Chapter 12 Cell Cycle Objectives

The Key Roles of Cell Division 1. Explain how cell division functions in reproduction, growth, and repair. The newly produced cells replace cells that die from normal wear and tear or accidents. 2. Describe the structural organization of a prokaryotic and a eukaryotic genome. Prokaryotic: single long DNA molecule Eukaryotic: number of DNA molecules; overall length of DNA is very large 3. Describe the major events of cell division that enable the genome of one cell to be passed on to two daughter cells. DNA molecules are packed into chromosomes, and the chromatin inside the chromosomes are organised into a long thin fiber. After a cell duplicates its DNA in preparation for division, the chromatin condenses, becoming coiled and folded. In each duplicated chromosomeh as two sister chromatids that contain identical copies of the chromosome's DNA molecule. Later these sister chromatids are pulled apart and repackaged as complete chromosome sets in two new nuclei. 4. Describe how chromosome number changes throughout the human life cycle. A human inherits 23 chromosomes from each parent, which are then combined in the nucleus of a zygote. Mitosis and cytokinesis produce trillions of somatic cells that make up the body and the same processes continue to generate new cells to replace dead and damaged ones. The Mitotic Cell Cycle 5. List the phases of the cell cycle and describe the sequence of events that occurs during each phase. Mitotic phase (M): includes mitosis and cytokinesis Interphase: Cell grows and copies its chromosomes G1: cell grows S: grows more and copies chromosomes G2: grows more as it completes preparations for cell division M: divides 6. List the phases of mitosis and describe the events characteristic of each phase. Interphase: chromosomes are duplicated but cannot be distinguished individually Prophase: chromatin fibers become coiled, becoming dense enough to be observable Prometaphase: microtubules attach to the kinetochores, nonkinetochore microtubules interact with those from the opposite pole of the cell Metaphase: Centrosomes are now at opposite poles of the cell and the chromosomes go to the metaphase plate Anaphase: paired centromeres of each chromosome separate, liberating the sister chromatids; each

sister is now a full-fledged chromosome, moving towards the opposite poles of the cell as their kinetochore microtubules shorten Telophase and Cytokinesis: for telephase, the nonkinetochore microtubules elongate the cell and the cell nucleu form at the two poles, eventually divides one nucleus into two identical nuclei; for cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm is under way so two daughter cells appear shortly after the end of mitosis 7. Recognize the phases of mitosis from diagrams and micrographs. 8. Draw or describe the spindle apparatus, including centrosomes, kinetochore microtubules, nonkinetochore microtubules, asters, and centrioles (in animal cells). The spindle apparatus segregates chromosomes between daughter cells during cell division. The fundamental machinery are the spindle microtubules and attachment of these to chromosomes is mediated by kinetochores which actively monitor spindle formation and prevents premature anaphase onset. 9. Describe what characteristic changes occur in the spindle apparatus during each phase of mitosis. During prophase, the chromatin coils condense into chromosomes and mitotic spindles form. In metaphase, chromosomes become aligned at the equator of the spindles. The daughter chromosomes move to opposite ends and the poles separate during anaphase, and then in telophase the vesicles of the nuclear envelope fuse around the set of chromosomes. Two new nuclei are formed and the chromosomes uncoil, and then the spindles disassemble. 10. Explain the current models for poleward chromosomal movement and elongation of the cells polar axis. A chromosome tracks along a microtubule as the microtubule depolymerizes at its kinetochore end, releasing tubulin subunits. 11. Compare cytokinesis in animals and in plants. In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by cleavage. A cleavage furrow begins as a shallow groove in the cell's surface near the metaphase plate. On the cytoplasmic side of the furrow is a contractile fing of actin microfilaments associated with molecules of the protein myosin, which are responsible for muscle contractions and other cell movement. This contraction of the ring deepens the furrow until the parent cell is divided in two.. In plant cells there is no cleavage furrow. Instead, dring telophase vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus move along microtubules to the middle of the cell, where they group together to produce a cell plate. As the cell plate grows, its surrounding membrane fuses with the plasma membrane along the perimeter of the cell. Two daughter cells result and a new cell wall arises from the contents of the cell plate. 12. Describe the process of binary fission in bacteria and explain how eukaryotic mitosis may have evolved from binary fission. Bacterial genes are carried on a single bacterial chromosome that consists of a circular DNA molecule and associated proteins. The separation of bacterial chromosomes results from the growth of new plasma membrane between two sites on the membrane where the chromosome copies are attached.

The separation of daughter bacterial chromosomes involves active chromosomal movement; once the DNA of the chromosome begins to replicate, the copies of the first replicated region move apart rapidly. Regulation of the Cell Cycle 13. Describe the roles of checkpoints, cyclin, Cdk, and MPF in the cell cycle control system. Checkpoints in the cell cycle are where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle. The kinases that drive the cell cycle are generally in an inactive form. To be active, such a kinase must be attached to a cyclin ,which make them cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks). The maturation-promoting cactor (MPF) triggers the cell's passage past the G2 checkpoint into the M phase. 14. Describe the internal and external factors that influence the cell cycle control system. An example of an internal signal occurs at the M Phase checkpoint. Anaphase, the separation of sister chromatids, does not begin until all of the chromosomes are properly attached to the spindle at the metaphase plate. this ensures daughter cells do not end up with missing or extra chromosomes. An example of an external factor can be seen with the growth factor PDGF. Fibroblast, a type of connective tissue cell, have PDGF receptors triggers a signal that allows the cell to pass the G1 checkpoint and divide. 15. Explain how the abnormal cell division of cancerous cells escapes normal cell cycle controls. Cancer cells do not exhibit density-dependent inhibition when growing in culture. They also do not stop dividing (if they do) at regular checkpoints. 16. Distinguish among benign, malignant, and metastatic tumors. Benign: cells do not spread; can be completely removed; no serious problems Malignant: becomes invasive enough to impair functions of one or more organs; usually a malignant tumor = cancer Metastatis: spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site