Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.................................................................................................3 1. Introduction..........................................................................................................4 2.1. 2.2. Satellite Communication................................................................................7 Type of Satellite Service................................................................................7 2. OVERVIEW OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION...........................................................7

3. ELEMENTS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM...........................................9 3.1 Power supply:....................................................................................................9 3.2 Attitude control system.....................................................................................9 3.3Station keeping................................................................................................10 3.4Thermal control system....................................................................................10 3.5TT&C subsystem..............................................................................................11 3.6Command systems...........................................................................................11 3.7Tracking systems.............................................................................................11 3.8Transponders...................................................................................................11 3.9Antenna sub system.........................................................................................12 4. Orbits, Frequency bands and lifetimeof satellite communication.........................13 4.1 orbits of a satellite...........................................................................................13 4.1.1Geostationary Orbit (GEO).........................................................................13 4.1.2 A medium Earth orbit (MEO).....................................................................16 4.1.3 Low Earth orbit (LEO)................................................................................17 4.2 Frequency bands.............................................................................................20 4.2.1 Factors that affect the choice of operating band......................................22 4.3 Satellite control and lifetime...........................................................................22 5. Applications of Satellite Communications Technology.........................................24 5.1 Radio and TV broadcasting..............................................................................24 5.2 The move from analogue to digital services....................................................25 5.3 Business radio and TV.....................................................................................26 5.4 Telephony........................................................................................................27 5.4.1 Thin route or trunk telephony...................................................................27 5.4.2 Mobile satellite telephony.........................................................................28

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5.4.3 Inmarsat....................................................................................................28 5.4.4LEO-based telephony.................................................................................28 5.4.5GEO-based telephony.................................................................................29 5.5 Satellite based mobile telephony....................................................................29 5.6 Data, broadband and multimedia services......................................................30 5.7 IP over satellite for ISPs...................................................................................30 5.8 End-user services for home or small office......................................................33 5.9 Mobile data communications...........................................................................36 6. VSAT (VERY SMALL APERTURE TERMINAL)...........................................................36 6.1. Specification................................................................................................36 Out Door Unit.........................................................................................37 IDU Indoor Unit......................................................................................37 6.1.1. 6.1.2.

6.2VSAT Services..................................................................................................38 6.3 VSAT working principle....................................................................................39 6.4. Multiple Accessing Schemes........................................................................40 SCPC (Single-Carrier per Channel).........................................................41 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)..........................................43 6.4.1. 6.4.3 7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.4. 7.5.

6.4.2TDMA (Time-division multiple access)........................................................41 7. VSAT NETWORK CHARACTERISTICS.....................................................................45 Flexibility.....................................................................................................45 Network Management..................................................................................45 Reliability....................................................................................................46 Cost..............................................................................................................46 Link Budgets................................................................................................46

8. CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................................48 REFERENCES............................................................................................................49 REFERENCES

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We express our gratitude to the almighty GOD, who aided us with his strength, gave us wisdom and patience to complete this term paper get some idea about satellite communication in todays technology development. Secondly, we thank our course instructor Mr Amare Kassa, who believed that we could finish this term paper on time. His moral guidelines, endless effort, and encouragement made us successful in this paper.

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Furthermore, we want to show our appreciation to the lab-assistants of the computer lab, for their unlimited patience during the time of preparing the term paper. At last, we obliged to our groups for our cooperative works and the overall encouragements in preparing this the most interesting paper.

1. Introduction A satellite communication is a communication using specialized wireless receiver/transmitter receiving radio waves from one location and transmitting them to another (also known as a bent pipe) that is launched by a rocket and placed in orbit around the earth. Today, there are hundreds of commercial satellites in operation around the world. Those satellites are used for such diverse purposes as wide-area network communications, weather forecasting, television broadcasting, amateur radio communications, Internet access and the Global Positioning System. Satellite communication is one particular example of wireless communication systems. Similar and maybe more familiar examples of wireless systems are radio and television broadcasting and mobile and cordless telephones. Systems of this type rely on a network of groundbased transmitters and receivers. They are commonly referred to as 'terrestrial' systems as opposed to satellite systems.

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Satellite communication systems differ from terrestrial systems in that the transmitter is not based on the ground but in the sky: the transmitter here consists of a ground-based part called the uplink, and the satellitebased part that 'reflects' the signals towards the receivers. This part is called the transponder. Satellites have many important uses, not just communications. Most modern weather reports rely on satellite information. Global Positioning systems work because of a linked set of satellites. Scientific studies of our planet, the atmosphere and the universe all rely on satellites. ORBITS There are three areas for satellite orbits: GEO: Geostationary Earth Orbit MEO: Medium Earth Orbit LEO: Low Earth Orbit GEO satellites orbit the earth directly over the equator, approximately 35 400 km (22 000 miles) up. At that altitude, one complete trip (orbit) around the earth takes 24 hours. Thus, the satellite remains over the same spot on the surface of the earth (geo) at all times, and stays fixed in the sky (stationary) from any point on the surface from which it can be "seen." MEO is defined simply as the area between LEO and GEO. The primary satellite systems there are the GPS (Global Positioning System) satellite constellations. LEO is between 200 and 1400 km above the earth. Satellites in LEO rapidly circle the earth and are typically in range of one location for only 90 minutes. Their main advantage is how close they are, providing shorter delays for faster communications. However, for consistent communications they require a constellation of satellites so that communications can be maintained as one satellite moves out of range and another move within range of the ground station. LEO satellites are
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less expensive to build, typically less powerful, and have a shorter average life span. Most communications satellites are in GEO. A single geostationary satellite can cover as much as 40 percent of the earth's surface; so, in theory, three such satellites can provide global coverage. To ensure accurate and strong coverage of a specific region, continent or country, the transponders are often shaped to focus transmission and increase signal strength for a service area. A satellites job in the communications network is to serve as a repeater. That is, it receives a signal from one location and rebroadcasts it so another station can receive the signal. Reception and retransmission are accomplished by a transponder. A single transponder on a geostationary satellite is capable of handling approximately 5,000 simultaneous voice or data channels. A typical satellite has 32 transponders. Transponders each work on a specific radio frequency wavelength, or band. Satellite communications work on three primary bands: C, Ku and Ka. C was the first band used and, as a longer wavelength, requires a larger antenna. Ku is the band used by most current VSAT systems. Ka is a new band allocation that isnt yet in wide use. Of the three, it has the smallest wavelength and can use the smallest antenna. Because of attenuation and business competition, there are far more than three GEO satellites. Satellites of similar frequency can be as close as 3 degrees apart without causing interference. Since there are 360 degrees in a circle, that means 120 satellites of a specific frequency can be placed in GEO orbits. The combination of individual transponder volumes and the number of transponders in orbit means today's communication satellites are an ideal medium for transmitting and receiving almost any kind of content, from simple data to the most complex and bandwidth-intensive video, audio and data content
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Artificial satellites which orbit the earth follow the same laws that govern the motion of the planets around the sun. Johannes Kepler (1571 -1630) was derived empirically three laws describing planetary motion. In 1665, Newton was able to derive Kepler's laws from his own laws of mechanics and theory of gravitation. Kepler's first law: Kepler's first law states that the path followed by the satellite around the ptimary will be an ellipse. Kepler's second law: Kepler's second law states that for equal time intervals, the satellite will sweep areas in its orbital plane. Kepler's third law: Kepler's third law states that the square of periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the two bodies. 2. OVERVIEW OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
2.1. Satellite Communication

Satellite Communication is a technology of data transmission whether one-way data broadcasting or two-way interactive using radio frequency as a medium. It consists of:
I)

II)

Space Segment or Satellite (eg. Measat, Intelsat and Inmarsat) Ground Segment or earth station which includes Antenna, Outdoor Unit, Inter Facility Link, Indoor Unit and Customer Premises Equipment.

2.2. Type of Satellite Service

Satellite communication provides services like I) International Telephony using Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)

Intermediate Data Rate (IDR) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

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II) Broadcasting TV Uplink Television Receive Only (TVRO) Digital Satellite News Gathering (DSNG)

Fig: - satellite communication overview

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3. ELEMENTS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

3.1 Power supply:

The primary electrical power for operating electronic equipment is obtained from solar cells. Individual cells can generate small amounts of power, and therefore array of cells in series-parallel connection are required. Cylindrical solar arrays are used with spinning satellites, (The gyroscopic effect of the spin is used for mechanical orientational stability) Thus the array are only partially in sunshine at any given time. Another type of solar panel is the rectangular array or solar sail. Solar sail must be folded during the launch phase and extended when in geostationary orbit. Since the full component of solar cells are exposed to sun light ,and since the Sail rotate to track, the sun , they capable of greater power output than cylindrical arrays having a comparable number of cells. To maintain service during an eclipse, storage batteries must be provided.
3.2 Attitude control system

The attitude of a satellite refers to its Orientation in space. Much of equipment carried abroad a satellite is there for the purpose of controlling its attitude. Attitude control is necessary, for example, to ensure that directional antennas point in the proper directions. In the case of earth environmental satellites the earth-sensing instrument must
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cover the required regions of the earth, which also requires attitude control. A number of forces, referred to as disturbance forces can alter attitude, some examples being the gravitational forces of earth and moon, solar radiation, and meteorite impacts.
3.3Station keeping

A satellite that is normally in geo-stationary will also drift in latitude, the main perturbing forces being the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon. Theforce causes the inclination to change at the rate of about 0.85 deg. /year. If left uncorrected, the drift would result in a cycle change in the inclination going 0 to 14.67deg in 26.6 years and back to zero, when the cycle is repeated. To prevent the shift in inclination from exceeding specified limits, jets may be pulled at the appropriate time to return the inclination to zero. Counteracting jets must be pulsed when the inclination is at zero to halt that change in inclination.
3.4Thermal control system

Satellites are subject to large thermal gradients, receiving the sun radiation on one side while the other side faces into space. In addition, thermal radiation from the earth, and the earth's abedo, which is the fraction on the radiation falling on the earth which is reflected can be sight for low altitude, earth-orbiting satellites, although it is negligible for geo-stationary satellites. Equipment in the satellite also generates heat which has to be removed. The most important consideration is that the satellite's equipment should operate as near as possible in a stable temperature environment. Various steps are taken to achieve this. Thermal blankets and shields may be used to provide insulation. Radiation mirrors are often used to remove heat from communication payload. These mirrored drums surrounded the communication equipment shelves in each case and provide good radiation paths for the generated heat to escape in to surround space.To maintain constant-temperature conditions, heaters may be switched on to make up for the hearts may be switched on to make reduction that occurs when transponders are switched off.
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3.5TT&C subsystem

The telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C) subsystem performs several routine functions abroad a spacecraft. The telemetry or "telemetering" function could be interpreted as "measurement at a distance". Specifically, it refers to the overall operation of generating an electrical signal proportional to the quantity being measured, and encoding and transmitting this to a distant station, which for satellite is one of the earth stations, which for the satellite is one of the earth stations. Data that are transmitted as telemetry signals include attribute information such as obtained from sun earth sensors; environmental information such as magnetic field intensity and direction; the frequency of meteorite impact and so on ;and spacecraft information such as temperatures and power supply voltages, and stored fuel pressure.
3.6Command systems

Command system receives instructions from ground system of satellite and decodes the instruction and sends commends to other systems as per the instruction.
3.7Tracking systems

Tracking of the satellite is accomplished by having the satellite is accomplished by having the satellite transmit beacon signals which are received at the TT&C earth station. Tracking is obviously important during the transmitter and drift orbital phases of the satellite launch. When on-station, a geo-stationary satellite will tend to shifted as a result of the various distributing forces, as described previously. Therefore it is necessary to be able to track the satellites movements and send correction signals as required. Satellite range is also required for time to time. This can be determined by measurement of propagation delay of signals specially transmitted for ranging purposes.
3.8Transponders

A transponder is the series of interconnected units which forms a single communication channel between the receiver and transmitter antennas in a communication satellite. Some of the units utilized by a transponder in
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a given channel may be common to a number of transponders. Thus, although reference may be made to specific transponder, this must be thought of as an equipment channel rather than single item of equipment. Transponder consist of wideband receivers, input de-multiplexer, power amplifier components.
3.9Antenna sub system

The Antennas carried abroad a satellite provide the dual functions of receiving the uplink and transmitting the down link signals. They range from dipole-type antennas, where Omni-directional characteristics are required, to the highly directional antennas required for telecommunications purposes and TV relay and broadcasting.

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4. Orbits, Frequency communication

4.1 orbits of a satellite

bands

and

lifetimeof

satellite

The orbits of a satellite are GEO, MEO, LEO, elliptical, polar

4.1.1Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

There is only one geostationary orbit possible around the earth, lying on the earths equatorial plane and the satellite orbiting at the same speed as the rotational speed of the earth on its axis. For a Satellite to have an orbital period equal to that of earths rotation i.e. a sidereal day (23 Hrs. 56 min. 4.09 sec.) an altitude of 35,786 km is required. Such a satellite orbiting at a velocity of 3.075 km/sec remains fixed relative to any point on earth or geostationary. With the idealized assumptions that the geostationary satellite is at rest relative to the earth the conditions required to be satisfied for geostationary orbit are: i) ii) iii) The orbit shall be circular The period of the orbit shall be equal to the period of rotation of the earth about itself The plane of the orbit shall be the same as the equatorial plane but the sub-satellite longitude, i.e. the longitude of the projection of the satellite on the Earths surface can be selected arbitrarily.

The principle of satellite communications based on this concept of geostationary orbit was originated by Arthur C Clarke. Main advantage of geostationary satellite is the permanent contact between the ground segment and the satellite with fixed directional antennas at both the earth station and the satellite. The ITU (International Telecommunications Union), recognizing the importance of the GSO along with the frequency spectrum as limited natural resources available on the earth, set out the procedures for all
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radio communications services, regarding the use of GSO/spectrum through ITU Radio Regulations, a binding international treaty. With respect to the use of the GSO and frequency spectrum, the ITU space regulations laid down in the ITU Constitution is as follows: In using frequency bands for radio services, Member states shall bear in mind that radio frequencies and any associated orbits, including the geostationary-satellite orbit, are limited natural resources and they must be used rationally, efficiently and economically, in conformity with the provisions of Radio Regulations, so that countries or groups of countries may have equitable access to those orbits and frequencies, taking into account the special needs of developing countries and the geographical situation of particular countries. GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE ORBIT Attitude Period Orbit inclination. Velocity Coverage Sub point 35,786 km. 23 Hr. 56 min. 4.091 sec. (One sidereal day) 00 3.075 km per sec. 42.5% of earths surface.

satellite On equator. no Beyond 810 North and South latitude. (77 if angle of elevation below 5 are eliminated ) - Simple ground station tracking. - No hand over problem - Nearly constant range - Very small Doppler shift
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Area of coverage Advantages

Disadvantages

- Transmission delay of the order of 250 msec. - Large free space loss - No polar coverage

A perfect geostationary orbit is a mathematical abstraction that could be achieved only by a spacecraft orbiting around a perfectly symmetric earth and no other forces are acting on the spacecraft other than the central gravitational attraction from the earth. The abstraction is however, useful as an approximate description of real case, since all other forces or perturbations due to attractive forces of the Moon and the Sun and the non-sphericity of the Earths gravity are small.

In real life due to gravitational pull of the Moon & the Sun, the equatorial orbital plane of the satellite makes an angle of inclination with respect to the equatorial orbital plane. For a satellite with orbital period equal to a sidereal day and non-zero inclination, the footprint of the satellite will move in North-South direction over its sub satellite point instead of remaining stationary. The non-spherical shape of the earth also causes movement of the satellite in the east-west direction. Thus the trace of the satellite on earth appears to roam in both North-South and East-West direction around the sub-satellite point. The inclination of the satellite can be corrected by firing appropriate thrusters on-board the satellite and is known as North-South station keeping. Similarly the correction of East-West drift of the satellite is called East-West Station keeping. Without any station keeping the inclination plane drifts to about 0.86 deg per year. Thus the satellite orbital position is required to be corrected periodically to keep the drift from the desired location within a certain limit. Considering the drift in the satellite position in North-South and East-West direction around the sub-satellite point, it is more appropriate to designate such an orbit as
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geosynchronousorbit. The most common type of communications satellites, particularly the broadcast satellites like AfriStar, Intelsat, PanAmSat, Eutelsat and ASTRA, are in geosynchronous orbit (from geo = Earth + synchronous = moving at the same rate). That means that the satellite always stays over one spot on Earth. It does this by placing the satellite in a position 35,786 km out in space perpendicularly above the equator. The imaginary ring around the Earth where all geostationary satellites are stationed for their lifetime is called the Clarke belt. The consequence of this type of fixed location is that Earth stations (receive as well as transmit stations on the Earth surface) can almost be permanently fixed because they are constantly pointed to the same point in the sky where they 'see' the satellite.
4.1.2 A medium Earth orbit (MEO)

Its height ranges from a few hundred miles to a few thousand miles above the Earth's surface. Satellites of this type are in a higher orbit than low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, but lower than geostationary (GEO) satellites. The orbital periods (the time in between two successive passes over one particular place on Earth) of MEO satellites range from about 2 to 12 hours. Some MEO satellites orbit in near perfect circles, therefore they have constant altitude and travel at a constant speed. Others have a more elliptical shaped orbit, which results in different fly-over times according to the place on Earth from where they can be seen. A fleet of several MEO satellites with properly coordinated orbits can provide global coverage. There are several advantages of the use of MEO satellites: because they are closer to the Earth's surface than geostationary satellites, they require less power to transmit. The Earth stations (transmitters and receivers) by consequence can be much smaller and have a small rod-shaped antenna. It is possible to use mobile and even handheld terminals with such systems.

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Fig: -Low earth orbiting satellite system

4.1.3 Low Earth orbit (LEO)

It consists of a large number of satellites each in a circular orbit at a constant altitude between 320 and 800 km. Because they orbit so close to Earth, they must travel very fast so gravity does not pull them back into the atmosphere. Satellites in LEOs circle around the Earth at 27,359 km per hour. The orbits take the satellites over the geographic poles. Each revolution takes from less than 90 minutes up to a few hours. The fleet is arranged in such a way that from any point on the surface at any time at least one satellite is in line of sight. The system operates in a cellular network structure (almost like mobile phones). The main difference is that in a mobile telephone network the relay towers or aerials are fixed on the Earth while with satellites these aerials (called transponders or wireless receiver/transmitters) are moving in space. LEO systems may form the space segment of future mobile phone systems (such as S-UMTS) that will allow true mobile, global, broadband multimedia connectivity. But although telecoms experts predicted a bright future for this technology in the beginning of this century, to date only a few systems have actually got off the ground. Footprints: global, regional, spot beams The area on Earth that the satellite can 'see' (or reach with its antennas) is called the satellite 'footprint'. A satellite's footprint refers to the area
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over which the satellite operates: the intersection of a satellite antenna transmission pattern and the surface of the Earth. Global coverage requires that the pattern of satellite antenna transmission covers the largest possible portion of the Earth that can be viewed from the satellite. For geostationary satellites, the beam width for global coverage is about 17.4 degrees. No satellite can cover the whole surface of the Earth at one time: to achieve a global coverage, multiple transmission beams from at least 3 different satellites are combined.

Combining footprints from Intelsat APR-1, 511 and 701 providing global coverage The map above shows examples of how different satellites cover different areas. The combined Intelsat satellite footprints on this map cover the whole Earth. A person in Australia can use this satellite to communicate with anyone in Alaska. In combination with the regional beams from these satellites, communication can be established between many areas simultaneously. Regional or zone coverage is the result of a partial illumination of the global coverage area. The area may have a simple shape such as a circle or ellipse or may be irregularly shaped (contoured) to cover certain areas most effectively, for example the shape of a continent or sub-continent. Typical regional beams measure around 5 degrees in width.

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Regional coverage of the Eutelsat W1

Spot beam coverage towards South Africa from the Eutelsat W1 Spot beam coverage is an area that is much smaller than global coverage. The beam width is reduced to around 2 degrees. Spot beams have the advantage of high antenna gain, but are disadvantaged because they can only cover a smaller area. This drawback can be overcome by the combination of multiple spot beams.

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Most geostationary telecommunication satellites cover large regions (continents or sub-continents). Sometimes satellites cover different areas at the same time from where they are positioned. For example: the Eutelsat W1 satellite, a typical broadcast satellite, positioned at 10 degrees East, provides a high-power coverage of Europe with a total of 20 channels. In addition, the satellite provides a high-power steerable narrow coverage carrying another eight channels directed towards southern Africa (see map above). Being on the edge of the satellite footprint means the curvature of the Earth starts to disrupt transmission. It also means being further away from the satellite and therefore having to transmit or receive over larger distances through the atmosphere than would be required if transmitting/receiving from the Centre of the footprint. Antenna size and power by consequence are invariably increased at the edge of the footprint. These values can be deducted from the footprint maps that are published by satellite service operators (see maps above). The numbers on the circles on the maps above indicate the signal strength received at that location expressed in dBW. From tables like the one below, users who wish to receive a transmission can read what size antenna they need. The size varies depending on the meteorological conditions of the location: places with regular heavy rainfall will need the larger dimension.

Table: - Antenna Size and Signal Strength

4.2 Frequency bands
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Satellite communications, like any other means of communication (radio, TV, telephone, etc.), use frequency bands that are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic radiation spectrum starts with the longest waves (including those in the audible range) and extends through radio waves and the visible light, which is effectively a very small part of the spectrum, all the way to the extremely short wavelengths such as radioactive radiation. Within this broad range of frequencies, the International Telecommunications Union (the United Nations institution that regulates worldwide use of airwaves) has allocated parts of the spectrum that are suitable for and dedicated to transmission via satellite. Some of these bands are exclusively dedicated to satellite transmission; others are shared with terrestrial transmission services.

Fig: -Satellite communications spectrum The satellite transmission bands that are of interest to us are the C-, Kuand Ka-bands. C-band the oldest allocation and operates in the frequency range around 6 GHz for transmission (uplink) and between 3.7 and 4.2 GHz for reception (downlink). Ku-band the most common transmission format in Europe for satellite
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TV and uses around 14 GHz for uplink and between 10.9 and 12.75 GHz for downlink. Ka-banduses around 30 GHz up- and between 18 and 20 GHz downlink frequency. C-band and Ku-band are becoming congested by an increasing amount of users, so satellite service operators are more and more turning to the use of Ka-band.
4.2.1 Factors that affect the choice of operating band

Availability: C-band is still the most widely available worldwide. Ku-band is becoming more available recently in regions which were less covered in the past (South America, Asia, and Africa) Interference:C-band is more prone to interference from other transmission services that share the same frequencies (adjacent satellites or terrestrial transmissions) than the higher bands Cost:While the C-band technology is cheaper in itself, it requires larger dishes (1 to 3 m) than Ku- and Ka-band (0.6 to 1.8 m) and therefore imposes relatively higher (installation) costs on the end-user Capacity: Ku- and especially Ka-band make better use of satellite capacity Signal strength:Higher frequency bands (Ku- and especially Ka-) suffer significantly more from signal deterioration caused by rainfall: to ensure availability in bad weather conditions, the signal has to be much stronger. Note that 0.1% of unavailability means in fact that the service will be interrupted for almost 9 hours over a 1-year period. 1% unavailability represents 90 hours or almost 4 full days
4.3 Satellite control and lifetime

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In principle, geostationary satellites occupy a fixed position in space and consequently the ground-based antennas do not need to be constantly redirected to follow the satellites movements. The fact that the orientation of ground-based antennas is fixed is a major advantage of the geostationary satellite orbit used by satellite broadcasters. In practice however, the satellite wanders slightly around its nominal orbital position under the gravitational influence of bodies such as the Sun and the Moon, as well as other influences such as Sun radiation pressure and Earth asymmetry. It is therefore necessary to take corrective actions in order to keep the satellite within acceptable margins from its ideal position. This is achieved by activating the so-called thrusters that are mounted on the body of the satellite as part of its propulsion system. As long as the satellite has enough fuel left to operate its thrusters, it can be kept in the correct position. As soon as the satellite is out of fuel, it will drift out of control and into space, which brings an end to its operational life. The satellite service operator can decide to save on fuel (and by consequence extend the lifetime expectancy of a satellite) by allowing the satellite to drift a little bit. Although this may bring down the costs for the communication via the satellite considerably, there is a consequence on the Earth station side. These stations have to be equipped for tracking (following the drift of) the satellite. The Earth stations that are used with LEO and GEO systems use Omni-directional antennas that make precise pointing of the antenna unnecessary. However, for this application, the ability to see the satellite (line of sight should not be obstructed by walls, roofs, excess foliage) is still required, which means that indoor use is excluded. The communication functions of a satellite (antennas, processors) are powered by electricity provided through a combination of solar energy and batteries. These batteries automatically take over the power supply from the large wing-shaped solar cell panels at moments when the
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satellite finds itself in the shadow of the Earth. LEOs and MEOs spin around the Earth at high speeds in order to resist the Earths gravitational forces. They are designed to be cheaper and therefore are smaller and lighter than large GEOs. They take less fuel to correct their flight paths and in most cases have a shorter life expectancy than GEOs. LEO operators expect to renew their satellite fleet between 5 and 7 years. GEO operators estimate the lifetime of their satellites to be between 10 and 12 years. 5. Applications of Satellite Communications Technology Satellite communications systems differ from terrestrial systems in one obvious and important aspect - the transmitter is no longer located on the ground but rather in the sky. Because it's positioned in space, it is able to serve a very large geographical area. This has several advantages. As few as three geostationary satellites can cover almost the whole of the Earth's surface, with the exclusion of the sparsely populated Polar Regions. To achieve the same coverage by terrestrial means would require a very large and expensive network of ground-based transmitters. Services can be established quickly, since coverage is available for everyone from the day transmissions start. There is no need for a phased introduction as is the case with ground-based transmissions where antennas need to be added to meet the expansion of the serviced area. With satellite communications, even users in very remote locations enjoy the same level of service as any other user in the coverage area. Satellites can overcome national boundaries, providing possibilities for truly international services. Although terrestrial systems may be better suited generally to provide communications services, in many cases the need to be connected can only be met effectively and rapidly by the implementation of satellite services.

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5.1 Radio and TV broadcasting

The most familiar use of satellites is television broadcasting. TV satellites deliver hundreds of television channels every day throughout the world. These satellites are even used to supply television signals to terrestrial transmitters or cable-head end stations for further distribution to the home, or to exchange signals between television studios. The bandwidth required to transmit multiple programmes at the same time can easily be provided using satellites. In addition, developments in broadcast technology (digitalization, multiplexing and compression) allow different types of transmissions to be sent sharing the same satellite signal. To address the largest possible number of viewers, the cost to the viewers must be small, requiring small receive antennas and cheap receivers.

Satellite TV reception antenna

There are many different applications of satellite TV viewing, depending on the needs and objectives of the broadcaster or the viewers. Direct-toHome or DTH - also called DBS or Direct Broadcast via Satellite - speaks for itself: the TV programmes are aimed at the consumer and transmitted in such a way that residential customers can buy and install the equipment to receive the programmes at the lowest possible expense.
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5.2 The move from analogue to digital services

The number of analogue channels transmitted and the number of homes receiving analogue continues to decrease. However, analogue takes up a significant portion of the range of frequencies available. In addition, even in space, transmission capacity is limited. Nowadays, most digital TV signals are compliant to the MPEG-2/DVB standard and can be received with standard consumer digital reception equipment that decodes the signal and separates the different types of content out of the data stream. With transmission bit rates between 34 and 38 Mbps, a digital signal can carry a combination of up to 12 television channels, along with numerous radio transmissions and data. Consequently, it is digital television that is now driving the satellite TV market, aiming at large numbers of consumers equipped with small antennas. Digital technology has spurred the development of interactivity and aided the convergence of the worlds of television, radio, personal computingandtelephony. It appeals to the end-user by providing better video and audio quality, improved programme and service choice and greater control over content delivery. Pay TVis a service where the viewer is charged according to the programmes she/he views, selected from the TV programme on offer.. The latest development in advanced television applications including delivery via satellite is the Personal Video Recorder (PVR). These devices are used both to digitally record and play back programs: the program provider sends the content the normal way (TV networks, cable, and satellite). At the receive end the content is fed into the PVR The Multimedia Home Platform (MHP) is a software specification that will be implemented in set-top boxes, integrated digital TV receivers as well as multimedia PCs.
5.3 Business radio and TV

Narrowcasting or business TV and radio are a term used for satellite broadcasters who use transmission time to reach a very specific audience.
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Technically speaking, there is no difference with broadcast satellite TV applications described in the previous section. Digital television has made it possible to distribute information within organizations and companies that are geographically dispersed, or to deliver distance education. MPEG-2/DVB technology is the dominant standard for digital television, but other computer-based media coding techniques (such as MPEG-1, Real Video, etc) are also used to embed video and/or audio into data streams, often integrated with other multimedia or Internet services. Transmission via satellite requires there to be digital receivers available at relatively low prices on the consumer market. The advantage is that more advanced or popular audio coding techniques (for example MP3) can also be used and that the same stream can be used for other.
5.4 Telephony
5.4.1 Thin route or trunk telephony

Telecom operators have been using satellite communications for many years to carry long-distance telephone communications, especially intercontinental, to complement or to bypass submarine cables. To the end-user this is transparent: the phone calls are routed automatically via the available capacity at any given moment. However, the 74,000 km round trip, even at the speed of satellite signals, takes 250 milliseconds causing a delay that makes telephone conversation rather unnatural, hence the preference for telephony over cable. In regions where it is not so easy to install terrestrial telephone connections because of the low density of population or because of the nature of the terrain, satellite is still being used to connect the local switchboard to the telephone network. This technology is called thin route or trunk satellite telephone networking. Wireless (microwave, twoway radio, etc.) and optical links, however, are replacing satellite increasingly in this area. With the advent of true mobile telephony (cellular systems such as GSM, the Global System for Mobile communication), and new end-user connection technologies such as Fixed Wireless Local Loop where there is no longer a need to wire up each
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subscriber, satellite thin route telephony is becoming less and less popular. In the future, satellite thin route telephony is expected to only hold a small share of trunk telephony in areas that are otherwise impossible to reach.

5.4.2 Mobile satellite telephony

Mobile telephony allows the user to make telephone calls and to transmit and receive data from wherever he/she is located. Digital cellular mobile telephony such as GSM has become a worldwide standard for mobile communications, but its services lack coverage over areas that are sparsely populated or uninhabited (mountains, jungle, sea), because it is not economically viable or practical for the network operators to build antennas there. Satellite telephony seems to be able to provide a possible solution to the problem of providing voice and data communications services to these other locations.
5.4.3 Inmarsat

Inmarsat was the world's first global mobile satellite communications operator, founded in the late 1970s. It focuses on communications services to maritime, land-mobile, aeronautical and other users. Inmarsat now supports links for phone, fax and data communications at up to 64 Kbps to more than 210,000 ship, vehicle, aircraft and portable terminals. The range of Inmarsat systems includes mobile terminals from handhelds to consoles, with easy set-up mechanisms that allow users wherever they are to connect via a global fleet of geostationary Inmarsat satellites to the terrestrial communications network and to carry out telephone conversations, data transfers, and increasingly multimedia applications andInternetaccess.
5.4.4LEO-based telephony

Another mobile satellite communications system is the Globalstar satellite telephone network. Globalstar deploys handheld telephone sets
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that switch between the terrestrial wireless telephone networks (GSM) and a LEO-based satellite network in places where no terrestrial GSM network is available. Signals from a Globalstar phone or modem are received by one of the 48 LEO satellites and relayed to ground-based gateways, which then pass the call on to the terrestrial telephone network.

Globalstar LEO Satellite Telephone Service

A similar LEO satellite communications system is Iridium. Both Iridium and Globalstar are based on constellations of satellites that can communicate with small handheld telephone sets as well as between themselves, effectively acting as switchboards in the sky.
5.4.5GEO-based telephony

An alternative approach to satellite telephony uses a geostationary satellite instead of the LEO. This results in longer delays (approximately half a second) but switching on board the satellite reduces this inconvenience as much as possible. The Thuraya mobile satellite system was its satellite maintains a geo-synchronous orbit. Thuraya operates effectively in both satellite and GSM environments. Its satellite network capacity is about 13,750 telephone channels. When within reach of a GSM network, Thuraya's mobile phone acts as an ordinary GSM handset. Outside this GSM coverage it seamlessly switches to become a satellite telephone. The system can be used for voice, data, fax, SMS and location determination(GPS-like).
5.5 Satellite based mobile telephony

The deployment of these LEO-based services has not been as successful as had been hoped by the providers. While initially it took a long time before the first service became available, the competitors, in this case cellular mobile telephony, e.g. GSM, had already won a market share that was lost for the new technology. The technology did not seem to be sufficiently mature and calls were frequently interrupted. The
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transmission speed was very low (maximally 9.8 Kbps which is comparable to GSM-based transmissions).
5.6 Data, broadband and multimedia services

When we consider that TV and radio, telephone and fax nowadays are all being digitized and packaged in datagrams (small data packets) to be transported on any type of network, it is easy to understand that any digital content can be distributed in much the same way. This is obviously the case with data over satellite communications networks.
5.7 IP over satellite for ISPs

Telecoms and connectivity providers have started using satellite communications to bypass the increasingly clogged terrestrial and submarine networks to complement their backbone connectivity or to supplement them where they are not yet available. This approach takes advantage of the fact that satellite is not a real point-to-point connection like cable, but a connection that allows the delivery to multiple points at the same time. This allows for simultaneous updating of multiple caching, proxyormirroringservers.

Fig: -IP via satellite for ISPs A particular application of data via satellite is VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) networks. Organizations with many remote affiliates can create a private high-speed satellite intranet, which links the main office
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reliably with all local sites. Within and amongst institutions there is an ever-growing need to communicate and to enhance the existing networks, both human and physical. These networks, comparable to the corporate or institutional networks of large multinational companies or international institutions, today need high speed, reliable and costeffectivecommunications. VSAT networks offer solutions for large networks with low or medium traffic. They provide very efficient point-to-multipoint communication, are easy to install and can be expanded at low extra cost. VSAT networks offer immediate accessibility and continuous high-quality transmissions. They are adapted for any kind of transmission, from data to voice, fax andvideo. The great advantage of VSAT is its flexibility. It permits any kind and size of network based around a central hub and remote locations. This makes them particularly useful for corporate networks or, for example, communication between educational, government or health-care institutions. Through a VSAT network, a corporation can communicate freely and constantly with branch offices: Voice and fax transmissions Local Area Network interconnection Data broadcasting Videoconferencing In-house training VSAT networks are generally 'star' networks. This means there is a central location that acts as a hub through which remote locations can transmit and receive data to and from each other. They can be one-or twodirectional.

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Fig: - VSAT Star-shaped Networks A mesh configuration enables remote terminals to contact each other without passing through the hub and is particularly appropriate for large corporations where local facilities need to be in contact with other regions.

Fig: - VSAT Mesh-shaped Networks New VSAT technologies and services are being offered to support these demands. Employing one- or two-way satellite communication, IPcompatible solutions enable private network operators to provide their network members with enhanced speed and reliability for institutionwidecommunication. PAMA (Permanently Assigned Multiple Access) means having a permanently assigned frequency channel that provides dedicated bandwidth, through which the network can send data, voice or video. This may be required when larger amounts of data continuously need to be transmitted between each element of the network. DAMA (Demand Assignment Multiple Access)provides intermittent communication or managed VSAT services on a pay-per-usage basis. With DAMA, satellite capacity is instantaneously assigned and adapted according to immediate traffic needs. It is available when needed, and users only pay for what they use. DAMA can support changing or
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intermittent image-based or heavy data transfer needs and is best suited where multiple services are integrated into a single network, since it supports telephony, low- and high-speed data, video and multimedia applications. Advantages of VSAT networks include: Wide geographic coverage Independence from terrestrial communication infrastructure High availability Communication costs independent of transmission distance Flexible network configuration Rapid network deployment

Centralized control and monitoring

Any service can be provided from telephony through to ATM, Frame Relay, and of course, high speed broadband Internet Disadvantages include: VSAT services are generally expensive VSAT services are not available for single site users, but only to multiple site networks The ODU (outdoor unit, antenna) may be prone to vandalism or adverse weather conditions (lightning, storm, etc) Requires professional installation, management, monitoring and maintenance In some countries VSATs are heavily regulated As with all satellite solutions, there is a latency (delay) in the signal, making telephone and videoconferencing services more difficult
5.8 End-user services for home or small office

Broadband access for end-users is usually considered a 'wired' solution: fiber optic backbones, cable modems on coax, xDSL and ISDN on twisted copper. ADSL can only be provided up to a distance of between 4 and 6 km from the local telephone exchanges, depending on various factors. The cost to upgrade the existing copper network is very high. This means that many households, particularly those in rural and remote areas, will
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probably never be able to receive ADSL. Satellite has the capability to reach everywhere, thus effectively removing local loop difficulties, especially in areas with poorly developed infrastructure. The subscriber requests (eg the click on a hyperlink in a web page) can still be routed through terrestrial telephone lines, but the downloaded data can now be routed via satellite directly to the Earth station of the end-user. Using phone lines and a satellite downlink path means that you don't pay for more technology than you need. Most Internet-type traffic is asymmetric by nature: on average, the downlink (from ISP to end-user) is 20 times greater than the uplink (from end-user towards the Internet). It is worth noting however, that this is not true for certain particular end-users, web builders, content distributors etc., where the ratio is, of course, different.

Fig: - One-way Satellite Internet Connection

Recent developments have made it possible to send all requests and return data through the satellite, which is ideal for areas with a weak telephone infrastructure.

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Fig: - Two-way Satellite Internet Connection

Current configurations can deliver data at a rate of up to 40 Mbps, but in practice, this means that the hub communicates with the end-user terminals at speeds of up to 4 Mbps. The terminals have a return link to the hub depending on the set-up of the network via a telephone modem connection or via the satellite return system with speeds ranging from 16 Kbps to 512 Kbps. The hub is continually listening for data requests from the terminals so, to the user, the system appears to be 'always on'. It is understood that in order to use public Internet access through the satellite effectively, the hub needs to be well connected to the Internet backbone. To conclude, the advantages of two-way satellite Internet connectivity for end-users include: Reception is possible with a small antenna (one already in use to receive TV can, in many cases, be sufficient but may require adaptation) Connection is possible almost anywhere instantly within the footprint of the satellite, with no cabling work or delays dependent on terrestrial infrastructure, thus effectively solving the typical 'last mile' problem Consumer equipment is relatively low cost Internet connectivity can be combined with traditional broadcast technologies such as digital TV and radio, enabling content providers to select the most appropriate delivery means for particular content

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 In addition, multimedia push services via satellite, such as data broadcasting or information streaming, are extremely efficient. Some of the main disadvantages include: Satellite Internet is generally more expensive than terrestrial access solutions, at least in regions where they are available The outdoor unit (antenna and cabling) are more prone to vandalism and weather conditions

Bandwidth availability is somewhat limited

Requires professional support Not the ideal technology for videoconferencing

5.9 Mobile data communications

We talk about fixed or mobile services depending on the specific application. Fixed services are aimed at Earth stations that stay in the same place while operating. The antenna does not move during transmission and reception. Mobile services in contrast are aimed at users that need to receive or transmit while moving. 6. VSAT (VERY SMALL APERTURE TERMINAL) VSAT(Very Small Aperture Terminal) is a satellite-based communications service that offers businesses and government agencies flexible and reliable communications solutions, both nationally and internationally, on land and at sea. VSAT networks provide: i. Rapid, reliable satellite transmission of data, voice and video and an ability to allocate resources (bandwidth and amplification power) to different users over the coverage region as needed. VSAT industry is offering fixed network solutions that can provide a full suite of services at reasonable price. E.g. a toll quality voice channel via VSAT is available between 3-15 cents/minute today.
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ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

Easy to provide point-to-multipoint (broadcast), multipoint-topoint (data collection), point-to-point communications and broadband multimedia services. VSATs are serviced not only in cases where the land areas are difficult to install, say in the case of remote locations, water areas, and large volumes of air space. An ability to have direct access to users and user premises.

6.1. Specification

VSAT is a term widely used in the satellite industry to describe an earth station that is installed on the ground to receive communications from a satellite or to communicate with other ground stations by transmitting to and receiving from satellite spacecraft. The ground station may be used only for reception, but is typically capable of both receiving and transmitting. Major components of a VSAT are generally grouped in two categories, ODU (outdoor unit) and IDU (indoor unit).
6.1.1.Out Door Unit

The ODU, so named because the components reside outdoors, includes; the antenna (typically ranging in size from 3.8 meters down to as small as 0.6m in diameter), equipped with a feed system capable of receiving and transmitting, a microwave radio, also known as a HPA High Power Amplifier, and an LNA (low noise amplifier) used to convert the signal gathered by the feed. Frequency Bands are available for use in C, Ku, or Ka frequency bands and are sold by wattage capability. A complicated calculation called a "Link Budget" is performed by the satellite operator to determine both the size of the antenna and how much power (wattage) will be required to complete the transmission link between the ground station and the satellite. Frequency Bands are sometimes combined with the LNA's which are used as part of the receiving operation. The resulting combination is called a "transceiver" and saves some integration time during the installation process.
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6.1.2.IDU Indoor Unit

The indoor unit is typically composed of a single unit called a modem. A satellite modem is different than a telephone modem, and is used to convert the data, video, or voice generated by the customer application for transmission over satellite. The modem takes the signals from your computer, phone or other device and changes them so they can be sent to the ODU which transmits them out to the satellite and eventually to other ground stations. Antenna diameter: 0.6m 3.8m Traffic Capacity: 9.6kbps 2Mbps Frequency Bands: C-band (4-6 GHz) or Ku-Band (12-14 GHz) Ka-Band (30/20 GHz) Use of satellite : Geo-stationary satellite (36,000km above equator) Network Configuration Equipment List Antenna Outdoor Unit (High Power Amplifier (HPA), Low Noise Amplifier (LNA), Solid-State Power Amplifier (SSPA)) Indoor Unit (chassis) : Point-to-point : Point-to-multipoint :

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Fig: -VSAT Configuration

6.2VSAT Services

I. Interactive real time application: - Point of Sale/retail/Banking (eg. ATM) - Corporate data II.Telephony - Rural: individual subscribers - Corporate Telephony III.Intranet, Internet and IP infrastructure - Multimedia delivery (e.g. video streaming) - Interactive distance learning/ training IV.Direct-to-home - Broadband Internet access for consumers and businesses
6.3 VSAT working principle

I.The size of a VSAT antenna varies. The feed-horn directs the transmitted power towards the antenna dish or collects the received power from it.
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II. It consists of an array of microwave passive components. Antenna size is used to describe the ability of the antenna to amplify the signal strength. III.The Radio Frequency Terminal (RFT) is mounted on the antenna frame and interconnected to the feed-horn (outdoor electronics) includes Low Noise Amplifiers (LNA) and down-converters for amplification and down conversion of the received signal respectively. IV.LNAs are designed to minimize the noise added to the signal during this first stage of the converter as the noise performance of this stage determines the overall noise performance of the converter unit. The noise temperature is the parameter used to describe the performance of an LNA. v.Up- converters and High Powered Amplifiers (HPA) are also part of the RFT and are used for up converting and amplifying the signal before transmitting to the feed-horn. The Up/Down converters convert frequencies between intermediate frequency (IF level 70 MHz) and radio frequency. vi.Extended C band, the down converter receives the signal at 4.500 to 4.800 GHz and the up converter converts it to 6.725 to 7.025 GHz. The HPA ratings for VSATs range between 1 to 40 watts. vii.The outdoor unit (ODU) is connected through a low-loss coaxial cable to the indoor unit (IDU). The typical limit of an (Interfacility Link) IFL cable is about 300 feet. The IDU consists of modulators that superimpose the user traffic signal on a carrier signal. This is then sent to the RFT for up conversion, amplification and transmission.
6.4. Multiple Accessing Schemes

The primary objective of the VSAT networks is to maximize the use of common satellite and other resources amongst all VSAT sites. The methods by which these networks optimize the use of satellite capacity, and spectrum utilization in a flexible and cost-effective manner are referred to as satellite access schemes. Each of the above topologies is
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associated with an appropriate satellite access scheme. Good network efficiency depends very much on the multiple accessing schemes. There are many different access techniques tailored to match customer applications. Access techniques including stream, transaction reservation, slotted Aloha and hybrid mechanisms are used and are configurable on a per-port basis, enabling customers to run multiple applications simultaneously. Voice of 5.6 Kbit/s Hughes-proprietary CELP compression as well as voice of 8/16 Kbit/s ADPCM compression schemes, synchronous data of 1.2 to 64 Kbit/s, asynchronous data of up to 19.2 Kbit/s and G3 fax relay are some of the applications. The satellite links are often referred to as long fat pipes they represent paths with high bandwidth-delay product. Moreover, since they typically provide a broadcast channel, media sharing methods are needed at the MAC sublayer of the data link control layer. The traditional CSMA/CD schemes typically used in LANs cannot be used with satellite channels since it is not possible for earth stations to do carrier sense on the up-link due to the point-to-point nature of the link. A carrier-sense at the downlink informs the earth stations about potential collisions that may have occurred 270 ms ago (for GEO). Such delays are not practical for implementing CSMA/CD protocols. Most satellite MAC schemes usually assign dedicated channels in time and/or frequency for each user. This is due to the fact that the delay associated in detecting and resolving multiple collisions on a satellite link is usually unacceptable for most applications. The VSAT services are primarily based on one of two technologies: i. ii. Single-carrier per channel (SCPC) and Time-division multiple access (TDMA).

6.4.1.SCPC (Single-Carrier per Channel)

SCPC-based design provides a point-to-point technology, making it the VSAT equivalent to conventional leased lines.
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6.4.2TDMA (Time-division multiple access)

With TDMA networks, numerous remote sites communicate with one central hub a design that is similar to packet-switched networks. As a leased-line equivalent, SCPC can deliver dedicated bandwidth of up to 2 Mbit/s. Remote sites in a TDMA network compete with one another for access to the central hub, restricting the maximum bandwidth in most cases to 19.2 Kbit/s. Almost all international VSAT services in Asia-Pacific are based on SCPC. Most domestic offerings are based on TDMA, although some domestic operators offer point-to-point SCPC links as well. Here, we will discuss briefly TDMA, pre-assigned or demand-assigned FDMA, CDMA and other accessing techniques featuring merits and demerits of these schemes. In a TDMA network, all VSATs share satellite resource on a time-slot basis. Remote VSATs use TDMA channels or in routes for communicating with the hub. There could be several in routes associated with one out route. Several VSATs share one in route hence sharing the bandwidth. Typical in routes operate at 64 or 128 Kbit/s. Generally systems with star topology use a TDMA transmission technique. Critical to all TDMA schemes is the function of clock synchronization what is performed by the TDMA hub or master earth station. The VSATs may also access the in route on a fixed
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assigned TDMA mode, wherein each VSAT is allocated a specific time slot or slots.

6.4.3 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

It is the oldest and still one of the most common methods for channel allocation. In this scheme, the available satellite channel bandwidth is broken into frequency bands for different earth stations. This means that guard bands are needed to provide separation between the bands. Also, the earth stations must be carefully power-controlled to prevent the microwave power spilling into the bands for the other channels. Here, all VSATs share the satellite resource on the frequency domain only. Typically implemented in a mesh or single satellite hop topology, FDMA has the following variants: i. PAMA (Pre-Assigned Multiple Access)

It implies that the VSATs are pre-allocated a designated frequency. Equivalent of the terrestrial leased line solutions, PAMA solutions use the satellite resources constantly. Consequently, there is no call-up delay
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what makes them most suited for interactive data applications or high traffic volumes. As such, PAMA connects high data traffic sites within an organization. SCPC (Single Channel per Carrier) refers to the usage of a single satellite carrier for carrying a single channel of user traffic. The frequency is allocated on a pre-assigned basis in case of SCPC VSAT which is also synonymously known as PAMA VSAT. ii. DAMA (Demand Assigned Multiple Access)

The network uses a pool of satellite channels, which are available for use by any station in that network. On demand, a pair of available channels is assigned so that a call can be established. Once the call is completed, the channels are returned to the pool for an assignment to another call. Since the satellite resource is used only in pro-portion to the active circuits and their holding times, this is ideally suited for voice traffic and data traffic in batch mode. DAMA offers point-to-point voice, fax, and data requirements and supports video-conferencing. The ability to use onboard signal processing and multiple spot beams will enable future satellites to reuse the frequencies many times more than todays system. In general, channel allocation may be static or dynamic, with the latter becoming. DE 5 increasingly popular. DAMA systems allow the number of channels at any time be less than the number of potential users. Satellite connections are established and dropped only when traffic demands them. iii. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) Under this, a central network monitoring system allocates a unique code to each of the VSATs enabling multiple VSATs to transmit simultaneously and share a common frequency band. The data signal is combined with a high bit rate code signal which is independent of the data. Reception at the end of the link is accomplished by mixing the incoming composite data/code signal with a locally generated and correctly synchronized replica of the code. Since this network requires that the central network
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management system co-ordinates code management and clock synchronization of all remote VSATs, star topology is, by default, the best one. Although this is best applicable for very large networks with low data requirements, there are practical restrictions in the use of spread spectrum. It is employed mainly for interference rejection or for security reasons in military systems.

7. VSAT NETWORK CHARACTERISTICS Modern satellites are often equipped with multiple transponders. The area of the earths surface covered by a satellites transmission beam is referred to as the footprint of the satellite transponders. The up-link is a highly directional, point-to-point link using a high-gain dish antenna at the ground station. The down-link can have a large footprint providing coverage for a substantial area or a spot beam can be used to focus high power on a small region thus requiring cheaper and smaller ground stations. Moreover, some satellites can dynamically redirect their beams
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and thus change their coverage area. The received microwave power involved in satellite links is typically very small (of the order of 100 Pico watts). This means that specially designed earth stations that keep carrier-to-noise ratio to a minimum are used to transmit/receive satellite communications. The front-end receiver is the most crucial part of a transceiver and contributes to the overall cost of the satellite earth station in a significant way. Here, we describe some of the characteristics of a VSAT network:
7.1. Flexibility

The VSAT networks offer enormous expansion capabilities; it factors in changes in the business environment and traffic loads that can be easily accommodated on a technology migration path. There are limitations faced by terrestrial lines in reaching remote and other difficult locations. On the other hand, VSATs offer unrestricted and unlimited reach. Additional VSATs can be rapidly installed to support the network expansion to any site, no matter however remote.
7.2. Network Management

Network monitoring and control of the entire VSAT network is much simpler than a network of leased lines, involving multiple carriers at multiple locations. A much smaller number of elements need to be monitored in case of a VSAT network and also the number of vendors and carriers involved in between any two user terminals in a VSAT network is typically one. This results in a single point of contact for resolving all your VSAT networking issues. A VSAT network management system easily integrates end-to-end monitoring and configuration control for all network subsystems.
7.3. Reliability

A single-point contact for operation, maintenance, rapid fault isolation and trouble-shooting makes things very simple for a client, using VSAT services. VSATs also enjoy a low mean-time to repair (MTTR) of a few hours, which extends up to a few days in the case of leased lines. Essentially, lesser elements imply lower MTTR. Uptime of up to 99.5
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percent is achievable on a VSAT network. This is significantly higher than the typical leased line uptime of approximately 80-85%.
7.4. Cost

A comparison of costs between a VSAT network and a leased line network shows that a VSAT network offers significant savings over 2-3 years timeframe. This does not take into account the cost of downtime, inclusion of which would result in the VSAT network being much more cost-effective. Pay-by-mile concept in case of leased line sends the cost spiraling upwards. More, so if the locations to be linked are dispersed all over the country. In case of VSATs, the service charges depend on the bandwidth which is allocated to the network in line with customer requirements. With a leased line, a dedicated circuit in multiples of64 Kbit/s is available whether the customer needs that amount of bandwidth or not.
7.5. Link Budgets

It ascertains that the RF equipment would cater to the requirements of the network topology and satellite modems in use. The link Budget estimates the ground station and satellite EIRP required. Equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP) is the power transmitted from a transmitting object. Satellite ERP can be defined as the sum of output power from the satellites amplifier, satellite antenna gain and losses. Calculations of signal levels through the system (from originating earth station to satellite to receiving earth station) to ensure the quality of service should normally be done prior to the establishment of a satellite link. This calculation of the link budget highlights the various aspects. Apart from the known losses due to various cables and interconnecting devices, it is advisable to keep sufficient link margin for various extraneous noise which may affect the performance. It is also a safeguard to meet eventualities of signal attenuation due to rain/snow. As mentioned earlier a satellite provides two resources, bandwidth and amplification power. In most VSAT networks, the limiting resource in satellite transponder is power rather than bandwidth.
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8. CONCLUSIONS The primary mission for this paper was to review the field of satellite communications technology. Such an important area could not be simply ignored. In this regard one extremely vital conclusion is very clear. This is that while technology is indeed of great importance, the development and commercial exploitation of new applications is even more vital.
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Today this can be seen in direct broadcast satellite services, and it is becoming apparent in mobile satellite services as well. The future market for satellite communications is critical to understanding the future direction that technologies will take. Often new applications will stimulate new technical innovations. It is quite obvious that the development of new satellite technologies should be consistent with market needs and opportunities. A number of consulting firms have reviewed the overall field of telecommunications development and have prepared market forecasts. Others have prepared detailed market forecasts for just the field of satellite communications. The purpose of this study has been to assess communications satellite technologies on a comparative basis, and therefore only basic trends in the market are required to help "calibrate" the importance of new technologies. Looking at the rate of advancement in satellite communication one would foresee the use of satellites in every field where communication is required such as relaying television and radio signals. Special telephones that communicate with these satellites allow users to access the regular telephone network and place calls from anywhere on the globe.

REFERENCES Clarke, `Extra Terrestrial Relays, Wireless World. Vol.51, pp 305-308, October 1945. Heather E. Hudson, Communication Satellites: Their Development and Impact.
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Delbert D. Smith, Communication via Satellite: A vision in Retrospect. Lewis, Communications Services via Satellite. Miya K. Satellite Communication Engineering. Maral and M. Barsquet, Satellite Communications Systems. Spilker, J.J. Digital Communication by Satellite. Morrow Jr. (Ed) Satellite Communications, Proc. IEEE Vol.59, No.2 Feb.1971. Podcaczky E.I.(Ed), Satellite Communications Proc. IEEE, Vol.65, No.3, March 1977. Harry L. Van Trees (Ed), Satellite Communications, IEEE Press selected reprint series (1979). Kadar I. (Ed), Satellite Communications Systems, AIAA Selected reprint series Vol. 18, Jan. 1976. James Martin, Communications Satellite Systems. Pratt and C.W.Bostian, Satellite Communications. Bhargava et al, Digital Communications by Satellite. Gagliardi, Satellite Communications

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