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LESSON 1 Supplementary Booklet L1-A1/00

PART I: GENERAL CONCEPTS A tense is a grammatical category that locates a situation in time, to indicate when the situation takes place. The tenses are past, present, and future. Tense can also make finer distinctions than simple past-present-future; past tenses for example can cover general past, immediate past, or distant past, with the only difference between them being the distance on the timeline between the temporal reference points. Such distinctions are not precise: an event may be described in the remote past because it feels remote to the speaker, not because a set number of days have passed since it happened; it may also be remote because it is being contrasted with another, more recent, past event. This is similar to other forms of deixis such as this and that. In absolute tense, as in English, tense indicates when the time of assertion, time of completion, or time of evaluation occurs relative to the utterance itself (time of utterance). In relative tense, on the other hand, tense is relative to some given event.. A. TAST Time of Assertion: This is the time at which the action of the verb takes place. It can be a single point in time (in non-durational aspects) such as in I had dinner at 5pm. Or, it can be a range of time (in durational aspects) such as I was eating dinner from 5 till 7. B. TCOM Time of Completion: This is the point in time at which a verb is completed. TCOM is used with perfected forms. In perfected non-durational aspects it represents the time by which a verb is finished, as in I have eaten dinner. In perfected durational aspects it represents either the time at which a verb is finished, or more normally, a time up to which the verb is completed (but that it may continue beyond); this function of allowing for interrupting of the verb is the more standard use of this form and allows the duration of the verb to be measured up to a given point (TCOM). Consider I had been eating for 2 hours by 7pm, in which an action (eating) has a duration, of which two hours of it is completed, as of 7pm. C. TEVL Time of Evaluation: Some utterances do not support measuring a specific action. Instead, they express a change in state, a generalization, or perhaps an habitual truth. These utterances express an idea that is evaluated as true or not. The earliest point in time at which the idea expressed (called the attestation) can be evaluated as true is the TEVL. Consider Birds fly. In this utterance a generalization is made (in the present) about birds and it can be immediately evaluated (present) as true. Likewise I used to drink coffee everyday, refers to an habitual action that was true in the past so that the TUTT is present (it is said now) but its TEVL is the past.

PART II: PRESENT Examples: The following are examples of varying combinations of tense in different statements. Remember that tense is nothing more than a contrast between the Time of Utterance (TUTT) and either the Time of Assertion (TAST), Time of Completion (TCOM), or Time of Evaluation (TEVL). Present Tenses The present tenses are those in which the two contrasting time references occur at the same time. Technically there can only be one present tense in the strictest interpretation of the word that is, a situation in which TUTT occurs at exactly the same time as TAST/TCOM/TEVL. Most languages though tend to group situations in which the secondary time reference occurs very near the primary TUTT as present. This allows for tenses such as the general present, immediate present, recent present, and such to be expressed. In actuality these tenses are actually in the future or past (happening before [past] or after [future] the TUTT, and occurring to the left [past] and right [future] of TUTT) but the temporal distance of the secondary reference from the primary is negligible, so they are generally considered present tenses. Outlined below are diagrams showing the five possible references in which present tenses occur (all diagrams represent true present tense rather than near present tenses discussed above): TUTT coincides with TAST

The temporal relationship of verbs used in utterances occurring in non-durational aspects, in which the verb used does not have a durational aktionsart1 (John paints a picture.) are represented in this diagram. Generalizations and habitual truths are not included in this group (see TUTT = TEVL below). Although common in many languages, this form is quite rare in English as most verbs either have a durational aktionsart or are used in the durational aspect (English has only one durational
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As with aspect, aktionsart refers to the nature of information provided in an utterance. Unlike aspect though which is an attribute of an entire utterance, aktionsart is an attribute of the individual verb used within the utterance. In fact, aktionsart is also sometimes referred to as lexical aspect (lexical meaning of the word from the linguistic term lexeme which is the smallest independent unit which can express an idea this smallest unit normally being simply put, a word). The aktionsart of the verb (as a combination of duration and perfection) determine the temporal nature of the utterance (which will match that of the inclusive verb) unless, the aspect of the utterance (which remember uses the structure of the utterance to determine temporal nature) or the perfection of the utterance overrides that aktionsart of the verb. For this reason, when determining the nature of information conveyed in an utterance, the aktionsart of the verb must first be analyzed, and then the aspect and perfection of the utterance analyzed on top of that.

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aspect usually called the progressive). In utterances of this type, the time of utterance coincides with the time of assertion. Thus, both primary and secondary reference occurs at the same time. In the diagram at left, time of utterance is given as present, but could also be in the future or the past. The utterance remains present tense however, so long as TAST coincides with TUTT on the timeline of that utterance. For example if TUTT were in the past, so long as TAST also occurs at the same time in the past as TUTT (visually at the same spot on the timeline as TUTT), the utterance is still present tense. Likewise, if TUTT is in the future, TAST may also be in the future so long as it occurs at the same time as that future TUTT (again, visually at the same spot on the timeline of the utterance). Because verbs in these forms have no measureable duration the TAST is punctular its a single point along the timeline rather than a range. TUTT coincides with TEVL

As with TUTT = TAST described above, a common present tense usage occurs with generalizations and habitual truths. These types of utterances always occur in utterances occurring in nondurational aspects. In these types of utterances, there is no specific verb occurrence to observe (and thus no assertion). Instead, the purpose of such utterances is to merely inform. In these utterances, a generalization or an habitual truth is attested as true (or questioned for trueness in interrogative forms). The earliest point at which these attestations can be evaluated as true or not serves as the secondary temporal reference for such constructions. The diagram shows this temporal relationship in the present tense with the TUTT coinciding with the TEVL. In other words, for generalizations and habituals, if the attestation may be evaluated as true immediately at the time of utterace, or to put it simply, if the the attestation being evaluated is known to be valid when the utterance is made, then the tense of the utterance is present. Examples:  John drinks coffee (generalization)  John goes to school everyday (habitual). TUTT during TAST

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This diagram reflects the temporal relationship within utterances used in non-durational aspects involving activities (John paints a picture.) or other types of utterance in which the verb employed has a naturally durational aktionsart (John works for IBM.), and any durational aspect aspect utterance regardless of whether the aktionsart of the inclusive verb(s) is durational or not. The diagram shows that for these constructions, in the present tenses, the time of utterance occurs during the time of assertion the duration in which the verb occurs. The smaller arrows in the diagram show that while the action may begin and end before or after the time of utterance, that TUTT falls at some point within the range of the verbs duration. TCOM coincides with TUTT

It should be noted in this diagram and the following, that the secondary temporal reference (TCOM) is listed prior to the primary TUTT in its description. This is because TCOM the time of completion, represents the termination of the verb, an end point. This is the diagram for perfected non-durational forms (TUTT = TAST and TUTT = TEVL) in the present tenses, often referred to as the present perfect or present perfect simple. These types of utterances do not provide information regarding the duration of the verb, but merely establish that the assertion or attestation of the utterance is completed as of the time of utterance. In other words, the verb is finished as of now. Because TCOM always coincides with TUTT, the time of completion is always read as of now. For this reason, specific time phrases may not be used with perfected forms in the present tenses. Examples:  John has eaten dinner, and They have just arrived (both perfected TUTT = TAST)  John has eaten dinner at that caf everyday (perfected TUTT = TEVL). TCOM coincides with TUTT during TAST

As with the above diagram, note that the secondary temporal reference (TCOM) for this type of utterance is listed prior to the primary TUTT in its description. This is because TCOM the time of completion, represents the termination of the verb, an end point. This is the diagram for perfected durational forms (TUTT during TAST) in the present tenses, often referred to as present perfect

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progressive or present perfect continuous. Whereas in the perfected non-durational forms above, TCOM represents an absolute terminal point of the verb, in perfected durational forms, TCOM may represent either the terminal point of the verb (that time at which it is completed or finished and beyond which it does not continue), or TCOM may represent any point within the duration of the verb, up to which that completed duration can be measured. It is possible that the TAST of the verb could continue beyond the TCOM, but this is irrelevant as the focus of such utterances is not the TAST but the TCOM and its temporal relationship with TUTT. These types of utterances are normally used to provide information regarding the duration of the verb up to a given point, be that point the terminus of that verbs duration or a point within the duration. In the pressent tenses, the duration of the verb may be measured up to the time of utterance, which is always now. Because TCOM always coincides with TUTT, the time of completion is always read as of now. In other words, these constructions read as the verb has a given duration up to now. Thus, specific time phrases regarding the time of completion may not be used with perfected forms in the present tenses. While a specific measure of duration may be used with such utterances [explicit duration], it is not required as some verbs which have a durational aktionsart may also be conveyed as having completed duration simply by their nature [implicit duration]. Examples:  John has been eating dinner, (perfected TUTT = TAST with implicit duration)  It has been raining for three days (perfected TUTT = TAST with explicit duration).

PART III: PAST Examples: The following are examples of varying expressions of tense in different statements. Remember that tense is nothing more than a contrast between the Time of Utterance (TUTT) and either the Time of Assertion (TAST), Time of Completion (TCOM), or Time of Evaluation (TEVL). All of the examples that follow are past tense, regardless of the nature or aspect of the utterances. Past Tenses The past tenses are those in which the secondary temporal reference (TAST, TCOM, or TEVL) occurs before the primary reference (TUTT), or visually, with TAST, TCOM, or TEVL occurring to the left of TUTT on the timeline of an utterance. Technically there is no such thing as the past tense. There are in fact innumerable past tenses with varying degrees of temporal distance between reference points. The greater the temporal distance between the primary and secondary references, the farther in the past the tense is. Common classifications of past tenses include the general past (that which occurs before the present with no defined time), and a variety of past tenses with defined times such as these (listed in increasing temporal distance from TUTT) immediate past, recent present, distant past, and far distant past.

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TAST precedes TUTT

The temporal relationship of verbs used in utterances occurring in non-durational aspects, in which the verb used does not have a durational aktionsart (John sneezed.) are represented in this diagram. Generalizations and habitual truths are not included in this group (see TEVL < TUTT below). Although common in many languages, this form is quite rare in English as most verbs either have a durational aktionsart or are used in the durational aspect (English has only one durational aspect usually called the progressive). In utterances of this type, the time of assertion precedes the time of utterance. In the diagram at left, time of utterance is given as present, but could be in the future or the past. The utterance remains past tense however so long as TAST occurs to the left of TUTT on the timeline of that utterance. For example if TUTT were in the past, so long as TAST is further in the past than TUTT (to the left of TUTT), the utterance is still past tense. Likewise, if TUTT is in the future, TAST may also be in the future so long as it occurs at a time before that future TUTT (again, visually to the left of it on the timeline of the utterance). Because verbs in these types of utterance have no measurable duration the TAST is punctular its a single point along the timeline rather than a range. TEVL precedes TUTT

As with TAST < TUTT described above, a common past tense usage occurs with generalizations and habitual truths. These types of utterances always occur in non-durational aspects. In these types of utterances, there is no specific verb occurance to observe (and thus no assertion). Instead, the purpose of such utterances is to merely inform. In these utterances, a generalization or an habitual truth about the past is attested as true (or questioned for trueness in interrogative forms). The earliest point at which these attestations can be evaluated as true or not serves as the secondary temporal reference for such constructions. This diagram shows this temporal relationship in the past tenses with TEVL preceding TUTT. In other words, for generalizations and habituals, the attestation may be evaluated as having been true at a time prior to the time of utterance. Examples:  John used to drink coffee (generalization)  John went to school everyday (habitual).

TAST occurs during a range of time beginning before TUTT

This diagram reflects the temporal relationship within utterances used in non-durational aspects involving activities (John painted a picture.) or other types of utterance in which the verb employed has a naturally durational aktionsart (John worked for IBM.), and any durational aspect aspect utterance regardless of whether the aktionsart of the inclusive verb(s) is durational or not (John was eating pizza.) in the past. It shows that in the past tenses, the time of utterance occurs after the time of assertion, which for this type of utterance is not a point, but rather a span of time the duration in which the verb occurs. The smaller arrows in the diagram show that the action begins at a time prior to the time of utterance, and continues for a length of time (also prior to the utterance), and may end before or may continue beyond the time of utterance. However in past tense constructions, the contrast is made between the TUTT and that portion of the TAST that falls at some point within the range of the verbs duration which also occurs prior to the TUTT. TCOM precedes TUTT

In this diagram and the following, that the secondary temporal reference is TCOM the time of completion, which represents the termination of the verb, an end point. This is the diagram for perfected non-durational forms in the past (TAST < TUTT and TEVL < TUTT). These forms are often referred to as the past perfect or past perfect simple. These types of utterances do not provide information regarding the duration of the verb, but merely establish that the assertion or attestation of the utterance is completed as of a time prior to the time of utterance. In other words, the verb is finished before now. Because TCOM always prior to TUTT, the time of completion is always read as of [x time in the past]. For this reason, a specific time prior to TUTT must be used with perfected forms in the past tenses, either as a specific time phrase (last week, yesterday, etc), or expressed as contextually prior to TUTT. Examples:  John had eaten breakfast before lunch, (contextual)  They had arrived yesterday (specific time phrase) (both perfected TAST < TUTT),

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 When John lived here, he had eaten dinner at that caf everyday (perfected TEVL < TUTT).

TCOM occurs during or at the end of TAST and precedes TUTT

As with the above diagram, the secondary temporal reference for this type of utterance is TCOM the time of completion which represents the termination of the verb, an end point. This is the diagram for perfected durational forms (TAST occurring over a duration prior to TUTT). In the past tenses, these are often referred to as past perfect progressive or past perfect continuous. Whereas in the perfected non-durational forms above, TCOM represents an absolute terminal point of the verb, in perfected durational forms, TCOM may represent either the terminal point of the verb (that time at which it is completed or finished and beyond which it does not continue), or TCOM may represent any point within the duration of the verb, up to which that completed duration can be measured. It is possible that the TAST of the verb could continue beyond the TCOM, but this is irrelevant as the focus of such utterances is not the TAST but the TCOM and its temporal relationship with TUTT. These types of utterances are normally used to provide information regarding the duration of the verb up to a given point in the past, be that point the terminus of that verbs duration or a point within the duration. In the past tenses, the duration of the verb may be measured up any specific point prior to the time of utterance. Because TCOM always prior to TUTT, the time of completion is always read as of [x time in the past]. For this reason, a specific time prior to TUTT must be used with perfected forms in the past tenses, either as a specific time phrase (last week, yesterday, etc), or expressed as contextually prior to TUTT. While a specific measure of duration may be used with such utterances [explicit], it is not required as some verbs which have a durational aktionsart may also be conveyed as having completed duration simply by their nature [implicit]. Examples:  John had been eating dinner when the phone rang, (perfected TAST < TUTT with implicit duration and specific past TCOM)  It had been raining for three days. Its just cold now. (perfected TAST < TUTT with explicit duration and contextual past TCOM).

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PART IV: FUTURE Examples: The following are examples of varying expressions of tense in different statements. Remember that tense is nothing more than a contrast between the Time of Utterance (TUTT) and either the Time of Assertion (TAST), Time of Completion (TCOM), or Time of Evaluation (TEVL). All of the examples that follow are future tense, regardless of the nature or aspect of the utterances. Future Tenses The future tenses are those in which the secondary temporal reference (TAST, TCOM, or TEVL) occurs after the primary reference (TUTT), or visually, with TAST, TCOM, or TEVL occurring to the right of TUTT on the timeline of an utterance. Technically there is no such thing as the future tense. There are in fact innumerable future tenses with varying degrees of temporal distance between reference points. The greater the temporal distance between the primary and secondary references, the farther in the future the tense is. Common classifications of future tenses include the general future (that which occurs after the present with no defined time), and a variety of future tenses with defined times such as these (listed in increasing temporal distance from TUTT) immediate future, near future, distant future, and far distant future. TUTT precedes TAST

The temporal relationship of verbs used in utterances occurring in non-durational aspects, in which the verb used does not have a durational aktionsart (The plumber comes tomorrow.) are represented in this diagram. Generalizations and habitual truths are not included in this group (see TUTT < TEVL below). Although common in many languages, this form is quite rare in English as most verbs either have a durational aktionsart or are used in the durational aspect (English has only one durational aspect usually called the progressive). In utterances of this type, the time of utterance precedes the time of assertion. In the diagram at left, time of utterance is given as present, but could be in the future or the past. The utterance remains future tense however so long as TAST occurs to the right of TUTT on the timeline of that utterance. For example if TUTT were in the future, so long as TAST is further in the future than TUTT (to the right of TUTT), the utterance is still future tense. Likewise, if TUTT were in the past, TAST may also be in the past so long as it occurs at a time after that past TUTT (again, visually to the right of it on the timeline of the utterance). Because verbs in these forms have no measurable duration the TAST is punctular its a single point along the timeline rather than a range.

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TUTT precedes TEVL

As with TUTT < TAST described above, a common future tense usage occurs with generalizations and habitual truths. These types of utterances always occur in non-durational aspects. In these types of utterances, there is no specific verb occurance to observe (and thus no assertion). Instead, the purpose of such utterances is to merely inform. In these utterances, a generalization or an habitual truth about the future is attested as true (or questioned for trueness in interrogative forms). The earliest point at which these attestations can be evaluated as true or not serves as the secondary temporal reference for such constructions. This diagram shows this temporal relationship in the future tenses with TEVL preceding TUTT. In other words, for generalizations and habituals, the attestation may not be evaluated as being true until a point in time after the time of utterance. Examples :  Our supply of fossil fuels shall only last 50 years(generalization)  I am going to go to the gym everyday this year (habitual). TAST occurs during a range of time ending after TUTT

This diagram reflects the temporal relationship within utterances used in non-durational aspects involving activities (Santa Clause comes tonight.) or other types of utterance in which the verb employed has a naturally durational aktionsart (The TV will work if you hit it.), and any durational aspect aspect utterance regardless of whether the aktionsart of the inclusive verb(s) is durational or not (John and Mary are going to the cinema later.) in the future. It shows that in the future tenses, the time of utterance occurs before the time of assertion ends. For this type of utterance, TAST is not a point, but rather a span of time the duration in which the verb occurs. The smaller arrows in the diagram show that the action may begin at a time prior to the time of utterance, and continues for a length of time, but ends at a time beyond the time of utterance. In future tense constructions, the contrast is made between the TUTT and that portion of the TAST that falls at some point within the range of the verbs duration which occurs after the TUTT.

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TUTT precedes TCOM

In this diagram and the following, the secondary temporal reference is TCOM the time of completion, which represents the termination of the verb, an end point. This is the diagram for perfected non-durational forms in the future (TUTT < TAST and TUTT < TEVL). These forms are often referred to as the future perfect or future perfect simple. These types of utterances do not provide information regarding the duration of the verb, but rather, merely establish that the assertion or attestation of the utterance is completed as of a time after the time of utterance. Because TCOM always beyond TUTT, the time of completion is always read as of [x time in the future]. For this reason, a specific time after TUTT must be used with perfected forms in the past tenses, either as a specific time phrase (last week, yesterday, etc), or expressed as contextually beyond TUTT. Examples:  John will have eaten breakfast before he eats lunch, (contextual)  I will have finished my project by the end of the week (specific time phrase) (both perfected TUTT < TAST),  By the mid 21st Century our supply of fossil fuels will have been exhausted (perfected TUTT < TEVL). TUTT precedes TCOM which occurs during or at the end of TAST

As with the above diagram, the secondary temporal reference for this type of utterance is TCOM the time of completion which represents the termination of the verb, an end point. This is the diagram for perfected durational forms (TAST occurring over a duration which terminates after TUTT). In the future tenses, these are often referred to as future perfect progressive or future perfect continuous. Whereas in the perfected non-durational forms above, TCOM represents an absolute terminal point of the verb, in perfected durational forms, TCOM may represent either the terminal point of the verb (that time at which it is completed or finished and beyond which it does not continue), or TCOM may represent any point within the duration of the verb, up to which that completed duration can be measured (an interruption). It is possible that the TAST of the verb could continue beyond the TCOM, but this is irrelevant as the focus of such utterances is not TAST but TCOM and its temporal relationship with TUTT. These types of utterances are normally used to

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provide information regarding the duration of the verb up to a given point in the future, be that point the terminus of that verbs duration or a point within the duration. In the future tenses, the duration of the verb may be measured up any specific point beyond the time of utterance. Because TCOM always after TUTT, the time of completion is always read as of [x time in the future], where x is the specific future time. For this reason, a specific time beyond TUTT must be used with perfected forms in the future tenses, either as a specific time phrase (by next week, by tomorrow, etc), or expressed as contextually after TUTT. While a specific measure of duration may be used with such utterances [explicit], it is not required as some verbs which have a durational aktionsart may also be conveyed as having completed duration simply by their nature [implicit]. Examples:  John offered to help this evening, but I will have already been been finished by then, (perfected TUTT < TAST with implicit duration and specific future TCOM)  Ive been told I may be promoted, but I will have been working here for three years by then. (perfected TUTT < TAST with explicit duration and contextual future TCOM).