Optimum allocation of reactive power for voltage stability improvement in ACDC power systems

D. Thukaram, L. Jenkins and K. Visakha Abstract: The dependence of the system voltage stability on reactive power distribution forms the basis for reactive power optimisation. The technique attempts to utilise fully the reactive power sources in the system to improve the voltage stability and prole as well as meeting the reactive power requirements at the ACDC terminals to facilitate the smooth operation of DC links. The method involves successive solution of steady-state power ows and optimisation of reactive power control variables using linear programming techniques. The proposed method has been applied to a few systems and the results obtained on a real-life equivalent 96-bus AC and a two-terminal DC system are presented for illustration.

Introduction

In big developing countries like India, HVDC transmission is becoming an acceptable alternative to AC and is providing an economic solution for bulk power transfer over long distances, and also as a means of interconnecting systems with problems of frequency and stability. The growing number of schemes in existence and under consideration demands corresponding methods of modelling and analysis for planning and day-to-day operation. Considerable work has been reported in the literature in regard to integrated ACDC system performance evaluation procedures, notably for load ow and stability studies [15]. There is very limited work in the area of reactive power control in AC/DC systems. Even though DC transmission lines carry no reactive power, real power ow into the converters is accompanied by some reactive power ow because of the phase control. The considerations in the operation of a DC transmission system are to satisfy the need for reactive power at the terminals, maintain good voltage prole and voltage stability. During the peak load condition the entire reactive power demand at the DC terminals generally may not be met by the AC system, and it is not desirable anyway, so, reactive power compensation is generally provided at the DC terminals. The net reactive power absorption by the converters can be varied by the converter controls. During light load conditions considerable reactive power is generated in the AC system by EHV lines and this can be used to meet the reactive demand at the DC terminals and locally provided compensation at the DC terminals can be suitably switched off to maintain a satisfactory voltage prole. With the increased loading of existing power transmission systems the problem of voltage stability and voltage collapse has become a major concern in power system planning and operation. Voltage stability is concerned with the ability of a
r IEE, 2006 IEE Proceedings online no. 20045210 doi:10.1049/ip-gtd:20045210 Paper rst received 14th October 2004 and in nal revised form 16th June 2005 The authors are with Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India E-mail: dtram@ee.iisc.ernet.in, dtram_2001@yahoo.com IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 153, No. 2, March 2006

power system to maintain acceptable voltages in the system both under normal conditions and after being subjected to a disturbance. From a system operations view point a heavily loaded system has to be carefully monitored and adequate control action taken when the operating point approaches the limit of voltage stability. In day-to-day operation and control of power systems these decisions require very fast computations in the energy control centre. The static aspects of voltage stability can be considered as an effective tool to assess system security with respect to voltage collapse. Various voltage stability and voltage collapse prediction methods have been reported in literature [412]. On load transformers taps, generator excitations and switchable VAr compensators are the reactive power control variables in the AC system. These variables are optimised for the purpose of improved voltage stability and voltage prole in the system. In an AC/DC power system these control variables have to be optimised in a co-ordinated manner taking account of the reactive power requirements at the DC terminals. This paper is mainly concerned with development of a method for co-ordinated optimum allocation of reactive power in AC/DC power systems with an objective of enhancement of steady-state voltage stability based on the L-index [6]. An algorithm is proposed for optimisation of reactive power control variables using linear programming. The proposed method has been tested on sample systems and the results obtained for an equivalent 96-bus AC and a two-terminal DC power system with a peak and light-load conditions are presented. 2 Static voltage stability analysis

Static voltage stability is primarily associated with the reactive power support. The real power (MW) loadability of a bus in a system depends on the reactive power support that the bus can receive from the system. Several analytical tools have been presented in the literature for the analysis of the static voltage stability of a system. In the day-to-day operation of power systems the analysis of voltage stability for a given system state involves an evaluation of how close the system is to voltage instability, which gives a measure of voltage security and what the contributing factors are, and the operating strategy to be used to prevent voltage instability. In the past, utilities
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depended on conventional power-ow programs for the static analysis of voltage stability by computing VP and QV curves at selected load buses. These methods do not really provide information useful in gaining insight into the causes of instability problems [28]. Several researchers have proposed the minimum singular value (MSV) of the load-ow jacobian [412] as a measure of voltage stability. The singularity of the power-ow jacobian matrix as an indicator of steady-state stability is used, where the sign of the determinant of the jacobian matrix determines whether or not the studied operating point is stable. Singularity of the power-ow jacobian matrix corresponds to that jacobian matrix for which the inverse does not exist and thus there is an innite sensitivity in the solution to small perturbations in parameter values. The point where this occurs is called a state bifurcation point of the system. Several branches of equilibria may come together and the studied system would experience a qualitative change in the structure of the solutions due to a small change in the parameter values. At the point of voltage collapse, no physically meaningful load-ow solution is possible as the load-ow jacobian becomes singular. At this point, the MSV becomes zero. Hence the distance of the MSV from zero at an operating point is a measure of proximity to voltage collapse. The continuation power-ow analysis overcomes this problem by reformulating the power-ow equations so that they remain well-conditioned at all possible loading conditions. This allows the solution of the power-ow problem for a stable as well as unstable equilibrium point [9]. The modal analysis approach [11] has also been applied to the voltage stability analysis of practical systems. It may be difcult to describe the MSV in terms of other physical reactive power control variables and so also the formulation of optimisation problem suitable for day-to-day operation. However, from the literature it is seen that this index is helpful in planning the VAr resources and also identifying the weak spots for reactive power compensation. The voltage stability index jZii =Zi j is proposed in [10]. With the aid of Thevenins theorem, a general conclusion is drawn about the condition for maximum power transfer to a node in a system. The maximum power transfer to a bus takes place when the load impedance becomes equal to the driving point impedance as seen from the load bus under consideration. At load bus i with load impedance Zi, for permissible power transfer to the load at bus i we have jZii =Zi j 1. The voltage collapse proximity indicator (VCPI) for all the load nodes is computed as VCPIi jZii =Zi j. The stability margin in this case is obtained as the distance of VCPI from a unit value. The bus having the maximum value of VCPI is the weakest bus in the system. If the load at a bus (switching station) is low then the VCPI is close to zero indicating a high voltage stability margin at the bus. However, it may not be the case as the neighbouring nodes may have bulk loads and thus the switching station bus VCPI also has to be close to the VCPI of neighbouring buses. However, this index may not give consistent results. Also this index cannot be easily expressed in terms of other physical reactive power control variables for the purpose of formulation of the optimisation problem.

incorporates load characteristics and generator control characteristics [13]. Using the load-ow results, the L-index [6] is computed as   g  X Vi    1 Fji  Lj 1  Vj  i1 where j g+1 y n. The terms within the sigma of (1) are complex quantities; Vi, Vj are the complex voltages of generator buses and load buses, respectively. The values of Fji are obtained from the network Y-bus matrix as follows: ! ! ! Y GG Y GL V G IG 2 IL Y LG Y LL V L where I G , I L and V G , V L represent complex current and voltage vectors at the generator nodes and load nodes; Y GG ; Y GL ,Y LL and Y LG are corresponding partitioned portions of network Y-bus matrix. Rearranging the equation we get ! ! ! Z LL F LG IL VL 3 IG K GL Y GG V G where F LG Y LL 1 Y LG are the required values. The L-indices for a given load condition are computed for all load buses. For stability, the index Lj must not be violated (maximum limit 1) for any of the nodes j. Hence the global indicator L describing the stability of the complete subsystem is given by L maximum of Lj for all j (load buses). The indicator L is a quantitative measure for the estimation of the distance of the actual state of the system to the stability limit. The local indicators Lj permit the determination of those nodes from which a collapse may originate. It can be shown that the derived theory is exact when two conditions are fullled, i.e. that the stability limit is reached for L 1. The rst condition requires that all generator voltages, amplitudes and phase angles remain unchanged. The second condition calls for nodal currents which respond directly to the current Ij and are indirectly proportional to the voltage Vj at the node j under consideration. The stability margin in this case is obtained as the distance of L from a unit value, i.e. (1L). An L-index value away from 1 and close to 0 indicates improved system stability. While the different methods give a general picture of the proximity of the system voltage collapse, the L-index gives a scalar number to each load bus. Among the various indices for voltage stability and voltage collapse prediction, the L-index gives fairly consistent results [13, 14]. The L-indices for given load condition are computed for all load buses and the maximum of the L-indices gives the proximity of the system to voltage collapse. The L-index is chosen as the basis for optimisation as it is dened in terms of network parameters and generator/load complex voltages, which makes it possible to relate with other physical reactive power control variables in the system. 3 Approach

2.1

Voltage stability index L

Consider a system where n is the total number of buses with 1, 2 y g generator buses (g), and g+1, g+2 y n the load buses. A load-ow result is obtained for a given system operating condition, which is otherwise available from the output of an online state estimator. The load-ow algorithm
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The major blocks in the approach adopted are shown in Fig. 1. At the beginning of the reactive power optimisation in AC/DC power systems, a satisfactory initial operating condition for the DC system is selected based on the control strategies, viz., constant power control, constant current control, and constant voltage control applicable at the DC terminals. A solution for DC system is rst obtained in block 2 and then the voltage, active and reactive power requirements at
IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 153, No. 2, March 2006

system data I ac DC system solution AC system 1:a P ac Q ac AC bus

I dc

firing angle V dc

AC system solution

4 check for AC/DC system satisfactory solution

yes

Fig. 2

Equivalent circuit of DC terminal

no 5 reactive power optimisation

ring angle, tap controls and the DC network are summarised based on the per-unit system selected as follows: AC system base quantities ac Pbase 3-phase power ac Vbase line-to-line RMS value p ac ac ac Ibase Pbase = 3 Vbase DC system base quantities p dc ac dc ac dc ac Pbase Pbase ; Vbase Kb Vbase ; Ibase 3=Kb Ibase p where Kb 3 2=pnb nb is the number of series-connected bridges in a terminal The direct voltage and power at the converter are given by

6 yes check for AC/DC system satisfactory solution

no 7 modify DC system initial settings

V dc aV ac cos a Rc I dc P dc V dc I dc

4 5

AC/DC system power-flow solution

Fig. 1 Major blocks showing reactive power optimisation in AC/DC system

where Rc is commutation resistance, a is the transformer tap setting and a the ring angle. Neglecting the losses in the converter and its transformer and equating the expression for powers on the AC and DC sides, the equation for power factor anglec x is given by V dc aV ac cosc x 6 and for the reactive power owing from the AC bus into the converter terminal is Qdc P ac tanc x 7 where c is the alternating voltage angle and x the alternating current angle. A practical operating scheme for a DC system using local terminal controls is to have the DC-system voltage determined at one terminal and the other terminals are provided with scheduled power or current settings. To keep the reactive power consumption of the converter and the losses low the ring angles should be small. But to maintain phase control and reliable commutation, a minimum control angle should be maintained.

the DC terminals are computed. Dening these requirements at the AC side of the converter/inverter transformers, an AC power-ow solution is obtained in block 3. Now the terminal transformer taps are computed and their range checked for the satisfactory solution of the AC/DC system in block 4. If the transformer tap range is not satisfactory or the voltage stability has to be further improved, reactive power optimisation for the AC system is carried out in block 5 with suitable terminal conditions. At this stage, a check for the AC/DC system satisfactory condition is performed in block 6. If the solution is not satisfactory, modications in the initial conditions of the DC system are affected with suitable changes in the ring angles in block 7 and the process of blocks 25 is repeated. Finally, the nearest practical possible tap settings are selected for the transformers at the AC/DC terminal and the nal AC/DC power-ow solution is obtained in block 8. 4 Description of model

4.2

Load model

A composite load model, a combination of the ZIP model and exponential model, is considered. Active and reactive power loads are modelled as a function of voltage at the bus. The functions considered are PLi PLoi A0 A1 V A2 V 2 A3 V ep QLi QLoi R0 R1 V R2 V 2 R3 V eq 8 9
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4.1

Converter representation

A general AC/DC terminal and its equivalent circuit in Fig. 2. The basic equations describing the converter with its
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where A0, R0, A1, R1, A2, R2, A3, R3 denote the portion of total load proportional to constant power, constant impedance, constant current and exponential of voltages with ep, eq given values.

4.3

AC/DC power-ow solution method

Considering a DC system where m represents the total number of DC terminals p represents the number of terminals with constant power control c represents the number of terminals with constant current control and m (p+c+1) the terminal with voltage control it is assumed that 1, 2, y, p are the constant power control terminals, p+1, p+2, y, p+c are the constant current control terminals, and m the voltage controlled terminal. The algebraic sum of the direct currents owing into the DC network must be zero and therefore m X dc Ik 0 10
k1

buses. Knowing the values of aV ac, i.e. the product of converter station transformer tap and AC-bus voltage from the DC-system solution and values of V ac from the AC system solution, the tap settings of the converter transformers are determined. If the tap settings violate the limits, modications such as a change in scheduled voltage V dc at the voltage-controlled DC terminal, a change in control angle a and optimisation of the reactive power schedule in the AC system to obtain improved values of V ac at the AC/DC terminals are effected and the procedure to obtain AC/DC system solution repeated. 5 Description of reactive power optimisation

The direct voltages at terminals other than the voltagecontrolled terminal are given by, Vbus Rbus Ibus Vm 11 where
dc dc Vbus t V1dc ; V2dc ; . . . ; Vp ; VPdc ; . . . ; Vpc 1

Minimisation of voltage stability index in a system forms the basis for the reactive power optimisation problem. The model uses linearised sensitivity relationships to dene the problem. The constraints are: the linearised network performance equations relating to control and dependent variables and the limits on the control variables. Then the model selected for the reactive power optimisation uses linearised sensitivity relationships to dene the optimisation problem. The objective isP minimise the voltage stability to L2 in the system. The control objective function vL variables are  transformer tap settings T  generator excitation settings V  switchable VAr compensator settings Q. These variables have their upper and lower limits. Changes in these variables affect the distribution of reactive power and therefore change the reactive power at generators, the voltage prole and thus voltage stability of the system. The dependent variables are  reactive power outputs of the generators Q  voltage magnitudes of the buses other than the generator buses (V ). These variables also have their upper and lower limits. Consider an AC system where n represents the number of total buses in the AC system, g the number of generators, t the number of on-load tap changing (OLTC) transformers, s the number of switchable VAr compensator buses, and r n (g+s), the number of remaining buses; it is assumed that 1, 2, y, g are the generator buses, g+1, y, g+s are the switchable VAr compensator buses, and g+s+1, g+s+2, y, n are the remaining buses. In this approach an initial AC/DC load ow is rst obtained and the AC terminal connecting the DC system are treated as switchable VAr compensator buses where desired voltage limits are specied minimise vL Cx subject to b
min

h i dc dc dc dc dc Ibus t I1 ; I2 ; . . . ; Ip ; IP 1 ; . . . ; Ipc dc dc dc dc dc Vm t Vm ; Vm ; . . . ; Vm ; Vm ; . . . ; Vm Rbus is the bus resistance matrix of the DC network with voltage controlled terminal as reference dc Vm is the scheduled voltage at the voltage controlled terminal dc dc Ip1 ; . . . ; Ipc are the scheduled currents at the controlled terminals dc dc I1 ; . . . ; Ip are computed currents at the power controlled terminals I dc P dc =V dc Using an iterative technique the solution of these equations (11) is obtained for the values of direct currents, voltages and powers at all the DC terminals.For the terminals with power control and current control it is common practice to co-ordinate the tap control with phase control so that the terminal will operate at some direct voltage below its own minimum ring (ignition or extinction) angle characteristic to avoid frequent mode shifts from occurring with normal alternative voltage uctuations. Thus the direct voltage equation for the terminals with power control and current control is modied as V dc MbaV ac cos a Rc I dc c 12 where M is a coefcient typical of 0.97 for 3% voltage margin. Substituting the values of a; Rc ; V dc ; I dc and M, the values of aV ac for all the terminals are obtained from (4) and (11). Substituting the values of aV ac into (6) the power factor angles (cx) at all the terminals are obtained. The active and reactive powers owing from the AC bus to the converter terminals are computed from (5) and (7), respectively. Now the AC power-ow solution is obtained with the dened values of P,Q at the AC/DC terminals. This solution provides the voltage conditions at all the AC
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13
max

b Sx

and x

min

max

where C is the row matrix of the linearised loss sensitivity coefcients, S is the linearised sensitivity matrix relating the dependent and control variables, b the column vector of the linearised dependent variables, x the column vector of the linearised control variables, bmax and bmin are the column vectors of the linearised upper and lower limits on the dependent variables and x max and x min are the column vectors of the linearised upper and lower limits on the control variables. The linear programming technique is now applied to these problems to determine the optimal settings of the control variables [15].
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The control vector in incremental variables is dened as t x DT1 ; . . . ; DT2 ; DV1 ; . . . ; DVg ; DQg1 ; . . . ; DQgs and the dependent vector in incremental variables as t b DQ1 ; . . . ; DQg ; DVg1 ; . . . ; DVgs ; DVgs1 ; . . . ; DVn The upper and lower limits on both the control and dependent variables in linearised form are expressed as
max max max bmax bDQmax ; . . . ; DQmax ; DVg1 ; . . . ; DVgs ; DVgs1 ; . . . ; DVnmax ct 1 g min min min bmin bDQmin ; . . . ; DQmin ; DVg1 ; . . . ; DVgs ; DVgs1 ; . . . ; DVnmin ct 1 g max max xmax bDT1 ; . . . ; DTg ; DV1max ; . . . ; DVgmax ; DQmax ; . . . ; DQmax ct g1 gs

3 2 @vL @Q2 6 @V2 7 6 @V2 V2 6 : 7 6 6 : 7 6 : 6 7 6 : 4 @vL 5 4 @Q2 Vn @Vn @Vn

32 3 @vL @Qn V2 7 6 @V2 76 @Q2 7 : 76 : 7 : 76 : 7 7 @Qn 54 @vL 5 Vn @Qn @Vn

17

Knowing the terms @vL =@d, @vL =@V , @P =@d and @Q=@V ; the sensitivities of the objective function with respect to the real and reactive power injections at all the buses except the swing bus @vL =@Pk , @vL =@Qk , k 2yn (bus 1 is considered as a reference bus) can be computed.

min

min min bDT1 ; . . . ; DTg ; DV1min ; . . . ; DVgmin ; DQmin ; . . . ; DQmin ct g1 gs

5.3 Objective function sensitivities with respect to transformer taps

Considering a transformer connected between buses k and m with taps on bus k, the real and reactive power injections in to the buses k and m are Pk, Qk, Pm and Qm. Computation of the sensitivity with respect to the transformer tap is based on the approximation that these power injections into end-buses k and m do not change with transformer tap     @vL @vL @Pkm @vL @Qkm @Tkm @Pk @Tkm @Qk @Tkm    ! @vL @Pmk @vL @Qmk 18 @Pm @Tkm @Qm @Tkm The values @vL =@Pk , @vL =@Pk , @vL =@Pk and @vL =@Pk are obtained from the solution of (16) and (17).

where DTmin Tmin Tactual ; DTmax Tmax Tactual DQmin Qmin Qactual ; DQmax Qmax Qactual DVmin Vmin Vactual ; DVmax Vmax Vactual

5.1

Computation of sensitivity matrix

The sensitivity matrix S relating the dependent and control variables is evaluated in the following manner [13]. Considering the fact that the reactive power injection at a bus does not change for a small change in the phase angle of the bus voltage, the relation between the net reactive power change at any node due to change in the transformer tap settings and the voltage magnitudes can be written as 2 3 2 3 2 3 DTt A1 A2 A3 A4 6 DQg 7 4 DQs 5 4 A5 A6 A7 A8 56 DVg 7 14 4 DVs 5 A9 A10 A11 A12 DQr DVr Then, transferring all the control variables to the right-hand side and the dependent variables to the left-hand side and rearranging, 2 3 2 3 DTt DQg 4 DVs 5 S 4 DVg 5 15 DVr DQs

5.4 Objective function sensitivities with respect to generator excitation voltage

A change in the excitation voltage of a generator results in the modied VAr injection into the system at the generator excitation voltage are given by @vL @vL @Qk @Vk @Qk @Vk 19

where k 2, 3, y, g. The values of @vL =@Qk are obtained from the solution of (16) and (17) and @Qk =@Vk is given by @Qk Qk Bkk Vk @Vk Vk 20

5.2 Computation of voltage stability objective function sensitivities with respect to control variables
The sensitivities of the voltage stability objective function vL with respect to the real and reactive power injections at all the buses except the swing bus (angle reference bus) are rst computed and these values are used to compute the objective function sensitivities with respect to the control variables. Considering the fact that the real power injection does not change for a small change in voltage magnitude of the bus and reactive power injection at a bus does not change for a small change in the phase angle of the bus voltage, the relation between the sensitivities of the objective function with respect to the real and reactive power injections at all the buses except the swing (angle reference bus) bus is given by 32 32 3 2 @vL @P2 @Pn @vL 6 @d2 76 @d2 @d2 76 @P2 7 6 : 76 : : 76 : 7 6 : 76 : 16 : 76 : 7 76 76 7 6 4 @vL 54 @P2 @Pn 54 @vL 5 @Pn @dn @dn @Pn
IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 153, No. 2, March 2006

5.5 Objective function sensitivity with respect to a excitation voltage of reference bus generator
A change in the excitation voltage of swing bus generator (reference bus 1) results in modied reactive power injections at all the other generator buses and in reactive power injection errors at all the load buses connected to the excitation voltage of the swing bus generator is given by ! X X @vL @vL @Qr @vL @Qk 21 @V1 @Qr @V1 @Qk @V1 r k where r is the set of all the load buses connected to bus 1 and k 2, y, g. The values of @vL =@Qr and @vL =@Qk are obtained from the solution of (16) and (17). Values for @Qr =@V1 are computed as @Qr Yr1 Vr sindr yr1 @V1 22

And the values for @Qk =@V1 , k 2, y, g are taken from the matrix S (Yr1 ; yr1 are Y-bus magnitude and angle).
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5.6 Objective function sensitivities with respect to switchable VAr compensators

The values @vL =@Qgk , k 1, 2, y, s are obtained from the solution of (19) and (20).

5.7

Computational procedure

This Section presents the computational steps followed in the program developed for the optimisation of reactive power allocation in an AC/DC power system. In the dayto-day operation of the power systems the following steps are used to obtain the optimal reactive power allocation in the system for improvement of voltage stability. Step 1:  Input the data relating to DC system (i ) Network (ii ) Power, current and voltage schedule at the terminals (iii ) Firing angle setting (iv) Converter transformer tap ranges. AC system (i ) Network (ii ) Scheduled load and generation

(iii ) Upper and lower limits and step-size for transformers tap settings, generator excitation settings and switchable VAr compensator settings (iv) Upper and lower limits on the generator reactive powers and voltage magnitudes at buses other than the generator buses.  Form the network matrices. Step 2:  Set the initial/modied values for scheduled ring angle a voltage V dc, current I dc and power P dc for the converter terminals.  Solve for the direct voltage and current at all the DC terminals. Compute the values of aV ac, power factor angles cx, power factor, and active and reactive powers owing from the AC bus into converters at all the AC/DC terminals.  Find the equivalent active and reactive loadings at the AC terminals including the local reactive power compensation at the terminals. Step 3:  Perform the AC power ow (or output of the state estimation) to obtain the values of L-indices of all load buses. Find the tap settings of all the converter station

Fig. 3
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AC/DC system of two-terminal DC and 96 AC buses

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transformers and check for the satisfactory range of the converter transformer tap settings. If yes, go to step 6. Step 4:  Compute the column vectors bmax, bmin, xmax, xmin and modify the column vectors x max and x min to reasonably small ranges. compute the sensitivity matrix S, the row vector C of the objective function. Solve the optimisation problem using the linear programming technique and obtain the AC power-ow solution.  Find the tap settings of all the converter station transformers and check for the satisfactory range of the converter transformer tap settings. If yes, go to step 6. Step 5:  Find the suitable modied settings for the DC scheduled voltages and scheduled ring angles and go to step 2. Step 6:  Set the converter station transformer tap settings to the nearest practical possible settings. Compute the modied converter control (ignition or excitation) angles a. Compute the modied power factor, active and reactive powers owing from the AC bus into converters at all the terminals. Step 7:  Perform the AC power-ow solution with the optimum settings of the reactive power control variables. Check for satisfactory limits on the dependent variables, voltage prole and voltage stability L-indices. If no, go to step 2. Step 8:  ACDC system nal results. 6 Typical system studies and results

system has about 12345.8 MW, 6410.0 MVAr peak load and 8631.07 MW, 4289.67 MVAr light load. The generators Pmax, Qmax and Qmin are given in Table 2. Results obtained for the two cases, viz. peak load and light load have been presented.
Table 2: Generator limits
Generator no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 15 16 17 18 19 95 96 Pmax (MW) 1142.0 1800.0 900.0 1467.0 1800.0 275.0 227.0 594.0 476.0 400.0 48.0 410.0 289.0 297.0 180.0 66.0 945.0 396.0 241.0 756.0 Qmax MVAr 731.0 1116.0 558.0 910.0 1116.0 206.0 170.0 368.0 330.0 248.0 24.0 135.0 96.0 99.0 90.0 39.0 586.0 297.0 120.0 469.0 Qmin MVAr 350.0 500.0 250.0 450.0 500.0 100.0 80.0 150.0 150.0 100.0 10.0 50.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 10.0 200.0 100.0 50.0 200.0

Table 3: DC system results of peak load condition (initial)

Sending end V ac p.u. Tap I dc p.u V dc p.u. Power factor c, g (deg.) P dc MW Q dc MVAr 1.01944 0 .9750 17.79944 0.87232 0.87835 13.04031 1552.685 845.000 Receiving end 0.98023 1.01250 17.79944 0.84788 0.85411 18.00000 1509.177 918.972

6.1

System considered

An AC/DC system of two-terminal DC and 96 AC buses, typical of Indian grid equivalent system including the voltage levels of 220 and 400 kV as shown in Fig. 3 has been considered for studies. There are 20 generators in the system connected at buses 113, 1519, 95 and 96. The AC/DC converter stations are connected at buses 29 and 32. The DC system data is given in Table 1. There are 20 generators, 18 tap regulating transformers and 95 transmission lines in the system. About 30 buses are considered as switchable VAr compensator buses. These buses have bulk loads and low power factor compared with other load buses. The

Table 1: DC system data

SE Transformer secondary (kV) MVA rating Xc p.u. Tap max (p.u.) Tap min (p.u.) Tap step (p.u.) P specied (MW) Commutating resistance (p.u.) Rdc line p.u. 219.00 465.00 0.19000 1.10 0.90 0.0125 1540.00 0.00535 0.00137 RE 216.00 460.00 0.19000 1.10 0.90 0.0125 1500 0.00541 V ac p.u. Tap I dc p.u V dc p.u. Power factor c, g (deg.) P dc MW Q dc MVAr

Table 4: DC system results of peak load condition (nal)

Sending end 1.04919 0.95000 17.70209 0.86755 0.87088 15.11808 1543.243 870.950 Receiving end 1.01259 0.97500 17.70209 0.84324 0.85411 18.00000 1500.000 913.384 243

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Table 5: System-grid totals

Initial Total P gen. (MW) Total Q gen. (MVAr) Total P load (MW) Total Q load (MVAr) Total comp. (MVAr) Total P loss Total Q loss % P loss Reduction in loss (MW) 12 741.37 6133.22 12 345.80 6410.0 1350.00 395.56 482.17 3.10 Final

Table 8: Generation excitation (p.u.) (initial settings all are 1.0)

Voltage 12 670.77 3869.79 12 346.20 6430.30 2475.00 324.60 1817.55 2.56 70.96 V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V9 V10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1.0125 1.0250 1.0250 1.0125 1.0125 1.0250 1.0375 1.0125 1.0250 1.0125 V11 V12 V13 V15 V16 V17 V18 V19 V95 V96 11 12 13 15 16 17 18 19 95 96 1.0000 1.0000 1.0125 1.0125 1.0125 1.0375 1.0375 1.0000 1.0125 1.0125 Bus Final Voltage Bus Final

Table 6: Transformer taps (p.u.) (initial settings all are 1.0)

From 38 25 24 33 34 35 37 40 To 20 22 23 73 90 36 49 54 Final 1.0125 1.0125 1.0125 0.9625 0.9625 0.9875 1.0125 0.9875 From 41 42 58 63 66 79 86 88 To 46 43 57 62 67 71 85 89 Final 1.0125 0.9875 1.0125 1.0125 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 1.0125

Table 9: Switchable VAr compensator compensation for peak load condition (nal)
Bus 21 22 23 36 43 44 46 48 MVAr 15 15 15 90 60 30 60 30 30 30 Bus 54 55 56 57 60 62 71 72 73 74 MVAr 90 60 60 90 30 30 30 30 40 20 Bus 75 76 80 82 83 85 90 92 93 94 MVAr 20 60 20 20 60 20 10 20 10 30

Table 7: Generators exceeding Qmax (MVAr) limits

Generator no. 6 9 10 11 12 13 15 16 17 18 19 95 Max. MVAr 206.0 330.0 248.0 30.0 135.0 96.0 99.0 160.0 80.0 586.0 297.0 120.0 Initial 351.30 434.32 286.18 60.33 196.45 166.41 104.15 215.49 150.80 587.69 340.39 169.67 Final 190.30 274.80 161.00 26.80 67.30 92.10 52.70 150.60 72.20 388.80 243.60 81.60

49 52

6.2

Case 1: Peak load condition

In this case the DC terminal at bus 32 is considered as receiving end power control. The initial power ow results for this case show a low voltage prole in the system with the voltages of about 39 buses not being within acceptable limits (0.951.05 p.u.). There are 12 generators exceeding the maximum Q limits and no generator Q is exceeding the minimum limit. The minimum singular value before optimisation is 0.25821. The maximum stability L-index is 0.667 at bus number 56. The sum of squares of voltage P 2 stability L-indices L is 6.1078. The proposed algorithm for reactive power optimisation has been applied to improve the situation. The step-size taken for both the regulating transformers and generators excitations is 0.0125 p.u. The
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total number of switchable VAr compensator buses selected for the compensation is about 30. The compensation at the selected places initially it is assumed to be zero. After four iterations of the VAr optimisation the voltages at all the buses have been brought within the satisfactory operable limits (0.951.05 p.u.). After optimisation all the generators reactive power outputs Q are brought within the limits, while initially some of the generators Q were exceeding maximum limits. After the optimisation the minimum singular value has been increased to 0.29648, the maximum voltage stability L-index is reduced to 0.457 at bus number P 56 and the sum of square of voltage stability L-indices L2 is reduced to 4.1060. The summarised results, initial and after optimisation (nal), for the DC system are presented in Tables 3 and 4, while the AC system results are presented in Tables 59. The load bus voltage proles and voltage stability indices before and after optimisation are shown in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively.

6.3

Case 2: Light-load condition

This case study refers to the light-load condition. The DC system terminal controls in this case are considered same as in the case of peak-load condition. The initial power-ow results for this case show an over-voltage prole in the system even with the reduced local reactive power compensation at the converter stations. There are two generators exceeding the minimum Q limits and no generator Q is exceeding the maximum limit. The maximum voltage stability L-index is 0.337 at bus number 56. The sum
IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 153, No. 2, March 2006

1.1 final

Table 11: DC system results for light-load condition (nal)

SE V ac p.u. Tap I dc p.u V dc p.u. 1.03959 0.92500 11.76930 0.85711 0.89082 17.01140 1008.759 514.506 RE 1.04258 0.912500 11.76930 0.84095 0.88415 18.00000 989.737 522.987

1.0 voltage profile

0.9 initial 0.8

Power factor c, g (deg.) P dc MW Q dc MVAr

20

30

40

50

60 70 bus number

80

90

100

Table 12: Transformer taps (p.u.) (initial settings all are 1.0)
TR T1 T2 From 38 25 24 33 34 35 37 40 41 42 58 63 66 79 86 88 To 20 22 23 73 90 36 49 54 46 43 57 62 67 71 85 89 Final 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 1.0125 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 1.0125 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875

Fig. 4 Bus voltage prole before and after optimisation (peak load condition)

0.7 0.6 initial voltage stability index 0.5 final 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 20

T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T13 T14 T15

30 40 50 60 70 bus number 80 90 100

T16

Fig. 5 Voltage stability indices before and after optimisation (peak load condition) Table 13: Generation excitation (initial settings all are 1.0) Table 10: DC system results for light-load condition (initial)
Sending end V ac p.u. Tap I dc p.u V dc p.u. Power factor c, g (deg.) P dc MW Q dc MVAr 1.05378 0.91250 11.80502 0.85971 0.89372 16.39157 1014.892 509.457 Receiving end 1.06011 0.9000 11.80502 0.84350 0.88415 18.000 995.755 526.167 Voltage V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V9 V10 Bus 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Final 1.0125 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 Voltage V11 V12 V13 V15 V16 V17 V18 V19 V95 V96 Bus 11 12 13 15 16 17 18 19 95 96 Final 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875 0.9875

P 2 of the square of voltage stability L-indices L is 1.989. The proposed algorithm has been applied to improve the situation. The step-size taken for both the regulating transformers and generators excitations is 0.0125 p.u. The total number of switchable VAr compensator buses selected for the compensation is about 30. The compensation at the selected places initially is assumed to be zero. After one iteration of the optimisation the voltages at all the buses
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Table 14: Switchable VAr compensator compensation for light-load condition

Bus 55 56 Final 20 20

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Table 15: Generators exceeding Qmin (MVAr) limits

Generator 12 15 Min. MVAr 50.0 40.0 Initial 59.34 53.33 Final 33.20 36.8

Table 16: System-grid totals

Initial Total P Gen. (MW) Total Q Gen. (MVAr) Total P load (MW) Total Q load (MVAr) Total comp. (MVAr) Total P loss Total Q loss % P loss 8780.96 631.78 8631.00 4288.20 1350.00 149.97 4111.85 1.71 Final 8784.35 757.36 8631.00 4289.67 1390.00 153.51 3889.21 1.74

have been brought within the satisfactory operable limits (0.951.05 p.u.). After optimisation all the generators reactive power outputs Q are brought within the limits, while some of the generators Q limits were exceeding the minimum limits before the optimisation. After the optimisation the maximum voltage stability L-index is marginally reduced to 0.329 at bus number 56 and the sum of square of P 2 voltage stability L-indices L is reduced to 1.982, which shows no signicant change in the objective function. But the voltage prole of the system has improved to remain within the limits (0.951.05 p.u.). The summarised results, initial and after optimisation (nal), for the DC system are presented in Tables 10 and 11, while the AC system results are presented in Tables 1216. The load bus voltage proles and voltage stability indices before and after optimisation are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. 7 Conclusions

1.08 initial 1.06 1.04 voltage profile 1.02 1.00 0.98 0.96 0.94 20 30 40 50 60 70 bus number 80 90 100 final

An algorithm for optimum allocation of reactive power in AC/DC system with an objective of improving the voltage stability of the system has been presented. Although the DC system does not carry any reactive power it requires it for the operation. A sequential approach has been adopted which makes the available algorithms for AC system to be advantageously used. The developed algorithm has been tested on typical sample systems and results for a practical real-life equivalent system of a 96-bus AC and a twoterminal DC system are presented. The proposed algorithm is demonstrated to give encouraging results for improving the operational conditions of the system under both peakload and light-load conditions. 8 References

Fig. 6 Bus voltage prole before and after optimisation (light load condition)

initial 0.3 voltage stability index final

0.2

0.1

0 20 30 40 50 60 70 bus number 80 90 100

Fig. 7 Voltage stability indices before and after optimisation (light load condition)

1 Fudeh, H., and Ong, C.M.: A simple and efcient AC-DC load-ow method for multiterminal DC systems, IEEE Trans. Power Appar. Syst., 1982, 101, pp. 43814396 2 Tamura, Y., Mori, H., and Iwanmoto, S.: Relationship between voltage instability and multiple load-ow solutions in electric power systems, IEEE Trans. Power Appar. Syst., 1983, 102, (6), pp. 11151125 3 Tiranuchit, A., and Thomas, R.J.: A posturing strategy against voltage instabilities in electric power systems, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 1988, 3, (1), pp. 8793 4 IEEE Committee reports on voltage stability of power systems: Concepts, analytical tools and industry experiences, IEEE PES publication 90TH0358-2 PWR 5 Arrillaga, J., and Smith, B.: AC-DC power system analysis (IEEE, London, 1998) 6 Kessel, P., and Glavitsch, H.: Estimating the voltage stability and loadability of power systems, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 1986, 1, (3), pp. 15861599 7 Clark, H.K.: New Challenges: Voltage stability, IEEE Power Eng. Rev., 1990, pp. 3337 8 Flatabo, N., Ognedal, R., and Carlsen, T.: Voltage stability condition in a power transmission system calculated by sensitivity methods, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 1990, 5, (4) 9 Ajjarapu, V., and Cristy, C.: The continuation power ow: A tool for steady-state voltage stability analysis, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 1992, 7, (1) 10 Chebbo, A.M., Irving, M.R., and Sterling, M.J.H.: Voltage collapse proximity indicator: behaviour and implications, IEE Proc.-C, 1992, 139, (3) 11 Gao, B., Morison, G.K., and Kundur, P.: Voltage stability evaluation using modal analysis, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 1992, 7, (4) 12 Lof, P.A., Anderson, G., and Hill, D.J.: Voltage stability indices for stressed power systems, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 1993, 8, (1) 13 Thukaram, D., Parthasarathy, K., Khincha, H.P., Udupa, A.N., and Bansilal, D.: Voltage stability improvement: case studies of Indian power networks, Int. J. Electr. Power Syst. Res., 1998, 44, pp. 3544 14 Bansilal, D., Thukaram, D., and Parthasarathy, K.: Optimal reactive power dispatch algorithm for voltage stability improvement, Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst., 1996, 18, (7), pp. 461468 15 Thukaram, D., Parthasarathy, K., and Prior, D.L.: Improved algorithm for optimum reactive power allocation, Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst., 1984, 6, (2)

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