RIVER SYSTEM AND PROCESSES

A RIVER SYSTEM Importance of Rivers:

Shaping landforms The Grand Canyon

Transportation routes trade and communication Eg. Mekong River

Table- Countries in the Mekong River basin Nations Area (km2) Basin in nation (km 2) The People's Republic of China 9,597,000 165,000 The Union of Myanmar 678,030 24,000 The Lao Peoples Democratic 236,725 202,400 Republic The kingdom of Thailand 513,115 184,240 Cambodia 181,100 154,730 Social Republic of Vietnam 331,700 65,170

Ratio 1.7% 3.5% 85.5% 35.9% 85.4% 19.6%

Political Boundaries Eg. Danube

Fresh water supply Eg, Ganges fresh waters from Himalayas Mountains

Uses of river

Hydroelectric power Irrigation Fertile alluvial soil Tourist attraction

Hydro-electric power

Dams are often build across rivers to tap on the river energy to generate hydroelectric power. Hydroelectric power plants convert the kinetic energy contained in falling water into electricity. Hydropower is currently the world's largest renewable source of electricity, accounting for 6% of worldwide energy supply or about 15% of the world's electricity. In Canada, hydroelectric power is abundant and supplies 60% of our electrical needs. Hydroelectric power plants capture the energy released by water falling through a vertical distance, and transform this energy into useful electricity. In general, falling water is channeled through a turbine, which converts the water's energy into mechanical power. The rotation of the water turbines is transferred to a generator, which produces electricity. The amount of electricity, which can be generated at a hydroelectric plant, is dependent upon two factors. 4

Irrigation

the vertical distance through which the water falls, called the "head", and the flow rate, measured as volume per unit time.

Channeling of water from nearby rivers to places that are in need of water Irrigation is very important to areas where there is long period of drought, areas with seasonal rainfall. Irrigation has helped farmers to have double or even up to triple cropping per year.

Fertile alluvial soil

Floodplain and delta are good agricultural land, which have fertile alluvial soil. The alluvial is increased when the river floods. The flat and low-lying floodplain and delta makes it easier for people to build settlement and farm. Many urban settlements start in the fertile floodplain. Bangkok in the Menam Chao Phraya Delta of Thailand is one good example.

Tourist Attraction Famous rivers are popular tourist attraction. Tourist comes to see the spectacular view of the various landforms in the river. Many people flock to North America to see the Niagara fall on the Niagara River. The Singapore River is also one of the tourist attraction in Singapore.

Recreational Purposes
Rivers are also places that provide a very good environment for whitewater rafting and various other water sport.

Formation of Rivers

Continuous recycling of water between the atmosphere and the land surface Heat Evaporate water vapour mixed with other gases in the atmosphere air masses containing water vapour gets heated the become lighter rises decrease in pressure air masses cool condensation tiny droplets of clouds droplets gets bigger heavier and larger droplets falls as rain In colder places water vapour changes into light ice crystals snow Therefore, the 2 types of precipitation = rain and snow

Usually falls onto the ground unless trapped by trees or plants may be absorbed by the plants or be evaporated

RAIN / MELTED SNOW Those on However, If soil is the ground some may impermeable will remained water is infiltrate the above the collected in soil flow bedrock underground downwards layers of pools or lakes till it waterreaches the saturated bedrock soil or sand move laterally exit from openings (springs) enter streams, rivers, lakes

When the soil has reached its capacity to contain water water flows on the land as surface runoff streams, rivers & lakes

Parts of a River River System OR Drainage System = Inter-connected streams of different sizes and lengths Like a tree

Source Mountainous areas Tributaries the starting source of small streams that are connected to the main river Distributaries smaller channels usually found at the mouth of the river which have been branched out of the main river Drainage Basin the area drained by a river system Watershed or water divide the highlands that divide one drainage basin from another

Course of a River

The gradient of the river changes as the water flows downwards Source usu steeper Mouth usu Gentler Course Features River begins Many small streams and channels joined to form larger ones form a river River meanders Many tributaries join the river Meanders are common Many distributaries Flows towards the mouth into the sea Delta may form at the mouth

Upper

Middle

Lower

ENERGY OF A RIVER
Functions of a river = erosion + transportation and deposition Without energy no work can be done Hence, energy = volume + speed 9

Volume of Flow
Measured by River Discharge (the volume of water that flows through a point along the river channel within a given time) Factors that affect the amount of discharge Amount of Discharge More rainfall greater vol. of flow greater discharge (V.V.) Longer duration of rainfall greater vol. of flow greater discharge (V.V.) Larger drainage basin greater no. of tributaries greater vol. of flow greater discharge More vegetation greater amount of rain intercepted lower vol. of flow less discharge (V.V.) More porous soil more water passes through the soil less discharge (V.V.) Impermeable rock little infiltration more surface runoff more discharge (V.V.)

Factor Amount of Rainfall Duration of rainfall Size of Drainage Basin Presence of Vegetation Type of Soil

Therefore, higher volume of flow greater energy This energy is stored energy and must be transformed into kinetic energy by gravitational pull (determined by speed of flow)

Greater speed = greater amount of energy more erosion + less deposition Speed of flow is determined by: Factor Speed of flow Gradient of Steeper slope faster speed of flow (V.V.) River Wetted Perimeter Greater wetted perimeter Greater friction slower speed of flow (V.V.) Texture of River Rougher river bed and river banks Greater friction slower speed Bed and Bank of flow (V.V.) Depth of Greater the depth of channel lesser friction from the channel Channel boundaries faster speed of flow (V.V.)

Speed of Flow

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10m

Cross-section area = 10m x 80m = 800m

10m

80m Wetted perimeter = 10m + 80m + 10m = 100m

RIVER PROCESSES River Erosion

1. River Erosion wearing down of the banks and bed of a river and the removal of the eroded materials by the action of gravity and flowing water 2. 4 ways of eroding materials Hydraulic Action Flowing waters strikes against the banks and bed of a river Loosened materials (soil, sand and single rocks) Only requires a short time Moving waters can even widen cracks in rocks and break them down into smaller fragments Abrasion (Corrasion) Rocks in the river are dragged along by the swift flowing water This scraped and grind against the channels walls and beds Attrition Rock fragments are carried by the water knocking against each other Breakdown into smaller fragments Changed into rounder and smoother fragments Solution (Corrosion) Chemical reaction of the river water with the minerals in the rocks and dissolves them into a solution

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Types of Erosion
Upper Course Middle Course Volume of flow Small Increasing (combined tributaries) Gradient Steep Erosion Vertical Erosion (River bed) Lateral Erosion (River Banks)

Lower Course

Large

Increasing gentler Amount of Silt increases replacing pebbles and boulders on the river beds channel are less rough smoother flow of load Gentle Lateral Erosion (River Banks)

River Transportation
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When eroded materials are moved down the river course River loads the transported materials The type of transportation depends on the size of the particles, and the speed and volume of the flow

Traction Large boulders are too heavy to be lifted Roll and slide along the river bed Vertical Erosion

Saltation Gravels bounced and hopped along the river To heavy to be suspended

Suspension Fine particles are moved by the turbulent flow of the water Does not settle on the beds Esp during floods

Solution Soluble rocks (eg those in limestones) are dissolved in the water and are transported downstream Esp in vegetated areas

River Deposition
Deposit the load when: o the volume of the flow is reduced OR o the speed of the flow is decreased there isnt enough energy to move the load (Energy of river < the weight of load) The coarser and heavier particles will be deposited first The finer and dissolved particles will be moved downstream and be deposited throughout along the river course The amount of sediments deposited depends on the amount of load carried by the river Deposition is more common at the lower course where its gradient is gentler

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River Processes at Different Parts of the River Course

Upper course vertical erosion - erosion Lower course lateral erosion - deposition The amount of load transported increases progressively towards the mouth of the river\ Note: If the gradient of the slope is steeper, the velocity of the river is higher. Hence, there will be more vertical erosion at the river bed because of gravitational pull.

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LANDFORMS AND FEATURES A. Erosional Landforms

1. Valleys and Gorges Both are usually found in the upper course vertical erosion River Erosion type Abrasion, Hydraulic action and solution

Valleys Upper course - Vertical erosion steep-sided valley V-shaped valleys Middle course vertical and lateral erosion wide V-shaped valleys

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The Grand Canyon Valley

Gorges An exceptionally deep and narrow valley Due to vertical erosion through resistant rocks The walls of the gorges are very steep (very resistant)

Yangtze Gorge

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2. Waterfalls
Very steep gradient of a river causes water to plunge down from great height Niagara Falls

Waterfall Formation 1 Erosion takes place depending on how resistant the rock is More resistant less erosion Less Resistant more erosion Sudden fall in gradient water plunge The impact of the water plunge is very great The water plunge and the swirling rocks erode the river bed to form a pool plunge

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Waterfall is . When river falls over from a high steep gradient. It is formed when erosion takes place over rocks of different resistance. More resistant rocks will have less erosion while less resistant rocks will experience more erosion. Sudden fall in gradient water plunge The impact of the water plunge is very great The water plunge and the swirling rocks erode the river bed to form a pool plunge

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Waterfall Formation 2 By faulting rocks are uplifted One layer of rock is higher than another Sudden fall in gradient (height) water plunges

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Victoria Falls (border of Zimbabwe and Zambia)

3. Rapids Rapids occur when it passed a series of alternating soft and hard rock.

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There would be sudden fall of water along parts of the river and the speed of the river is usually fast due to the change in gradient. The more resistant hard rock would not be eroded as fast as the soft rock and therefore, there is a difference in level.

B. Depositional Landforms
1. Floodplains and Levees

Floodplains This is an area of flat land found on either side of a river. This usually becomes wider as the river nears its mouth.

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The flood plain is the area of land which is flooded when a river overflows its banks. Water is spread out over a larger area Starts to deposit its load when the flood subsides The heavier and coarser load will be deposited first on the immediate banks The finer load will be deposited further away from the banks In this area layers of alluvium are laid down. The soils are thus thick and fertile and the land is flat.

Levees These are mounds of alluvium piled up along the river's edge. explanation These are formed by the river depositing the coarsest part of its load (pebbles, gravel and sand) close to the river banks higher than the floodplain levees This happens because usually when the water overflows the river bank its speed (and therefore its ability to transport alluvium) is greatly reduced. Sometimes these are built by people in an attempt to prevent the river flooding.

The continuous deposition raise up the level of the river bed the river channel will flow at a higher level than the floodplain

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Mississippi River levee at Gretna, Louisiana.

2. Delta As river water enters into the sea or lake (lower course), velocity decreases energy of the river flow decreases erosion decreases + deposition (fine silt and clay) increase Over a long period of time layers of sediments at the mouth of the river Delta As a river flows through a delta deposited sediments obstruct the path of the river river divides into several distributaries

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Formation of Delta depends on: o Lots of sediments must be carried upon entering sea or lake Many tributaries to increase load Active erosion along the course of the river flows through less resistant rock o Tidal waves must not be strong (absence of erosion) (deposited in the coast exceeds the amount transported away) o Coastal waters must not be too deep as deposition will not occur on the sea floor but will be dispersed into the sea instead Physical conditions for deltas to form: o Gentle or almost flat gradient o Velocity of the river must be low o Waves and tides must be absent o The coast must not be too deep Deltas are classified according to its shape: 1. Arcuate

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 Nile Delta

"arcuate" delta (arc-shaped), and resembles a triangle or lotus flower Nile Delta (Northern Egypt)

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2. Birdfoot a seaward extension of the river's levee system. The Mississippi River Delta

Deltas are very fertile areas and are important for agriculture; for example, the Nile delta contains 90% of Egypt's farmland.

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C. Erosional and Depositional Landforms

3. Meanders and Oxbow lake Meander o a river that is twisted and turning and forms hoop-like bends o Lower course - usually found in the lower course (but can occur anywhere) o Upper course little water low energy rivers bends and turns to avoid obstructions but no depositional landforms are formed as there is little load + the flow is too fast o Middle Course less steep velocity decreases may begin to meander

o River flows around the bend the current is fast hitting the concave bank erosion by undercutting the water slows down deposition at the convex bank Oxbow lake o Meandering continues o Meander becomes more pronounced till it is separated by a narrow neck erosion continues the neck breaks and water flows through a straight channel meander is cut off and separated from the main river oxbow lake

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o An ox-bow lake is a horseshoe shaped or crescent shaped lake.

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RIVER CHANNEL MANAGEMENT Strategies

Why manage strategies? o Prevent destruction of properties and lives How? o Facilitate navigation o Regulating the speed of the river o Protecting the river banks o Controlling river floods

HARD ENGINEERING Re- Channelisation River Re-sectioning River Realignment o The widening and deepening of the river o Straightening of a reach of a river, and channel. This increases the capacity of is often achieved by removing bars or the water at a specific section of the cutting off meanders. river. o Straightening a meandering stream How?? increases channel gradient by o clearing of obstacles providing a shorter path, which o deepening the river increases flow velocities and transport o widening the river capacity o banks enforcements reinforced b o Altering the river channel may lead to embankments a greater risk of flooding downstream, as the water is carried there faster. How?? o Building artificial cut-offs at meanders This may lead to the shortening of the river increase of water velocity

Afforestation

SOFT ENGINEERING Bank Managed/ Protection Ecological flooding o Building artificial levees or embankme nts prevent collapse of banks o The river is allowed to flood naturally in places, to prevent flooding in other areas -

Planning

Bank Protection
o

o Trees are planted near to the river. This means greater interception of rainwater and lower

o Policies to control urban development close to or on the floodplain. This reduces

Groynes and Revetment s

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river discharge. o Planting vegetation the roots, plants and tall grasses bind the soil togeth.er stabilized the banks or beds o De-planting vegetation trimming or removal - increase river velocity stabilize river channels + - remove stress caused by the weight of the tress and vegetatio n prevent woody and leafy debris to the river slow down of water flow and choking flood

during heavy rain Planting of vegetation along the banks or on levees

for example, near settlements.

the chance of flooding and the risk of damage to property.

Are Strategies Effective?

Measurement = ability to withstand the test of time Eg. Embankments may be effective in the short term BUT not in the long term o Usually building of defenses along one side of the bank will lead to erosion in the other 34

o Very expensive to build and maintain such defenses o Affect nature o Unappealing Planting or removal of vegetation is usually preferred over artificial structures Re-sectioning are effective in the long term BUT requires lots of resources and manpower

Effects of River Engineering

Flooding elsewhere downstream due to increase river velocity and river capacity. Loss of habitats as a result of re-alignment and bank reinforcements (i.e. Revetments) Reduction in landscape quality

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