Analog Sensors

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Why Sensors in mechatronic systems

To measure the system outputs for feedback control. To measure system inputs (desirable inputs, unknown inputs, and disturbances) for feedforward control. To measure output signals for system monitoring, diagnosis, evaluation, parameter adjustment, and supervisory control. To measure input and output signals for system testing and experimental modeling (i.e., for system identification)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Variable-resistance Transducers
Potentiometer Rotary Potentiometer Optical Potentiometer

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Rotary Potentiometer

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Principle of Operation
Rectilinear/Rotary Potentiometer: The transducer output signal is a dc voltage which is proportional to the potentiometer resistance that is proportional to the slider displacement. Optical Potentiometer: It has a photoresistive layer which acts as an electrical insulator if no light is projected on it. The displacement of moving object a moving light beam which cause a change in voltage accordingly.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Advantages of Potentiometers:
They are relatively inexpensive. Potentiometers provide high-voltage (lowimpedance) output signals, requiring no amplification in most applications. They are simple voltage dividers and don't need any special conditioning electronics They monitor in real-time, without any signal lag from electronics, to give an accurate results
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Disadvantages of Potentiometer
The force needed to move the slider is provided by the displacement source. This mechanical loading distorts the measured signal itself. High-frequency (or highly transient) measurements are not feasible Variations in the supply voltage cause error. Resolution is limited by the number of turns in the coil and by the coil uniformity. Wear out and heating up in the coil or film, and slider contact cause accelerated degradation.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Typical Applications
The majority of suspension position monitoring on saloon cars, single seat race cars and motorbikes use hybrid linear potentiometers. In servo technology applications. All applications that requires simple displacement transducer For real time applications since there is no signal lag.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Variable-inductance Transducers
Linear-Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Principle of Operation
Motion of a magnetic core changes the mutual inductance of two secondary coils relative to a primary coil. Primary coil voltage: VSsin(wt) Secondary coil induced emf: V1=k1sin(wt) and V2=k2sin(wt) Where k1 and k2 depend on the amount of coupling between the primary and the secondary coils, which is proportional to the position of the coil. When the coil is in the central position, k1=k2 VOUT=V1-V2=0 When the coil is displaced x units, k1k2 VOUT=(k1-k2)sin(wt) Positive or negative displacements are determined from the phase of VOUT.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Principle of Operation

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LVDT: Different Positions

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Conditioning Circuit

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Advantages Of LVDTs
It is essentially a non-contacting device with no frictional resistance. Near-ideal electromechanical energy conversion and light-weight core will result in very small resistive forces It has low output impedance, typically on the order of 100 . (Signal amplification is usually not needed beyond what is provided by the conditioning circuit.) Directional measurements
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Disadvantages Of LVDTs
Inductive sensors require sophisticated signal conditioning electronics to condition and linearize the coil signal.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Typical Application of LVDTs

In making tablets from medicinal powder, dual LVDTs control pill weight & thickness. Portable Friction Welder: LVDT measures the distance between the approaching metals. Manufacturing process controls, valve and flow controls, pneumatic cylinder controls, head box (papers and pulp)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Rotary-Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Mutual-Inductance Proximity Sensor

Proximity sensors (either capacitive or inductive) can be used to sense distance. Proximity sensors are usually used as switches to provide a clear indication when a certain, preset distance is reached. Inductive sensors can produce an electric output such as voltage based on the change in their impedance

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Mutual-Inductance Proximity Sensor

An "E core" carries the primary windings in its middle limb and the secondary windings on the other two limbs. The two voltages induced in the secondary windings are additive.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Variable-Capacitance Transducers
The capacitance between two plates is determined by three things:
Size of the plates: capacitance increases as the plate size increases Gap Size: capacitance decreases as the gap increases Material between the plates (the dielectric): Dielectric material will cause the capacitance to increase or decrease depending on the material

Area Dielectric C= Gap

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Variable-Capacitance Transducers
Capacitive-Displacement Sensors One of the capacitor plates is attached to the moving object and the other is kept stationary. Therefore the capacitance is proportional to the object displacement.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Variable-Capacitance Transducers
Capacitive-Displacement Sensors One plate of the capacitor rotates with a rotating object (shaft) and the other plate is kept stationary. Since the common area is proportional to the angle of rotation then the capacitance is proportional to the angle of rotation.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Variable-Capacitance Transducers
Liquid level sensor

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Angular Velocity Measurement

Since the current sensor has negligible resistance, the voltage across the capacitor is almost equal to the supply voltage vref, which is kept constant. It follows that the current in the circuit is given by:

d dC i = (Cvref ) = vref dt dt d i = dt Kvref

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Displacement Measurement
Capacitance bridge circuit.

vo =

vref Z1 (1 + Z 4 Z 3 )

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Advantages of Capacitance-variable Sensors

Low cost and power usage, Good stability, resolution, and speed. They also are easy to be integrated into ICs or onto printed-circuit boards (pc boards). Capacitive sensors can detect motion, acceleration, flow, and many other variables, and are used in a wide range of applications. Mechanical loading effects are negligible, because they are non-contacting device
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Disadvantages of Capacitancevariable Sensors

They are affected by temperature and humidity Sensitivity to noise, Difficulties in designing, Capacitive sensors do need some specialized design know-how to avoid some hazards, Capacitance sensors need to be adjusted for sensitivity. This adjustment also needs to include variations due to moisture or other environmental factors.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Typical Applications
Capacitive sensors can be used to determine the presence or absence of liquids or solids through non-conductive containers, tubes or pipes. A capacitance type sensor can be an ideal solution where cost is a critical factor. Capacitive gauges and capacitive sensors are used to measure structural vibration. Capacitance sensors are ideal for providing servo system feedback in piezo motor driven nanopositioning applications.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Permanent-Magnet Transducers
DC Tachometer Similar to a dc generator. The rotor is directly connected to the rotating object. The output signal that is induced in the rotating coil is picked up as a dc voltage using a suitable commutator device. According to Faraday's law, the induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change in magnetic flux linkage. The proportionality between the output voltage and the angular velocity is used to measure the angular velocity,

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

DC Tachometer
For a coil of height h and width 2r that has n turns, moving at an angular speed wc in a uniform magnetic field of flux this is given by:

vo = (2nhr ) wc = Kwc
This proportionality between vo and wc is used to measure the angular speed wc. The proportionality constant K is known as back-emf constant.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Permanent-Magnet Transducers
Permanent-Magnate AC Tachometer One set of the windings is energized using an ac reference voltage. When the rotor is stationary , the output voltage is a constant amplitude signal much like the reference voltage. As the rotor moves in a finite speed an additional induced voltage in the other set of windings, is generated in the secondary windings. This voltage is proportional to the rotor speed

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Permanent-Magnet Transducers
AC Induction Tachometer Similar to a 2-phase induction motor. It is also same as the Permanent-Magnate AC Tachometer except that the rotor has windings, which are shorted and not energized by an external source. The induced voltage is proportional to the speed of the rotor rotation. The output voltage is a result of both the stator (primary) windings and the rotor winding.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Advantages of AC Tachometer
The absence of slip-ring and brush devices, since the output is obtained from the stator. Relatively accurate speed readings

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Disadvantages of Tachometers
The noise components will dominate at low levels of output signal. In particular, since the output of a tachometer is proportional to the measured speed, at low speeds, the level of noise, as a fraction of the output signal, can be large. Signal demodulation is necessary, particularly for measuring transient speeds. The output signal level depends on the supply voltage; hence, a stabilized voltage source, which has very small output impedance is necessary for accurate measurements. At high speeds the output from an ac tachometer is somewhat nonlinear (primarily due to the saturation effect)
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Typical Applications
AC and DC motors speed control. Automotive speed gauge

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Piezoelectric transducers

Piezoelectric materials: Barium titanate, single crystal quartz. Piezoelectric Effect: When mechanical stress or strain is applied to the piezoelectric material, generates an electric charge and associated potential difference. The direct application of piezoelectric effect is used in pressure and strain measuring devices

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

The Piezoelectric Effect

Crystal material at rest: No forces applied as shown, so net current flow is 0 Crystal
+-+-+-

Current Meter =0 Charges cancel each other, so no current flow

+-+-+-

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

The Piezoelectric Effect

Crystal material with forces applied in direction of arrows.
Crystal

--Force

+++

Current Meter deflects in + direction

Due to properties of symmetry, charges are net + on one side & net - on the opposite side: crystal gets thinner and longer Dr. Ashraf Saleem

The Piezoelectric Effect

Changing the direction of the applied force Crystal ++++
Force

----. Changes the direction of current flow, and the crystal gets shorter and fatter.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Current Meter deflects in direction

Piezoelectric Accelerometers

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 1: Accelerometer
An accelerometer has a mass of 0.05 kg and a spring constant of 3X103 N/m. Maximum mass displacement is 0.02 m (before the mass hits the stops). Calculate the maximum measurable acceleration in g.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 2: Accelerometer
An accelerometer outputs 14 mV per g. Design a signal conditioning circuit that provides a velocity signal scaled at 0.25 V for every m/s.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Conditioning circuit/Charge Amp.

To make use of the piezoelectric device, a charge amplifiers are required to integrate the electric charges to give a signal that is proportional to the applied force and big enough to measure.
Cf

Rf

Cp
Transducer

Cc
Cable

-A

Calibration And display

Charge amplifier

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Piezoelectric Touch sensors

We have several overlay touch screens for laptop screens. They respond to multiple finger contacts, 8000 Samples/sec. Piezoelectric film creates voltages in response to strain. It can be cut to custom shapes for special-purpose sensors.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Force Sensing
Elastic Sensing: Strain Sensing: Pressure Sensing:

F = kx
F = A

F = PA

Acceleration Sensing: F = m a

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Strain gauge types

Strain gauge load cells
foil strain gauges semiconductor strain gauges thin-film strain gauges wire strain gauges

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Strain and Stress

Stress, defined as force per unit area, is a measure of the intensity of internal forces acting within a body across internal surfaces, as a reaction to external applied forces and body forces. Strain is the geometrical expression of deformation caused by the action of stress on a physical body. Strain is calculated by first assuming a change between two body states: the beginning state and the final state. Then the difference in placement of two points in this body in those two states expresses the numerical value of strain.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Fundamentals of Strain Gages

Transverse strain Axial strain

eT F l l eL A F

e T = e L
Poissons ratio

Elastic Modulus:

E=

(stress) e (strain)
R=

Material resistivity

The resistance of a strain gage:

l
A

Element length Cross section area

When a strain gage is strained, the change in resistance is:

R l + R A + R R = l A
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Strain Gages

Characteristics:
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 7) 8) able to measure strains of 1mm/m small in size and light in weight able to response to high frequency signals wide range of linear response flexible in use and wide range applications low in cost easy compensation to various factors

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Gage factor
The sensitivity of a strain gage is described in terms of a characteristic called gage factor defined as the unit change in resistance per unit change in length, or

R R K= l l

R R K= strain

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Foil strain gauges

The foil strain gauge is the most widely used type It consists of a metal foil pattern mounted on an insulating backing or carrier, constructed by bonding a sheet of thin rolled metal foil, 2 m 5 m thick, on a backing sheet of 10 m 30 m thick.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Semiconductor strain gauges

These are manufactured from strips of semiconducting silicon in either the n or p form. The output from a semiconductor gauge is very high compared to a wire or foil gauge. The gauge factor is typically 100 - 150 for a semiconductor and 2 - 4 for wire and foil. The output from semiconductor gauges is nonlinear with strain, but have an extremely long life.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Semiconductor strain gauges

This type of gauges is widely used on small transducers such as force transducers, accelerometers and pressure sensors whose sensing element may be micro-machined out of a single piece of silicon.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thin-film strain gauges

The manufacture of a thin film strain gauge system will go through several stages of evaporation and sputtering and may have up to eight layers of material. There are a number of thin-film strain gauge force transducers available covering a range of 0.1 N to 100 N in the form of a single- or double-bending beam configuration. These devices are highly cost effective when produced in large quantities due to the manufacturing techniques involved. This makes them ideally suited for use in large-volume products such as shop scales and pressure transducers.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Wire strain gauge

The wire strain gauge was the original type of resistance strain gauge, though now widely replaced by cheaper foil or thin film types. However the wire strain gauge is still used extensively for high temperature transducers and stress analysis, and is available made from a wide range of materials. The wire is typically 20 m - 30 m in diameter and may be bonded to the substrate using ceramic materials. It is less commonly used in the free form where the wire is looped around insulated pins which are mounted on the elastic member.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Comments
The nominal resistance of the strain gauge varies with the type and application. Wire gauges have resistances in the range of 60 ohms to 350 ohms, foil and semiconductor gauges from 120 ohms to 5 k ohms and thin film types around 10 k ohms. Selection criteria may include size, selfheating and power requirements. If several load cells are to be connected together then matched resistance may be important.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 3: Strain gage

A strain gage with GF=2.03 and R=350 is used in a bridge. The bridge resistors are R1=R2=R3=350 . If a strain of 1450 m/m is applied, find the bridge offset voltage if Vs=10 V. How much voltage results from a strain of 1 micro?

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 4: Strain gage

A simple load cell consisting of an aluminum post of 2.5 cm radius with a detector strain gage. The strain gage is used in a bridge with V=2V, R1=R2=R3=120 , and GF=2.13. Find the variation of bridge offset voltage for a load of 0 to 5000 lb. Modulus of elasticity of aluminum is E=6.89X1010 N/m2
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Temperature Sensors
Resistance Temperature Detectors Thermistors Thermocouples Other Sensors
Bimetal Strips Gas Thermometer Liquid Expansion Thermometers

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Resistance versus Temperature Approximation

A Linear approximation means that we may develop an equation for a straight line that approximates the resistance versus temperature (R-T) curve over some specified span. The equation of the straight line approximation to the curve over the span T1 to T2 can be written as :

R(T ) = R(T0 )(1 + 0 T )

Where: R(T0) = resistance at temperature To T = T - T0

T1 < T < T2

R (T) = approximation of resistance at temperature T

0 = fractional change in resistance per degree of temperature at T0

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)

RDT is a temperature sensor that is based on the principle that metal resistance increasing with temperature Metals used in these devices such as platinum, which is very repeatable, quite sensitive, and very expensive. Nickel is also used which is not quite repeatable, more sensitive, and less expensive.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

RTD Sensitivity
An estimate of RTD sensitivity can be noted from typical values of 0. For platinum, this number is typically on the order of 0.004/oC, and for nickel a typical value is 0.005/oC. With platinum, for example, a change of only 0.4 would be expected for a 100 RTD if the temperature changed by 1oC.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

RTD Response time

In general, RTD has a response time of 0.5 to 5 s or more The slowness of response is due to the slowness of thermal conductivity in bringing the device into thermal equilibrium with its environment. Generally, time constants are specified either for a free air condition or an oil bath condition.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

RTD Construction
An RTD is simply a length of wire whose resistance is to be monitored as a function of temperature. The construction is typically such that the wire is wound on a form (in a coil) to achieve small size and improve thermal conductivity to decrease response time.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Wire wound element

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Film style element design

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Signal Conditioning
In the view of the very small fractional change of resistance with temperature (0.4%), the RTD is generally used in a bridge circuit.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

RTD Dissipation Constant

Because RTD is a resistor, there is an I2R power dissipated by the device that causes a slight heating effect, a self-heating. This may cause an erroneous reading. Thus, the current through the RTD must be kept sufficiently low and constant to avoid selfheating. Typically, a dissipation constant is provided in RTD specifications. Thus, a 25 mW/oC dissipation constant shows that if I2R power losses in the RTD equal 25mW. The RTD will be heated by 1oC.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

RTD Dissipation Constant

The dissipation constant equation is:

Where: T = temperature rise because of self-heating in oC P = power dissipated in the RTD from the circuit in W PD = dissipation constant of the RTD in W/oC

P T = PD

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example:
An RTD has 0=0.005/oC, R= 500 , and a dissipation constant of PD=30 mW/oC at 20 oC. The RTD is used in a bridge circuit with R1 = R2 = 500 and R3 a variable resistor used to null the bridge. If the supply is 10 V and the RTD is placed is a bath at 0oC, find the value of R3 to null the bridge
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thermistors
A thermistor is a temperature sensor that has been developed from the principles of semiconductor resistance change with temperature. The particular semiconductor materials used varies widely to accommodate temperature ranges, sensitivity, resistance ranges, and other factors.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thermistor Sensitivity
The sensitivity of the thermistors is a significant factor in their application. Changes in resistance of 10% per oC are common. Thus, a thermistor with a nominal resistance of 10 k at some temperature may change by 1 k per 1 oC.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thermistors Range
The temperature range of thermistors depends on the materials used to construct the sensor. In general, there are three range limitation effects:
Melting or deterioration of the semiconductor Deterioration of encapsulation material Insensitivity of higher temperature

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Response time
The response time of the thermistors depends principally on the quantity of material present and the environment. Thus, for the smallest bead thermistors in an oil bath, a response of s is typical. The same thermistor in still air will response typically in 10 s.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Signal Conditioning
In many cases, a bridge circuit is used. Since these devices are resistances, care must be taken to ensure that power dissipation in the thermistor does not exceed the limits specified or even interfere with the environment. Dissipation constants are quoted for thermistors as the power in milliwatts required to raise a thermistors temperature by 1oC above its environment. Typical values vary from 1 mW/oC in free air to 10mW/oC or more in an oil bath

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example
A thermistor is to monitor room temperature. It has a resistance of -10%/oC. The dissipation constant is PD=5 mW/oC. It is proposed to use the thermistor in a voltage divider with V=10V and R=3.5 k in order to provide a voltage of 5 V at 20oC. Evaluate the effects of self heating.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thermocouple
When a temperature differential maintained across a given metal, the vibration of atoms and motion of electrons is affected so that a difference of potential exists across the material. This potential difference is related to the fact that electrons in the hotter end of the material have more thermal energy than those in the cooler end, and thus tend to drift towered the cooler end.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Seebeck effect
Using solid state theory,

= (T2 T1 )
Where = emf produced in volts = constant in V/K T1, T2 = junction temperatures in K This equation, which describes the Seebeck effect, shows that the emf produced is proportional to the difference in temperature and, further, to the difference in the metallic thermal transport constants.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

TC Characteristics
To measure an unknown temperature, we see first that one temperature must be known since the Seebeck voltage is proportional to the difference between junctions temperature.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thermocouple Types

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

TC Tables
The thermocouple tables simply give the voltage that results for a particular type of thermocouple when the reference junctions are at a particular reference temperature. In most cases, the measured voltage does not fall exactly on a table value. When this happens, it is necessary to interpolate between table values that bracket the desired value. Use the following formula:

TH TL TM = TL = (VM VL ) VH VL
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 1:
A voltage of 23.72 mV is measured with a type K thermocouple at a 0 oC reference. Find the temperature of the measurement junction.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 2
Find the voltage of a type J thermocouple wit a 0 oC reference if the junction temperature is -172 oC.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Change of table reference

V(400 oC) = 21.85 mV (Type J, 0 oC ref) and V(30 oC) = 1.54 mV (Type J, 0 oC ref) then V(400 oC) = 20.31 mV (Type J, 30 oC ref) or VJ30 (400 oC) = 20.31
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 3:
A type J thermocouple with a 25 oC reference is used to measure oven temperature from 300 oC to 400 oC. What output voltages correspond to these temperature?

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example 4:
A type K thermocouple with a 23.9 oC reference produces a voltage of 35.56 mV. What is the temperature?

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Thermocouple Sensitivity
A review of tables shows that the range of thermocouple output is typically less than 100 mV. The actual sensitivity strongly depends on the conditioning circuit and on the TC itself. Examples of the worst and best sensitivity:
Type J: 0.05 mV/oC (typical) Type S: 0.006 mV/oC (typical)
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

TC Range & Time response

The TC has the greatest range of all the types considered. Examples:
Type J TC is usable from -150o to 745oC. Type S TC is usable up to 1765oC.

TC time response is simply related to the size of the wire and any protective material used with the sensor. Large industrial TCs using thick wire may have time constants as high as 10 to 20 s. Whereas, a TC may from very small gage wire can have a time constant as small as 10 to 20 ms
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Conditioning Circuit/ Example

Temperature for plating operations must be measured for control within a range of 500 oF to 600 oF. Develop a measuring system that scales this temperature into 0 to 5 V for input to an 8-bit ADC.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Ultrasonic Transducer

Bistatic
(lynxmotion usr-01)
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Monostatic
(polaroid R14-SONAR1)

Ultrasonic Sensor
1. Int sound pulses is generated and transmitted 2. Blank receiver is blank 3. Amplify received signal is amplified with increased gain (Stepped gain) over time to compensate for the decrease in sound intensity with distance 4. Echo signal exceed fixed threshold value are recorded 5. Calculate distance is calculated from elapsed time

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Ultrasonic Sensor

Blanking interval occurs from the residual oscillation in the transducer after the acoustic pulse is generated (polaroid 6500 have 2.38ms blanking)
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Ultrasonic Sensor
Maximum Detection Range: depends on both emitted power and frequency of operation. The lower the frequency, the longer range. Maximum attenuation of ultrasonice energy: amax = f/100 (dB/foot) f : operating frequency (KHz)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Ultrasonic Sensor
Acoustic reflectance: amplitude of return echo is influenced by the acoustic reflectance of object. Concrete 89% Acoustic tile 30%

Max. 35 feet

Max. 23 feet

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Problems in ultrasonic sensor

specular reflection : reflected energy does not return to transducer

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Problems in ultrasonic sensor

false return : higher order reflections give false distance measurement

c a

0.5(a+b+c)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Problems in ultrasonic sensor

Noise Environmental noise (near operating frequency) Crosstalk (returns from other sensors) Self noise (electrical noise)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Choosing operating frequency

Diameter and type of transducer Anticipated target characteristic :reflectance,etc Possible interference desired angular and range resolution max./min ranging distance

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Example: Polaroid 6500 specifications

Maximum range: Minimum range: Blanking time Resolution Gain steps Multiple echo Programmable frequency Power Operating Current 35 feet 6 inches 2.38 msec 1 % 12 yes yes 4.7-6.8 Volts 100 mA

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Light energy
For a sensor, were interested in the light power that falls on a unit area, and how well the sensor converts that into a signal. A common unit is the lux which measures apparent brightness (power multiplied by the human eyes sensitivity). 1 lux of yellow light is about 0.0015 W/m2. 1 lux of green light (50% eff.) is 0.0029 W/m2. Sunlight corresponds to about 50,000 lux Artificial light typically 500-1000 lux

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Light sensors
Simplest light sensor is an LDR (Light-Dependent Resistor). Optical characteristics close to human eye. Can be used to feed an A/D directly without amplification (one resistor in a voltage divider). Common material is CdS (Cadmium Sulphide) Advantages: Cope with harsh environmental conditions , cheaper, long life. Disadvantage: slow response

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Light sensors
Semiconductor light sensors include: photodiodes, phototransistors, photodarlingtons. All of these have similar noise performance, but phototransistors and darlingtons have better sensitivity (more current for given light input). Phototransistor: 1 mA @ 1000 lux Photodarlingtons up to 100x this sensitivity. Advantages: fast response Disadvantages: high noise, more expensive, high sensitivity.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Light sensors high end

At the cutting edge of light sensor sensitivity are Avalanche photodiodes. Large voltages applied to these diodes accelerate electrons to collide with the semiconductor lattice, creating more charges. These devices have quantum efficiencies around 90% and extremely low noise. They are now made with large collection areas and known as LAAPDs (LargeArea Avalanche Photo-Diode)

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Pressure Sensor
Most pressure sensors used result in the transduction of pressure information into a physical displacement. There are many types of pressure sensors:
Diaphragm Bellows Solid state pressure sensors
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Diaphragm Pressure Sensor

A diaphragm is like a spring and therefore extends or contracts until force developed that balances the pressure difference. If a pressure P1 exists on one side of the diaphragm and P2 on the other, then the net force is exerted by:

F=(p2-p1)A
The extend of the diaphragm deflection (i.e. the diaphragm displacement) is a measure of the pressure difference.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Bellows Pressure Sensors

A bellows is another device much like the diaphragm that converts a pressure differential into a physical displacement, except that here the displacement is much more straight-line expansion. When there is a pressure difference, a net force will exist on the flat, front of the bellows. The bellows assembly will then collapse like an accordion if p2 is greater than p1 or expand if p2 is less than p1. Again, we have a displacement which is proportional to pressure difference. An LVDT can be utilized to convert this displacement linearly into voltage.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Diaphragm & bellows Sensors

Diaphragm

Bellows

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Solid state pressure sensor

Integrated circuit technology has led to the development of solidstate (SS) pressure sensors that find extensive application in the pressure ranges of 0 to 100 kPa (0 to 14.7 psi). These small units often require no more than three connections-dc power, ground, and the sensor output

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Solid state pressure sensor

The basic sensing element is a small wafer of silicon acting as a diaphragm that, as usual, deflects in response to a pressure difference. However, as suggested in Figure, in this case the deflection is sensed by semiconductor strain gauges grown directly on the silicon wafer; furthermore, signalconditioning circuitry is grown directly on the wafer as well
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Solid state pressure sensor

SS pressure sensors are characterized by: 1. Sensitivities in the range of 10 to 100 mV/kPa. 2. Response times on the order of 10 ms 3. Linear voltage versus pressure within the specified operating range. 4. Ease of use, with often only three connections: dc power (typically 5 V), ground, and the sensor output voltage.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem