heat capacities in the products of explosion. The increase of the sound speed A4 in the explosion products and the decrease of the sound speed A1 in the surroundings causes the BW amplication in the moment of its generation. For a full understanding of the possible ways to inuence BW properties, one should take into account the characteristics of point source explosions [45,46,59,69]. As follows from similarity theory, the theory of shock tubes, and the theory of a point source explosion, BW attenuation can be expected with: - increasing the density of the media-acceptor of the explosion load, - decreasing the sound velocity in the media-donor of the explosion load, For the gaseous acceptor along with the trivial way of increasing density due to pressure rise, there is another prospective method of replacing the gas by two-phase mixtures: gas + droplets (mist or spray), gas + solid particles (dust). At a volumetric concentration of the condensed phase in a two-phase mixture = 4/3p r3 N = N V , the total density is = g + = g (1+). Here: p - is the density of the particles, N - the number of particles per unit volume, = /g - the loading parameter, r - the radius of spherical particles, V - the volume of non-spherical particles. In mist/spray or dust systems, the volume fraction of the condensed phase can be neglected. The foam is practically important for two-phase system where 1. For dust suspensions 1 and for foams 10 100 The addition of the second phase to the gas phase is accompanied by a reduction of the equilibrium sound speed. Attaining the equilibrium sound speed means the equalizing of the temperatures and velocities of the dierent phases involved in the relaxation processes. So the dust, mist or foam could be considered as an equivalent gas [40] with density , sound speed A2 = P1 1 and heat capacities ratio = g (1 + )(1 + g )1 . Here g = c/cp , c e - is the heat capacity of particles, cp , cv - are the specic heat capacities of gas at constant pressure and constant volume. In the equvalent gas the velocity of BW will change as [12]: D= E (g + )
0.2

t0.4

Here: energetic parameter . For a constant explosion energy at one instant of time, the velocity of BW in a two-phase media D and in a gaseous media D are related as: 1+ D = D (1 + ) (1 + ) (1 + ) 153
0.2

Fig. 1 Blast wave velocity versus distance in air (1) and water-air foam(2).

With the velocity of BW the distance passed by the wave is also changed. If the distance passed by the BW in gas is Rs1 then the distance passed by the BW in a two -phase mixture Rs is: 0.2 1+ Rs = Rs1 (1 + ) (1 + ) (1 + ) The velocity of BW at the distance R for a high explosion is: D= E ( + )
0.5

R1.5

At the same distance from the center of an explosion, the BW velocity in a two-phase mixture D is lower than its velocity in gas D: 1+ D = D (1 + ) (1 + ) (1 + )
0.5

If the temperature of the particles is constant then D /D (1 + )0.5 = It is seen, that due to particle heating (at > 1), eective wave attenuation is realized. The inertia of the media is characterized by the value and the ability to extract the heat from a gas - by a value . For a large kinematics inertia ( 1) and high ability for fast 2 0.5 . heating ( 1) we have D /D = Figure 1 shows a comparison between the BW velocity for a HE explosion in air (1) and inside a water foam envelope (2). The decrease of the BW velocity corresponds to the case of media with frozen a temperature of condensed phase particles. When a BW travels in foam, the mass of the substence involved in motion m increased. At the same instance, the mass m exceeds the mass of the gas m : m 0.4 ( + 1) (1 + ) = ( + 1) m +1
0.6

The dierence in masses and velocities for explosions in two-phase media and gas causes a change of the explosion pressure at the same distance. For the case of total phase equilibrium, 154

Fig. 2 Blast wave amplitude versus distance in water-air foam(1,2) and air (3).

the pressure at the BW front in a two-phase media will be P1 , while in gas it was P1 , that leads to the wave attenuation 1 = P1 /P1 (1 + ) =

For R/R0 14 (as shown in Fig.2) one can note the decrease in the level of the pressure jump at the BW front with distance for the HE explosion in foam: (1)-experiments [2,3], (2)-calculations [4-6] and in air (3)- data from [19,46]. The ratio of pressure impulses for a BW in foam I and in gas I will be: ( + 1) (1 + ) I = I (1 + ) (1 + )
0.5

In two-phase media with frozen particle temperature (for example at = 0), the impulse of BW is larger than that in the wave traveling in gas. There are possibilities of nding the zones where I /I < 1 and I /I > 1 when the explosion takes place in a two-phase medium. The rst situation occurs apart from the charge and the latter, nearby the charge. Figure 3 presents the dependence of the scaled impulse of a reected BW on the scaled distance in air (1) and in foam (2). The comparisom shows that the quantity of impulse in the reected BW for the explosion in foam at R < 0.64 m/kg1/3 is larger than for the explosion in air, while for R > 0.64 m/kg1/3 it is lower. Figure 4 illustrates the dependence of the pressure jump at the BW front on the mass concentration of liquid at R = 0.85 m/kg1/3 . The value of the pressure jump at the BW front in foam is sensitive to the concentration of liquid up to = 4 5 kg/m3 . For 10 kg/m3 , one sees a weak decrease in the pressure jump. The decreasing pressure jump at the BW front in air and in foam at dierent scaled distances is shown in Fig.5. The relation between the BW attenuation coecient and the concentration of liquid inside the foam envelope can be expressed at 2 kg/m3 < < 20kg/m3 , 155

Fig. 3 Blast wave reected impulse versus distance in air (1) and water-air foam (2).

Fig. 4 Blast wave amplitude versus density of water-air foam. 0.8 kg/m3 < R < 2.5kg/m3 as [12,13]: P1air = (1 + 0.75) P1foam From an ecological safety point of view relatively weak quasi - acoustics pressure waves are considered as phycal pollutants of the surrounding. One can use methods of protection based on two-phase media in the processes of welding and cutting by explosions in industrial plants or nearby residential buildings to provide ecological safety. To resolve the practical tasks, it is important to know both the BW attenuating laws in the two-phase media, and the behavior of the resulting weak pressure disturbances after their release beyond the protective screen into the surroundings. Thus important information is how much and how far the protective gas-contained envelopes allow decreasing overpressure, impulse and energy ow of the generated pressure waves [2-13,15,16,27,28]. Let us summarise the results of investigations on BW attenuation in the far zone and the eect of gas-contained envelopes on their parameters. Water - mechanical foam is often 156

Fig. 5 Attenuation of blast wave versus density of water-air foam.

Fig. 6 Protected box (1) with foam (2) and HE-charge (3).

used as a protective screen, but also mentioned are snow [12,13] and other systems [5]. The methods of pressure disturbance registration in the far zone beyond the protective screen is described in [4-7, 12,13,15,16]. Figure 6. represents the scheme of a container in which the TNT charges of 0.11 kg, 0.57 kg, and 2.27 kg were exploded. Here 1 - is the wooden frame, 2 - the polyethylen lm, 3 - the HE. The sizes are a b c (0.9...1.2) m. The HE = = = charges were immersed in water foam, or covered by porous materials. The foam division is 30 250, i.e = 30 4kg/m3 and the size of foam cells 1 10 mm. The characteristics of the materials making up the two-phase medium (metal fabric, straw) are presented in [5]. The measuring scheme is shown in Fig.7. Here (1) - is the HE charge in container, M1 M4 the pressure receivers (microphones) for the air wave. A list of distances to the microphones LM F , sizes of the container with foam a b c, weights G of HE charges of C4 with TNT equvalent for the tests [3-8] are given in Table 1. The pressure disturbance measurements were performed using microphones out of the protecting envelope. The wave leaves the protecting layer and propagates in atmosphere at the distance LM F , which considerably exceeds the screen sizes. 157

Table 1.

Parameters of explosions for dierent containment sizes a, [m] 3.0 2.4 1.6 3.7 3.7 b, [m] 1.85 1.7 1.5 3.7 3.7 c, [m] 3.0 2.4 1.5 3.7 3.7 G, [kg]C4( = 1.34) 0.57 2.37 0.51 2.37 0.061 0.57 2.37

LM F [m] 60 and 120 60 and 120 15 and 30 60 and 120 60 and 120

Fig. 7 The measuring scheme.

The eectiveness of blast waves attenuation was determined by a comparison of wave parameters generated by HE charges explosions in the open air and the wave parameters generated by the HE charge explosions in the protecting envelopes made from gas-contained media. The impulse microphones and pressure gauges with resonance frequencies 200 kHz were used in [12,13]. The use of modern measuring technique expanded the frequency and dynamic range of the registrating pressure signals passing through the protecting envelope [12,13], for HE charges weights from 20 g up to 100 kg. The investigations showed that BW generated in air after passing through the protecting envelope are similar to pressure waves from explosions of HE charges of lower energy. The parameters of the BW from HE explosions in gas-contained envelopes can be determined with practical accuracy using the notion of eective TNT-euivalent of explosion G . The eciency of protection can be characterized by the coecient of explosion energy decrease < 1 and hence G = G. To evaluate the parameters of the attenuated BW, it is necessary to know the dependency of their level on the properties of the medium used for explosion localization, as well as on the geometrical sizes of the protecting screens. The analysis of experimental data gave rise to the criterion of attenuation of overpressure for the explosion in gas-contained media in the form of a nondimensional parameter Z = (VS /G)
1/3

Here - is the concentration of condensed phase in protecting medium [kg/m3 ], VS - the volume of the envelope [m3 ], G - the TNT equivalent of HE charge [kg TNT]. 158

Fig. 8 Attenuation of blast amplitude versus non-dimensional parameter Z = (VS /G)1/3 of protected envelope. Ewater foam with = 6 10 kg/m3 ; Esnow with = 250 500 kg/m3 ; Esand with = 1600 kg/m3 .

Figure 8 shows the dependence of the value L, characterising the decrease of overpressure at the BW front when using protection based on the gas-contained media on the value Z. The region between the two lines corresponds to the data scattering for gas-liquid media such as foam or snow [12,13]. The same region is responsible for the experimental data [5-8] on BW attenuation passing through protecting envelopes made from foam, steel wool, ber glass. The dependence presented in Fig. 8 is described by the formula: L = 3Z 4 = 20 lg (P1 /P2 ) . Here L is the dierence (in Db) in pressure amplitudes at the xed distance for a HE explosion without protection P1 and explosion with protection P2 . A comparison of data on BW attenuation for a HE placed in gas-contained envelopes showed that maximal eectiveness can be reached in envelopes lled by water-mechanical foam and snow. The use of explosion protective envelopes made from materials of higher structure density gives no advantages but creates technical diculties for realisation. The main diculty is connected with the inconvenience of forming a heavy explosion protective envelope around the hazardous unit, especially if the charge is equipped with a detonator. Useful information on the eect of protective foam envelopes for BW properties in the far region was obtained in [23,24]. Here the inuence of foam protection on the components of the sound spectrum of the total pressure disturbances was analysed. The results of the analysis of sound attenuation at frequencies 500 Hz and 1000 Hz depending on the thickness of the water foam layer (3 5) kg/m3 leads to the following typical conclusions: - more eective attnuation of the higher pressure wave harmonics; - decreasing eciency of attenuation at a xed thickness 1 m of the protective layer, as declared previously in [5-8], where the nondimensional value of was found in the form = (3 /G)1/3 2.5. 159

Unfortunately, to date the cube root scaling principle has been used for the analysis of all experimental results related to underwater explosions. The pressure amplitude of underwater BW [43,61] evaluated with the help of formula P = (R1 W 1/3 )n . Here: and n 1.1 are coecients. From this statement, it would appear that the blast amplitude at xed distances should be independent of the ambient conditions (for example-acoustic impedance of the liquid). The increasing interest [61,62] in the underwater explosion of small HE- charges follows the universal blast scaling approach, especially for far transmission of underwater BW. Following the Sachs ideas of scaling [22] it is reasonable to suggest similar non-dimensional parameters for underwater explosions. Let us suggest that the BW pressure is a function of distance R, time t, energy of explosion E and pseudo-pressure parameter f a2 , that is f P = f1 [R(f a2 /E)1/3 ; af t/R]. Here: f liquid density, af the liquid sound velocity. The f characteristic size of an underwater explosion will be R = (E/f a2 )1/3 . That variant f of scaling was formally presented but never used in the original suggestion [22] because P0 = g a2 /g in a gas with density g , sound velocity ag and a ratio of specic heat g capacities g . The introduction of parameter R resolves thus by taking into account the possible variations of liquid sound velocity and density. It is well known that there is a strong dependence of liquid sound velocity on the volume fraction of gaseous bubbles [14-16,29,37,44,47,48,51]. In the simplest case of rigid walls and non-compressible liquid, the sound velocity will be a2 1 = P0 [f (1 )]1 in the presence gaseous bubbles. In compressible liquid [66], (sound f velocity Af without gaseous cells) a2 2 = P0 A2 [(1 )P0 + (1 )f A2 ]1 . Here: f f f is the volume fraction of the gaseous bubbles. The characteristic size of an explosion in 1 a bubbly liquid is R = (EP0 )1/3 . The relation between the characteristic sizes of the the standard HE-air burst and an HE-burst in pure liquid with equal energy will be = R /R = (f a2 /P0 )1/3 . At normal initial conditions R 28R . The relation bef tween R and R of an explosion in a bubbly liquid will be = R /R = []1/3 . As follows from comparison, a very small gas void fraction in a liquid dramatically changes the characteristic size of the explosion. In the presence of gaseous cells in a liquid or in the case of encapsulation of the liquid inside an envelope with exible walls[25] the dierence between an air and an undersurface liquid explosion becomes moderate or negligible. Let us introduce for an underwater explosion blast wave a non- dimensional overpressure parameter in the form = P/f a2 . From the general dependence of BW overpressure f on distance = R/R 1, it follows that BW from underwater HE burst falls in the range of acoustic pressure disturbances, although the absolute values of wave amplitudes is high and they represent a real hazard for bioobjects. As for acoustics impulse the notion of wave attenuation is not strict. More prcisely the change (transformation) of character of a hydroexplosive load should be mentioned. Such a task can be sucessfuly resolved using gaslled screens in the way of BW propagation. Information on the interaction of an underwater BW with protective bubble screens [41,63,66] or with the screens made from polymer materials [61] allows two types of pressure disturbance transformation under water level to be distinguished: 160

- Transformation of BW by the screen in contact with the protecting object attached screen (AS)[41,63]; - Transformation of BW by the screen placed far from the protecting object remote screen (RS)[52,61]; Let us illustrate with examples of the pressure prole transformation for underwater BW in the cases using AS or RS a) Case AS [41,63]. A typical BW with continiously decreasing pressure transform in a wave packet after its exit from the water and crossing the bubbles AS. Inside AS, the BW becomes longer in time due to the decrease of sound speed. At the vessel wall behind AS, the pressure gauge detects amplied pressure oscillations. Without the screen, this gauge registers only the reected BW with acoustical intensity. Thus AS does not serve as a protective measure. The realization of the eect described above was predicted in [73]. b) Case RS [52,61]. A typical BW with the same parameters as in case a) penetrates from water to bubble RS placed at a distance from the wall. Inside the screen, the speed of the pressure rise decreased and the time for attaining the maximal value was larger than for the initial BW. Behind RS, the pressure gauge at the wall registered lower amplitudes of pressure oscillations. The results of laboratory tests with AS and RS [63,73] were conrmed in large-scale experiments [52] and in tests with screens made from porous polymer materials [61]. In all tests, where the attenuation of the explosion load was detected, the sound velocity in RS (about 100 m/s) was signicantly lower than in the medium ahead and behind the screen (about 1500 m/s). The set of problems on the use of gas-contained layers for protection from an underwater BW is far from completely considered. One can distinguish two directions for producing explosion protective methods [70]. The rst is generated from the evident attempt to be protected from a HE charge by a hard non-penetratible envelope.Trivial case of placing HE charge in closed or half-opened container [1]may be mentioned. The practice revealed insucient eciency for such way localisation. To improve protection, the inner cavity the of container may be lled by a compressible substance. In [5,7], a liquid foam was used, in [52], the liquid with gas bubbles, in [2,5,7] granular ber material. The second direction of explosion protection is characterized by rejection of a nonpenetratible envelope around the charge. As a limiting case, variation of the dispersed liquid (water) in an innite volume is considered [42,43,49,53]. However, the impossibility of obtaining mists with 1 2 kg/m3 made technically nonperpective the use of this method of BW quenching technically unproductive. The practice of imploying gas-lled envelopes for localisation of blast loads from HE weights up to 3 kg showed that the energy of explosion products is mainly converted into kinematic acceleration of the mass of the envelope ller. Of importance also is the sequence of energy ow transformation at the boundaries of the explosion products / absorbtion medium / air. Attempts to regulate the explosion loads by the energy losses due to evaporation, viscosity, and dispersion of protective material were not eective[15,16]. 161

Because of the dominating role of inertia properties of protective envelopes, the eective technical measure of explosion quenching became the changing of the medium characteristics inuencing the expansion of explosion products. One of these properties is the compressibility of the surrounding medium. Reliable BW attenuation can also be reached under conditions when the protective medium is a liquid that guarantees (at the early stages of expansion) protection from the explosion products penetrating into the surounding atmosphere and therefore from the possible after-burnout. A measure of liquid or gas-lled medium compressibility is the sound velocity [26,27]. The control on the sound speed in a liquid can be reached by injecting porous elements, gas bubbles, or empty polymer inclusions [14,29,37,39,40,44,47,48,55]. The insertion in a liquid with compressible inclusions inuences the BW propagation of moderate intensity with a front pressure P2 /P1 1000. Immersing the charges in a compressible two-phase medium considerably changes the temporal scales of all wave processes and expands the possibilities for energy exchange between the explosion products and the protective envelope [25-27]. Listed considerations allowed a combined scheme of BW attenuation [70]to be proposed. The investigations performed were based on the rational use of the specic features of BW propagation and expansion at the conditions of explosion in a medium with increased (in comparision with liquid and gas) compressibility. A typical feature of the proposed scheme [70] is the preliminary correction of initial conditions for expansion of the explosion products by an attached volume of a gaseous layer between the HE charge surface and compressible medium. This method of BW quenching has a technical solution in the form of units for protecting equipment and personnel when conserving and / or liquidating explosionhazardous objects.

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