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1. Definition of Research Research can be defined as the search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, with an open mind, to establish novel facts, usually using a scientific method. The word research is derived from the French word rechercher, to search closely where "chercher" means "to look for or to search". The primary purpose for applied research is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. 1.1. a) DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH Scientific Research

Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world around us. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines. b) Artistic Research Artistic research, is the debatable body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research for knowledge and truth. c) Historical method The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various history guidelines commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are usually part of most formal historical research: 1. Identification of origin date 2. Evidence of localization 3. Recognition of authorship 4. Analysis of data 5. Identification of integrity 6. Attribution of credibility

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Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though order of steps may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied: 1. Observations and Formation of the topic 2. Hypothesis 3. Conceptual definitions 4. Operational definition 5. Gathering of data 6. Analysis of data 7. Test, revising of hypothesis 8. Conclusion, iteration if necessary

1.3. RESEARCH METHODS

1. The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge. This process takes three main forms: a) Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems b) Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem c) Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence 2. Research can also fall into two distinct types: a) Primary research (collection of data that does not yet exist) b) Secondary research (summary, collection and/or synthesis of existing research)

3. In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the research: a) Qualitative research (understanding of human behaviour and the reasons that govern such behaviour) b) Quantitative research (systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships)

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1.4. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN UNDERGRADUATE AND RESEARCH EDUCATION

The undergraduate/postgraduate research is clearly a less advanced qualification than the Ph.D. in which the student is expected to master a content area and can be completed in two or three years full-time study. Following are the main differences between undergraduate and research education: a) Duration of Research: The Graduate research is normally shorter than the Ph.D. thesis. It is often used as a training course in advanced research work, and can be a preliminary stage for the Ph.D. where it is necessary to learn the fundamentals of research and acquire new techniques. A candidate for a graduate research must undertake an investigation but, compared to the Ph.D., the work may be limited in scope and the degree of originality. b) Originality of Work: Considerably more emphasis is put on original work in the Ph.D. and the Ph.D. thesis involves greater depth than a graduate research. Greater synthesis and critical ability and also a more detailed investigation of any practical illustrations are expected from doctoral candidates. The graduate research can be limited to the replication of research already published. c) Under your own management: It is the key to the nature of doctoral education. In doctoral education, one has to take responsibility for managing learning and for getting a Ph.D. Of course, there will be people around to help: supervisor(s), other academics in department, fellow students and so on. Some of them will tell what, in their opinion, is to be done to obtain the degree, but the responsibility for determining what is required, as well as for carrying it out, and remains firmly with Ph.D. student. But during graduation syllabus, text books and exams are pre planned. d) Specialization: In undergraduate study, students build a foundation of general psychology knowledge. Classes are offered in a variety of disciplines. Students take the classes and use the knowledge from those classes to decide what they would like to specialize in. Ph.D. programs are often offered as a specialized degree and the program is meant to train students to enter that specific field as a researcher or a therapist. e) Class Load: The class load, credits-wise, is lighter at a graduate program. Most programs recommend a student only take three or four classes. All of those classes will be in the psychology department, or a related department like math or biology. Work-wise, the classes are

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probably more work than in undergrad. Ph.D. classes require more reading, more papers, and fewer tests. Classes are generally held as a discussion, rather than a lecture. f) Thesis: To graduate from a Ph.D. degree program, most programs require the student to complete a thesis. A thesis is a personal research project and study performed by the student. It must follow strict guidelines and be approved by the Institute/university's review and ethics board. Some undergraduate programs require a thesis if the student was in an honours program.

1.5. STATUS OF RESEARCH IN INDIA

Government-funded research councils provide studentships for full-time doctoral students in science, social science and arts students. In the past they have taken a fairly relaxed view in evaluating what happened after the studentship had been awarded, considering this a matter for the academic discretion of the particular department and supervisor involved, but this is no longer so. The historically high drop-out rate of students has led the councils in the past decade to require universities to demonstrate that they have an effective student support system in place. They have issued guidelines on what is good practice in matters such as induction sessions for new students, research environments, supervisory arrangements and appeals and complaints procedures. They have issued league tables of completion rates and universities who do not perform satisfactorily run the risk of not receiving any allocation of research student grants. The universities can apply for reinstatement after a period when they have to demonstrate that their support arrangements have improved. The effect of these policies has been to make academic institutions much more concerned to control the education which takes place during the PhD to ensure that it is of high quality. They have reviewed their supervisory practices, established doctoral programmes, and strengthened the procedures for monitoring the progress of research students, and so on. Academics with overall departmental responsibility for doctoral students have been appointed. The aim of research councils is to get a high proportion of full-time doctoral students to complete within stipulated period, and universities work to bring this about. The criterion of a successful completion for these purposes is defined as: the submission of the thesis for first examination after registration as a full-time student. However this pattern differs in different Institutes/ Universities as per their rules and regulations.

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1.6.

RESEARCH FUNDING/ SCHOLARSHIPS

Most funding for scientific research comes from two major sources: Corporate research and development departments; and government research councils such as the UGC, CSIR, DBT, ICMR etc. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research, but also as a source of merit. a) Meaning of Scholarship A scholarship is an award given by an organization or institution to fund the education of a selected student. Usually, the award can be used for consumables, books, room and board, research, travel, or other education related expenses. Scholarship is bound up with the nature and functions of the university or Institutes. It is highly valued in higher education. The ideal of the scholar is frequently intimately associated with ideas about the essence of what universities are for. b) Concept of Scholarship The concept of scholarship has also been used to explain the relationship between teaching and research. Elton defines scholarship as the interpretation of what is already known; the primary work that feeds into all else academics are supposed to do, while the concept of scholarship also includes the idea of a quality describing the way in which inquiry should be done. Boyers (1990) suggest a fourfold definition which, they argue, corresponds to different approaches to the ways knowledge is perceived and approached: the advancement of knowledge, its application, representation and integration in society. The scholarship of discovery comes closes to the idea of research. It contributes to the stock of human knowledge and also to the intellectual climate of the institution. The scholarship of integration is concerned with making inter-disciplinary connections:

In calling for a scholarship of integration what we mean is serious, disciplined work that seeks to interpret, draw together, and bring new insight to bear on original research. The third type of scholarship defined by Boyer and his colleagues is the scholarship of application. By this they draw attention to the application of knowledge in the wider community.

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There is a caution against seeing theory and practice separate for what is envisaged is a dynamic interaction where the one renews the other. Finally there is the scholarship of teaching. This is defined as well informed teachers; teaching which is carefully planned, continuously evaluated and relates to the subject taught; teaching which encourages active learning and encourages students to be critical, creative thinkers with the capacity to go on learning after their university days are over; and a recognition that teachers are also learners. 1.7. RESEARCH ETHICS It involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics involving scientific research. These include the design and implementation of research involving human experimentation, animal experimentation, various aspects of academic scandal, including scientific misconduct (such as fraud, fabrication data and plagiarism), whistle blowing; regulation of research, etc. The scientific research enterprise is built on a foundation of trust. Scientists trust that the results reported by others are valid. Society trusts that the results of research reflect an honest attempt by scientists to describe the world accurately and without bias. But this trust will endure only if the scientific community devotes itself to exemplifying and transmitting the values associated with ethical scientific conduct. There are many ethical issues to be taken into serious consideration for research. Sociologists need to be aware of having the responsibility to secure the actual permission and interests of all those involved in the study. They should not misuse any of the information discovered, and there should be a certain moral responsibility maintained towards the participants. There is a duty to protect the rights of people in the study as well as their privacy and sensitivity. The confidentiality of those involved in the observation must be carried out, keeping their anonymity and privacy secure. As pointed out in the BSA for Sociology, all of these ethics must be honoured unless there are other overriding reasons to do so for example, any illegal or terrorist activity. a) Codes and Policies for Research Ethics Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted
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specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. Many government agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) have ethics rules for funded researchers. Other influential research ethics policies include the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors), the Chemist's Code of Conduct (American Chemical Society), Code of Ethics (American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science) Ethical Principles of Psychologists (American Psychological Association), Statements on Ethics and Professional Responsibility (American Anthropological Association), Statement on Professional Ethics (American Association of University Professors), the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association). b) Purpose of code of ethics The purpose of code of ethics is to establish a set of principles and procedures to guide the partners to achieve the goals and objectives of the project. The code outlines the obligations of each of the partners through all of the phases of the project, from design of the research through to the publication and communication of the experiences of the project. The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principles that various codes address: (i) Honesty Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public. (ii)Objectivity Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.

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(iii) Integrity Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action. (iv) Carefulness Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals. (v) Openness Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new idea (vi) Respect for Intellectual Property Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize. (vii) Confidentiality Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, and trade and patient records. (viii) Responsible Publication Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication. (ix) Responsible Mentoring Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions. (x) Respect for colleagues Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly. (xi) Social Responsibility Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy. (xii) Non-Discrimination Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.

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(xiii) Competence Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole. (xiv) Legality Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies. (xv) Animal Care Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments. (xvi) Human Subjects Protection When conducting research on human subjects minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly. (xvii) Ethical Decision Making in Research Although codes, policies, and principals are very important and useful, like any set of rules, they do not cover every situation, they often conflict, and they require considerable interpretation. It is therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and apply various research rules and how to make decisions and to act in various situations. The vast majority of decisions involve the straightforward application of ethical rules.

1.8. PUBLISHING AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN RESEARCH Academic publishing describes a system that is necessary in order for academic scholars to peer review the work and make it available for a wider audience. The 'system', which is probably disorganized enough not to merit the title, varies widely by field, and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and medicine. Most established academic fields have their own journals and other outlets for publication, though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields; from the print to the electronic format. Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s,

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licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access. Types of Open Access Journals 1. Open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely available from the time of publication, 2. Self-archiving, where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web.

1.9. PLAGIARISM Plagiarism means using anothers work without giving credit. If you use others words, you must put them in quotation marks and cite your source. Citations must be given when using others ideas, even if you have paraphrased those ideas in your own words. Work includes the words and ideas of others, as well as art, graphics, computer programs, music, and other creative expression. The work may consist of writing, charts, data, graphs, pictures, diagrams, websites, movies, TV broadcasts, or other communication media The term source includes published works books, magazines, newspapers, textbooks, websites, movies, photos, paintings, plays and unpublished sources(e.g., materials from a research service, blogs, class handouts, lectures, notes, speeches, or other students papers). Using words, ideas, computer code, or any work without giving proper credit is plagiarism. Any time you use information from a source, of any kind, you must cite it. a) Web based Plagiarism Online plagiarism is basically a growing phenomenon since it is quite easy to steal the content from the website by just copying it and pasting it. This phenomenon is also known as content scraping and is used by many blogs and sites. One of the reasons why this is done is to attract the SEO generated traffic of the original website to one's own website an however; there are many ways in which this can be prevented. There are many online tools which are today available for finding and then preventing plagiarism. There are free tools which are available and many methods which are available for finding out if any other website has copied their text and to limit online plagiarism on the web pages. There have been several instances where such plagiarism has been detected in the past and a notice has been sent for removal of the content from the

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offending sited to convert them to profit through the online ads and sales of their own products and services. According to Kennedy (2006), "Plagiarism is the illegal practice of taking someone else's ideas, data, findings, the language, illustrative material, images, or writing, and presenting them as if they were your own." The modern concept of plagiarism as immoral and originality as an ideal emerged in Europe only in the 18th century, while in the previous centuries authors and artists were encouraged to "copy the masters as closely as possible" and avoid "unnecessary invention. b) Consequences of Plagiarism in Academia Plagiarism is a serious offence for academia and no academic institution can turn a blind eye to it. It undermines the rights of honest pupils and students; can seriously affect the moral rights of some authors and it denigrates academic grades, degrees and even the academic institution itself. Pupils and students cannot accept their graduation diplomas or degrees honestly if they know they have plagiarized others' works. How will they perform and succeed in their future academic careers, if they have not assimilated the academic ethics themselves? 1.10. SKILLS HABITS AND ATTITUDES FOR RESEARCH

1 Reasons to decide towards a Ph.D a) Significant Contribution: One of the most common aims at the beginning is the wish to make a significant contribution to the chosen field. In these cases students have become particularly interested in a topic during the course of their undergraduate degrees and wish to add something to the current state of knowledge. b) Enhance Carrier Opportunities: Important aim for many Ph.D. students is to enhance career opportunities and future earning capacity through possession of the Ph.D. degree. Some decide on this course of action when considering plans for the future. Others decide on research when they find it more difficult than they had expected to get a job in industry straight from university. There are other career reasons for wanting to take a doctorate. c) To get Dr. As title: Some students find that they are being called Dr by people coming in to the laboratory or hospital department where they work and feel guilty at accepting the title they have not yet achieved. Others feel that relationships with their medical colleagues may be easier

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if they too have the title. Some are embarrassed at being alone in their academic group without a title and succumb to their feelings of peer pressure in order to conform. d) Getting Scholarship: Another reason for undertaking a research degree after doing well at undergraduate level is simply taking up the offer of a studentship as a form of employment and without having any real career aims. 2. Real Purpose of PhD All of these motives are far removed from the idealistic view of the Ph.D. student as somebody dedicated to advancing knowledge and potentially worthy of becoming an undisputed expert in a given field. These diverse aims of students do not remain the same throughout the period of registration for the higher degree, however, not even for those students who do start because of the intrinsic satisfaction of actually doing research and because of their interest in the work for its own sake. The students, together with very many more enthusiastic new recruits, change their way of talking about their Ph.D. as the years of learning to do research and become a full professional pass by. Towards the end their aims become narrower: simply to reach the goal of the PhD got to get it or else to complete an unfinished task must finish. It is important that research students eventually realize that it is determination and application, rather than brilliance that is needed. The sooner one learns this the better it is. Conducting a piece of research to a successful conclusion is a job of work that has to be done just like any other job of work. Also, just like any other job of work, an important objective should be to make a success of what you have set out to do. 1.11. PSYCHOLOGICAL PHASES OF PH.D. PROCESS: The activity of getting a Ph.D. is inevitably a complex one. Students often embark on their research with the naive view that, having identified their topic, they will follow a predictable path to its conclusion. Unfortunately this is totally misleading. Even within the framework of the scientific method there will be the need for guesses, reworking, backtrackings, corrections and, above all, inspiration if the Ph.D. is to be achieved. Other conceptual paradigms provide even less structure. Uncertainty is inherent in the doctoral process, and a degree of tolerance of ambiguity is a prerequisite for successful research work. You therefore need some signposts for understanding to help you along the way. a) Enthusiasm

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Postgraduates begin the period of their research full of enthusiasm for their new undertaking. These changes during the time that it takes to complete the course. The main reason that initial enthusiasm diminishes is the length of time that has to be spent working on a single problem. b) Isolation Students discover what not to do for their Ph.D. after they have spent some time struggling with their own topic. Generally they have experienced disappointments in the amount of work they have managed to get done during this period and usually feel that they should be much farther ahead than they actually are. Students become dissatisfied with the amount and quality of their interactions with their supervisor. They also feel that they had very little in common with others in their department; in addition, they do not talk with anyone about their work. The lack of intellectual stimulation and exchange of ideas with either peers or supervisor eventually led to a loss of interest in his topic, which he thought was of no importance or interest to anybody else. Intellectual isolation is a necessary and desirable component of successful research. But there is no need for this to be accompanied by social or emotional loneliness. Regardless of discipline, topic, or university the postgraduates interviewed were suffering from the effects of the social circumstances in which they were working rather than from the work itself. Nevertheless, the effect of these feelings was to dampen their initial enthusiasm and slow down their pace of work almost nil. c) Increasing interest in work As students develop self-confidence and gradually become independent of their supervisors, so too do they become more involved with their work because of its own intrinsic interest. Once you have learned how to interpret the results of your own efforts you will find that you can grapple with problems as they arise instead of turning immediately to your supervisor for advice. When this happens you will find that you become increasingly absorbed in the work that you are doing, and that the problem you are investigating demands more and more of your time and attention. d) Transfer of dependence from the supervisor to the work As students become more involved with their work, so there is a lessening of the need for external approval. In fact supervisor should be engaged in a kind of weaning processes to enable student to become more independent. The way that own increasing independence in the

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work is related to a lessening of dependence on productivity. It is from the students output that the supervisor is able to evaluate progress in the explicit terms necessary for giving feedback. Therefore this indicates that simultaneous growth in independence from external approval coupled with reliance on the information that is received while working on the topic. The more can be relied on own judgement of the quality and standard of the work, and the longer development in the thinking, the less needed to turn to supervisor for comment, criticism or interpretation. e) Boredom About halfway through the period of research student tend to get fed up, confused and feel completely stuck. This getting nowhere syndrome has been remarked on by many creative people, including those who discuss it as part of their own experience of doing research. Supervisors too commented on it during the interviews. f) Frustration As the research progresses, new ideas about how to follow up the results of work that student have already done are constantly being generated. It is very tempting to pursue some of these new avenues, but if student completes the agreed research programme in time it is important to concentrate on the problem in hand and not be sidetracked. This becomes increasingly frustrating as the original problem becomes more and more familiar. Not being able to follow up results, ideas and theories is a constant source of dissatisfaction and frustration for most research students during the thesis stage of their PhD. g) A job to be finished It seems to be important for the morale of most research students that they think in terms of a goal got to get it! or an unfinished task that needs completion must finish! If student have got to the point of realizing that his/her work, just like any other kind of work, needs to be planned and developed and completed in a given period of time, one will have entered the final crucial motivating stage of the process. As with other jobs, the student will be rewarded at the end of it; not in this case by a financial bonus, but by a higher degree. h) Euphoria After submission of the thesis there is a period of anxiety and expectation that the student have to live through waiting for the day of the viva. This final stage is that which occurs after student has had the viva and been told that you have been awarded the doctorate, or that you will have

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the doctorate once you have made specific alterations to the text of the thesis within a limited amount of time. Then you are overwhelmed with feelings of joy, light headedness and achievement. The years you have been working now seem worthwhile just to get to the feeling of euphoria that permeates your whole being once you have succeeded in what you set out to do all those years ago.

STRESS POINTS DURING RESEARCH a) Loss of Motivation The best way to avoid loss of motivation is for students to really know why they want to do a Ph.D. and to select a topic, institution and supervisor that they know will excite them for the long run. Understanding motivation will also help the institution (through the supervisor) support and encourage the student in the best way. b) Experiments That Dont Work All scientists know the frustration that can arise when an experiment doesnt work. If this happens to a research student, he should seek help from his fellow students, from the supervisor, from other researchers in the department and also from scientists working at other Universities and research laboratories. c) Problems With Data-Collection Sometimes social science research students face problems collecting their data. This can be due to difficulties in recruiting respondents. Sometimes their responses will not allow students to address their research questions in the way they had expected. If numbers of respondents are insufficient, the selection criteria may be extended or the number of case studies increased. If the responses are not what were expected, there may be an opportunity to revise the theory or model being tested and this may result in a better thesis. d) Isolation The further a student gets into his Ph.D., the more likely he is to experience isolation, a consequence of studying something completely original. Joining student societies and trying to maintain a life outside university are two ways of combating this. If theres no doctoral student society in place, a student could try to organise one. e) Running out of Money

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Ph.D. students on grants often find it very difficult to complete their studies once their grant has run out, and part-time students are likely to find it hard to make ends meet throughout their studies. In some countries, it is possible to suspend a doctoral registration, but it is not uncommon that students who do this find it hard to re-start. If it is essential that a suspension be put in place, students should keep in touch with both their research project and their supervisor during the period of suspension. Maintaining links improves the chances of eventual completion considerably. f) Problems With a Supervisor Problems with a research degree supervisor can arise from overwork, personality clashes, a change of topic or a multitude of reasons. Whatever the reason, it is important that the student discuss the situation openly with the supervisor. If that is impossible, go to the Departmental Research Degree Coordinator or Head of the department/Institute. If none of these are possible, talk with the student union or student association. It is a students right to have good supervision and a universitys failure to provide it leaves it liable. g) What if Someone Publishes a Students Original Idea Before He Does? A student shouldnt worry about this because it very rarely happens. If it does, and it is worth reiterating that the chance of someone reproducing independently a students programme of work is very, very slim. In that case, re-orientate the thesis so that it focuses on a different aspect of the research. Think about drawing on a different aspect of the literature review or do some additional empirical work to move the idea on. The latter option may not be a satisfactory situation, but it may well save the doctorate the student has put so much work into. MANAGING YOURSELF FOR PHD/ RESEARCH Students often enter a doctoral program desirous of a research and teaching career, but with little hands- on understanding of the demands of such a program. They then find themselves in a program that bears little resemblance to previous degree programs, they had successfully completed. Due to the focus and importance of research in PhD, it is often believed that creating new knowledge is the main goal of PhD. Though creating new knowledge is part of the PhD training, the main objective of doing PhD degree is to become a competent researcher who can conduct independent research in his or her chosen area. However, a key ingredient for success is their ability to manage the program and they have to face the following problems like:

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1. Poor planning 2. Methodological difficulties 3. Writing 4. Isolation 5. Personal Problems 6. Supervision a) Self directed Learning and management Because a PhD largely involves self-directed learning self-management is critical. PhD is an opportunity to develop an effective and highly efficient process for working and there should be the proper consideration of following points during doctoral programme. So to overcome the above problems, there is need to properly manage yourself before entering the research which is possible through: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) Estimate how long each task will take Use of planning tools to establish important sequences Enter start dates, milestones and completion dates in routine diary Review and revise regularly your experiments Write down everything you can so that you do not need to keep it in short-term memory Hopelessly inaccurate estimates are much more efficient than no estimates at all Make a list of your glassware, chemicals and technological needs and work out how youre going to get them b) Managing your Writing Writing is one of the most challenging tasks you will have to undertake during your research. Make sure you start writing early on and regularly throughout your PhD. The more you write, the better you will become at it. Even if you are not going to try and publish anything while you are doing your work, you must get into the habit of writing down your ideas. Start with a modest target (may be review), then give it to your supervisor and ask for feedback. Once you are capable of wrting a good review following the instructions of journal and standard guidelines, you will be able to write the research paper also as well as become competent to academic
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wirting to some extent Research scholars can also improve their academic writing skills by attending conferences, seminars, workshops and by poster and oral presentations. c) Habit of exploring research journals Reflective journals are a very private form of leaning supervision. In essence of good journals you become your own supervisor. A reflective journal is not a work log or diary. In the reflective journal you record your experience of formulating questions and of how you came to find answers, like a documentary of your journey of discovery. They are a chance for you to explore your blocks and dead ends and to think about and plan strategies to overcome them. d) What is your thesis about? Before starting your research, you must aware of your research priorities on the basis of your topic of interest and justification of gap studies. Following points can help the research scholar in managing their research topic 1. Write your short research statement (25-30 words). It will change over time but it is important that you formulate what it is, discuss it with your supervisor and reach an agreement on your research direction. 2. Use SPQR (Situation-Problem-Question-Response) to help structure your research it can be quite helpful in writing early versions of your abstract which includes I. How would you describe the current situation? II. What is the key problem your PhD addresses? III. What questions arise from problem? IV. How did you respond to answer the question? e) Find out what you are expected to do by: 1. Attending departmental orientation and technical programs 2. Attending conferences, seminars, workshops and trainings 3. Course handbooks
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4. GSO (Global Standard Organisation) guidelines 5. Books and websites 6. Read excellent theses f) Abilities to develop by Research scholar The ability to conduct research in an area requires deep knowledge in that area, knowledge about related areas, and the experience of working on research problems, i.e. problems whose outcomes are not known. To develop these critical abilities, most PhD programs have three components in them some course work to provide the breadth of knowledge, some methods to develop the depth of knowledge in the chosen area of study, and a thesis that provides the experience of working on research problems. Through these components a PhD candidate should expect to develop the following abilities, which form the foundation of a career in research: 1. Breadth in the discipline can be provided through courses. 2. Expertise in a vertical area in which the PhD candidate can say I am an expert in this. i.e. an area in which he has full knowledge of what is known, what is missing, etc. Developing this expertise requires ability to search for relevant work done in an area, as well as the ability to critically read and understand research papers, reports, and monographs and appreciate the subtle or complex issues that may be involved. 3. Ability to identify research problems. This is one of the most important abilities for a researcher. This ability requires a good knowledge of the recent developments in the area, and the ability to create a bigger picture and see how the different work fit and what might be missing. Formulating a problem properly is half the research done. In fact, most PhD candidates spend much of their time in defining the problem. This skill is strengthened as the person develops the subjective ability of judging results and problems. This skill is also needed by a PhD person as a member of the research community where one is called upon to review other peoples work. 4. Ability to actually do the research. Behind every research there is some new idea, some hypothesis, which forms the foundation of the research work. But doing research is much more than getting an idea. The idea has to be developed using the established paradigms of scientific research, through which the researcher shows the value of the idea. Spending time grappling with research issues, actually doing research, and studying research work
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of others can help in developing this ability. That is the main reason why doing independent research is always a part of a PhD program. 5. Ability to write and present the results. This is very important and very difficult. Not only are issues of communication involved, but one has to convince a group of peers (who review it and later read it, if published) that the work is worthy of their time, the results have been put in context, the value is clearly articulated, etc. Publishing the results of research has been the time honored tradition and benchmark, and perhaps the only reliable method to subject a research work to scrutiny as well as use by others.

EMPATHY AND RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISOR, COLLEAGUES AND SUPPORTING STAFF To carry out research in a lab or in a organization is not a process of isolation. Though you need privacy and concentration during your research but you have to be in the contact of many persons like your supervisor, colleagues, staff members and persons not related to your department or organization but related to your research. So to carry out your work effectively, smoothly, timely and with patience, there is need of better understanding between you and the persons linked to you during your research process. a) Empathy and Relationship with Supervisor In addition to choosing the research topic and paradigm, a doctoral student must also select a supervisor who will accompany him or her throughout the doctoral research. Choosing a supervisor, however, unlike choosing the research topic or paradigm, is mutual; not only does the student choose the supervisor, but the supervisor must also agree to supervise the student. This mutual selection leads to the formation of a professional and significant relationship for the doctoral student, due to the many facets of academic supervision, such as active guidance in the execution of the research and in choosing academic study courses, assisting research students in their professional, academic development, guidance on issues that pertain to the organizational culture of the university and the discipline, assistance in obtaining financial resources, and many more. The supervisory empathy or understanding and relationship is the most important academic connection you will have throughout your PhD. It is critical that you learn to manage it efficiently by
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1. 2. 3.

Distinguish between what you want to do and what your supervisor wants you to do Work out the best way of getting in contact with your supervisor Know your supervisors strengths/weaknesses

As soon as possible find out your supervisors: 1. Research Interests 2. Recent publications 3. Experience supervising 4. How much time they will have? 5. Will you be able to get on? 6. What kind of role does your supervisor expect? b) Problems related to scholar and supervisor The relationship between the student and the supervisor is unequal and hierarchical. The supervisor plays many roles as "adviser", "promoter", "boss", "teacher", "friend", "principal investigator etc. This multiplicity of roles may lead to conflict between the supervisor and students. The main problems which may arise from supervisor and student side are discussed as below c) Problems related to research scholar 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Lack of guidance Not available for discussions Fault-finding Unreasonable expectations Not interested Lack of resources or facilities lack of support in process of research (techniques, data analysis)

d) Problems related to Supervisor 1. Students lack independence

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2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

poor written work not honest about progress lack commitment dont realise how much work it takes Lack of effort absent from lab/desk Oversensitive dont accept challenge

10. No enthusiasm 11. dont follow advice e) Basis of problems 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. False expectations Failure to see whole picture Survival of the fittest? Personality clash Other pressures Lack of communication

f) Managing Relations There are at least two patterns from which to choose with regard to working with supervisor. The first has already been mentioned: the student needs constant support and reassurance, and the supervisor needs continual feedback in order to give instruction, thus providing direction for the research. The second pattern is a relationship in which the student needs time to think about the work to be done and needs the freedom to make mistakes during early attempts to get started, before discussing what has been happening with the supervisor. In this relationship the supervisor must feel relaxed about giving the student time to learn by trial and error. Such supervisors are content to give guidance at regular intervals rather than the direction provided by those who stay much closer to the students and their work. Thus good communication and

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rapport between students and their supervisors are the most important elements of supervision and needs to balanced throughout the research program.

RELATIONSHIP WITH COLLEAGUES AND SUPPORTING STAFF Socialization of doctoral students in academia takes place mainly through their interaction and experience within the research group or groups to which they belong. Since they are at the same stage as you, they have some understanding of your own experience. Throughout the whole of your course this group will enable you to compare not only how your research is progressing, but also your feelings about it. The reality of this situation is that all personal relationships within the academic community, as elsewhere, have to be worked at and take time to develop. Working towards the PhD is often experienced as an isolating and lonely time. This need not be the case. If you can arrange to meet regularly with others in your situation you will find that you can help yourself and them in several ways. The first, and most obvious, is that you are no longer in solitary confinement, with nobody interested in your work, aware of what you are doing, or concerned about how you are feeling with regard to the research degree. You will discover, when you feel depressed and discouraged and are thinking seriously about dropping out, that this is part of the general malaise of postgraduate life and not peculiar to you and your inadequacies. Once you become aware that such feelings are experienced by the majority of research students from time to time, you will be able to put them into perspective as part of the process that has to be got through, instead of seeing them as proof of your own incompetence. Further, once you are able to share these feelings and to talk about them and their effect on your work, you will all start to feel better. As one of the group confronts the problems, the others will be able to help, and when it comes to their turn they will remember how it was and know that it is possible to get through it. A more pragmatic function for your group or peer (just one other postgraduate at your stage of the PhD is sufficient) is to help in keeping you to deadlines. Each of you states what work you want to do and sets a time limit for its completion. This commitment serves as a motivator. It is evident that the professional relationships between doctoral students and their colleagues are important during the doctoral research period (and probably also after that), and that such relationships may serve as a source of support, attrition, professional development, and so on.

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Despite the colleagues, a research scholar must have good relationships with the other staff members of departments or of other departments. Supervisor has limited time for guiding the scholar and then the scholar gets much help from the supporting staff regarding the department, equipments/ instruments as well as about the chemicals.

The Five Cs of an Ethical Relationship with Colleagues and Staff 1. Commonality: -seek the common ground of shared experience as a first step in understanding one another and as a basis for communication. This could include common background, interests, opinions, values, people, or goals. 2. Concern: - an honest commitment to an interest in the other person. This is best demonstrated by devoting time and by being a sincere, active listener. 3. Consistency: - being dependable in who we are and what we do. It can be experienced within the mentoring relationship and also observed in dealings with others. 4. Competence: -Individual skills and gifts are identified, evaluated and shared with each other. Synergy is developed through sharing insights and new ideas. Individual egos are put aside as help is freely requested and given. 5. Confidentiality: -Respect for confidentiality must be given while maintaining a careful balance with individual values. These expectations must be established early in the relationship and reestablished as situations present themselves. Define clear boundaries, since recovery from failure to deliver on expectations can be difficult to achieve.

LISTENING, ASSERTIVENESS, TEAM WORK AND SENSE OF HUMOR There should be the need to develop many skills during the doctoral program inspite of carrying out only the experiments in the lab. Though the main important skills are your bility to plan and conduct your experiments as well as your academic writing skill but there are many other skills
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which demands prime consideration throughout your research program which are discussed below a) Listening There are a number of situations when a research scholar needs to solicit good information from others; these situations include interviewing candidates, solving work problems, seeking to help an employee on work performance, and finding out reasons for performance discrepancies. Skill in communication involves a number of specific strengths. The one of the important skill involves listening skills. The following lists some suggests for effective listening when confronted with a problem at research work: 1. Listen openly and with empathy to the other person 2. Judge the content, not the messenger or delivery; comprehend before you judge 3. Use multiple techniques to fully comprehend (ask, repeat, rephrase, etc.) 4. Active body state 5. Ask the other person for as much detail as he/she can provide; paraphrase what the other is saying to make sure you understand it and check for understanding 6. Respond in an interested way that shows you understand the problem and the employee's concern 7. Attend to non-verbal cues, body language, not just words; listen between the lines 8. Ask the other for his views or suggestions 9. State your position openly; be specific, not global 10. Communicate your feelings but don't act them out (eg. tell a person that his behavior really upsets you; don't get angry) 11. Be descriptive, not evaluative-describe objectively, your reactions, consequences 12. Be validating, not invalidating ("You wouldn't understand"); acknowledge other's uniqueness,importance 13. Be conjunctive, not disjunctive (not "I want to discuss this regardless of what you want to discuss"); 14. Don't totally control conversation; acknowledge what was said 15. Own up: use "I", not "They"... not "I've heard you are noncooperative" 16. Don't react to emotional words, but interpret their purpose
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17. Practice supportive listening, not one-way listening 18. Decide on specific follow-up actions and specific follow up dates Benjamin Franklin emphasized the importance of listening in the following words The great secret of succeeding in conversation is to admire little, to hear much; always to distrust our own reason, and sometimes that of our friends; never to pretend to wit, but to make that of others appear as much as possibly we can; to hearken to what is said and to answer to the purpose. Dean Rusk, U.S. Democratic politician used to say, One of the best ways to persuade others is with your earsby listening to them. b) Assertiveness Assertiveness is a way of thinking and behaving that allows a person to stand up for his or her rights while respecting the rights of others. Non assertive people may be passive or aggressive. Passive individuals are not committed to their own rights and are more likely to allow others to infringe on their rights than to stand up and speak out. On the other hand, aggressive persons are very likely to defend their own rights and work to achieve their own goals but are also likely to disregard the rights of others. Additionally, aggressive individuals insist that their feelings and needs take precedence over other people's. They also tend to blame others for problems instead of offering solutions. Assertive attitudes and behaviours are at the heart of effective advocacy. A person with an assertive attitude recognizes that each individual has rights. These rights include not only legal rights but also rights to individuality, to have and express personal preferences, feelings and opinions. The assertive individual not only believes in his or her rights but is committed to preserving those rights. An assertive attitude is important in recognizing that rights are being violated Assertiveness is a widely recognized leadership trait. Assertive individuals are self-confident and clear about what they want. Research Scholars with these traits communicate openly and honestly with those around them. Assertive leaders project confidence and encourage feedback when expressing their thoughts. Assertiveness is built on the understanding that each individual has the right to be open and express themselves honestly; Assertiveness helps scholars perform
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many tasks and achieve goals. Assertive leaders are able to comfortably confront subordinates about poor performance, set high goals, and even make demands on higher management when necessary for the group to meet its objectives. Assertive leaders recognize their own level of knowledge, ability, and authority in any situation. They are able to send this message of confidence and competence through their personal demeanor while showing respect for their group. Without this ability the communication would breakdown and the relationship between the leader and his team would quickly begin to deteriorate. An effective research scholar is clear about goals and purposes. He or she is willing and able to confront conflict, and to make tough decisions, to say no without guilt, embarrassment or shilly-shally. He is also capable of responding to and utilizing the resources of others. He or she is sufficiently confident and self-possessed so that defensive and abrasive behavior which inhibits the enthusiasm, creativity and motivation of others is minimized. c) Sense of Humor Creative thinking in the workplace is more important now than ever before. It is essential to have researchers in organization who are capable of "thinking outside the box," and coming up with innovative and effective solutions that your competitors have not thought of. In an evermore-competitive global marketplace, you need all the creativity you can muster up to be successful. There are three ways to increase the level of creativity within your company: 1) create a work environment conducive to more creative thinking, 2) hire more creative employees, and 3) find ways to build up the creative abilities of the employees you have. For maximum results, you can move in all three directions at the same time, and humor has an important contribution to make in each case. Sometimes unplanned humor can help move toward a solution to tough problems. d) Team Work Each student is working on a specific problem. Each problem is closely linked to all the others. In theory there is a free exchange of information and the whole group works in harmony. In some programmes though, research students take care to guard closely the work for which they are responsible because they occasionally fear that one of the others may discover something that will render their own research unworthy of continuation. The PhD is awarded for original work.

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Postgraduates working on a programme such as the one described have two worries: first, that another students work so closely borders on their own that it will make their work unoriginal or second past the post; second, that somebody else will demonstrate something (for which that other person will be awarded a PhD) that will at the same time show their own line of research to be false. What is needed is collaboration, not competition, between people who should be making each others work more comprehensible and less alienating. In well managed laboratories there are regular group meetings to ensure that there is a general knowledge of the work that is being undertaken, and good communication about the issues and difficulties involved. Yet often students experience alienation and isolation as the overriding themes of their postgraduate days. The strange thing about this is that sometimes the science students appear to feel the isolation more strongly than their counterparts in the Social Sciences or Arts faculties. This is because within the sciences there is the illusion of companionship, and the expectations of new postgraduates are that they will be part of a group of friends, as well as a work group. In other faculties new research students expect to be working alone in libraries or at home, reading, writing and thinking rather than experimenting. Any socializing that may take place as a result of a seminar, shared room or organized event is perceived as a bonus.

DURATION AND STAGES OF PHD PROGRAMME Generally PhD is considered to be of three years of duration but this is not a harden and fasten rule. Duration of PhD is generally dependent on many things like length of the research work, availability of techniques, standard methods, chemicals and equipments in the lab, interest and capabilities of research scholar and more importantly the relationship between supervisor and his student. The duration of PhD which is generally considered for three years involves preparation of synopsis by reviewing the literature in first six months, presentation of synopsis and planning to conduct the experiments and collection of raw materials in the next six months. The second year of PhD involves optimization and standardization of your experiments. The first six months of third year require analysis of results and the last six months involve preparation of theses and its submission

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There are some common mistakes students make in their doctoral program that often hinder their ability to manage their progress. These mistakes are avoidable when they can be identified and the students can see them within the larger context of the program and the stages through which their program develops. This idea of stages of development in a doctoral program can help students benchmark their progress and circumvent common mistakes. While the pace and acuity of development might vary by student based on their capability, motivation, and ability to manage their program or manage their advisor, the stages generally remain the same.

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Figure 1: Maturity model of Ph.D. student growth

Stage I: The Stage of Exploration The Stage of Exploration epitomizes first year students. Despite the plethora of voluminous research many students do when searching for the right program, the pendulum does not swing until they are actually in the program. Here is when they realize that doctoral study is outside the scope of their previous reality from what they envisioned coming from a professional masters program. Here, they listen to senior students tell them how hard they need to work, the battles of the job market, comprehensive exam pressures, and the importance of working on research

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outside the classroom. Many of these concepts are new to the first year students and they have to battle this noise as they deal with seminars and research articles not written for the common man, and statistical techniques that they never knew existed. This becomes a trying time, and to succeed, they need to take a deep breath and explore, question, and learn about where they are, what they are doing there, and where they are going. At this point, it is necessary for students to recognize that the nature of a doctoral program is fundamentally different from their other experiences and they need to assume more responsibility for their success. Internalizing this concept requires students to focus on getting a good understanding of the faculty members, student and institutional resources surrounding them, understanding the political landscape, and then proactively trying to position themselves to maximize learning and success. In this stage first year doctoral students must take advantage of the resources available to actively begin molding their program. While failure here may not result in failure in the program, making mistakes early could be costly. Such mistakes could lead the doctoral student into a vicious circle that is difficult to counteract as the program proceeds, resulting in a dismal path of counterproductive results. The biggest challenge in the Stage of Exploration is trying to position oneself within the new context. There are four key negative characteristics students must identify and overcome in order to avoid the most common mistakes: doctoral students are: 1) too reactive; 2) do not seek help; 3) do not build an asset base; and 4) are not politically astute. While these mistakes should be recognized in the first stage, they must be considered in all stages in order to maximize the quality and efficacy of results.

Stage II: The Stage of Engagement The Stage of Engagement is further up the value-added axis. This is exploration with a purpose. Doctoral students begin to have a sense of doctoral study, their position in their institution, and perhaps their chosen profession. This is the stage where students engage with faculty members, with published work, and with research ideas. They also begin to sense their path of success through the program, including the colleagues and faculty members they will need to interact with and a sense of research areas and methods they particularly enjoy. It is still a struggle for many to prioritize because opportunities increase and students straddle the broad view and the more narrow personal view of research.

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At this point, the pace of the program picks up and it is necessary for students to begin considering relations with faculty members, evaluating potential opportunities, creating synergies between projects, and to start taking advantage of the resources available to actively begin molding their programs. Since this stage is still prior to comprehensive exams (or the equivalent system in place that qualifies the student for the dissertation stage), the mistakes mentioned earlier are still applicable, but the probability of failure associated with making them increases. For instance, Ive observed cases where doctoral students have not cultivated a good working relationship with a faculty member (i.e., by not being responsible about meetings and deadlines), which could eliminate an important option of working with this faculty member in the future. This makes it more difficult to counteract the spiraling vicious circle. The biggest challenge in the Stage of Engagement is to navigate the broad view of the field while managing personal research projects. Here is where two more common mistakes manifest themselves: 1) doctoral students do not create synergy; and 2) doctoral students do not carefully evaluate opportunity costs.

Stage III: The Stage of Consolidation The Stage of Consolidation is when ideas crystallize. Doctoral students in this stage are more engaged and committed to their research, and the institution is irreversibly committed to the students particularly if the students pass their comprehensive examinations and are admitted to candidacy. The student at this stage should have a very good sense of his or her field and its structure, and the ability to position research within that structure. The student should be able to traverse up and down between the supra-system (the broad field) and the sub-system (individual research). Dissertation ideas should be developed in this stage, as the personal view of research dominates the latter part of this stage. The students should also develop their level of engagement with the broader profession as they package themselves for the job market. By this stage the student is more comfortable within the program and has worked very hard up to this point. After students pass their comprehensive examinations is the start of the stage where the program makes its turn and begins to head into the final phase of the dissertation and program conclusion. The biggest challenge in the Stage of Consolidation is to engage in deep research and establishties with professionals in the field. Failure at this stage is fatal in most cases, deterring a

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student from ever finishing the program. In this stage, the previous mistakes impede progress and compound the vicious circles as they interact with other mistakes. Doctoral students that have not been proactive, cultivated good relationships with faculty members, sought help, built some core competencies, managed their time well, and/or created synergy across their projects will have a much harder time developing a research topic and engaging in the profession. Further, students tend to make five more common mistakes important for the post-comprehensive stage: doctoral students 1) fall into a lull; 2) do not carefully select their committee; 3) do not manage their advisor; 4) are too ambitious; and 5) do not seek resources. Stage IV: The Stage of Entry Finally, The Stage of Entry is the final thrust before the doctoral student formally enters the profession as a peer. Broader notions of career, research stream, and tenure enter the students consciousness, as do family, location, and job satisfaction. The light at the end of the tunnel keeps the student going as the process culminates with a doctoral degree. The biggest challenge in the Stage of Entry is to manage the transition as the student has one foot in the home institution and another foot trying to move outside it. However, often doctoral students do not make appropriate tradeoffs resulting in problems with completion of the dissertation or getting a job. In other cases, the temptation of getting a head start in their career prompts them to leave before their final defense, leading to the last career threatening mistake: doctoral students leave too early. So, the two common mistakes in this stage: doctoral students 1) do not make appropriate tradeoffs and 2) leave too early.

TIME MANAGEMENT It is a truth universally acknowledged that a PhD student in their first year will spend most of that year sitting in a library wondering what on earth they should be doing. They will then spend the next two or more years wishing they had put that year to better use and then they get frustrated. We now have to consider the conceptual and practical tasks that have to be undertaken to obtain a PhD. Since these have to be achieved within a limited period, timetabling and time management become crucial to success. You will probably have three years full-time after your taught component in which to design, conduct and complete your PhD, or an equivalent amount part-time, spread over five or six years. Of course, you will have some idea of what you will be

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doing during those years but how much thought have you given to just how and when you will be undertaking specific activities? These activities operate at two levels: first, the general level at which the tasks required to complete a PhD must be realistically charted if they are to be accomplished in the time available; and second, the detailed level concerned with setting timetable deadlines for particular tasks, and achieving them. In addition, the activities must be seen as both part of the research task and part of the essential structure into which the timetabling of the PhD falls.

a) Taking a modular approach To get a grip on your research project, it is wise to take a modular approach. Modules are clearly identifiable, intermediary tasks which have to be completed in order to finish your dissertation. Examples include outlining the research problem, making an inventory of theoretical perspectives, designing new models, and collecting, analyzing, or interpreting data. The research, therefore, will have to be broken down into several modules that will serve as the stepping stones to your final destination: the manuscript. Instead of getting scared of the book that needs to be finished, these intermediate goals are much more manageable targets on which to focus. Ideally the results of these different tasks will be written down, for the simple reason that the dissertation itself will also be a written product. What's more, such written reports really force you to spell out the argument as fully and strongly as possible, and, eventually, make it easy for other people to look at your work and criticize it. b) Time planning Having identified the modules of your project, it is of course essential to schedule them with the help of a time plan. You should not strive for a railroad-like timetable, but aim for a loose, but nevertheless concrete, plan that clearly outlines the modules.

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c) Items for your planning:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Writing/outlining the research problem Training: skills courses Teaching Appointments with your (daily) supervisor and dissertation committee Data collection/fieldwork Analyzing data/reporting measurements Writing papers/chapters/articles Rewriting papers/chapters/articles Conferences/seminars/workshops Drafting and rewriting the manuscript Finding a publisher/lay out Administrative duties Holidays The unexpected!

All these activities are placed on a time scale. Now you can not only see how much time each activity will take, but also how many of them coincide. This will certainly help you to find the right mix of activities for each period. At the start of the project, it is a good idea to supplement your often long and lonely days while you are getting acquainted with the theoretical perspectives of your research. Take a couple of courses that will improve your knowledge of the field or your research skills.

d) Long and Short term goals Not only should you set useful goals, you should also set both short-term and long-term goals. Short-term goals are ones that you will achieve in the near future (e.g., in a day, within a week, or possibly within a few months).

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Long-term goals are ones that you will achieve over a longer period of time (e.g., one semester, one year, five years, or twenty years). Short term goals are of prime importance as they help us achieve a long-term goal. These goals are like stepping stones that help us measure our progress toward reaching longer-term goals and help in e) Structured Planning of Work If you do not take this kind of structured approach to planning your PhD work, then one result will inevitably be a much greater dependence on your supervisor for feedback concerning your progress. Evaluating your own work will also be more difficult. If you define short-term goals it will be less necessary to rely on external sources of information, such as supervisors, because the step-by-step structure will be clear. This clarity results in information on progress that you can interpret for yourself with very little difficulty. First, you will know whether you have managed to do what you said you would do; next, you will know whether you managed to do it in the time allocated. f) Management of work In time you will be able to do this evaluation for yourself; but the best way of learning how to judge your own efforts is to pay careful attention to your supervisors comments. If, on the other hand, you discover that you have not managed to complete the projected work in the time assigned to it, you will be in a good position to analyse the reasons. You might estimate how much was due to circumstances that could neither have been foreseen nor prevented, and how much was due to your own inexperience, inactivity or inability to estimate the amount of work accurately. This last is the most usual discovery. Typically, research students gradually realize that progress is slower than they had expected. This realization eventually leads to a reassessment of what may, realistically, be achieved. As this happens with short-term goals the related longer-term goals can be adjusted too.

DEADLINES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE Deadlines create a necessary tension between doing original work and reporting its progress, either orally or in writing. Very few people are able to work well without some pressure (either

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internal or external). Knowing that a deadline is looming is usually sufficient for most people to get on and do whatever it is they are supposed to do. In fact it is not at all unusual for people to leave things until the very last minute because they find it difficult to work well if they are not under pressure a strategy not to be recommended. But neither is it desirable, when you have a long period of time in which to complete something, to have no steps along the way. Such a lack of structure in the task or its timing is not conducive to effective working. For these reasons it is crucial to ensure that you have firm deadlines all the time. For many students, though, the timing of the work that they have to complete is not marked except by the final submission of the thesis. In such cases it is imperative that pseudo-deadlines are created. Pseudo-deadlines are time limits accepted by the student as a motivating device. They may be set by your supervisors, agreed between you, or set by and for yourself. Even if this last is the case, you must ensure that you have somebody to report to once the deadline has been reached. The public commitment that you have set up in this way strengthens your motivation. It may be that a friend, colleague or relative will agree to help, but this should be only in order for you to take smaller steps than you have agreed with your supervisor. Your overall agreement with your supervisor must include provision for regular reporting meetings. While it may not always be necessary to provide a written report for such occasions, it is certainly advisable, as one of the most important things that you have to do during the course of your research degree is to keep writing. Deadlines are as important for monitoring the development of thinking as they are for ascertaining that an agreed amount of reading or practical work has been completed. Whatever the short-term goals, regular opportunities to discuss progress and exchange ideas are vital to the development of the project and your continuing enthusiasm.

PROFESSION Profession as a specialized kind of work practised through and by use of classified knowledge a common vocabulary, and requiring standards of practice and code of ethics is established by a recognized body. It is a vocation founded upon specialized educational training, the purpose of which is to supply disinterested counsel and service to others, for a direct and definite compensation, wholly apart from expectation of other business gain.

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1 Formation of a profession A profession arises when any trade or occupation transforms itself through "the development of formal qualifications based upon education, apprenticeship, and examinations, the emergence of regulatory bodies with powers to admit and discipline members, and some degree of monopoly rights. 2 Regulation Professions are typically regulated by statute, with the responsibilities of enforcement delegated to respective professional bodies, whose function is to define, promote, oversee, support and regulate the affairs of its members. These bodies are responsible for the licensure of professionals, and may additionally set examinations of competence and enforce adherence to an ethical code of practice. However, they all require that the individual hold at least a first professional degree before licensure. There may be several such bodies for one profession in a single country, an example being the accountancy bodies (ACCA, ICAEW, ICAI, ICAS, CIPFA, AAPA, CIMA, IFA, CPA) of the United Kingdom, all of which have been given a Royal Charter although not necessarily considered to hold equivalent-level qualifications. Typically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a local professional body before they are permitted to practice in that profession. However, in some countries, individuals may not be required by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order to practice, as is the case for accountancy in the United Kingdom (except for auditing and insolvency work which legally require qualification by a professional body). In such cases, qualification by the professional bodies is effectively still considered a prerequisite to practice as most employers and clients stipulate that the individual hold such qualifications before hiring their services.

3 Autonomy Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own affairs: "professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their work" This usually means "the freedom to exercise their professional judgment. However, it has other meanings. "Professional autonomy is often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily their own interests...this professional autonomy can only
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be maintained if members of the profession subject their activities and decisions to a critical evaluation by other members of the profession .The concept of autonomy can therefore be seen to embrace not only judgment, but also self-interest and a continuous process of critical evaluation of ethics and procedures from within the profession. 1.1.4 Status and prestige Professions enjoy a high social status, regard and esteem conferred upon them by society. This high esteem arises primarily from the higher social function of their work, which is regarded as vital to society as a whole and thus of having a special and valuable nature. All professions involve technical, specialized and highly skilled work often referred to as "professional expertise." Training for this work involves obtaining degrees and professional qualifications (see Licensure) without which entry to the profession is barred (occupational closure). Training also requires regular updating of skills through 1.1.5 Power All professions have power. It is used to control its own members, and also its area of expertise and interests. A profession tends to dominate police and protect its area of expertise and the conduct of its members, and exercises a dominating influence over its entire field which means that professions can act monopolist, rebuffing competition from ancillary trades and occupations, as well as subordinating and controlling lesser but related trades. A profession is characterized by the power and high prestige it has in society as a whole. It is the power, prestige and value that society confers upon a profession that more clearly defines it. 1.1.6 Characteristics of profession The list of characteristics that follows is extensive, but does not claim to include every characteristic that has ever been attributed to professions, nor do all of these features apply to every profession: (a) Skill based on theoretical knowledge: Professionals are assumed to have extensive

theoretical knowledge (e.g. architecture, medicine, law, and scripture) and to possess skills based on that knowledge that they are able to apply in practice.

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(b)

Professional association: Professions usually have professional bodies organized by

their members, which are intended to enhance the status of their members and have carefully controlled entrance requirements. (c) Extensive period of education: The most prestigious professions usually require at least three years at university. Undertaking doctoral research can add a further 45 years to this period of education (for example, architecture generally requires 5 years of study, 2 years work experience and a further year of work related study before one can apply to become a chartered member. Architects generally become chartered in their late 20s early 30s and earn between 22 24k before tax in the United Kingdom). (d)Testing of competence: Before being admitted to membership of a professional body, there is a requirement to pass prescribed examinations that are based on mainly theoretical knowledge. (e)Institutional training: In addition to examinations, there is usually a requirement for a long period of institutionalized training where aspiring professionals acquire specified practical experience in some sort of trainee role before being recognized as a full member of a professional body. Continuous upgrading of skills through professional development is also mandatory these days. (f) Licensed practitioners: Professions seek to establish a register or membership so that only those individuals so licensed are recognized as bonafide. (g) Work autonomy: Professionals tend to retain control over their work, even when they are employed outside the profession in commercial or public organizations. They have also gained control over their own theoretical knowledge. (h) Code of professional conduct or ethics: Professional bodies usually have codes of conduct or ethics for their members and disciplinary procedures for those who infringe the rules. (i) Self-regulation: Professional bodies tend to insist that they should be self-regulating and independent from government. Professions tend to be policed and regulated by senior, respected practitioners and the most highly qualified members of the profession,

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(j) Public service and altruism: The earning of fees for services rendered can be defended because they are provided in the public interest, e.g. the work of doctors contributes to public health.

(k) Exclusion, monopoly and legal recognition: Professions tend to exclude those who have not met their requirements and joined the appropriate professional body. This is often termed professional closure, and seeks to bar entry for the unqualified and to sanction or expel incompetent members. (L) Individual clients: Many professions have individual fee-paying clients. For example, in accountancy, "the profession" usually refers to accountants who have individual and corporate clients, rather than accountants who are employees of organizations. (m) Middle-class occupations: Traditionally, many professions have been viewed as 'respectable' occupations for middle and upper classes. (n) Male-dominated: The highest statuses professions have tended to be male dominated although females are closing this gender gap Women are now being admitted to the priesthood while its status has declined relative to other professions. Similar arguments apply to race and class: ethnic groups and working-class people are no less disadvantaged in most professions than they are in society generally. (o)Legitimacy: Professions have clear legal authority over some activities (e.g. certifying the insane) but are also seen as adding legitimacy to a wide range of related activities. (p) Inaccessible body of knowledge: In some professions, the body of knowledge is relatively inaccessible to the uninitiated. Medicine and law are typically not school subjects and have separate faculties and even separate libraries at universities. (q) Indeterminacy of knowledge Professional knowledge contains elements that escape being mastered and communicated in the form of rules and can only be acquired through experience.

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(r) Mobility The skill knowledge and authority of professionals belongs to the professionals as individuals, not the organizations for which they work. Professionals are therefore relatively mobile in employment opportunities as they can move to other employers and take their talents with them. Standardization of professional training and procedures enhances this mobility.

Concept of Research Integrity For the individual researcher, integrity embodies above all a commitment to intellectual honesty and personal responsibility for one
s actions and to a range of practices that characterise the responsible conduct of research, including intellectual honesty in proposing, performing, and reporting research; accuracy in representing contributions to research proposals and reports; fairness in peer review; transparency in conflicts of interest or potential conflicts of interest; protection of human participants in the conduct of research; human care of animals in the conduct of research; an Effective record
keeping.

Scientific integrity Scientific integrity defines the commitment of researchers to adhere to the fundamental rules of good scientific practice. Truth and transparency, self discipline, self criticism and fairness are indispensable for behaviour of integrity. They represent the basis of all scientific activity and are preconditions for the credibility and acceptance of science. Project management The project managers (often called PI: principal investigator) are the individuals responsible for the execution of a scientific project, e.g. professors, senior scientists, senior assistants and postdoctoral fellows. This function may be performed by one or more individuals, depending on the size of the project. Within the framework of the research project, the PI should take the lead

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role in guiding and supervising the junior scientists. In particular, he/she must ensure that all research project participants are aware of the present guidelines. Documentation The research plan of third party financed projects and their subsequent major modifications must be available in writing. They must be fully Comprehensible for all participants to the project and for persons in charge of checking the research results. The plan must provide information on the persons responsible for the project and their specific roles, on the financing and its sources and on the handling of the data or materials. Conflicts of Interest There are many professional activities of researchers that have the potential for a conflict of interest. Any professional relationship or action that may result in a conflict of interest must be fully disclosed to the project management, the sponsor or the Dean of Research. When objectivity and effectiveness cannot be maintained, the activity should be avoided or discontinued.

Patenting If a patent application is to be considered, the relevant rights and obligations must be established in due time, in the form of an agreement between all participants. Realisation of research projects Data and material Fabrication of data or selective reporting of data with the intent to mislead or deceive is an egregious departure from the expected norms of scientific conduct, as is the theft of data or research results from others. (i)The results of research should be recorded and stored in a form that allows analysis and review by authorized persons. Therefore, records should be compiled and maintained on the research methodology and procedures followed, raw data, decisions taken a the analysis and interpretation of results, including interim results, to create a transparent, linear audit trail of the research decisionmaking process. (ii)Records should contain sufficient detail to provide clear answers to questions concerning the validity of data or the conduct of research activities. Such questions may arise following the challenging of research evidence, and the existence of accurate,

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contemporary, clear, complete, durable and legible records is invaluable should this occur. Errors detected following the publication of results could be mistaken for research misconduct if a researcher could not subsequently provide valid corroborative research evidence. (iii)Original research evidence, both electronic and / or paperbased, should be securely stored for an appropriate time period. If necessary, researchers must be able to retrieve or reproduce lost data. Therefore, back up records should be made at regular intervals and kept securely for electronic data stored on a computer. An individual member of the research project staff should be assigned responsibility for this. If possible, for particularly important data, a hard copy should be made, stored in a secure location, and crossreferenced to the original. (iv) Collaborations are expected to organize the appropriate means to archive (e.g. laboratory logs, electronic data carriers) and verify the research record. This should allow facilitating internal communication and allowing all authors to be fully aware of the entire work; and respond to questions concerning the joint work and enable other responsible scientists to share the data. All members of any given collaboration should be familiar with, and understand, the process. (v )Research data should be timely available to scientific collaborators and responsible bodies in the case of an inquiry. Following publication, the data should be retained for a reasonable period in order to be available promptly and completely to collaborating scientists. Exceptions may be appropriate in certain circumstances in order to preserve privacy or to ensure patent protection. Publication of research results does not negate the need to retain original records of research evidence generated during the lifetime of the research project. (vi)The PI is responsible for ensuring that, after the completion of the project, the data and materials are stored for a period of time appropriate for the specific field. He/she is also responsible for ensuring their durability and protection. Authorship should be limited to those who meet all the following criteria (i) have made a significant personal contribution to the concept, design, execution or interpretation of the research study; (ii) Participate in the writing of the manuscript; and
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(iii) Approve the final version of the manuscript (iv) A mere hierarchical, administrative or financial function and organizational support to the project does not entitle anyone to appear as author. Honorary or courtesy authorship is not acceptable. ( iv )The question of authorship and the order of the authors in a publication must be discussed and settled among all contributors as early as possible. (v)All collaborators share some degree of responsibility for any paper they coauthor. Some coauthors have responsibility for the entire paper as an accurate, verifiable, report of the research. These include, for example, coauthors who are accountable for the integrity of the critical data reported in the paper, carry out the analysis, write the manuscript, present major findings at conferences, or provide scientific leadership for junior colleagues. (vi) Project managers have responsibility for ensuring that the staff of their research group is not engaged in the publication of research that is not authentic It should be recognized that honest error is an integral part of the scientific enterprise. It is not unethical to be wrong, provided that errors are promptly acknowledged and corrected when they are detected Integrity of peer review In order to support scientific quality and maintain ethical standards peer review should be applied to all research proposals, publications .Researchers should be willing to serve as experts, in particular concerning: (a) Project financing; (b) Acceptance of publications (peer review); (c) Selection of applicants (e.g. in case of appointments); (d) Evaluation of groups, departments and research organization. Peer review must be conducted with: Rigor and Appropriate Selectivity The review process should be tailored to the level of review (activities in an entire program, portfolio of projects, or individual project), to characteristics of the program/project being reviewed, and to the purpose and goals of the review.
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Equity and Fairness All research proposals should be assessed against the same set of Consistent and explicit standards and the process and procedures applied should be open and transparent. Integrity The personal beliefs and interests of the reviewer must not be allowed to influence the outcome of any review. Since peer review, as a system, is open to potential bias all those involved must take steps to guard against this; openness and transparency will help in this regard. Care must be taken to avoid conflict of interests between reviewers and applicants and also situations in which such conflict may appear to be present. Reviewers must declare any such conflicts or potential conflicts when reviewing a research proposal. Reviewers must not derive unfair competitive advantage from the reviewing process and from their knowledge of other researchers ideas or research plans.

4. Confidentiality The duty of confidentiality to others applies in the reviewing of research proposals and all reviewers have an absolute obligation to protect the work of other researchers. 5. Openness Reviewers must ensure that researchers are fully informed of the process of review and of its outcomes. 6. Efficiency It is acknowledged that the process of peer review is a timeconsuming one so that the time and effort required should be kept to the minimum possible consistent with effectiveness and efficiency. Misconduct in the scientific context The ombudsperson provides advice and assistance to researchers in matters regarding research integrity and good scientific practice and serves as mediator in cases of conflict. violations of these guidelines may amount to research misconduct. In case of an allegation of Such misconduct, the procedure Internal procedure in cases of suspected scientific misconduct will be implemented.

3. Objectivity (philosophy)
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Objectivity is both a central and elusive philosophical category. While there is no universally accepted articulation of objectivity, a proposition is generally considered to be objectively true when its truth conditions are "mind-independent"that is, not the result of any judgments made by a conscious entity or subject. 1Objectivism "Objectivism" is a term that describes a branch of philosophy that originated in the early nineteenth century. Gottlob Frege was the first contrary to apply it, to that when he expounded Kant. an epistemological and metaphysical theory of Immanuel

Kant's rationalism attempted to reconcile the failures he perceived in realism, empiricism, and idealism and to establish a critical method of approach in the distinction between epistemology and metaphysics. Objectivism, in this context, is an alternate name for philosophical realism, the view that there is a reality or ontological realm of objects and facts that exists independent of the mind. Stronger versions of this claim might hold that there is only one correct description of this reality. If it is true that reality is mind-independent, it is thus inclusive of objects that are unknown and not the subject of intentionality. Objectivity in referring requires a definition of truth. According to metaphysical objectivists, an object may truthfully be said to have this or that attribute, as in the statement "This object exists," whereas the statement "This object is true" or "false" is meaningless. Thus, only propositions have truth values. Essentially, the terms "objectivity" and "objectivism" are not synonymous, with objectivism being an ontological theory that incorporates a commitment to the objectivity of objects. The importance of perception in evaluating and understanding objective reality is debated. Realists argue that perception is key in directly observing objective reality, while instrumentalists hold that perception is not necessarily useful in directly observing objective reality, but is useful in interpreting and predicting reality. The concepts that encompass these ideas are important in the philosophy of science. 2 Ethical objectivism According to the ethical objectivist, the truth or falsity of typical moral judgments does not depend upon the beliefs or feelings of any person or group of persons. This view holds that moral propositions are analogous to propositions about chemistry, biology, or history: they describe (or
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fail to describe) a mind-independent reality. When they describe it accurately, they are trueno matter what anyone believes, hopes, wishes, or feels. When they fail to describe this mindindependent moral reality, they are false no matter what anyone believes, hopes, wishes, or feels. There are many versions of ethical objectivism, including various religious views of morality, Platonistic intuitionism, utilitarianism, and certain forms of ethical egoism and contractualism. Note that Platonists define ethical objectivism in an even more narrow way, so that it requires the existence of intrinsic value. Consequently, they reject the idea that contractualists or egoists could be ethical objectivists. FAIR & FAIRNESS In a competitive market economy the ability of people to obtain goods and services depends, with some exceptions, on the marginal productivity of the resources they hold. The most important resource is a person's ability to work (human capital) but others are ownership of natural resources and capital. Those who hold resources that are highly valued will earn large incomes, whereas those who hold no valuable resources earn little or no income. This unequal distribution of income that a market system produces raises questions of whether or not a market system is fair 1 Fairness It is a normative issue, which means that it involves judgments about what is good and what is bad. As a result, economists cannot claim special expertise on this issue. They often rely on arguments from philosophers when they discuss fairness, and they hold widely diverse beliefs. There are, however, some insights from economics that can be useful when one discusses issues of fairness. Of course if you look at a situation and decide that it is unfair because one person has too much and another has too little, you probably are making a judgment that compares goals. The judgment says that the person with too much is satisfying goals that are less worthy than those of the person with too little. We commonly make this sort of normative judgment; our decision to give money to one charity rather than another indicates that we find some goals more deserving than others. Our decision to give at all suggests that we decide that the goals of someone else are more worthy than our own "selfish" goals.
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Economic analysis suggests that people earn different amounts of income both because they have different goals and different abilities (or resource endowments, to use a more comprehensive but also more abstract term). From this starting point, we can examine a few common judgments on fairness. One view is that fairness means everyone should have an equal opportunity to succeed. In this view, process matters not results. This position sees economic life as a race. In any race, some people are faster than others. As long as all contestants face the same rules, the race is fair even though some win and others lose. Some people fail in the economic game and have low incomes because they made mistakes or were unlucky or did not have enough ability. Yet their failure does not mean that the system is unfair, provided that no one erected obstacles in their path. This view is sympathetic to a market system. Both these views have internal inconsistencies. Obtaining equal results requires the use of government power, and only some will be able to wield this power. Those who have the jobs of equalizing incomes will have more power than those who do not; equal income results in unequal political power. Obtaining a system of completely equal opportunity is impossible because the results that one generation obtains help determine the starting points of their offspring. People who do well in the economic game will try to help their children succeed by giving them a good childhood environment, a good education, and inherited wealth. A third viewpoint suggests that income should be determined on the basis of need. Though this view is often associated with socialism, it has a very long tradition in Christian thought, which is where the socialists, a product of the 19th century, found it. A position that equal work deserves equal pay, which is a position consistent with the opportunity approach, is inconsistent with the need approach. To implement the need approach there must be some way of measuring need. This measurement is most practical in small-group situations, that is, within groups where members know each other well and where members have the same goals. It is hard to implement in large groups of strangers who do not know each other well and who may disagree radically about which goals

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are worth attaining. One escape from this problem has been to assume that everyone's needs are identical, which collapses this point of view into egalitarianism. Modern societies have taken aspects of all three viewpoints and established them as public policy. Income taxes are progressive; that is, they take greater percentages of income from those with big incomes than from those with small incomes. This policy can be justified from an equal results point of view. Employment laws require equal pay for equal work. The employer is prohibited from taking factors such as personal need of an employee into account in establishing pay. These laws make sense from an equal opportunity point of view. Finally, tax laws and some transfer payments favor families with more children and higher medical bills. The need viewpoint can justify this aspect of taxes. Because economists are interested in fairness, they have developed ways to measure how evenly or unevenly income is distributed. Fairness is a social rather than a psychometric concept. Its definition depends on what one considers to be fair. Fairness has no single meaning and, therefore, no single definition, whether statistical, psychometric, or social. The Standards notes four possible meanings of fairness. The first meaning views fairness as requiring equal group outcomes (e.g., equal passing rates for subgroups of interest). The Standards rejects this definition, noting that it has been almost entirely repudiated in the professional testing literature. It notes that while group differences should trigger heightened scrutiny for possible sources of bias (i.e., a systematic error that differentially affects the performance of different groups of test takers), outcome differences in and of themselves do not indicate bias. It further notes that there is broad agreement that examinees with equal standing on the construct of interest should, on average, earn the same score regardless of group membership.

2 Bias The Standards notes that bias refers to any construct-irrelevant source of variance that result in systematically higher or lower scores for identifiable groups of examinees. The effect of such irrelevant sources of variance on scores on a given variable is referred to as measurement bias. The effects of such sources of variance on predictor-criterion relationships, such that slope or intercepts of the regression line relating the predictor to the criterion are different for one group than for another, is referred to as predictive bias. The Standards notes that, in the employment
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context, evidence of bias or lack of bias generally relies on the analysis of predictive bias. Both forms of bias are discussed below.

3 Predictive Bias While fairness has no single accepted meaning, there is agreement as to the meaning of predictive bias. Predictive bias is found when for a given subgroup, consistent nonzero errors of prediction are made for members of the subgroup (Cleary, 1968; Humphreys, 1952). (Another term used to describe this phenomenon is differential prediction. The term differential prediction is sometimes used in the classification and placement literature to refer to differences in predicted performance when an individual is classified into one condition rather than into another; this usage should not be confused with the use of the term here to refer to predictive bias.) Although other definitions of bias have been introduced, such models have been critique and found wanting on grounds such as lack of internal consistency (Petersen & Novick, 1976).

3.5 Consistency as a practice associated with integrity Consistency takes the form of: consistent application of principles and values in practice, forming partnerships with those who also abide by the same values, or at least a shared value set, and not seeking to subvert the principles of a project. An important aspect of consistency is the degree of matching of values between different interacting entities such as employees and the employing organisation, or between an organisation and the local community In logic, a consistent theory is one that does not contain a contradiction. The lack of contradiction can be defined in either semantic or syntactic terms. The semantic definition states that a theory is consistent if it has a model; this is the sense used in traditional Aristotelian logic, although in contemporary mathematical logic the term satisfiable is used instead. The syntactic definition states that a theory is consistent if there is no formula P such that both P and its negation are provable from the axioms of the theory under its associated deductive system. Although consistency can be proved by means of model theory, it is often done in a purely syntactical way, without any need to reference some model of the logic. The cut-elimination (or equivalently the normalization of the underlying calculus if there is one) implies the consistency

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of the calculus: since there is obviously no cut-free proof of falsity, there is no contradiction in general 3.6 Loyalty as an interpreter of relation of person with service or enterprise A characteristic of a person showing any relation with an object, goods, service or enterprise. Loyalty demonstrates persons disposition to brand of goods (service), supermarket, category of goods, a certain activity (Uncles, Dowling, Hammond, 1998). An enterprise seeks loyalty of investors, employees and customers in order to consolidate its position in the market. There is a linkage between these participants of the business (Reicheld, 1996). The growth of revenues and share of the market enables to attract potential customers or customers of competitors. Referring to Donio, Massari, Passiante (2005), the growth of the market share stimulates more rapid expansion of the enterprise and its competitive advantage. It makes attracting of investors easier. Enterprises create loyalty programmes in order to develop loyalty and to reward. It is effective marketing instrument helping to create such a situation where all interested sides win. Customer loyalty programmes are more frequent. Loyalty programmes allow enterprises to understand their customers better as well as to satisfy their needs and expectations (Nuttley, 2004). Customer loyalty programmes relate enterprise and customers, initiate permanent dialogue between them, and increase satisfaction of customers (Loyalty Marketing Workshop, 2005); also they are a source of different information about customers, they mitigate potential shift of the best customers to competitors, and help to cooperate with partners and to keep terms with competitors (Rotherham, 2004). It is faithfulness or a devotion to a person, country, group, or cause. (Philosophers disagree as to what things one can be loyal to. Some, as explained in more detail below, argue that one can be loyal to a broad range of things, whilst others argue that it is only possible for loyalty to be to another person and that it is strictly interpersonal. Loyalties differ in basis according to what foundations they are. Co Enterprises create loyalty programmes in order to develop loyalty and to reward. It is effective marketing instrument helping to create such a situation where all interested sides win. Customer loyalty programmes are more frequent. Loyalty programmes allow enterprises to understand their customers better as well as to satisfy their needs and expectations (Nuttley, 2004)

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Loyalties differ in strength. They can range from supreme loyalties that override all other considerations, to merely presumptive loyalties, that affect one's presumptions, providing but one motivation for action that is weighed against other motivations. Nathan son observes that strength of loyalty is often interrelated with basis. "Blood is thicker than water." states an aphorism, explaining that loyalties that have biological ties as their bases are generally stronger than loyalties that do not. 3.6.1 Loyalty and marketing Businesses seek to become the objects of loyalty, in order to have their customers return. Brand loyalty is a consumer's preference for a particular brand and a commitment to repeatedly purchase that brand in the face of other choices. Other businesses establish loyalty programs, which offer rewards to repeat customers, and often allow the business to keep track of their preferences and buying habits. Fan loyalty is similar: an allegiance to and abiding interest in a sports team, fictional character, or fictional series. Devoted fans of a sports team will continue to follow it, relatively undaunted by a string of losing seasons. Brand loyalty is highly important in contemporary business environment. Integrating the elements of customer satisfaction and commitment, brand loyalty echoes favorable consumer attitudes typically expressed with repeated purchases. Brand is a product or service, which relates a firms products or services and reputation with consumer needs and shareholders expectations. Typically being distinctive and authentic, a brand name reflects an organizations positioning relative to its competitors as well as the organizations personality in the context of the target market. In the minds of consumers, Lexus is known for pursuit of perfection, Apple for innovation and design and PepsiCo for its appeal to younger generations. Therefore, a strong brand is more than just a name; it is a promise that can be trusted. 3.6.2 Structure of loyalty Loyalty and loyalties Although we often speak of loyalty as though it were a relatively free-floating practical disposition which it can be it is very common to associate loyalty with certain natural or conventional groupings. Our loyalty tends to be expressed in loyalties. That is, it is not just a
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general affiliational attachment, but one that tends to be tied to certain kinds of natural or conventional associations, such as friendships, families, organizations, professions, countries, and religions. There is a reason for this. Associations that evoke and exact our loyalty tend to be those with which we have become deeply involved or identified. This is implicit in the working definition's reference to intrinsically valued associational attachments. Intrinsically valued associational attachments are usually those to which we have developed a form of social identification. We have come to value the associational bond for its own sake (whatever may have originally motivated it). Our loyalties are not just to any groups that may exist, or even to any group with which we have some association, but only to those to which we are sufficiently closely bound to call ours. 3.6.3 Objects of loyalty There is no doubt that the primary objects of loyalty tend to be persons, personal collectivities, or quasi-persons such as organizations or social groups. Some argue that it is only to such that we can be loyal. But that is at odds with the view that almost anything to which one's heart can become attached or devoted may also become an object of loyalty principles, causes, brands, ideas, ideals, and ideologies .Royce himself argued that loyalty is the willing and practical and thoroughgoing devotion of a person to a cause .In response, those who personalize the objects of loyalty point out that we have equally available to us the language of commitment or devotion and, in the case of what is spoken of as loyalty to one's principles, we have the language of integrity. There is some reason to favor the more restrictive focus for loyalty. Our core loyalties, which also happen to be those that are psychologically more powerful, tend to secure the integrity of our particular human associations. To the extent that our moral obligations encompass not only our relations with other human beings in general but also our relationships with particular others our friends, families, fellow citizens, and so on loyalty will be partially constitutive and sustaining of these particular others in contexts in which self-interest is likely to be better served by abandoning them. If we further argue that the core of morality is concerned with the quality of relationships that people have with each other, both as fellow humans and in the various

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associative groups that they form, and then loyalty will constitute an important dimension of that relational network. 3.9 Problem finding It means problem discovery. It is part of the larger problem process that includes problem shaping and problem solving. Problem finding requires intellectual vision and insight into what is missing. This involves the application of creativity. Finding a problem can, depending on the problem, be either much easier or much harder than solving the problem. An example of a problem that was much easier to find than to solve is Fermat's Last Theorem. Literature survey is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from secondary sources data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher. The library is a rich storage base for secondary data and researchers used to spend several weeks and sometimes months going through books, journals, newspapers, magazines, conference proceedings, doctoral dissertations, master's theses, government publications and financial reports to find information on their research topic. With computerized databases now readily available and accessible the literature search is much speedier and easier and can be done without entering the portals of a library building The researcher could start the literature survey even as the information from the unstructured and structured interviews is being gathered. Reviewing the literature on the topic area at this time helps the researcher to focus further interviews more meaningfully on certain aspects found to be important is the published studies even if these had not surfaced during the earlier questioning. So the literature survey is important for gathering the secondary data for the research which might be proved very helpful in the research.

3.10 Literature review It is a critical and evaluative account of what has been published on a chosen research topic. Its purpose is to summarize, synthesize and analyze the arguments of others. (It is not an academic research paper, the main purpose of which is to support your own argument.) It should describe and analyze the knowledge that exists and

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What gaps occur in research related to your field of interest? (This should clarify the relationship between your own research and the work that has previously been done.) It should reveal similarities and differences, consistencies and inconsistencies and controversies in previous research Find models Look for other literature reviews in your discipline and read them to get an idea of the types of themes you might want to include in your research or ways in which you could organize your final review. You can do a database search to find models put the words literature review along with your Keywords to retrieve references to articles of this type

Problem formulation You should try to construct a working statement that will form the basis of your literature review. The statement does not have to argue for a position or an opinion. It will rather argue for a particular slant on the material. 3.10.1 Literature search The literature search will help you identify scope and key issues. Efficient searching will help to identify which authors are interested in your specialism and those who take a generalists view. Trace authors who are prominent in your subject and who can help you justify the importance of your research idea. Include the authors would or could contradict your ideas. (a) Evaluation of findings Reading research articles is different from other types of reading. Must develop a good understanding of the research literature to be able to write a competent literature review. Understanding the literature requires you to read, re-read and assimilate complex ideas.

(b) Read the easier articles first Difficult or badly written articles will probably be easier to understand if you read them last when you have gained familiarity with your subject. (c)Political science Literature reviews may have to include a section which establishes basic premises and has definitions of certain terms and models.

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(d)Literary and historical literature Reviews do not have a single convention. In contemporary literary studies an explicit chapter may not be needed. The researcher may be taking a new theoretical approach to material which as already been studied before. 3.10.2 Analysis and interpretation of the literature After you have an idea of the main ideas in each article, identify the precise methods used and the theories tested. When you are comparing the work of a number of researchers some of whom have a different take on the problems of the research question, you will need to have an in-depth understanding of their work. A close reading may reveal differences in theoretical outlook. How do different authors cite the same work? One author may explain the method of an earlier Study, describe its results in great detail and cite it repeatedly while another may give it only a Passing reference. Allow enough time Before you can write about your research project you must have evaluated the existing literature Properly so do allow yourself sufficient time to do this. 3.10.3 Writing the Literature Review Number of articles reviewed Published review articles may contain more than a hundred studies. You may wish to consult your supervisor about how far you should go back in time and how many articles you want to include.

3.10.4 Organization There are a number of different approaches to organizing a literature review so again do consult your supervisor before beginning the work. The following method can be used. Introduce your research question (what it is, why it is worth examining) Narrow research question to the studies discussed briefly outline the organization of the paper. If there is a major controversy, describe it and explain that you will present research supporting one side and then the other. Or, if three methodologies have been used to address a question, briefly describe them and say that you will compare the results obtained by the three methods Describe studies in detail Compare and evaluate studies Discuss the implications of the studies and how you intend to build on them.
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3.10.5 Conclusion/Recommendations Discuss what you have learned from reviewing literature so for and where the research leads? After reading your review, reader should be convinced that your proposed research project will play a necessary role in furthering knowledge in your field.
Unit-II SURVEY BASED RESEARCH

MEANING OF RESEARCH Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term research refers to the systematic method.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings: 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies); 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies); 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies); 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesistesting research studies).

RESEARCH PROBLEM

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A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation. There are many problem situations that may give rise to research. Three sources usually contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the experience of others may be a source of problem supply. A second source could be scientific literature. You may read about certain findings and notice that a certain field was not covered. This could lead to a research problem. Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories could be researched. Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or substantiating an existing theory, at clarifying contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the inadequate or unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving existing practical problems

IDENTIFICATION OF A PROBLEM The identification and analyzing a research problem is the first and most crucial step of research process. A problem can not be solved effectively unless a researcher possesses the intellect and insight to isolate and understand the specific factors giving rise to the difficulty. He should proceed step by step in locating the research problem. The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem:

Step 1 : Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the research work. Step 2 : The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the field of his specialization. Step 3 : He should review the researches conducted in area to know the recent trend and studies in the area. Step 4: On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the study. Step 5: He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ his personal experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of supervisor or expertee of the field. Step 6 : He should pin-point specific aspect of the problem which is to be investigated.

The following are the major tasks to be performed in analyzing a problematic situation as given below: 1. Accumulating the facts that might be related to the problem. 2. Setting by observations whether the facts are relevant.

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3. Tracing any relationship between facts that might reveal the key to the difficulty. 4. Proposing various explanations for the cause or the difficulty. 5. Ascertaining through observations and analysis whether these explanations are relevant to the problem. 6. Tracing relationship between explanations that may give an insight into the problem solution. 7. Tracing relationship between facts and explanations. 8. Questioning assumptions underlying the analysis of the problem. 9. Tracing the irrelevant facts which are not concerned with the problem. 10. Locating the irrelevant explanations which are not related to the problem.

After going through these processes, the researcher will be able to define or state the problem.

SOURCES OF PROBLEMS The selection of a suitable problem is not an easy task. It is a serious responsibility to commit oneself to a problem that will inevitably require much time and energy and which is so academically significant. The following are the main sources to which one may proceed for a suitable research problem:

1. Personal experiences of the investigator in the field of education are the main source for identifying suitable problem. 2. The other source of problem which is most frequently used by the investigator as suggested by the supervisors, is the extensive study of available literature-research abstracts, journals, hand-books of research international abstracts etc. He can draw an analogy for selecting a research problem or can think parallel problem in the field studied. 3. In the choice of a suitable problem, the researcher has to decide his field of investigation. He should study the field intensively in the specific area, this may enable him to identify a problem from the specific field.

4. The new innovations, technological changes and curricular developments are constantly bringing new problems and new-opportunities for Social Studies Research. 5. The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field and most experienced person of the field. They may suggest most significant problem of the area. He can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem.

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6. It is a general practice that researchers suggest some problems in their research reports. The researcher can pick up a suitable problem for his own study.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM The factors are to be considered in the selection of a research problem both the criteria external and personal. External criteria have to do with such matters as novelty and importance for the field availability of data and method, and institutional or administrative cooperation. Personal criteria involved such considerations as interest, training, cost and time, etc.

Thus criteria for the selection of the problem suggested by Good and Scates are as follows:

1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplication The question of novelty or newness is not merely one of duplication of earlier investigations. It involves the regency of the data summarized especially in the case of survey studies made during a period of great Economic, Educational and Social change. 2. Importance for the field represented and implementation This criterion of importance in choice of a problem involves such matters as significance for the field involved, timelines and practical value in term of application and implementation of the results. 3. Interest, intellectual curiosity and drive One of the personal motives of research most frequently mentioned by scientists themselves is pure curiosity, accompanied by genuine interest and a drived satisfaction and enjoyment. 4. Availability of data and method The data under consideration must meet certain standards of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability. 5. Special equipment and working conditions The major purpose of equipment is to define the process of observation-to provide control of conditions and accuracy or permanence of recording. 6. Sponsorship and administrative cooperation It is a common practice for the thesis to be sponsored by a faculty adviser in whose area of specialization the problem lies. 7. Costs and returns

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The candidate must consider carefully his own financial resources in the light of such facilities and assistance as can be provided by the institution. 8. Time factor As a general rule the minimum amount of graduate work for the Masters degree is one year, and for the Doctors degree three years. Historical, experimental case and longitudinal genetic studies frequently require more time than the several types of normative survey work.

DEFINING A PROBLEM Defining a problem means To pin-point the problem or defining a problem to reach the core of the problem i.e. threadbare analysis.

(a) Need of defining a problem The definition of a problem serves the following purposes: 1. The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study. 2. The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the study. 3. The definition helps the researcher to control subjectivity or biases of the researcher. 4. The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the variables to be taken up into the investigation through a problem involved into so many variables. 5. The-definition makes the research work practicable.

(b) Precautions are to be taken in identifying the problem The following precautions should be taken into consideration for identifying problem. 1. The words used for defining a problem should have a single meaning. 2. The statement of the problem must be brief but comprehensive. 3. The assumptions are to be recognized for the study. 4. The problem should have practical importance in the field of Education.

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5. The definition or the statement of the problem should have certain rationale.

(c) Steps in defining a problem The following steps are to be followed in defining a problem: 1. Researcher should have to develop a conceptual framework of the problem. The conceptual frame work should be such that it can be stated into verbal form. 2. Delimiting the elements of the problem. 3. Classifying the elements in the homogeneous group. 4. Locating the key-points in the conceptual framework. 5. Evaluating the theoretical security of the problem. 6. The final form of the statement can be given into verbal form to a conceptual framework of the problem. 7. Deciding the practical difficulty in conducting the study.

DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is an important step in social research. It is also known as field work. It involves administrating the research tools to gather data. It connects link to the reality of the work for the researchers. Data collection consists of taking ordered information from reality and transferring to some recording systems so that social behavior can be understood and predicted. It is based on research design.

Data Data are observations and evidence regarding some aspects of the problems/issue under study. According to John Geltang: A datum is what is observed, in manifest or phonotypical. Data provide information for decision making. Information reduces uncertainties in a decision making.

1. Types of data Nearly endless varieties of data existence can be obtained but only few types are relevant to each research study. They can be classified on the basis source, quantification, function and others. By nature of data, there are two types of data: facts and opinion.

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(a) Facts Facts describes tangible things. They measure anything that actually exists or can exist. Facts then described as things done or a piece of information having objectives reality. Facts can be intangible as long as they can really be determined. Examples of facts: The distance between Dharan and Biratnagar is 42 km We have 8 planets

(b) Opinion Opinions are how people perceive something. They are what people believe about something and what whose beliefs signify. They are the results of people attitudes, intensions, knowledge and motives. These all reflects people perception about matter. It can be an attitude or image. Attitudes are mental sets or predispositions to some manner. An image is what something is like. Examples of opinion: I believe there is life on Mars.

2. Importance of data collection Data collection completely fulfills the data requirements of a research project. It is the connecting link for the researchers to the world of reality. It provides the sources of comparative data by which data can be interpreted and evaluated against each other. Based on the data collection, data are presented and analyzed. It suggests the type and method of data for meeting the information needed. Several data collection methods are used to collect several types of data. It serves as a source of future reference and evidence because they are used to prepare written records. They can now provide lots of material for the subsequent research. It helps to takes ordered information from reality and transferring into some recording system so that it can be later examined and analyzed. It is from that pattern that social behavior can be predicted.

3. Sources of data collection Data may be collected from several sources. It is not easy to list them in details. Researchers use these sources according to their data needs. However, the general classification of data collection sources can be presented under two groups:

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(a) Primary sources It provides primary data. Primary data are first hand, original data collected by the researchers for the research project by hand. They are collected for meeting the specific objectives of the study. They can be obtained from families, representatives, organization, etc. interviews, questionnaire, observation are the major tools for collecting data from primary sources.

(b) Secondary sources It provides secondary data. Secondary data are already gathered by others. They are attained indirectly. The researcher doesnt obtain them directly. They are collected by some other researchers before and have been processed at least once.

Types of secondary data Internal secondary data They are available from in-house source. The source like within the organization. Sources of such data include representatives report, shipment records, accounting data etc.

External secondary sources They are available from the sources outside the organization. Such sources include published report, library, computer, data books, etc.

(4) Data collection methods/techniques No matter what the basic design of the research, it is necessary to collect accurate data to achieve useful results. Researchers use a number of methods to collect data. They are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Survey Interview Questionnaire Case study Observation

1. SURVEY The term survey has two constituents, sur which means over and view which means to see. Thus, the word survey means to oversee, that is, to look over something from high place. A survey is a data

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collection method based on the study of a given population. It is a systematic gathering of information from the people for the purpose of understanding or predicting some aspect of their behavior. The survey method gathers data from a relatively large number of cases at a particular time. It is not concerned with character of individuals. It is concerned with generalized statistics that results when data are abstract from a number of individual cases. It is essentially cross sectional. National population census is an example of survey. Survey data are expressed in numbers or percentages.

Types of surveys b) Census survey: It covers the survey of entire population. It is very expensive and time and effort consuming. But it provides diverse range of data. c) Sample survey: It covers the study of a sample group only. A part of the population or unit. It is less expensive and less time and effort consuming. d) Regular survey: It is conducted after regular intervals. Generally, the government uses it to obtain data about economics problems etc. e) Ad Hoc survey: It is conducted for certain purpose and is undertaken once for all. Mostly, it is conducted for testing hypothesis, getting missing or new information. f) Primary survey: It is conducted in order to acquire directly the relevant facts and information. It is more reliable than secondary survey. g) Secondary survey: It is conducted after the primary survey has been completed. h) Official survey: It is conducted by government to serve general or specific information for formulating plans and policies. i) Non official survey: It is conducted by non-government persons or agency. j) First survey: It is conducted in area for the first time. k) Repetitive survey: It is conducted subsequent to first survey. It is made for second or third time and so on. l) Open survey: It is also called public survey. The repetitive survey is publicly available. It is of general importance. m) Confidential survey: The result of the survey is not made public. Information is not revealed to the common people. n) Social survey: It is conducted to collect facts about the social aspects of a communitys position and activities. o) Public opinion: It is conduced to know the views of the people in any subjects like legalized abortion, open prostitution, homosexual activities etc. ONE MORE CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEY

1. Transaction Driven Survey/ Follow-up Survey 2. Periodic Survey/Relationship surveys 3. Specific Survey 1. Transaction Driven Survey/ Follow-up Survey

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The follow-up or transactional survey concerns itself with getting customer feedback regarding a specific transaction, such as a purchase, a call to a contact center, a request for service or a product return. Such surveys can be conducted for multiple reasons. They are a great way to perform quality control to determine the level of service being provided and can be used to determine inconsistencies in providing service. Follow-up surveys can identify dissatisfied customers so that service recovery can be attempted and can measure the effectiveness of service staff.
(a) The role of a transaction based follow-up survey Unlike relationship based surveys examining customer attitudes over a long period of time, a transaction based follow-up survey is designed to assess customer satisfaction with a specific transaction. Transaction follow-up surveys are conducted after a wide range of touch points, including contact with your customer service group, sales representatives, or technical support staff. A transaction based followup survey can provide valuable information on a broad range of issues.

Transaction based follow-up survey as a quality control tool:

The most common application for event surveys is as a customer satisfaction survey, and more specifically for customer service satisfaction surveys. The reason for its strong application in customer service is that an event survey is perhaps the most efficient and effective method for measuring the quality of service from the most critical perspective -- that of the customer. In essence, a transactional survey is a quality control device. In a factory, the quality of a product (that is, its conformance to specifications) can be assessed during its manufacture and also when complete through a final inspection. In a service interaction, in-process inspection is typically not possible or practical, so instead we measure the quality of the service product by assessing its outcome.

(b) How to conduct a transaction follow-up survey Companies use a wide range of methodologies to conduct transaction follow-up surveys.

I. Some deploy an interactive voice system (IVR) where upon completion of the touch point, the customer is forwarded to an automated, pre-recorded survey. The customer is then asked to respond to a series of questions. Although this system allows the customer to provide feedback while their experience is still "top of mind", the process is impersonal and there is great temptation to terminate the call before the survey is completed. II. Some companies use an online process to gather information, but this survey style requires the customer to "take action." There is no guarantee that enough customers will respond to provide decision makers with a statistically valid survey sample. 66

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 1. Customer specific survey 2. Product specific survey 3. Location specific survey III. Specific Survey Types of specific survey 2 Periodic Survey/Relationship surveys -- a Complement to Event surveys Although a transaction follow-up survey can provide a wealth of actionable information that improves the performance of your organization, significant miscues can exact a high price. Poorly conceived and executed transaction follow-up surveys run the risk of further alienating already disgruntled customers. Perhaps the biggest potential mistake is failing to act upon the information collected during the survey process. So experts are required to conduct the transaction driven survey. One of the best methodologies to perform a transaction follow-up survey is to poll customers using the telephone. A phone survey strategy provides a detailed, in-depth dialogue with respondents and guarantees that statistically valid samples are achieved.

In contrast to an event survey that measures the satisfaction with some service interaction soon after the transaction is complete, a relationship (or periodic) survey attempts to measure the state of the overall relationship the customer -- or other stakeholder -- has with the organization. Relationship surveys are done periodically, say every year. They typically assess broad feelings toward the organization, whether products and services have improved over the previous period, how the organization compares to its competitors, where the respondent feels the organization should be focusing its efforts going forward, etc. Notice that these items are more general in nature and not tied to a specific interaction. Relationship surveys tend to be longer and more challenging for the respondent since the survey designers are trying to unearth the gems that describe the relationship. But unless the surveying organization has a tight, bonded relationship with the respondents, a long survey will lead to survey abandonment.

INTERVIEW

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It is a technique of primary data collection. It is an oral method in which one person asks another person questions designed to obtain answer pertinent to the research problem. It is most commonly used direct method in the study of human behavior. The interview is a face to face interpersonal role situation in which one person asks another person being interviewed. The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which one person enters more or less imaginatively with the inner life of another who is generally a comparative stranger to him. The purpose of interview is to find out whats in or on someone elses mind. According to Kerlinger The interview is a face to face interpersonal role situation in which one person, the interviewer, asks a person being interviewed, the respondent, questions designed to obtain answers pertinent to the purpose of the research problem. Formats or research interview schedule: providing 3 kinds of information. They are: There are three formats of interview schedule

Fixed alternative item interview It offers the respondents a choice among two or more alternatives. The responses are limited to stated alternatives. The commonest kind of fixed alternative items is dichotomous. If asks for yes-no, agreedisagree, and other two alternative items often a third alternative dont know or undecided is added.

Open-end item Open-end item is an interview schedule that lists only the main question. It permits the respondent to answer the question in the way s/he likes. The contents of the schedule are dictated by the research problems. They impose no other restriction on the contents and the manner of respondents answer. Openend questions are more flexible. They have possibilities of depth. Misunderstanding can be clear up through poling. Example: Do you have any contacts with any members of the faculty outside of class? If yes, how often is that?

Scale item A scale is set of verbal items to each of which an individual responds by expressing degree of agreement or disagreement or some other mode or response. Scale items have fixed alternatives and place the responding individual at some point on the scale. Example: How do you rate your college library in relation to your needs? 4. Terrible 2. Unsatisfaction 3. Satisfaction 4. Very good 5. Excellent TYPES OF INTERVIEW

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Structured or standardized interview It this interview, the questions, their sequence and their wordings are fixed. The same question is asked to everybody in the same manner. In general, the interviewer doesnt have flexibility to change the question, their format or order. Sometimes an interviewer may be allowed some liberty in asking question but relatively little. That liberty is specified in advance. Standardized interviews are interview schedule that have been carefully prepared to obtained information pertinent to the research problem.

Unstructured or unstandardized interview In the interview, the sequence and wording of question are not fixed. The interviewer doesnt follow preplaned list of the question. The interviewer writes the response of the interview during the interview or after interview is completed. It is more flexible and open. Ordinary no schedule is used. They dont mean that unstructured interview is casual. The interviewer will have a tentative list of question to be covered during the interview. Interview may be conducted by the following ways: a) b) c) d) Personal interview Telephone interview Mail interview Electronic interview

a) Personal interview In personal interview, respondents are interviewed face-to-face. If the interview is conducted at the residence of the respondent, such an interview may be called as in personal in home interview. The researcher or interviewers task is to contact the respondents, ask the questions, and record the responses. Advantages of personal interview: 1. Good cooperation from participants 2. Interviewer can ask questions about survey, probe for answers, use follow up questions and gather information about observation 3. Special visual aids and devices can be used 4. Illiterate participants can be reached 5. Interviewer can prescreen participants to ensure that he or she fits the population profile 6. Through computer assisted personal interviewing, responses can be entered into a portable microcomputer to reduce error and cost Disadvantages of personal interview 1. Longer period needed in the field collecting data 2. May be wide geographic dispersion 3. Not all participants are available or accessible

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4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Some participants are unwilling to talk to strangers in their homes Follow-up is labor- intensive Some neighborhoods are difficult to visit Questions may be altered or participants may be coached by interviewers High costs Need for highly trained interviewer

b) Telephone interview In this kind of interviews, interviewer phones to respondents and asks them a series of questions. The conduct of this kind of interview may be computer assist also, commonly known as computer assisted telephone interviewing which used a computerized questionnaire administered to respondents over the telephone Advantages of telephone interviews 1. Lower costs than personal interview 2. Expanded geographic coverage without dramatic increase in cost 3. Use fewer but highly skilled interviewers 4. Reduces interviewers biasness 5. Completion time is very fast 6. Better access to hard to reach to participants 7. Can use computerized random dialling 8. Through computer assisted telephone interviewing response can be entered directly into a computer file to reduce error and cost

Disadvantages of telephone interview 1. Responses rate is lower than for personal interview 2. Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample 3. Interview length must be limited 4. Sometimes many phone numbers are unlisted. 5. Some target groups are not available by phone 6. Responses may be less complete 7. Illustrations can not be used

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c) Mail Interview In the mail interviews, questionnaires are mailed to respondents. The respondents complete and return of questionnaires. There is no verbal interaction between the researcher and the respondent. But the main consideration in this type of data collections methods is that respondents needs to be broadly defined and identified, from some sources as mailing list Advantages of mails survey Mail surveys are low in cost as compared to other methods of surveying Mails surveys provide convenience as the participants are able to work on the surveys at their leisure It is possible to reach a greater population and have a larger universe with this type of surveys because it does not require personal contact between the researcher and the respondents.

Disadvantages of mails survey One of the biggest drawbacks to written surveys, especially as it relates to the mail-in, selfadministered method, is the low response rate Another problem with self-administered surveys is three fold: assumptions about the physical ability, literacy level and language ability of the respondents. Because most surveys pull the participants from a random sampling, it is impossible to control for such variables

d) Electronic methods: In contrast to e-mails surveys, internet or web surveys use questionnaire which are posted on the webpage. Respondents may be recruited over internet form potential respondent databases through email or they can be recruited by conventional methods. Many times, respondents are not recruited, they happen to be visiting the website where the survey is posted from where thay are invited to participate in the surveys. Advantages of electronic methods 1. Short turnaround of results 2. Ability to do numerous surveys over time 3. Ability to attract participants who are otherwise difficult to reach 4. Participants feel anonymous therefore are free to participate in the survey 5. Shorter turnaround from questionnaire draft to survey execution 6. Experiences unavailable by other means

Disadvantages of electronic methods 1. Recruiting the right sample is costly and time consuming

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2. Unlike telephone and mail survey, no list exists 3. Technical as well as research skill is required to conduct the web survey 4. Converting survey to web page is sometimes expensive

2.

QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire is a formal set of questions for obtaining information from the respondents. It is a formal and structured technique for data collection that consists of series of questions. Any questionnaire has three objectives as: 1. Questionnaire must translate information required to set of specific questions that respondents can and will answer. 2. Questionnaire should not make respondent bore; rather it should encourage and motivate the respondent to provide complete answers to the questions asked. Questionnaire should make the respondent involved in the research project in general and questionnaire in particular. 3. Since questionnaire is the major source of response error, it should minimize that. Response error is on account of inaccurate answers provided by the respondents.

The researcher must pay attention to the following points in constructing an appropriate and effective questionnaire or a schedule: 1. The researcher must keep in view the problem he is to study for it provides the starting point for developing the Questionnaire/Schedule. He must be clear about the various aspects of his research problem to be dealt with in the course of his research project. 2. Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of information sought, the sampled respondents and the kind of analysis intended. The researcher must decide whether to use closed or open-ended question. Questions should be simple and must be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan. The units of enumeration should also be defined precisely so that they can ensure accurate and full information. 3. Rough draft of the Questionnaire/Schedule be prepared, giving due thought to the appropriate sequence of putting questions. Questionnaires or schedules previously drafted (if available) may as well be looked into at this stage. 4. Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the rough draft for a better one. Technical defects must be minutely scrutinized and removed. 5. Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the questionnaire. The questionnaire may be edited in the light of the results of the pilot study. 6. Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward directions for the respondents so that they may not feel any difficulty in answering the questions.

a) Questionnaire Research Flow Chart

Questionnaire research design proceeds in an orderly and specific manner. Each item in the flow chart depends upon the successful completion of all the previous items. Therefore, it is
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important not to skip a single step. Notice that there are two feedback loops in the flow chart to allow revisions to the methodology and instruments. Design Methodology Determine Feasibility Develop Instruments Select Sample Conduct Pilot Test Revise Instruments Conduct Research Analyze Data Prepare Report

b) Questionnaire Design - General Considerations

Most problems with questionnaire analysis can be traced back to the design phase of the project. Welldefined goals are the best way to assure a good questionnaire design. When the goals of a study can be expressed in a few clear and concise sentences, the design of the questionnaire becomes considerably easier. The questionnaire is developed to directly address the goals of the study. While designing the questionnaires one should be considered the following points:

1. As a general rule, with only a few exceptions, long questionnaires get less response than short questionnaires. Keep your questionnaire short. One of the most effective methods of maximizing response is to shorten the questionnaire.
2. One important way to assure a successful survey is to include other experts and relevant decisionmakers in the questionnaire design process. Their suggestions will improve the questionnaire and they will subsequently have more confidence in the results. 3. Formulate a plan for doing the statistical analysis during the design stage of the project. Know how every question will be analyzed and be prepared to handle missing data. If you cannot specify how you intend to analyze a question or use the information, do not use it in the survey. 4. Make the envelope unique. We all know how important first impressions are. The same holds true for questionnaires. The respondent's first impression of the study usually comes from the envelope containing the survey. The best envelopes (i.e., the ones that make you want to see what's inside) are colored, handaddressed and use a commemorative postage stamp.

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5. Provide a well-written cover letter. The respondent's next impression comes from the cover letter. The importance of the cover letter should not be underestimated. It provides your best chance to persuade the respondent to complete the survey. 6. Give your questionnaire a title that is short and meaningful to the respondent. A questionnaire with a title is generally perceived to be more credible than one without.

7. Include clear and concise instructions on how to complete the questionnaire. These must be very easy to understand, so use short sentences and basic vocabulary. Be sure to print the return address on the questionnaire itself (since questionnaires often get separated from the reply envelopes). 8. Begin with a few non-threatening and interesting items. If the first items are too threatening or "boring", there is little chance that the person will complete the questionnaire. People generally look at the first few questions before deciding whether or not to complete the questionnaire. Make them want to continue by putting interesting questions first.
9. Use simple and direct language. The questions must be clearly understood by the respondent. The wording of a question should be simple and to the point. Do not use uncommon words or long sentences. Make items as brief as possible. This will reduce misunderstandings and make the questionnaire appear easier to complete. One way to eliminate misunderstandings is to emphasize crucial words in each item by using bold, italics or underlining.

10. Leave adequate space for respondents to make comments. One criticism of questionnaires is their inability to retain the "flavor" of a response. Leaving space for comments will provide valuable information not captured by the response categories. Leaving white space also makes the questionnaire look easier and this increases response. 11. Place the most important items in the first half of the questionnaire. Respondents often send back partially completed questionnaires. By putting the most important items near the beginning, the partially completed questionnaires will still contain important information. 12. Hold the respondent's interest. We want the respondent to complete our questionnaire. One way to keep a questionnaire interesting is to provide variety in the type of items used. Varying the questioning format will also prevent respondents from falling into "response sets". At the same time, it is important to group items into coherent categories. All items should flow smoothly from one to the next. 13. Provide incentives as a motivation for a properly completed questionnaire. What does the respondent get for completing your questionnaire? Altruism is rarely an effective motivator. Attaching a dollar bill to the questionnaire works well. If the information you are collecting is of interest to the respondent, offering a free summary report is also an excellent motivator. Whatever you choose, it must make the respondent want to complete the questionnaire. 14. Use professional production methods for the questionnaire--either desktop publishing or typesetting and keylining. Be creative. Try different colored inks and paper. The object is to make your questionnaire stand out from all the others the respondent receives.
15. Make it convenient. The easier it is for the respondent to complete the questionnaire the better. Always include a self-addressed postage-paid envelope. Envelopes with postage stamps get better response than business reply envelopes (although they are more expensive since you also pay for the nonrespondents).

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c) Advantages of Written Questionnaires 1. Questionnaires are very cost effective when compared to face-to-face interviews. This is especially true for studies involving large sample sizes and large geographic areas. Written questionnaires become even more cost effective as the number of research questions increases.
2. Questionnaires are easy to analyze. Data entry and tabulation for nearly all surveys can be easily done with many computer software packages. 3. Questionnaires are familiar to most people. Nearly everyone has had some experience completing questionnaires and they generally do not make people apprehensive.
4. Questionnaires reduce bias. There is uniform question presentation and no middle-man bias. The researcher's own opinions will not influence the respondent to answer questions in a certain manner. There are no verbal or visual clues to influence the respondent. 5. Questionnaires are less intrusive than telephone or face-to-face surveys. When a respondent receives a questionnaire in the mail, he is free to complete the questionnaire on his own time-table. Unlike other research methods, the respondent is not interrupted by the research instrument.

d) Disadvantages Of Written Questionnaires 1. One major disadvantage of written questionnaires is the possibility of low response rates. Low response is the curse of statistical analysis. It can dramatically lower our confidence in the results. Response rates vary widely from one questionnaire to another (10% - 90%), however, well-designed studies consistently produce high response rates.
2. Another disadvantage of questionnaires is the inability to probe responses. Questionnaires are structured instruments. They allow little flexibility to the respondent with respect to response format. In essence, they often lose the "flavor of the response" (i.e., respondents often want to qualify their answers). By allowing frequent space for comments, the researcher can partially overcome this disadvantage. Comments are among the most helpful of all the information on the questionnaire, and they usually provide insightful information that would have otherwise been lost. 3. Nearly ninety percent of all communication is visual. Gestures and other visual cues are not available with written questionnaires. The lack of personal contact will have different effects depending on the type of information being requested. A questionnaire requesting factual information will probably not be affected by the lack of personal contact. A questionnaire probing sensitive issues or attitudes may be severely affected.
4. When returned questionnaires arrive in the mail, it's natural to assume that the respondent is the same person you sent the questionnaire to. This may not actually be the case. Many times business questionnaires get handed to other employees for completion. Housewives sometimes respond for their

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husbands. Kids respond as a prank. For a variety of reasons, the respondent may not be who you think it is. It is a confounding error inherent in questionnaires. 5. Finally, questionnaires are simply not suited for some people. For example, a written survey to a group of poorly educated people might not work because of reading skill problems. More frequently, people are turned off by written questionnaires because of misuse.

e) Elements of a questionnaire (qualities of a good question)

There are good and bad questions. The qualities of a good question are as follows: 1. Evokes the truth. Questions must be non-threatening. When a respondent is concerned about the consequences of answering a question in a particular manner, there is a good possibility that the answer will not be truthful. Anonymous questionnaires that contain no identifying information are more likely to produce honest responses than those identifying the respondent. If your questionnaire does contain sensitive items, be sure to clearly state your policy on confidentiality. 2. Asks for an answer on only one dimension. The purpose of a survey is to find out information. A question that asks for a response on more than one dimension will not provide the information you are seeking. For example, a researcher investigating a new food snack asks "Do you like the texture and flavor of the snack?" If a respondent answers "no", then the researcher will not know if the respondent dislikes the texture or the flavor, or both. Another questionnaire asks, "Were you satisfied with the quality of our food and service?" Again, if the respondent answers "no", there is no way to know whether the quality of the food, service, or both were unsatisfactory. A good question asks for only one "bit" of information. 3. Can accommodate all possible answers. Multiple choice items are the most popular type of survey questions because they are generally the easiest for a respondent to answer and the easiest to analyze. Asking a question that does not accommodate all possible responses can confuse and frustrate the respondent. For example, consider the question: What brand of computer do you own? __ A. IBM PC B. Apple 4. Has mutually exclusive options. A good question leaves no ambiguity in the mind of the respondent. There should be only one correct or appropriate choice for the respondent to make. An obvious example is: Where did you grow up? __ A. country B. farm C. city
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A person who grew up on a farm in the country would not know whether to select choice A or B. This question would not provide meaningful information. Worse than that, it could frustrate the respondent and the questionnaire might find its way to the trash. 5. Produces variability of responses. When a question produces no variability in responses, we are left with considerable uncertainty about why we asked the question and what we learned from the information. If a question does not produce variability in responses, it will not be possible to perform any statistical analyses on the item. For example: What do you think about this report? __ A. It's the worst report I've read B. It's somewhere between the worst and best C. It's the best report I've read Since almost all responses would be choice B, very little information is learned. Design your questions so they are sensitive to differences between respondents. As another example: Are you against drug abuse? (circle: Yes or No) Again, there would be very little variability in responses and we'd be left wondering why we asked the question in the first place. 6. Follows comfortably from the previous question. Writing a questionnaire is similar to writing anything else. Transitions between questions should be smooth. Grouping questions that are similar will make the questionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent will feel more comfortable. Questionnaires that jump from one unrelated topic to another feel disjointed and are not likely to produce high response rates. 7. Does not presuppose a certain state of affairs. Among the most subtle mistakes in questionnaire design are questions that make an unwarranted assumption. An example of this type of mistake is: Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance? (Yes or No) This question will present a problem for someone who does not currently have auto insurance. Write your questions so they apply to everyone. This often means simply adding an additional response category. Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance? ___ Yes ___ No ___ Don't have auto insurance 8. Does not imply a desired answer. The wording of a question is extremely important. We are striving for objectivity in our surveys and, therefore, must be careful not to lead the respondent

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into giving the answer we would like to receive. Leading questions are usually easily spotted because they use negative phraseology. As examples: Wouldn't you like to receive our free brochure? Don't you think the Congress is spending too much money? 9. Does not use emotionally loaded or vaguely defined words. This is one of the areas overlooked by both beginners and experienced researchers. Quantifying adjectives (e.g., most, least, majority) are frequently used in questions. It is important to understand that these adjectives mean different things to different people. 10. Does not use unfamiliar words or abbreviations. Remember who your audience is and write your questionnaire for them. Do not use uncommon words or compound sentences. Write short sentences. Abbreviations are okay if you are absolutely certain that every single respondent will understand their meanings. If there is any doubt at all, do not use the abbreviation. The following question might be okay if all the respondents are accountants, but it would not be a good question for the general public. What was your AGI last year? ______ 11. Is not dependent on responses to previous questions. Branching in written questionnaires should be avoided. While branching can be used as an effective probing technique in telephone and face-to-face interviews, it should not be used in written questionnaires because it sometimes confuses respondents. An example of branching is: 1. Do you currently have a life insurance policy? (Yes or No) If no, go to question 3 2. How much is your annual life insurance premium? _________ These questions could easily be rewritten as one question that applies to everyone: 1. How much did you spend last year for life insurance? ______ 12. Does not ask the respondent to order or rank a series of more than five items. Questions asking respondents to rank items by importance should be avoided. This becomes increasingly difficult as the number of items increases, and the answers become less reliable. This becomes especially problematic when asking respondents to assign a percentage to a series of items. In order to successfully complete this task, the respondent must mentally continue to re-adjust his answers until they total one hundred percent. Limiting the number of items to five will make it easier for the respondent to answer.

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f) Sequencing questions (question placement) One of the most difficult tasks facing the survey designer involves the ordering of questions. Which topics should be introduced early in the survey, and which later? If you leave your most important questions until the end, you may find that your respondents are too tired to give them the kind of attention you would like. If you introduce them too early, they may not yet be ready to address the topic, especially if it is a difficult or disturbing one. There are no easy answers to these problems - you have to use your judgment. Whenever you think about question placement, consider the following questions:

Is the answer influenced by prior questions? Does question come too early or too late to arouse interest? Does the question receive sufficient attention?

The Opening Questions

Just as in other aspects of life, first impressions are important in survey work. The first few questions you ask will determine the tone for the survey, and can help put your respondent at ease. With that in mind, the opening few questions should, in general, be easy to answer. You might start with some simple descriptive questions that will get the respondent rolling. You should never begin your survey with sensitive or threatening questions.

Sensitive Questions
In much of our social research, we have to ask respondents about difficult or uncomfortable subjects. Before asking such questions, you should attempt to develop some trust or rapport with the respondent. Often, preceding the sensitive questions with some easier warm-up ones will help. But, you have to make sure that the sensitive material does not come up abruptly or appear unconnected with the rest of the survey. It is often helpful to have a transition sentence between sections of your instrument to give the respondent some idea of the kinds of questions that are coming. For instance, you might lead into a section on personal material with the transition: In this next section of the survey, we'd like to ask you about your personal relationships. Remember, we do not want you to answer any questions if you are uncomfortable doing so.
g) Question types The task of designing questionnaires is no easy matter and it underlines the idea that research is a process. Without an understanding of your subject, grounded in preliminary work such as the literature search, you cannot begin to ask sensible and relevant questions in a way which will be most effective. In this respect its worth thinking clearly about the characteristics of your audience. For instance, if they are specialists with a high level of knowledge about your topic, or just a general sample, it will be necessary to consider this for both the type of question you choose and the wording. The following are examples of survey questions divided into two groups: closed-end questions and open-end questions. You should become familiar with these and think about how each might be used

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in your project. Think about what kind of data the question is designed to deliver and what conclusions you might draw:

Closed-end questions Dichotomous A question offering two answer choices. Example: Is this the first time you have attended this museum? Yes or No

Multiple choice A question offering three or more answer choices. Example: With who m are you attending this museum? No one_ Spouse_ Relatives/Friends_ Business associates organized group_

Likert scale A statement with which the respondent shows a specific amount of agreement/disagreement. Example: Good critical reviews are an important factor for me in choosing to attend a new exhibit at the museum. 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = undecided, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree 1_ 2_ 3_ 4_ 5_

Semantic differential A scale is inscribed between two bipolar words, and the respondent selects the point that represents his or her opinion. Example: High ticket prices - - - - - - - Lo w ticket prices; Top speakers .- .- .- .- - - - - Poor speakers

Importance scale

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A scale that rates the importance of some attribute. Example: Ticket exchange privilege to me is 1 = extremely important, 2 = very important, 3 = somewhat important, 4 = not very important, 5 = not at all important. 1_ 2_ 3_ 4_ 5_

Rating scale A scale that rates some attribute from poor to excellent. Example: The quality of our exhibit is 1 = excellent, 2 = very good, 3 = good, 4 = fair, 5 = poor. 1_ 2_ 3_ 4_ 5_

Intention-to-buy scale A scale that describes the respondents intention to buy. Example: If subscriptions were offered for packages of 6 lectures, I would 1 = definitely buy, 2 = probably buy, 3 = not sure, 4 = probably not buy, 5 = definitely not buy. 1_ 2_ 3_ 4_ 5_ (Kotler & Kotler 1998, pp.1701; emphasis added)

Open-end questions Completely unstru ctured A question that respondents can answer in an almost unlimited number of ways. Example: What is your opinio n of the Melbourne Museum?

Word association Words are presented, one at a time, and respondents mention the first word that comes to mind. Example: What is the first word that co mes to mind when you hear the follo wing? Museum_____, Melbou rne Museum_____, Colonial art_____

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Sentence completion Incomplete sentences are presented, one at a time, and respondents complete the sentence. Example: When I choose a lecture series to attend, the most important consideration in my decision is ________

h) Question Wording One of the major difficulty in writing good survey questions is getting the wording right. Even slight wording differences can confuse the respondent or lead to incorrect interpretations of the question. To over come this problem following points should be considered.

1. Can the Question be misunderstood?

The survey author has to always be on the lookout for questions that could be misunderstood or confusing. For instance, if you ask a person for their nationality, it might not be clear what you want (Do you want someone from Malaysia to say Malaysian, Asian, or Pacific Islander?). Or, if you ask for marital status, do you want someone to say simply that they are either married or no married? Or, do you want more detail (like divorced, widow/widower, etc.)?

2. What assumptions does the question make?

Sometimes we don't stop to consider how a question will appear from the respondent's point-ofview. We don't think about the assumptions behind our questions. For instance, if you ask what social class someone's in, you assume that they know what social class is and that they think of themselves as being in one. In this kind of case, you may need to use a filter question first to determine whether either of these assumptions is true.

3. Is the time frame specified?

Whenever you use the words "will", "could", "might", or "may" in a question, you might suspect that the question asks a time-related question. Be sure that, if it does, you have specified the time frame precisely. For instance, you might ask: Do you think Congress will cut taxes? or something like Do you think Congress could successfully resist tax cuts? Neither of these questions specifies a time frame.

4. How personal is the wording?

With a change of just a few words, a question can go from being relatively impersonal to probing into your private perspectives. Consider the following three questions, each of which asks about the respondent's satisfaction with working conditions:

Are working conditions satisfactory or not satisfactory in the plant where you work? Do you feel that working conditions satisfactory or not satisfactory in the plant where you work? Are you personally satisfied with working conditions in the plant where you work?

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5. Is the wording too direct?

There are times when asking a question too directly may be too threatening or disturbing for respondents. For instance, consider a study where you want to discuss battlefield experiences with former soldiers who experienced trauma. Examine the following three question options:

How did you feel about being in the war? How well did the equipment hold up in the field? How well were new recruits trained?

The first question may be too direct. For this population it may elicit powerful negative emotions based on their recollections. The second question is a less direct one. It asks about equipment in the field, but, for this population, may also lead the discussion toward more difficult issues to discuss directly. The last question is probably the least direct and least threatening. Bashing the new recruits is standard protocol in almost any social context. The question is likely to get the respondent talking, recounting anecdotes, without eliciting much stress. Of course, all of this may simply be begging the question. If you are doing a study where the respondents may experience high levels of stress because of the questions you ask, you should reconsider the ethics of doing the study.

6. Other wording issues

The nuances of language guarantee that the task of the question writer will be endlessly complex. Without trying to generate an exhaustive list, here are a few other questions to keep in mind:

Does the question contain difficult or unclear terminology? Does the question make each alternative explicit? Is the wording objectionable? Is the wording loaded or slanted? 7. The Golden Rule

You are imposing in the life of your respondent. You are asking for their time, their attention, their trust, and often, for personal information. Therefore, you should always keep in mind the "golden rule" of survey research (and, I hope, for the rest of your life as well!): To put this in more practical terms, you should keep the following in mind:

Thank the respondent at the beginning for allowing you to conduct your study Keep your survey as short as possible -- only include what is absolutely necessary Be sensitive to the needs of the respondent Be alert for any sign that the respondent is uncomfortable Thank the respondent at the end for participating Assure the respondent that you will send a copy of the final results

i) Question Content For each question in your survey, you should ask yourself how well it addresses the content you are trying to get at. Here are some content-related questions you can ask about your survey questions.

1. Is the Question Necessary/Useful?

Examine each question to see if you need to ask it at all and if you need to ask it at the level of detail you currently have.

Do you need the age of each child or just the number of children under 16? Do you need to ask income or can you estimate?

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2. Are several questions needed?

This is the classic problem of the double-barreled question. You should think about splitting each of the following questions into two separate ones. You can often spot these kinds of problems by looking for the conjunction "and" in your question.

What are your feelings towards African-Americans and Hispanic-Americans? What do you think of proposed changes in benefits and hours?

At times, you need to ask additional questions because your question does not determine the intensity of the respondent's attitude or belief. For example, if they say they support public TV, you probably should also ask them whether they ever watch it or if they would be willing to have their tax dollars spent on it. It's one thing for a respondent to tell you they support something. But the intensity of that response is greater if they are willing to back their sentiment of support with their behavior.

3. Do respondents have the needed information?

Look at each question in your survey to see whether the respondent is likely to have the necessary information to be able to answer the question. For example, let's say you want to ask the question:

4. Does the question need to be more specific?

Sometimes we ask our questions too generally and the information we obtain is more difficult to interpret. For example, let's say you want to find out respondent's opinions about a specific book. You could ask them How well did you like the book? on some scale ranging from "Not At All" to "Extremely Well." But what would their response mean? What does it mean to say you liked a book very well? Instead, you might as questions designed to be more specific like: Did you recommend the book to others? or Did you look for other books by that author?

5. Is question sufficiently general?

You can err in the other direction as well by being too specific. For instance, if you ask someone to list the televisions program they liked best in the past week, you could get a very different answer than if you asked them which show they've enjoyed most over the past year. Perhaps a show they don't usually like had a great episode in the past week, or their show was preempted by another program.

The Length of a Questionnaire

As a general rule, long questionnaires get less response than short questionnaires. However, some studies have shown that the length of a questionnaire does not necessarily affect response. More important than length is question content. A subject is more likely to respond if they are involved and interested in the research topic. Questions should be meaningful and interesting to the respondent.
4. CASE STUDY

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A case study refers to specific unit of analysis for the study. The unit may be a person, family, a social group, a social institution or committees. A case study involves intensive study of a relative small number of situations. It views a social unit as a whole. It places more emphasis on the full analysis of limited number of events or conditions another behavior.

Characteristics of Case Study Case studies are in depth investigations of a given social unit resulting in a complete well organized picture of that unit. It is a study of a unit as a whole. The unit may be a person, a family, a social group, an institution, a committee or situation. It is quantitative analysis not based on scientific analysis. It follows on typicalness rather than uniqueness. It examines a small number of units across a large number of variables and conditions. A generalization drawn from a single case cannot be applied to case in given population. It is a longitudinal approach. It shows a development over a period of time. It deals with both what and why of the subject. It describes the complex behavior pattern of a unit. It identifies three factors:

1. Features which are common to all cases in a general group. 2. Features which are not common to all cases but are common to certain subgroups. 3. Features which are unique to specific cases. Steps/phases in case study The steps/phases in case study are as follows: 1. State the objectives. What is the unit or study and what characteristics and process will direct the investigation? 2. Design the approach. How will the unit be selected? What sources of data are available? What data collection method is used?. 3. Collect the data. Organize the information to form a coherent, well integrated reconstruction of unit of study. Report the result and discuss their significance. Strength/merits of case study Inferences are obtained from study of an entire situation. A case study is description of a real event or situation where as a statistical study involves abstraction form real situation. Example: an average may be typical of a large group, but not descriptive of a single unit in the group. 1. More accurate data are obtained. 2. Case study is particularly useful as background information for planning major investigations in the social sciences. 3. It is source of important hypothesis. 4. The researcher gains many new insights into human behavior and becomes emotionally mature.

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Limitations of case study 1. Since case study gives detailed description of complete situations, it is difficult to develop formal method of observation and recording. Informal method tends to become subjective rather than objective. 2. Lack of objectivity carries out into the analysis case data. This may lead to unwanted conclusions. 3. In analyzing cases, investigators are inclined to generalize although the case study method does not lend itself to generalization. 4. Case studies are limited in their representatives because of their narrow focus on few units. 5. It is highly expensive and time taking. 6. It lacks sample method. 5. OBSERVATION It is a method of gathering primary data physically or mechanically recording events or aspect of the phenomenon under investigation. It involves recording of the respondents behavior. It is the process of recognizing noting people, objects and occurrence of events rather than asking for information. It can supplement the information collected through questionnaire and interview. Observation is the process of recognizing and recording behavior of people, objects and events. Observation is systematic and deliberate study through eye, of spontaneous occurrence at the time they occur. Example: instead of asking consumer what brand they buy or what television program they watch, the researcher arrange to observe what product are brought and what program they watch.

Characteristics of good observations Observation should be carefully planned, systematic and perceptive. Observers should know what they are looking for and what is irrelevant in a situation. 1. It should focus on wholeness of what is observed. Observers should not only be alert to significant details, they should also know that the whole is often greater than the sum of its parts. It should be objective and bias-free. Observers should strive to eliminate their influence what see and report. 2. It should separate the facts from the interpretation of facts. Observers observe the facts and make their interpretation at a later time. 3. It should be checked and verified whenever possible by repetition or by comparison with those of other competent observers. It should be carefully and expertly recorded. Observers use appropriate instruments to systematize, qualify and preserve the result of their observations. 4. Observations are collected in such a way that they are valid and reliable. Validity of observation Validity is that trial or quality of a data gathering procedure that enables to measure what it supposed to measure. Validity generally results from carful planning of observation. For the researchers observation to achieve a satisfactory degree of validity. Observation should achieve content, criterion-related and construct validity. To achieve a satisfactory degree of content validity, the researcher should identify and

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sample truly significant incidents of behavior. For this, a subjective judgment of expert in the field may be taken. The experts help in selecting a limited number of observable incidents whose relationship to the qualities of interest is based upon should established theory.

Reliability of observation Reliability is that quantity of a data gathering technique that enables to measure the degree of consistency. Observation data are considered to be reliable when they assure consistency in measurement. When researchers are role observers, they unconsciously tend. What they expect to see and to overlook those incidents that do not fit their theory. Their own values, feelings and even attitudes may distort their observations. To overcome this, it may be desirable to engage others who are well prepared as observers. The researchers should not be observer.

Recording observation Observation should be recorded. If it does not distract or create barrio between observer and those observed, simultaneously recording of observation should be done. This participate minimize the errors that results from faulty memory. When recording would more appropriately done after observation, should be done as soon as possible while the details are still fresh in the mind of the observers.

Systematizing data collection from observation To aid in the recording of information gained through observation, a number of device have been extensively used. They are:

Checklist It is a prepared list of behavior or items. It is the simplest of the device. The presence or absence of behavior may be indicated by checking yes or no, or the type of number of items may be indicated by inserting the appropriate word or number.

Rating scale It involves qualitative description of limited number of aspects of things or triats of person. The classification may set up in 5 or 7 categories in such terms as: Superior Always Average Fair Inferior Excellent Good Average Below average

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Poor III Always Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never

Scale specimen It provides a method for evaluating certain observed level of performance or measure of a quality in question. It is not frequently encountered in behavioral measures.

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated comparisons and analysis. Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis. The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups. Thus, in the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions.1 But there are persons who do not like to make difference between processing and analysis. They opine that analysis of data in a general way involves a number of closely related operations which are performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in such a manner that they answer the research question(s). We, however, shall prefer to observe the difference between the two terms as stated here in order to understand their implications more clearly.

PROCESSING OPERATIONS With this brief introduction concerning the concepts of processing and analysis, we can now proceed with the explanation of all the processing operations.

1. Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or schedules. Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation. Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms by the investigator for completing (translating or rewriting) what the latter has written in abbreviated and/or in illegible form at the time of recording the respondents responses. This type of editing is necessary in view of the fact that individual writing styles often can be difficult for others to decipher. This sort of editing should be done as soon as possible after the interview, preferably on the very day or on the next day. While doing field editing, the

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investigator must restrain himself and must not correct errors of omission by simply guessing what the informant would have said if the question had been asked. Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules have been completed and returned to the office. This type of editing implies that all forms should get a thorough editing by a single editor in a small study and by a team of editors in case of a large inquiry. Editor(s) may correct the obvious errors such as an entry in the wrong place, entry recorded in months when it should have been recorded in weeks, and the like. Editors must keep in view several points while performing their work:

(a) They should be familiar with instructions given to the interviewers and coders as well as with the editing instructions supplied to them for the purpose. (b) While crossing out an original entry for one reason or another, they should just draw a single line on it so that the same may remain legible. (c) They must make entries (if any) on the form in some distinctive color and that too in a standardized form. (d) They should initial all answers which they change or supply. (e) Editors initials and the date of editing should be placed on each completed form or schedule.

2. Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem under consideration. They must also possess the characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e., there must be a class for every data item) and also that of mutual exclusively which means that a specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category set. Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be reduced to a small number of classes which contain the critical information required for analysis.

3. Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or classes. Classification can be one of the following two types, depending upon the nature of the phenomenon involved:

(a) Classification according to attributes: As stated above, data are classified on the basis of common characteristics which can either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as

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weight, height, income, etc.). Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot be measured quantitatively; only their presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes and their classification is said to be classification according to attributes.

(b) Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive characteristics, the numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon which can be measured through some statistical units. Data relating to income, production, age, weight, etc. come under this category. Such data are known as statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class intervals. For instance, persons whose incomes, say, are within Rs 201 to Rs 400 can form one group, those whose incomes are within Rs 401 to Rs 600 can form another group and so on.

Exclusive type class intervals: They are usually stated as follows: 1020 2030 3040 4050 The above intervals should be read as under: 10 and under 20 20 and under 30 30 and under 40 40 and under 50 Thus, under the exclusive type class intervals, the items whose values are equal to the upper limit of a class are grouped in the next higher class. For example, an item whose value is exactly 30 would be put in 3040 class interval and not in 2030 class interval. In simple words, we can say that under exclusive type class intervals, the upper limit of a class interval is excluded and items with values less than the upper limit (but not less than the lower limit) are put in the given class interval.

Inclusive type class intervals: They are usually stated as follows: 1120 2130

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3140 4150 In inclusive type class intervals the upper limit of a class interval is also included in the concerning class interval. Thus, an item whose value is 20 will be put in 1120 class interval. The stated upper limit of the class interval 1120 is 20 but the real limit is 20.99999 and as such 1120 class interval really means 11 and under 21. When the phenomenon under consideration happens to be a discrete one (i.e., can be measured and stated only in integers), then we should adopt inclusive type classification. But when the phenomenon happens to be a continuous one capable of being measured in fractions as well, we can use exclusive type class intervals.*

How to determine the frequency of each class? This can be done either by tally sheets or by mechanical aids. Under the technique of tally sheet, the class-groups are written on a sheet of paper (commonly known as the tally sheet) and for each item a stroke (usually a small vertical line) is marked against the class group in which it falls. The general practice is that after every four small vertical lines in a class group, the fifth line for the item falling in the same group, is indicated as horizontal line through the said four lines and the resulting flower (IIII) represents five items. All this facilitates the counting of items in each one of the class groups. An illustrative tally sheet can be shown as under:

Table 7.1: An Illustrative Tally Sheet for Determining the Number of 70 Families in Different Income Groups

Income groups Below 400 401800 8011200 12011600 1601 and above

Tally mark IIII IIII III IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII II IIII IIII IIII III IIII II

Number of families or (Rupees) (Class frequency) 13 20 12 18 7 Total 70

4. Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation.

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Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows. Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.

1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum. 2. It facilitates the process of comparison. 3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions. 4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices. The choice depends on the size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures and the availability of tabulating machines or computers. In relatively large inquiries, we may use mechanical or computer tabulation if other factors are favorable and necessary facilities are available. Hand tabulation is usually preferred in case of small inquiries where the number of questionnaires is small and they are of relatively short length. Hand tabulation may be done using the direct tally, the list and tally or the card sort and count methods. When there are simple codes, it is feasible to tally directly from the questionnaire.

Generally accepted principles of tabulation: Such principles of tabulation, particularly of constructing statistical tables, can be briefly states as follows:* 1. Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title so as to make the table intelligible without reference to the text and this title should always be placed just above the body of the table. 2. Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference. 3. The column headings (captions) and the row headings (stubs) of the table should be clear and brief. 4. The units of measurement under each heading or sub-heading must always be indicated. 5. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed directly beneath the table, along with the reference symbols used in the table. 6. Source or sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be indicated just below the table. 7. Usually the columns are separated from one another by lines which make the table more readable and attractive. Lines are always drawn at the top and bottom of the table and below the captions. 8. There should be thick lines to separate the data under one class from the data under another class and the lines separating the sub-divisions of the classes should be comparatively thin lines.

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9. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference. 10. Those columns whose data are to be compared should be kept side by side. Similarly, percentages and/or averages must also be kept close to the data. 11. It is generally considered better to approximate figures before tabulation as the same would reduce unnecessary details in the table itself. 12. In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories, different kinds of type, spacing and indentations may be used. 13. It is important that all column figures be properly aligned. Decimal points and (+) or () signs should be in perfect alignment. 14. Abbreviations should be avoided to the extent possible and ditto marks should not be used in the table. 15. Miscellaneous and exceptional items, if any, should be usually placed in the last row of the table. 16. Table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible. If the data happen to be very large, they should not be crowded in a single table for that would make the table unwieldy and inconvenient. 17. Total of rows should normally be placed in the extreme right column and that of columns should be placed at the bottom. 18. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological, geographical, alphabetical or according to magnitude to facilitate comparison. Above all, the table must suit the needs and requirements of an investigation.

* All these points constitute the characteristics of a good table.

ELEMENTS/TYPES OF ANALYSIS

As stated earlier, by analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist among the data groups. Analysis, particularly in case of survey or experimental data, involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the population and testing of hypotheses for drawing inferences. Analysis may, therefore, be categorized as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis (Inferential analysis is often known as statistical analysis).

1. Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This study provides us with profiles of companies, work groups, persons and other subjects on any of a multiple of 93

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characteristics such as size. Composition, efficiency, preferences, etc this sort of analysis may be in respect of one variable (described as uni dimensional analysis), or in respect of two variables (described as bivariate analysis) or in respect of more than two variables (described as multivariate analysis). In this context we work out various measures that show the size and shape of a distribution(s) along with the study of measuring relationships between two or more variables. We may as well talk of correlation analysis and causal analysis. Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or more variables for determining the amount of correlation between two or more variables. Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect changes in another variable. It is thus a study of functional relationships existing between two or more variables. This analysis can be termed as regression analysis. Causal analysis is considered relatively more important in experimental researches, whereas in most social and business researches our interest lies in understanding and controlling relationships between variables then with determining causes per se and as such we consider correlation analysis as relatively more important. In modern times, with the availability of computer facilities, there has been a rapid development of multivariate analysis which may be defined as all statistical methods which simultaneously analyze more than two variables on a sample of observations3. Usually the following analyses* are involved when we make a reference of multivariate analysis: (a) Multiple regression analysis: This analysis is adopted when the researcher has one dependent variable which is presumed to be a function of two or more independent variables. The objective of this analysis is to make a prediction about the dependent variable based on its covariance with all the concerned independent variables. (b) Multiple discriminant analysis: This analysis is appropriate when the researcher has a single dependent variable that cannot be measured, but can be classified into two or more groups on the basis of some attribute. The object of this analysis happens to be to predict an entitys possibility of belonging to a particular group based on several predictor variables. (c) Multivariate analysis of variance (or multi-ANOVA): This analysis is an extension of two way ANOVA, wherein the ratio of among group variance to within group variance is worked out on set of variables. (d) Canonical analysis: This analysis can be used in case of both measurable and non-measurable variables for the purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent variables from their joint covariance with a set of independent variables.

2. Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses in order to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or conclusions. It is also concerned with the estimation of population values. It is mainly on the basis of inferential analysis that the task of interpretation (i.e., the task of drawing inferences and conclusions) is performed.

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REPORT WRITING

No matter what quality is of the research undertaken, much of the acceptance of the results depends on the way as they are communicated to the relevant audiences. This act of communicating is called report writing. It is the final step in the research process. A report is simply a statement or description of theirs that have already occurred. It is culmination of the research findings to a specific audience to accomplish given purpose. This presentation can be written or given orally or both. It is concise and clear communication of findings of the research work. According to Kinner and Taylor- A research report can be defined as the presentation of the research findings directed to a specific audience to accomplish specific purposes. Its objective is to tell readers the problems investigated, method used to solve the problem, result of the investigation and conclusion inferred from the result. It is to report what was done, why it is done, outcome of the doing and researchers conclusion.

Guidelines for report writing The research report is design to communicate information for use by decision maker, so obviously it must be tailored to his need. Report should be concise yet complete. It should cover the important points of the project and should exclude the unimportant. The research report must be an objective presentation or the research findings.

1. Organization/format/main body of report

a. Title page The title page appears first. It should indicate the subject, data to the report is prepared, for whom prepared and by whom prepared. If the research report is confidential the name of those individuals to receive report should be specified on the title page.

b. Table of contents If the report is lengthy or it is divided into numerous parts, it is usually describe to have table of content. Table of contents list the sequence of topic covered in the report long with page reference. Its purpose is to aid the readers in findings the particular section in report. If the report includes numerous chart, graphs, and figures they should be listed immediately following the table of content by page number.

c. Management/executive summary

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Most decision maker requires that the research report contains one or two page management summary. Most executives choose to read only this summary. It provides the executives with the key research findings which bear on the decision problem. It contains objective of the research project, conclusion and specific recommendation for action.

d. Foreword This serves to introduce the readers to the research project. It should give background of the problems like how and when it comes to existence, importance of the problem, various dimensional of the problem and whether any previous research was done which is pertinent to the specific project being reported.

e. Statement of objectives The specific objectives of the report need to be set forth clearly. The readers must know exactly what the report covers.

f. Methodology It describes the research procedure. This includes the following

(i) Research design It can be exploratory or conclusive the researcher should describe the particular design used. (ii) Data collection method The researcher must explain the data collection method used. Data can be collected from primary or secondary source with various methods. (iii) Sampling It should specify universe, sampling units, sampling size, sampling procedure employed. (iv) Fieldwork It should describe fieldwork activities such as description of the number, type of field workers used, how they were selected, trained and supervised and how their work was verified. (v) Analysis and interpretation It should include logically unfolding of information. It requires the organization of the data into a

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logical flow of information for decision making purposes.

g. Limitations Every research project has weakness which needs to be communicating in a clear and concise manner. This helps readers to form more accurate interpretations of the result than they would otherwise do.

h. Findings Findings are the results of the study. It is an organized narrative of the results. This section makes up the bulk of the report. Summary table and graphics methods of presentation should be used liberally.

i. Conclusions and recommendations It must flow logically form the presentations of the findings. Conclusions should clearly link the research findings with the information needs and based on these linkage recommendations for action can be formulated.

j. Appendix The purpose of the appendix is to provide a place for material which is not absolutely essential to the body of the report. This material is typically more specialized and complex or too detailed than presented in the main report and it is design to serve the needs of the technically oriented readers. The appendix typically contains the following materials: copies of data collection forms: details of sampling plan; tables not included in findings; bibliography.

2. Presentation of diagram Diagram refers to charts, graphs or schemes that explain thesis. They are basically pictorial presentation. They facilitate understanding of complex problems. It also facilitates presentation of data that are already collected in time of research objectives. Diagrammatic representation of information has now become a popular way to communicate findings to readers.

Methods of diagrammatic presentation

a. Bar chart

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It depicts the magnitude of the data by length of various bars which have been laid with reference to horizontal or vertical scale. They can be bilateral or two way which show both positive and negative characteristics of data.

b. Pie chart It is a circle divided into sections such that the sixe of each section corresponding to a portion of the total. It permits quick and easy understandings of relative percentage or division of the whole.

c. Line or circle or sector charts It depicts change in quantitative data over time. Bar chart shows only the total amount for a time period only whereas line charts shows variations within each time period. A line chart is preferred over a bar chart in the following situations

When the data involves a long time period When several series are compared on the same chart When emphasis is on the movement rather than the actual amount When trends of frequency distribution are presented.

d. Scatter diagram It is used to examine the relationship between two variables such as price and scales; incomes and expenses; production and cost; manpower and cost; and so on.

e. Time series graphs It shows the behavior of some variables overt time.

3. Construction of tables The research data can be presented in tabular form. A table is systematic method of presenting statistical data in vertical column and horizontal rows. Tables enable the reader to comprehend and interpret masses of data rapidly and to significantly details and relations at a glance. Tabulation involves arrangement of data in the form of tables. 99

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Note: Rules for preparing bibliography 4. Bibliography: A bibliography is a list of published works. However, by common use both published and unpublished materials are listed in bibliography. It is added at the end of research report. It is always arranged alphabetically. If the bibliography is extensive, it can be divided into books, periodically, newspaper, reports and public documents. d. Multiple tables: It gives information about four or more mutually related attributes. c. Three-way table: It indicates three mutually related and interlinked attributes of phenomenon. The male category of a population can be classified as poor, middle income and rich. It tells the relation among three variables at a time. b. Two way or bi-variate table: It is two dimensional tables with two variables. The variables are interrelated. Table showing the male and female population is an example. a. Simple table: It is often called marginal table. It consists of a count of the number of response that occurs in each of the data categories that comprise a variable. It is one dimension or uni-variate table. It makes no difference how many categories any single variable has. Such tables commonly occur in newspapers, government publications etc. Types of tables

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Use surname of the author first followed by middle name or two initials. Use the name of institutions or agency if there is no author name. Place the parenthesis immediately after the name to enter the year of publication. Name the books in italic if computer printed, and use underline if it is typed. Give the place of publication and name of publisher. In case of two or more works by the same author, the authors name is not to be repeated; a short horizontal line followed by a period should take the place of authors name If there are two or more works by one author, arrange them chronologically, most recent last. Use double space between the entries. The second line of an entry should be single spaced.

For a book with one author Kotler, P (1998). Marketing management: Analysis, planning, implementation and control. New Delhi: PHI

For a book with two authors Kotler, P and Armstrong (2005), Principle of marketing , New Delhi For an edited book Blois, Keith (Ed.) (2000). The oxford text book of marketing, New York: Oxford University Press Line.

For a corporate or institutional author Nepal Red Cross (1991). Fire representative training manual. Kathmandu: NRC For a newspaper article The Rising Nepal. April 15, 1997. P3. Col4

SAMPLING It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is defined in keeping with the objectives of the study. Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study because data is gathered on every member of the population. Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn. Sampling methods are classified as either probability or non probability. In probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In non probability sampling, members are selected from the population in some

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nonrandom manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In non probability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown.
1. Simple Random Sampling A simple random sample is one in which each element of the population has an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample selected by randomization method is known as simple-random sample and this technique is simple random-sampling. Randomization is a method and is done by using a number of techniques as : (a) Tossing a coin. (b) Throwing a dice. (c) Lottery method. (d) Blind folded method. (e) By using random table of Tippetts Table

Advantages (a) It requires a minimum knowledge of population. (b) It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error. (c) It provides appropriate data for our purpose. (d) The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose.

Disadvantages (a) The representativeness of a sample cannot be ensured by this method. (b) This method does not use the knowledge about the population. (c) The inferential accuracy of the finding depends upon the size of the sample.

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2. Systematic Sampling Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random sampling. This method requires the complete information about the population. There should be a list of information of all the individuals of the population in any systematic way. Now we decide the size of the sample. Let sample size = n and population size = N Now we select each N/nth individual from the list and thus we have the desired size of sample which is known as systematic sample. Thus for this technique of sampling population should be arranged in any systematic way.

Advantages (a) This is a simple method of selecting a sample. (b) It reduces the field cost. (c) Inferential statistics may be used. (d) Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population. (e) Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and generalizations.

Disadvantages (a) This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different ways of systematic list by different individuals. Knowledge of population is essential. (b) Information of each individual is essential. (c) This method cant ensure the representativeness. (d) There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the sample.

3. Stratified Sampling It is an improvement over the earlier method. When employing this technique, the researcher divides his population in strata on the basis of some characteristics and from each of these smaller homogeneous groups (strata) draws at random a predetermined number of units. Researcher should choose that characteristic or criterion which seems to be more relevant in his research work. Stratified ampling may be of three types: 103

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1. Disproportionate stratified sampling. 2. Proportionate stratified sampling. 3. Optimum allocation stratified sampling.

1. Disproportionate sampling means that the size of the sample in each unit is not proportionate to the size of the unit but depends upon considerations involving personal judgement and convenience. This method of sampling is more effective for comparing strata which have different error possibilities. It is less efficient for determining population characteristics.

2. Proportionate sampling refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is proportionate to the size of the unit. Advantages of this procedure include representativeness with respect to variables used as the basis of classifying categories and increased chances of being able to make comparisons between strata. Lack of information on proportion of the population in each category and faulty classification may be listed as disadvantages of this method.

3. Optimum allocation stratified sampling is representative as well as comprehensive than other stratified samples. It refers to selecting units from each stratum should be in proportion to the corresponding stratum the population. Thus sample obtained is known as optimum allocation stratified sample.

These three types are clear from the table as given below:

21 22 23 24 25

Advantages (a) It is (more precisely third way) a good representative of the population. (b) It is an improvement over the earlier. (c) It is an objective method of sampling.

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(d) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.

Disadvantages (a) Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the researcher to decide the relevant criterion for stratification. (b) Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but it generally seems more than one criterion relevant for stratification. (c) It is costly and time consuming method. (d) Selected sample may be representative with reference to the used criterion but not for the other. (e) There is a risk in generalization.

4. Multiple or Double or Repetitive Sampling Generally this is not a new method but only a new application of the samplings we discussed above. This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample. When employing a mailed questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a more representative sample. This is done because some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires may not return them. Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study, if the people who fail to reply the query differ in some fundamental way from the others in respect to the phenomena being studied. To eliminate this bias, a second sample may be drawn at random from the non-respondents and the people interviewed to obtain the desired information. Thus this technique is also known as repeated or multiple sampling. This double sampling technique enables one to check on the reliability of the information obtained from the first sample. Thus, double sampling, wherein one sample is analyzed, and information obtained is used to draw the next sample to examine the problem further.

Advantages (a) This sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free determine precision based on a number of observations. (b) This technique of sampling reduces the error. (c) This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the reliability of the sample.

Disadvantages

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(a) This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample. It is applicable only for small sample. (b) This technique is time consuming, costly, and requires more competition. (c) Its planning and administration is more complicated.

5. Multi-Stage Sampling This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the population. In this type of sampling primary sample units are inclusive groups and secondary units are sub-groups within these ultimate units to be selected which belong to one and only one group. Stages of a population are usually available within a group or population, whenever stratification is done by the researcher. The Individuals are selected from different stages for constituting the multi-stage sampling.

Advantages (a) It is a good representative of the population. (b) Multi-stage sampling is an improvement over the earlier methods. (c) It is an objective procedure of sampling. (d) The observations from multi-stage sample may be used for inferential purpose.

Disadvantages (a) It is a difficult and complex method of samplings. (b) It involves errors when we consider the primary and secondary stages. (c) It is again a subjective phenomenon.

6. Cluster Sampling To select the intact group as a whole is known as a Cluster sampling. In Cluster sampling the sample units contain groups of elements (clusters) instead of individual members or items in the population. Rather than listing all elementary school children in a given city and randomly selecting 15 per cent of these students for the sample, a researcher lists all of the elementary schools in the city, selects at random 15 per cent of these clusters of units, and uses all of the children in the selected schools as the sample.

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Advantages (a) It may be a good representative of the population. (b) It is an easy method. (c) It is an economical method. (d) It is practicable and highly applicable in education. (e) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.

Disadvantages (a) Cluster sampling is not free from error. (b) It is not comprehensive. All these above are techniques of probability sampling.

7. Non-probability Sampling Techniques Non-probability is also known as non-parametric sampling which ate used for certain purpose.

1. Incidental or Accidental Assignment The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples that are taken because they are most frequently available, i.e. this refers to groups which are used as samples of a population because they are readily available or because the researcher is unable to employ more acceptable sampling methods.

Advantages (a) It is very easy method of sampling. (b) It is frequently used in behavioural sciences. (c) It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical method.

Disadvantages (a) It is not a representative of the population. (b) It is not free from error. 107

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(c) Parametric statistics cannot be used.

2. Judgment Sampling This involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available information thought. It is to be representative of the total population. Or the selection of a group by intuition on the basis of criterion deemed to be self-evident. Generally investigator should take the judgment sample so this sampling is highly risky.

Advantages (a) Knowledge of the investigator can be best used in this technique of sampling. (b) This technique of sampling is also economical.

Disadvantages (a) This technique is objective. (b) It is not free from error. (c) It includes uncontrolled variation. (d) Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observations of this sampling, so generalization is not possible.

3. Purposive Sampling The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary method because it is known to be representative of the total population, or it is known that it will produce well matched groups. The Idea is to pick out the sample in relation to some criterion, which are considered important for the particular study. This method is appropriate when the study places special emphasis upon the control of certain specific variables.

Advantages (a) Use of the best available knowledge concerning the sample subjects. (b) Better control of significant variables. (c) Sample groups data can be easily matched.

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(d) Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.

Disadvantages (a) Reliability of the criterion is questionable. (b) Knowledge of population is essential. (c) Errors in classifying sampling subjects. (d) Inability to utilize the inferential parametric statistics. (e) Inability to make generalization concerning total population.

4. Quota Sampling This combined both judgment sampling and probability sampling. The population is classified into several categories: on the basis of judgment or assumption or the previous knowledge, the proportion of population falling into each category is decided. Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the observer is allowed to sample as he likes. Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in Municipal surveys.

Advantages (a) It is an improvement over the judgment sampling. (b) It is an easy sampling technique. (c) It is most frequently used in social surveys.

Disadvantages (a) It is not a representative sample. (b) It is not free from error. (c) It has the influence of regional geographical and social factors.

Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional

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subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.
Since research design is a plan by which research samples may be selected from a population and under which experimental treatments are administered and controlled so that their effect upon the sample may be measured. Therefore, a second step in the establishment of an experimental design is to select the treatments that will be used to control sources of learning change in the sample subjects.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE The following are the main characteristics of a good sample:

1. A good sample is the true representative of the population corresponding to its properties. The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called sub-aggregate of the universe. 2. A good sample is free from bias, the sample does not permit prejudices the learning and preconception, imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice. 3. A good sample is an objective one, it refers objectivity in selecting procedure or absence of subjective elements from the situation. 4. A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an accurate estimates or statistics and does not involve errors. 5. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a sample is closely linked with truerepresentativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is controlled by specific purpose of the investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not be a good representative of the population. 6. A good sample is also economical from energy, time and money point of view. 7. The subjects of good sample are easily approachable. The research tools can be administered on them and data can be collected easily. 8. The size of good sample is such that it yields an accurate result. The probability of error can be estimated. 9. A good sample makes the research work more feasible. 10. A good sample has the practicability for research situation.

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Types of Errors in Sampling The samples of behavioural research are not representative and suffer from two types of errors: (1) Random error, and (2) Systematic error.

These errors can be classified further as : (a) Sampling errors and (b) Error of measurement. Thus, it provides a four-ways classification and has been shown in following manner:

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THE SAMPLING CYCLE Five stages of sampling cycle are proposed here, as sketched in figure. In this cycle, the researcher identifies the universe that is relevant for his research problem and then identifies his population, that is, that portion of the universe to which he has access. Then by applying the techniques for sample selection, he decides how large a sample he needs, selects, and invites that number to participate. To this point, the researcher has completed control over the process, but at this point the respondents assume most of the control. For now, some do and others do not accept the invitation, and so typically more invitations are extended until sufficient number accept so that the sample is of desired size. Those who do accept from the accepting sample then the researcher applied his data gathering technique to the accepting sample depending upon factors like the data gathering design, methods and techniques, all or only some of the accepting sample actually produce data. Those who do form the data producing sample, it is from these data that the researcher obtains his findings and makes his conclusions.

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PLANING A SURVEY PROJECT (How to Create an Effective Survey Project Plan) A survey usually originates when an individual or institution is confronted with a problem and the existing data are insufficient. At this point, it is important to consider if the required information can be collected by a survey. If you need input from a number of people, must get results quickly, and need specific information to support business decisions, then a survey is the most appropriate technique. Many studies start with a general hope that something interesting will emerge, and often end in frustration. A careful survey plan will help you focus your project, while guiding your implementation and analysis so the survey research is finished quicker. You can then concentrate on implementing wellsupported decisions. A well-designed plan answers the following questions: Questions Benefits

What will be learned? Generate data that answers the business questions you have How long will it take? Keep the survey project focused and on schedule How much will it cost? Anticipate direct and indirect project costs 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 One can only answer these questions if he draft a plan prior to implementing your survey. Hence, an integral part of a well executed and a successful survey is the "planning quality." Creating Effective Survey Plans Depending on the scope of your survey, there could be many interrelated issues. Every survey plan should include consideration of the following six areas: 1. Survey Value 2. Survey Cost 3. Defining the Project 112

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4. Defining the Audience 5. Defining the Project Team 6. Project Timeline 1. Survey Value The first step in defining your survey project is to understand its scope and importance to your organization and how the information you gather can realistically benefit your work. Survey value depends on three main factors. They are:

A clear definition of the decisions you need to make The relative cost of making an error in those decisions The amount of uncertainty the survey will reduce

To illustrate how these points work together consider Coca-Cola's decision to introduce New Coke in 1984. After conducting blind taste-tests, Coke decided to change its formula because they believed that consumers preferred sweeter-tasting Pepsi. To support this decision, they conducted several focus groups, who said that the company should not change its formula. Define decision Do we change the Coke formula?

Cost of making an error High (Coke lost market share and brand loyalty after making this decision) Amount of uncertainty High (Blind taste-tests could not evaluate brand loyalty or consumer reaction to the change)

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To resolve the contradictions posed by these two qualitative studies, Coke should have conducted a quantitative survey. Instead, they ignored the focus group results. Numeric results from a survey could not have been manipulated or mis-interpreted the way that their qualitative research was. They believed that the level of uncertainty that their second study would clarify was low, when actually it caused more uncertainty. New Coke turned out to be a disaster with consumers and was a very expensive blunder. Looking at this example, we can see how important it is to identify the information you need and define the decision that you must make for this survey project to be successful. Objectively identify, before the survey, how high the cost will be to make an error in your decision. Knowing this cost, identify the amount of uncertainty the survey is likely to reduce, and include a follow up survey in your plan if there are additional issues to be clarified once your initial survey is complete. This stage of planning will assist you in framing the importance of your project, and justifying costs to colleagues or clients. 2. Survey Cost Next, estimate the total survey cost. You want to make sure that you don't exceed your budget and realize, only after the survey is complete, that you spent more than what you intended.

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A good survey does not come "cheap", although some methods are far more economical than others. Apart from human resources time, three significant costs that you incur are:

Actual cost of creating the survey instrument Cost of inviting your respondents and encouraging them to participate Cost for data entry and analysis

Web-based surveys are considerably less expensive to conduct than traditional mail and telephone surveys because they do not include costs for design, printing, postage, mail house, telephone, call personnel, or data entry.

Telephone Mail Panel Size Costs 10,000 $28,000

eSurveysPro

10,000 10,000 $16,000 $0.00 2% $80 10% * $0.00

Expected Response 10% Cost per Response $28 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 3. Defining the Project

* Online response rates vary, however a conservative estimate of 10% was used for this analysis. Given the same project specifications for telephone, mail and online surveys, you can achieve a much lower cost per response by using eSurveysPro.

At this point, you need to plan the elements of the survey process and define the project. By setting a measurable objective, you can learn the effectiveness of your survey and it will help you in reinvesting the information you learned for future surveys. A good example of an Objective Statement would be: Measure site visitor demographics daily for the next eight weeks to see how effective our online advertising campaign is at drawing our target audience. Calculate how long the survey will take, including time to invite the respondents, gather data, enter and analyze results. How you conduct your survey affects how long each of these steps will take. For instance, when compared to traditional survey techniques using mail and telephone, Internet surveys provide the ideal solution for information gathering because of their fast turnaround. An entire web survey project can be completed in a couple of days, where printing alone will take a week for the mail survey.

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The next thing you identify is how you are going to invite your respondents to take the survey. Several ways that are commonly used are emails, website links, or online advertising. By identifying at least one tangible or intangible benefit that you are offering to your respondents for answering the survey will help you compose an invitation that helps respondents to click through. A tangible benefit could be in the form of money or a gift; whereas an intangible benefit is the chance to voice opinions or contribute to research they view as valuable.

4. Defining the Audience Who is going to respond to your survey? Your target audience could include your customers, prospects, employees, or members. A survey panel is mainly dependent on your objective since it will help you identify your target audience. Next, focus on the sample size, or number of respondents you would need for your analysis to be valid and accurate. Based on the population about which you are drawing conclusions, the greater the level of accuracy desired and the more certain you would like to be about the inferences to be made from the sample to the entire population, the larger the number of respondents must be. Bear in mind that all the people who you invite might not respond to the survey. Hence you also need to estimate the percentage of those invited whom you want to respond. With the mail-based surveys the response rate is traditionally low, hovering in the 2 to 3 percent range. Telephone surveys allow for retries when the contact isn't available, so can yield results at the ten percent level. Most web-based surveys however are announced with an e-mail message that contains a link to the survey page. This format allows users to respond at their convenience and results in significantly higher response rates.

5. Defining the Project Team You need to identify the internal resources you may need to complete this survey process. This is dependent on your company and also on the kind of survey you are conducting. A few internal resources you might need are: Human Resources: Necessary for employee satisfaction surveys IT: Customized interactivity or additional templates Market Research: Data analysis and reporting

6.Defining the Project Timeline What are the tasks and is there a specific order in which they need to be completed? Defining a project timeline will help list the entire set of tasks that are to be conducted for the survey and assign them to specific people in your company. By setting a timeline that includes each of these tasks, you can keep track of their commencement and end, and maintain control over the survey process. In the Survey

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Development Worksheet, we have identified a set of tasks associated with most survey projects and are presented to give you a starting point for developing your own timeline in creating an effective survey plan. Conclusion We have reviewed why you need to create a plan and the benefits that you can get by planning your survey. We have looked at the activities that are involved in planning a survey which include the survey value, the survey cost, defining the project, defining the audience, defining the project team and defining the project timeline. It is important for you to create a survey plan since it will guide, direct, and coordinate the tasks required to initiate and complete your survey successfully. Although each project is unique, using a standardized planning tool will help you get the results you want from every research project.

UNIT-III Publishing and Patenting

INTRODUCTION
Scientific progress depends on the publication of results, enabling researchers to build on one another's findings. Industry needs patents to protect its investment in research and development. The main scope assesses the impact of publishing and patenting on the diffusion of technical and scientific knowledge. Publishing is the process of production and dissemination of literature or information or scientific knowledge the activity of making information available for public view. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books (the "book trade") and newspaper. With the advent of digital information systems and the internet, the scope of publishing has expanded to include electronic resources, such as the electronic versions of books and periodicals, as well as micropublishing, website, blogs, etc. Publishing includes the stages of the development, acquisition, copyediting, graphic design, production printing (and its electronics equivalents), marketing and distribution of newspapers, magazines, books, literary work, scientific work, software and other works dealing with information, including the electronic media. Publication is also important as legal concepts for the process of giving formal notice to the world of a significant intention and for copyright purposes, where there is a difference in the protection of published and unpublished works.

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Patenting is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state (national government) to an inventor or their assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for a public disclosure of an invention. The term patent usually refers to an exclusive right granted to anyone who invents any new, useful, and non-obvious process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof, and claims that right in a formal patent application. Examples of particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents and software patents. A patent is not a right to practice or use the invention. Rather, a patent provides the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering for sale, or importing the patented invention for the term of the patent, which is usually 20 years from the filing date.

DIFFERENCE: PUBLISHING AND PATENTING

Both scientific publishing and patenting result in a dissemination of scientific knowledge, they serve different purposes and have fundamental legal differences: Headings Performed by Description Motivation Types of research Manner of research Typical situation For knowledge for which there are no patenting intentions or a patent application has already been filed Ownership Normally the author of the paper, unless he transfer its rights to publisher For new knowledge (inventions) likely to be able to be actually exploited in Industry Normally the Inventors employer (Unless otherwise agreed in a collaboration Open Secret University Science Improve science Basic/ Fundamental Publishing Industry Technology Increase Share holder value Applied Patenting

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contract) Purpose Publishing is primarily intended to share knowledge and obtain recognition from peers. Patenting is primarily intended to create exclusive rights for an invention which are enforceable against third parties and may generate revenue. Scope of protection Copyright only protects the expressed form of an article (language and style) and does not prevent anyone from reusing the ideas or any inventions described in it. Speed Copyright protection is granted automatically and publishing a scientific article can occur relatively fast (although some peer review processes may cause a delay). Legal requirement Copyright protection only requires a minimal level of creativity (originality), which will almost always be the case for scientific articles. Cost of the research Publishing does not involve any real costs for the researcher (unless in the case of some open access author pays publishing models, as noted above). Cost of the reader Other than in the case of open access publishing models, the consultation of scientific publications may involve a costly subscription. Geographical Copyright protection is practically Patents, on the other hand, can generally be consulted for free or for a small fee in online databases. Patents only protect an Patents are restricted to inventions which are new, novel and are capable of industrial application. Patents involve application fees and associated legal/administrative costs. Patents involve a formal and relatively lengthy procedure of up to 36 months in Europe. Patents, however, grant an exclusive right over the use of the invention.

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scope Conditions

worldwide Conditions relating to peer review process (if any)

invention in designated countries The invention must be new (no prior publication), Involve an Inventive step and be susceptible to Industrial application.

Formal Procedure Use of invention by third parties Duration of Protection Geographical scope of Protection Ability to get financial return

No (other than peer review process, if any) Cannot be prevented and is likely to happen

Yes (requiring specialized assistance) Can be prevented by the owner, or allowed by the owner through a licence

No protection of the invention, only protection of the article itself (70 years after authors death) Practically worldwide

Maximum 20 years

Only in those countries in which a patent has been granted

Not regarding exploitation of the invention. Possibly regarding reproduction of the paper resulting from publication

Yes (Licensing)

from third parties and indirectly through heightened reputation

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VARIOUS FORMS OF PUBLICATIONS

The following is a list different types of publications to which we can submit our work. By exploring our options we can decide which type of publication would be best suited for your submissions. The scientific research work can be published in one or more of the following under headings: I. INVESTIGATIONS

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It is the general original research or data report, the mainstay of scientific publication. These reports includes the new research findings into the enhancement factors of health, causal aspects of disease, and the establishment of clinical efficacies of related diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. II. HYPOTHESES It includes preliminary studies which may establish a solid basis for further in-depth investigations. This is the pilot study. These kinds of papers are found rarely. Often, they are presented as pilot studies, where the feasibility of doing a larger project is studied. III. LITERATURE REVIEWS Literature review are critical assessments of current knowledge of a particular subject of interest, with emphasis upon better correlation, the pointing up of ambiguities, and the delineation of areas which may constitute areas for further study. There are 3 types of literature reviews: a) Descriptive reviews b) Systematic reviews c) Meta-analytic reviews a) Descriptive review

These are designed not so much as to answer a specific research question, but rather to provide an overview of a topic are so that a clinician can gather information about the diagnosis and or treatment of a condition or a scientist can gather information about a particular area of research. The goal is to provide a synopsis of the existing literature. This information is often biased in some fashion, the methods for selecting papers is typically not specified, and one cannot be sure that all the necessary information and differing points of view have been presented. However, they do have a use. b) Systemic review

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Systematic reviews are much more rigorous in nature. In such reviews, a specific search strategy is used to identify papers of interest; this strategy is published in detail. Also, the method of selecting from the papers that were identified is also provided, as well as specific information about how the data is to be compiled. This is the primary method used presently for doing reviews. c) Meta-analytic review

In meta-analysis, once papers have been identified then the goal is to abstract data and combine it so that one can draw conclusions about a specific research question. IV. SCHOLARLY JOURNALS

The purpose of scholarly journals is to share findings, ideas, and discoveries within a community of specialized scholars. It is in these journals that the cutting edge discoveries, ideas, and developments of every field are first published. Many of these journals are peer-reviewed, meaning that every article that is deemed a possible candidate for publication is read by two or three recognized scholars in the field, who critique not only the writing but the importance and usefulness of the information presented. V. CLINICAL PROCEDURES

These are Succinct, informative, didactic papers on diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, based heavily on current authoritative knowledge. This kind of paper is not often published in a research journal, but is more common in a clinical journal, ie. JBJS (journal of bone & joint surgery), Journal of Chiropractic Medicine etc. VI. CASE REPORTS

This accounts of the diagnosis and treatment of unusual, difficult, or otherwise interesting cases which may have independent educational value or may contribute to better standardization of care for a particular health problem when correlated with similar reports of others. Case reports are often looked at as some sort of lower echelon kind of paper. But they have real valueconsider the initial report of Kaposi sarcoma- which later led to other such cases being reported and the start of the AIDS epidemics.

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VII.

CASE REVIEWS/SERIES

A retrospective comparative assessment of the diagnosis and treatment of several cases of a similar condition, i.e., the comparative evaluation of two or more (perhaps hundreds) of case reports. TECHNICAL REPORTS

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A technical report (also: scientific report) is a document that describes the process, progress, or results of technical or scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research problem. Unlike other scientific literature, such as scientific journals and the proceedings of some academic conferences, technical reports rarely undergo comprehensive independent peer review before publication. Technical reports are today a major source of scientific and technical information. They are prepared for internal or wider distribution by many organizations. Technical reports are now commonly published electronically, whether on the internet or on the originating organization's internet. IX. EDITORIALS

An editorial is an opinion piece written by the senior editorial staff or publisher of a newspaper or magazine. Editorials are usually unsigned and may be supposed to reflect the opinion of the periodical. The presentation of points-of-view or opinion relating to the editorial purpose of a journal, the emphasizing of evidential support for the fulfillment of that purpose, or the discussion of related controversial issues. This is the editors prerogative only. It deals not necessarily with scientific issues, though it can, but also with policy issues and with publication issues. In the past, my own editorials have dealt with publishing, with financial conflict of interest, with how to prepare case reports or structured abstracts, etc. X. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

Letters to the editor is one of the places nearly anyone, with persistence, can get published and read by a large audience. Some publications are able to publish all of the letters they receive, but most exercise some form of discretion.Communications which are directed specifically to the editor which critically assess some aspect of the journal, particularly as such assessment may add to, clarify, or point-up a deficiency in a recently published paper;
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authors are afforded the privilege of a counter-response. It is not to get into personal issues, raise issues of general interest to the profession or anything else. It is to point out problems in papers that have been published. There is a real art here. For one thing, letters need to be brief. XI. CONFERENCE REPORTS

Documentation of related scientific conferences, particularly abstracts of presentations, prior to their publication in a proceedings volume or elsewhere. We can publish a paper in a conference proceeding and still be able to publish it in a journal; this is acceptable secondary publication. What is interesting is that studies have shown that somewhere around 1% of papers that are published in conference reports are ever later published in a scientific journal. People do like their free trips to exotic places. XII. WEBZINES

Webzines, also known as e-zines, eBooks, or online magazines, come in as many forms and genres as print magazines. There are online magazines devoted to news and politics, to literary work, to science fiction and fantasy writing, to e-publishing, and to nearly every sort of specialized subject you can imagine. The same guidelines that apply to submitting to print magazines also apply at these magazines, except that postal charges and SASEs are not involved.

BOOKS Most writers guidelines recommend getting an agent if you want to publish a book-length work. There are exceptions to this rule: if you are submitting to a small press, if you have a book with a very specialized audience, or, possibly, if your book is likely to sell well; even under these circumstances an agent is recommended. Approach an agent the same way you would a publisher, with respect for his or her limited time and attention.

CHOICE OF JOURNAL AND REVIEWING PROCESS

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Publication usually represents the culmination of most research efforts. The process of selecting the appropriate journal has become increasingly complex due to the proliferation of journals, areas of specialization and emergence of interdisciplinary topics. Authors have to optimize between many criteria or constraints before reaching a decision about where to publish. Various factors to be considered for publication are given below: 1. Knowing the options: It is essential to obtain reasonably comprehensive knowledge about available journals in the given subject area. This can be done by consulting your peers, searching through online listings, and checking with professional associations. 2. Determining the impact: The recognition factor is obviously an important consideration. Quantitative measures such as impact factor, journal rank, article influence and H-index are used. These are generally linked to the citation rate for articles published in the journal however these values and the absolute numbers of citations can both be scrutinized. 3. Journal scope and policies: The subject areas covered and the types of articles published should be ascertained. This will contribute towards addressing the suitable target audience. Further, information about the editorial policies and practices should be obtained in order to anticipate any situations that may emerge during the submission and peer-review process. 4. Journal requirements and distribution: Most journals follow a certain style and specify requirements for the article. Consistency of the article with these requirements should be ensured. The mode of distribution (print/online) and number of subscribers decides the reach of the journal. For open access journals, where the content is available to all, an estimate of the typical number of readers helps. 5. Peer-review factors: Information about the peer-review process for the specific journal, including stature of reviewers, objectivity and timelines, should also be gleaned from a variety of sources. Actual values or estimates of rejection rates should be obtained. 6. Urgency of publication and cost: There is a time lag between submission and publication of an article, which is dependent on editorial processing schedules, time for peer review, and periodicity of production and publication. This time lag should be taken into account for timely dissemination of the research. The costs involved in publishing (whether page or peer-review

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charges) may also be a factor based on the available research budget. For new journals, future viability should be taken into account. Note: Using the above considerations and following the various steps mentioned should allow selection of the best possible journal in terms of visibility and quality, and publication and dissemination of the research within the specified constraints.

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Other Factors to be considered while choosing for publishing: Does the journal have a limit on the size of the manuscript? Some journals have a word count limit. Does the journal provide unrestricted access to all articles within a set time frame? Does the journal provide free reprints or off prints to authors? Does the journal offer a manuscript template for authors?

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Does the journal offer an extensive Instructions for Authors section? Is the journal an open access journal?

STAGES IN THE REALIZATION OF PATENT & HANDLING

A Patent is an exclusive monopoly granted by the Government to an inventor over his invention for a limited period of time. It provides an enforceable legal right to prevent others from exploiting an invention. Invention as defined under the Act to mean a new product or process involving an inventive step and capable of industrial application. An inventor or any other person or company assigned by the inventor can apply and obtain the patent over the invention. A patent is obtained by the inventor or his assignee by filing an application with the appropriate office of the patent office in stipulated forms and fees as required by the Act. The main aim of patent registration is protecting and preventing the unauthorized use, selling and importing of the product or process innovatively invented. Patent is a legal right/document given by government to the inventor of the any new and useful product. Patent Registration is an exclusive right given for specific number of years to the inventor of the product. The protection is granted for a limited period, generally 20 yrs. Patent registration process It is also a legal registration process therefore it requires a defined procedure. Every country has different law therefore patent is granted in accordance with the law of the country. Firstly, patent application is to be filed. Name, address of the applicant, complete details, the title of the invention, description of the invention should be duly mentioned with desirable and appropriate information about the product or process. With this other document such as power of attorney duly stamped by notary public is also need to be submitted. Application is being examined by the concern authority, which could result in two situations refusal or acceptance. If application is refused than appeal can be made in court. But, once the application is accepted than publication

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in the official gazette is the next procedure. Finally, after verifying all the details certificate of registration is being provide to the applicant. Patent registration in India Every Country has different law and national patent registration. The law governing Patents in India is Patent Act, 1970. In India patent registration can be filed either alone or jointly with a partner or by legal representative of a deceased inventor. Several documents are required for further processing. Patent Registration is a specialized process need experts. It is a very complicated procedure in India therefore Patent Registration can also be done with the help of good attorney. Attorney would able to guide that what material is patentable and what is not. Even there are patent registration offices are available to help and guide the applicant, established under the ministry of commerce & industry, department of industrial policy & promotion. Patent office looks after the various provisions of patent law relating to grant of patent. Rights conferred by registration A patent represents one of the powerful intellectual property rights. The registration of a patent confers on the patentee the exclusive right to use, manufacture or sell his invention for the term of the patent. It means that the invention cannot be commercially made, used, distributed or sold without the patentee's consent. The patent rights can usually be enforced in a court of law. Patent is also a legal registration process therefore it requires a defined procedure. Every country has different law therefore patent is granted in accordance with the law of the country. It includes several stages as follows: 1. Patent Search: It is prudent to conduct searches as early as possible to avoid spending time and money re-inventing a known matter. A patent is not granted to an invention if it is already available with the public either in the form of published literature or common knowledge. 2. Patentable Inventions: To be patentable, an invention must, in general, satisfy certain criteria. The invention must be of industrial applicability, must be new and must show an inventive step which could not be deduced by a person reasonably skilled in the field. Above
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all, its subject matter must be accepted as "patentable" under law. As for example, Inventions which are frivolous or claim anything contrary to well established natural laws are not patentable. There are also other specific categories of inventions which are declared as nonpatentable. 3. Patent application filing: Filing a patent application in the Indian Patent Office is the first step towards securing a patent to your invention in India. To file a patent application, a set of forms has to be submitted to the patent office. The forms can be submitted online (https://www.ipindiaonline.gov.in/on_line/) if you have a class 3 digital certificate. Alternatively, you can send true copies (hard copies) to the patent office. Indian patent offices are located at Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai. The patent application has to be filed in the appropriate office based on your/your companys location. It should be noted that Forms 1, 2, 3 and 5 can be submitted online. The remaining forms (forms 9 and 18) have to be submitted to the patent office by sending hard copies of the executed forms. Further, note that if you are filing online, form 1 will have to be filled in the online filing portal. The remaining forms (2, 3 and 5) have to executed and the scanned copies of the same have to be uploaded during filing. An overview of each of the forms is provided below. i. Form 1 - Application for Grant of Patent As the name suggests, this form is an application for grant of patent in India. In this form, you will have to furnish information, such as, name and address of the inventor(s), name and address of the applicant(s), information corresponding to prior patent applications relating to the current invention, which you or any authorized entity has filed, and some declarations, among other information.

ii.

Form 2 - Provisional/Complete Specification

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Form 2 is used to furnish your patent specification. The patent specification can be provisional or a complete patent specification depending of the type of patent application (provisional or complete) you are filing.

iii.

Form 3 - Statement and Undertaking under Section 8 Form 3 is used to furnish information/actions relating to patent applications filed in other countries for the current invention. Additionally, any information relating to the rights corresponding to the present patent application has to be furnished. Further, you would be using form 3 to undertake that you will be keeping the patent office informed in writing the details regarding corresponding applications for patents filed outside India.

iv.

Form 5 - Declaration as to Inventorship This application is used to declare the inventors of the subject matter sought to be protected using the current patent application.

v.

Form 9 - Request for Publication If this form is not filed, then the patent specification will be published by the patent office after 18 months from the priority date (filing of the first patent application for the current subject matter). On the other hand, by filing this form, you can generally have your patent specification published within 1 week from filing this form. Note that the patent rights start from the date of publication of the patent application (enforceable after grant of patent).

vi.

Form 18 - Request for Examination of Application for Patent This form can be filed within 48 months from the priority date. The patent office will not consider your patent application for examination unless this form is filed. Hence, if you wish to expedite the patenting process, filing of form 9 and 18 at an early stage is advised.

4. Patent Specification: The process of patenting typically involves conducting prior art searches to distinguish the invention and develop a description that illustrates the best method of working the invention. The description of the invention is called specification.

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Depending upon the sufficiency of the description a specification may be both provisional and complete Specification. 5. Provisional and Complete Specification: A provisional specification is often the first application filed in respect of an invention, and usually contains only a brief description of the invention. It need not contain claims. Compared with the provisional, the complete specification contains the full description of the invention, and the best method of making the invention work. The complete specification comprises a title, field of invention, the background of the invention, the description of the related art, drawbacks of the prior art, the summary of the invention, the brief description of the figures, the detailed description of the preferred embodiments, claims and abstract. Complete specification must be filed within 12 months from the date of filing of the provisional specification. Claims are the most important component in the patent specification as it is the legal operative part which define and determine the legal protection sought for. The extent of patent protection for an invention shall be determined by the terms of the claims. The description and the appended drawings may be used to interpret the claims. 6. Examination and Prosecuting Patent Applications: The procedure for the grant of a patent starts with filing of the patent application along with the prescribed fees at the appropriate office of the patent office followed by filing of request for examination in the prescribed format (present time limit within 36 months), after the publication of the application. Presently, application for patent is not open to open to public for 18 months from the date of filing or date of priority, though the applicant can request for early publication. The applications are examined substantively and a first examination report stating the objections is communicated to the applicant. Application may be amended in order to meet the objections. Normally all the objections must be met within 12 months from the date of first examination report. If the applicant does not comply with the objection, the application will be abandoned. Upon complying the requirements the application is published in the Official Journal. At that time, opposition can be filed on limited grounds, but hearing is not mandatory.
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Patent will be granted if the application is found to be in order. Then, the application and other related documents will be open for public inspection. Thereafter, at any time after the grant but before the expiry of a period of one year from the date of publication opposition on substantive grounds is available. The whole process typically takes at least two years. 7. Duration of a Patent: The term for patents is 20 years from the date of filing of the application for the patent. It is the responsibility of the patentee to maintain an issued patent by paying the annuities until the patent expires. After 20 years term the invention claimed in the patent falls into the public domain. 8. Restoration: Restoration of a patent that lapses due to non-payment of renewal fees can be made within one year of lapse. However, certain limitations will be imposed on the rights of the patentee when the patent is restored. 9. Remedies for Infringement: It is the sole responsibility of the patentee to see that his patent is not being infringed. It is the patentee's duty to file a suit of infringement against the infringer. The reliefs which may be usually awarded in such a suit are i. Injunctions whether interim or final. ii. Damages or account of profits.

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EUROPIAN PATENTING SYSTEM AND TIME SCALE

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PATENT FILING PROCEDURE TIME SCALE

Patenting filing is time scale dependent activity and it required a definite time for the different activities involved as follows:

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GLOBAL PICTURE OF THE PATENT VALUE CHAIN

Patent value chain process is consists of two major stages: patenting and enforcement. The patenting process is primarily concerned with generating patents. While enforcement is about enforcing patents after they have been granted, including technology transfer, licensing and sales.

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A typical patenting process starts with an idea. This is followed by what is referred to as the reduction to practice. The reduction to practice involves building the invention, experimentation, proving the invention actually works and further refinement of the original concept. The completion of reduction to practice phase is typically marked by the filing of a patent application with the patent and trademark bureau. In the United States, this bureau is the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), a federal agency under the Department of Commerce. Under subsequent examination of the application, called patent prosecution, the USPTO uses laws and rules to examine the patentability of the application. During this process, inventors can rebut and appeal any rejections posted by a patent examiner (often in Office Action). A patent application should not be considered to be a patent unless and until it has actually been granted by the USPTO. Only a granted patent gives its owner legal rights. Only a granted patent can be enforced or licensed.

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LIMITATION OF PATENTING
A patent is limited both in time and space. A patent is valid for a specified period of time for the date of its award; in most countries this period is 15-20 years; this constitutes the limitation of times. The Indian patent act (1970) grants protection for 7 or 14 years. In addition a patent is

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valid only in the country of its award; it is not valid for other countries this constitutes limitation in space.

PATENTING IN INDIA
Patent system in India is administered under the superintendence of the Controller General of Patents, Designs, Trademarks and Geographical Indications. The Office of the Controller General functions under the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion, Ministry of Commerce and Industry. There are four patent offices in India. The Head Office is located at Kolkata and other Patent Offices are located at Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai. The Controller General delegates his powers to Sr. Joint Controller, Joint Controllers, Deputy Controllers and Assistant Controllers. Examiners of patents in each office discharge their duties according to the direction of the Controllers. An inventor files a properly prepared application, according to prescribed Performa with the patent office of the concerned country. The application is scrutinized and assessed by patent officials; if found unsuitable for patenting it is returned to the inventor along with the reasons thereof. The inventor may withdraw the application, modify and resubmit it submit it with an explanation of the objections raised by the patent office. If an application is considered suitable for patenting the invention along with adequate detail of the desired patent is published for the information of all concerned; in India this is done 18 months after the date of filing of the application. Anyone who wishes to challenge the award of patent can do so within a specified period of time e.g. within four months in India. In case a patent application is not challenged the patent is warded immediately after the expiry of this period and is said to be sealed. But if a patent is challenged, the arguments and counter-arguments of both the applicant and the person challenging the application are heard by a competent authority of the patent office and a final decision is taken on the award of patent.

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COMMUNICATION
Communication is the activity of conveying information. Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver has understood the sender.

Importance of Communication
As living beings, we need to express and understand the expressions of others. Communication is easily overlooked, but the ability to communicate effectively is necessary to carry out the thoughts and visions of an organization to the people. The importance of speech and words whether through a paper or a voice is a communication medium to convey directions and provide synchronization. Without communication, there is no way to express thoughts, ideas and feelings. The ability and the importance of communication become much more crucial when you are on a mission or need to fulfill a goal. Without a means to communicate, your organization will become isolated. The ability to effectively communicate is very important when it is usually underestimated and overlooked. 1 Importance of Communication in Business The success of any business lies as much in networking and building sound professional relationships as it does in individual tact and business acumen. Communication is a crucial decisive factor in business relations. It is very important to say the right things at the right time and at the right place when dealing with partners, customers and stakeholders. Any miscommunication or ambiguity can pour pails of cold water on your hard work and ruin your chances of survival in today's competitive business environment. Maintaining professional etiquette in oral and written business communication is of greatest importance and must not be taken lightly. Nowadays, many courses are available that provide training on developing business communication skills and correspondence and conduct classes on ways to

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improve communication skills. Effective communication skills in business go a long way in sealing your success. 2 Importance of Communication in the Workplace The most difficult part of running an organization is managing the human resources. This is one resource which doesn't work on any principle of management, economics, psychology or any other social science. This is the most random and volatile resource which must be managed with great dexterity to reach desired organizational goals. Communication is that lubricant which keeps this resource moving throughout the organizational machinery. Importance of communication in the workplace is manifold, as it involves communication along vertical, horizontal and parallel organizational levels and such communication should always follow the hierarchy prescribed by the organization. Communication in the workplace involves interpersonal communication between colleagues, superior and subordinate and vice versa and workplace communication skills come handy in such situations. A clear understanding of the purpose of such communication, especially if it is of a vertical nature, along with the expectations of the sender and receiver are extremely important for the smooth running of an organization. 3 Importance of Communication in Leadership Communication is the best equipment a leader can use to achieve this goal. Even ideals resting upon strong principles can fall flat and fail to motivate due to lack of effective communication skills. History is galore with examples of many national leaders who have moved the masses by their life-changing speeches and powerful writings! Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King Jr. are prominent examples of outstanding leadership through effective communication.

4 Importance of Communication in Relationships .Lack of communication in relationships results in frustrations, misunderstandings, unrealistic expectations, guilt and can create personal differences. It is difficult for people who share their lives with each other to coexist for long without having regular and smooth communication oil

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the machinery of the relationship. Relationship communication problems can only be solved through active and effective communication.

STAGES OF COMMUNICATION
The critical part of communication is the information, which is being transferred. Information may be in any form- ranging from hand signals to public speech, from email to detailed contract, from one word greeting to a lengthy letter, from a message on a notice board of a school to a full page advertisement on a daily, from a hint with raised eyebrows to five-minute hug, from a memo from a superior or subordinate to a HR manual and so on. For the transfer of the information or the message, certain vehicle or medium is employed, which loads itself with it and passes it on to the intended receivers. Paper, phone, one-to-one meeting, public meeting, conversation, hoarding, newspaper, words written or spoken, body gestures, smile, books etc are the vehicles or media. The way the vehicles take and transport the information in such a way that the receiver understands it as it should be is the communication process. The important stages of communication are: (Pereira and Virag, 2009). Ideation: The ideation is the process of new thought or idea generated by the sender which can be analogous to starting a new life together. Encoding: The idea that a sender or an encoder conceivers are put into a message that the receiver will understand. Encoding is garbing you thoughts with words. The decides on the form of message, length, organization, tone and style according to the needs and requirements of receiver. Transmission of Message: it is the process of sending, propagating and receiving a message through channel (verbal or non verbal, spoken or written) or medium (telephone, letter, memo, email, report, face to face exchange) of communication i.e. commencement of effective communication. Receptance of the Message: For communication to occur, receiver must first get message. Decoding: After receiving the message, the receiver must understand the message. Absorbing and understanding the message will help the receiver to interpret the message

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correctly, assigning the same meaning to the senders words as intender by the sender. The decoded message must be stored in the receivers mind. Feedback: After decoding the message the receiver responds in some way signals that response to the sender. The feedback enables the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message. The feedback given by audience may be written or oral. It can also be an action, such as receiving in the mail an item. Sometimes silence is also used as feedback, though it is always ineffective, senders need feedback is order to determine the success or failure of communication.

DIMENSION OF COMMUNICATION
For decades, consumers would simply watch a commercial or look at a print ad that advertisers produced. Thats one-way communication and doesn't qualify as engagement. Two dimensional (two-way) communications where consumers participate, share, and interact with a brand creates the engagement crucial to business and personal success. Two dimensional communication and engagement is where "both giver and receiver are listening to each other, interacting, learning and growing from the process." Three dimensional engagements have "not only length and width, but depth, where both giver and receiver connect to a higher power and are changed in the experience. Not just a conversation, but connection to a purpose that transforms all in the process."

VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication includes both written and oral communication. The oral communication refers to the spoken words in the communication process. Oral communication can either be face-to-face communication or a conversation over the phone or on the voice chat over the Internet. Spoken conversations or dialogs are influenced by voice modulation, pitch, volume and even the speed and clarity of speaking. The other type of verbal communication is written communication. Written communication can be either via snail mail, or email. The effectiveness

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of written communication depends on the style of writing, vocabulary used, grammar, clarity and precision of language. Verbal communication is further divided into four types: Oral communication Written communication Audio-visual communication Computer based communication

(a) Oral communication Oral communication, while primarily referring to spoken verbal communication, typically relies on both words, visual aids and non-verbal elements to support the conveyance of the meaning. Oral communication includes discussion peeches, presentations, interpersonal communication and many other varieties. In face to face communication the body language and voice tonality plays a significant role and may have a greater impact on the listener than the intended content of the spoken words. In today's world, development of different media has led to the communication process to take place by different means such as telephones, teleconferences and video conferences. Face-to-face meetings and speeches were the main forms of communication in earlier times. Understanding and incorporating different workplace communication skills has become important to succeed in today's professional life. A widely cited and widely misinterpreted figure used to emphasize the importance of delivery states that "communication comprise 55% body language, 38% tone of voice, 7% content of words", the so-called "7%-38%-55% rule". (b) Written communication Written communication has great significance in todays business world. It is an innovative activity of the mind. Effective written communication is essential for preparing worthy promotional materials for business development. Speech came before writing. But writing is more unique and formal than speech. Effective writing involves careful choice of words, their

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organization in correct order in sentences formation as well as cohesive composition of sentences. Also, writing is more valid and reliable than speech. But while speech is spontaneous, writing causes delay and takes time as feedback is not immediate. The main advantages and disadvantages of written communication are as follows: Merits of written communication It ensures transmission of information in uniform manner. It provides a permanent record of communication for future reference. It is an idealistic way of conveying long messages. It ensures little risk of unauthorized alteration in the message. It tends to be comprehensive, obvious and accurate. It is well suited to express messages to a large number of persons at the same time. It can be quoted as legal evidence in case of any disputes. Demerits of written communication It is costly and time consuming. It becomes difficult to maintain privacy about written communication. It is rigid and doesnt provide any scope for making changes for inaccuracies that might have crept in. It is very formal and lacks personal touch. It boosts red-tapism and involves so many formalities. It may be represented in a different way by different people. (i) Language Layout Representation of language to communicate meaning to several techniques. It is of different types. It is an audio or audio-visual installation Used as an aid in modern language technology It is electrically connected to a number of rows of student booths
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Typically containing a student tape recorder and headset with a boom arm microphone.

(ii) Keyboard Layout It is a specific mechanical, visual, or functional arrangement of the keys, legends, or key meaning associations (respectively) of a computer, typewriter, or other typographic keyboard. Mechanical layout - The placements and keys of a keyboard. Visual layout - The arrangement of the legends (labels, markings) that appear on the keys of a keyboard. Functional layout - The arrangement of the keymeaning associations, determined in software, of all the keys of a keyboard. (iii) Dot Language It is a plain text graph description language. It includes : Undirected graphs simply shows relations between objects Directed graphs shows flowcharts and dependencies trees Attributes relates with color, shape and line styles

(c) Audio Visual communication Audio-Visual aids are method of communicating with people. It has become the standard carrier of technological innovation. The interaction of information technologies such as cell phones, digital television, satellite communications, Internet, high definition cinema, virtual reality, etc., are transforming the world and our concept of it. Visual aids communicate facts and ideas through the eyes to the mind and emotions. Visual aids include films, slides, videos, overhead projection books, photographs, modles and charts. They are not ends in themselves. Audio aids communicate ideas through the ears to the mind.
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(d) Computer based communication Computer based communication (CMC) is defined as any communicative transaction that occurs through the use of two or more networked computers.While the term has traditionally referred to those communications that occur via computer-mediated formats (e.g., instant messages, e-mails, chat rooms), it has also been applied to other forms of text-based interaction such as text messaging.[2] Research on CMC focuses largely on the social effects of different computersupported communication technologies. Many recent studies involve Internet-based social networking supported by social software.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Communication without the help of words known as non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes the overall body language of the person who is speaking, which will include the body posture, the hand gestures, and overall body movements. The facial expressions also play a major role while communication since the expressions on a persons face say a lot about his/her mood. On the other hand gestures like a handshake, a smile or a hug can independently convey emotions. Non verbal communication can also be in the form of pictorial representations, signboards, or even photographs, sketches and paintings. Characteristics of non-verbal communication No one can avoid non-verbal communication Non-verbal behavior is not easy to understand. Non-verbal communication primarily expresses feelings. Non-verbal communication is affected by culture.

Types of non verbal communication

(a) Facial Expression

Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication. Consider how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. While nonverbal

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communication and behavior can vary dramatically between cultures, the facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, and fear are similar throughout the world.
(b) Gestures

Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without words. Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate number amounts. Other gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.
(c) Paralinguistics

Paralinguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch. Consider the powerful effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone of voice might convey disapproval and a lack of interest.
(d) Body Language and Posture

The body language of a person can speak out volumes about the person. Nonverbal body language can help in conveying feelings and demonstrating attitude. Even postures indicate the nature of the person. Postures such as arm crossing or leg crossing are often regarded as defensive postures.
(e) Proxemics

People often refer to their need for personal space, which is also an important type of nonverbal communication. The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms, situational factors, personality characteristics, and level of familiarity.
(f) Eye Gaze

Looking, staring, and blinking can also be important nonverbal behaviors. When people encounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotions, including hostility, interest, and attraction.

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(g) Haptics

Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behavior. Touch can communicate many messages and show the basis for a friendship.
(h) Appearance

Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal communication. Research on color psychology has demonstrated that different colors can invoke different moods. Appearance can also alter physiological reactions, judgment, and interpretations. It is stated that "communication comprise 55% body language, 38% tone of voice, 7% content of words". When conveying emotion, if body language, tone of voice, and words disagree, then body language and tone of voice will be believed more than words.

VISUAL COMMUNICATION
Visual communication is the use of visual media to convey our ideas and information and it involves audio, images, drawings, signs, video, typography etc. This type of communication is typically aimed at a wide range of audience. This uses modern way of transmissions e.g. Radio, television, internet etc.

CASUAL COMMUNICATION
The kind of interaction which is needed to creates a social circle for us is known as casual communication. You can engage in casual conversation about the persons health, location and other common areas of interest or a general theme. Nodding to a stranger and the initial monosyllables can take the conversation to the next level. Casual interaction lays the foundation for great friendships. We can speak about our likes and generally express our dislikes in a neutral fashion. Speaking in a new language in casual tones is the most appropriate way to bolster your confidence. This type of communication can help in learning new skills and enquire about the

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other persons problems or help out casually as this will the base for your daily interaction. Conversing with others can help explore new ideas and learn new things in life.

FORMAL COMMUNICATION
Formal communication can be defined as, A presentation or written piece that strictly adheres to rules, conventions, and ceremony, and is free of colloquial expressions. The formal communication can consist in verbal messages, nonverbal messages, written, under the shape of letters, telephone messages, radio messages, printed, internal notes. Even some gestures can consist in formal communication. The messages are transmitted by the authorized ones: on official channels, these arrive to the ones who need to react, to people or machines which need to know the content of these messages. It mainly focuses on vertical (downward and upward) and horizontal communication. (a) Downward communication The first type of vertical communication is downward communication, which flows from upper management down to the employees at lower ranks. Downward communication generally effective when upper levels management are highly motivated to make it work. (b) Upward communication Upward Communication is the process of information flowing from the lower levels of a hierarchy to the upper levels. This type of communication is becoming more and more popular in organizations as traditional forms of communication are becoming less popular. The more traditional organization types such as a hierarchy, places people into separate ranks. (c) Horizontal/ lateral communication It takes place between professional peer groups or people working on the same level of hierarchy. Horizontal communication is less formal and structured than both downward communication and upward communication, and may be carried our through informal discussions, management gossip, telephone calls, teleconferencing, videoconferencing, memos, routine meetings and so on.
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INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
Informal communication includes instances of free unrestrained communication between people who share a casual rapport with each other. Informal communication requires two people to have a similar wavelength and hence occurs between friends and family. This communication does not have any rigid rules and guidelines. Informal communication arises out of all those channels that fall outside the formal channels and it is also known as grapevine. It is established around the societal affiliation of members of the organization. Informal communication does not follow authority lines as in the case of formal communication. The informal network is very strong in most organization. It usually works much faster than the formal network, and often it work s more accuracy. Management is more control over formal network than informal, but employees have more control over the informal network than management does. It usually east to learn the formal network, but specific information regarding the infomal network may be elusive. Being properly socialized assists an employee in gaining understanding about the informal system in the particular organization. Informal communication also facilitates to ameliorate managerial decisions as more people are involved in the process of decision-making. Inspite on many advantages, informal communication has certain disadvantages. Informal communication contains facts, deceptions, rumors and unclear data. The informal channels of communication may transmit completely imprecise information that may harm rather than help an organization. In addition, it is impossible to fix the responsibility for its origin or flow of information. However, for the efficient working of any organization both formal and informal communications are required.

INTERACTIVE COMMUNICATION
Interactive communication is an exchange of ideas where both participants, whether human, machine or art form, are active and can have an effect on one another. It is a dynamic, two-way flow of information.
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Many forms of communication previously thought one-way, like books and television, have become interactive with the rise of computers, the Internet, and digital and mobile devices. These developing collaborative technologies, or new media, have rapidly increased the opportunities for interactive communication across mediums, disciplines, cultures, social classes, locations, and even time. Interactive communication is a modern term that encompasses these evolving forms of conversation. It is a primary characteristic of the present Information Age. New experiments in interaction design are evolving on a daily basis. Interactive communication forms include basic dialogue and nonverbal communication, gamebooks, interactive fiction and storytelling, hypertext, interactive television and movies, photo and video manipulation, video sharing, video games, social media, user-generated content, interactive marketing and public relations, augmented reality, ambient intelligence, and virtual reality.

NON HUMAN COMMUNICATION

Any type of information or signal exchange between living things can be considered a form of communication. In nature very primitive creatures can do some kind communication e.g. corals can communicate. Nonhuman communication is of varied types e.g. cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical transmissions between primitive organisms like bacteria. (a) Animal communication The study of animal communication, called zoosemiotics has played an important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition. Animal communication have revolutionized our understanding of the animal world, such as our understandings related to personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct. (b) Plants communication

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Communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the root zone. Plant roots communicate in parallel with rhizome bacteria, with fungi and with insects in the soil. These parallel sign-mediated interactions are governed by syntactic, pragmatic and semantic rules, and are possible because of the decentralized "nervous system" of plants. The original meaning of the word "neuron" in Greek is "vegetable fiber" and recent research has shown that most of the intraorganismic plant communication processes are neuronal-like.

COMMUNICATION NOISE
Any type of interference in decoding the messages sent by an encoder is considered as noise in communication. There are many examples of noise: (a) Environmental Noise Surrounding noise that does a physical disruption in communication, such as the noise from a construction site next to a classroom making it difficult to hear the professor. (b) Physiological-Impairment Noise Physical impairments which prevent effective communication, such as deafness or blindness preventing messages interpreted in the same context as they were intended. (c) Semantic Noise Contextual interpretation of meaning of words changes the idea being communicated. (d) Syntactical Noise Mistakes in grammatical usages can disrupt communication, such as abrupt changes in verb tense during a sentence. (e) Organizational Noise Poorly structured communication can prevent the receiver from accurate interpretation. For example, unclear and badly stated directions can make the receiver even more lost.
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(f) Cultural Noise Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such as unintentionally offending a nonChristian person by wishing them a "Merry Christmas". (g) Psychological Noise Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult. For instance, great anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus on the present moment.

PRESCRIPTION FOR DEVELOPING COMMUNICATION SKILLS

1. Stay Focused: Sometimes its tempting to bring up past seemingly related conflicts when dealing with current ones. Unfortunately, this often clouds the issue and makes finding mutual understanding and a solution to the current issue less likely, and makes the whole discussion more taxing and even confusing. Try not to bring up past hurts or other topics. Stay focused on the present, your feelings, understanding one another and finding a solution. 2. Listen Carefully: People often think theyre listening, but are really thinking about what theyre going to say next when the other person stops talking. Truly effective communication goes both ways. While it might be difficult, try really listening to what your partner is saying. Dont interrupt. Dont get defensive. Just hear them and reflect back what theyre saying so they know youve heard. Then youll understand them better and theyll be more willing to listen to you. 3. Respond to Criticism with Empathy: When someone comes at you with criticism, its easy to feel that theyre wrong, and get defensive. While criticism is hard to hear, and often exaggerated by the other persons emotions, its important to listen for the other persons pain and respond with empathy for their feelings. Also, look for whats true in what theyre saying; that can be valuable information for you. 4. Own Whats Yours: Realize that personal responsibility is a strength, not a weakness. Effective communication involves admitting when youre wrong. If you both share some responsibility in a conflict (which is usually the case), look for and admit to whats yours.

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It diffuses the situation, sets a good example, and shows maturity. It also often inspires the other person to respond in kind, leading you both closer to mutual understanding and a solution. 5. Use I Messages: Rather than saying things like, You really messed up here, begin statements with I, and make them about yourself and your feelings, like, I feel frustrated when this happens. Its less accusatory, sparks less defensiveness, and helps the other person understand your point of view rather than feeling attacked. 6. Look for Compromise Instead of trying to win the argument, look for solutions that meet everybodys needs. Either through compromise, or a new solution that gives you both what you want most, this focus is much more effective than one person getting what they want at the others expense. Healthy communication involves finding a resolution that both sides can be happy with. 7. Take a Time-Out: Sometimes tempers get heated and its just too difficult to continue a discussion without it becoming an argument or a fight. If you feel yourself or your partner starting to get too angry to be constructive, or showing some destructive communication patterns, its okay to take a break from the discussion until you both cool off. Sometimes good communication means knowing when to take a break. 8. Dont Give Up: While taking a break from the discussion is sometimes a good idea, always come back to it. If you both approach the situation with a constructive attitude, mutual respect, and a willingness to see the others point of view or at least find a solution, you can make progress toward the goal of a resolution to the conflict. Unless its time to give up on the relationship, dont give up on communication. 9. Ask For Help If You Need It: If one or both of you has trouble staying respectful during conflict, or if youve tried resolving conflict with your partner on your own and the situation just doesnt seem to be improving, you might benefit from a few sessions with a therapist. Couples counselling or family therapy can provide help with altercations and teach skills to resolve future conflict. If your partner doesnt want to go, you can still often benefit from going alone.

TIPS FOR COMMUNICATION SKILLS:

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1. Remember that the goal of effective communication skills should be mutual understanding and finding a solution that pleases both parties, not winning the argument or being right. 2. This doesnt work in every situation, but sometimes it helps to hold hands or stay physically connected as you talk. This can remind you that you still care about each other and generally support one another. 3. Keep in mind that its important to remain respectful of the other person, even if you dont like their actions.

LISTENING
English has two words that describe this receiving activity: hearing and listening. Hearing and listening are quite different. Hearing happens every time sound waves strike the ear drum and nerves transmit the vibrations to the brain. It is an automatic thing that cant really control. Invisible sound waves enter the ear canal and make the ear drum vibrate. These vibrations then make the tiny bones in the ear vibrate too. The nerves in the ear send signals to the brain. One cant stop hearing something, but can, and often do, stop listening. Listening happens after hearing and refers to the decoding of sound waves in the brain into meaningful words and messages.

The Importance of Listening

Speaking and listening make up 69% of our total communicating time each day. One study showed that college students spent about 53% of their time listening and 16% speaking, but only 14% writing and 17% reading. Its not just college students who spend large portions of their time listening either. Another study showed that most employees in North America spend about 60% of their day listening to each other. As the chart below shows, listening makes up 53% of all communicating time.

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Listening has four stages

(i) Attending The listening process begins with attending. This simply means telling your brain to (1) make a commitment to listen and (2) pay attention to what it hears. For example, if someone has a surefire method of picking lottery numbers, you will probably pay close attention. If, on the other hand, you are really hungry, you may not pay attention to the teachers lesson, but you will definitely hear the bell on the ice cream truck down the street. You can and do choose which sounds you will attend to, so with practice you can teach your brain to attend on command. Because speakers use body language, gestures, and facial expressions as well as words to make their meaning clear, a large part of attending involves paying attention to these as well. Experts agree that you can often tell more about what a people mean from their actions as they speak than you can from the words they use.

(ii) Understanding

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The next step in the listening process is understanding. How well you understand depends on a lot of factors. Here are some of them: a) Is the message in a language you can understand? b) Do you understand the words (vocabulary)? c) Do you have a need for the information you are hearing? d) Is the message something you care about? e) Is the person speaking believable? f) Do you want to know what that person is saying? g) Do you agree with the person speaking? h) Do you have the same values as the person speaking? Understanding only happens when the message our brain creates is very similar to the message that the speaker intended to send. For example, you are angry when a friend tells you that John got a new car.John owes you $500 and you think he should have paid you back before he went off and bought a brand new flashy sports car. Later, you discover that the new car was really his familys old car, which they gave to him. Obviously your friend meant new to John not new from the dealer. Where did the misunderstanding come from? How could you (or the speaker) have avoided it? (The speaker could have chosen better words. The listener could have asked questions).

(iii) Responding Responding is when we give feedback to the person who sent the message. Feedback includes smiling, nodding, gesturing, leaning forward as well as asking questions to show your level of interest and understanding. It lets the speaker know that you are paying attention and whether you understand. When listeners look puzzled, a good speaker will repeat or rephrase the message until their faces show understanding. If listeners slouch and look bored, they show the speaker that they are not attending to the message or that they dont care about it. When this happens, speakers often become angry or impatient, so they give up and part of the message goes unsent. These are the times when communications break down and misunderstandings

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(particularly in relationships) begin. The receiver must work to understand the message, and avoid misunderstandings. (iv) Remembering The last piece of the listening process has to do with remembering the message so that it will remain useful to you over time. In general, people remember only about half of what they have heard, even right after the message has been received. Within eight hours of receiving a message, only about 35% of it is remember, and that amount drops to 25% after two months, even for good listeners (R.G. Nichols).

TYPES OF LISTENING
In a normal day, we can spend up to 5 hours listening to friends, teachers, sales people, and others. Another 3 and a half hours are often spent watching TV, listening to CDs or the radio. Listening with full attention to all these sounds is not only impossible, its a bad idea. There is just too much information out there to pay full attention to all of it. Effective listeners need to choose what type of listening is best for each situation.

Non-listening Marginal Listening Attentive Listening Critical Listening Appreciative Listening

(A) Non-listening Non-listening takes place when receivers consciously or unconsciously decide not to hear anything at all. Their brains seem to simply stop processing sound waves and little or no meaning gets through. A friend could tell them the winning lottery numbers an hour before the draw, and it wouldnt register. Non-listening has its uses, but far too often it is a bad habit that people fall into without meaning to. It happens when people stop listening for the wrong reasons. Here are some of the reasons why people tune-out when they should be listening. a) The speaker is hard to understand. He/she slurs, mumbles, or has a speech problem.
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b) The speaker is not believable. c) The speaker is disorganized. The listener has found the ideas hard to follow. d) The speakers words dont meet the listeners needs. e) The listener doesnt understand the vocabulary. The speaker uses too many unfamiliar or technical words. f) The listener doesnt understand the language well. The speaker is not using the listeners first language. The listener is afraid of what he/she may hear. The listener is narrow-minded. The speakers words threaten a personal opinion. The listener is lazy or tired. Listening takes as much effort as physical activity. The listener is focused on him/ herself and isnt interested in anything else.

(B) Marginal Listening Marginal listening is a little like skim reading. Listeners pay only enough attention to the sounds around them to tune-in when the messages are important and tune-out when that arent. You need to tune out sounds that dont affect you. For example, if you live near a railway track or under an airport approach, do you hear every train or plane that passes? When you are listening to the radio, do you listen to all the commercials or all of the news items? As a parent, do you focus on every sound your children make, or are you more likely to pay attention only to the silences, which usually signal that they are into something they should be doing? When you work in a busy office or when you are studying, you need to block out distractions like children playing, TVs roaring, tires squealing, or fire sirens blaring, but you may need to hear the phone ring so you can find out when to pick up your spouse. You probably already do a lot of marginal listening without thinking about it. Marginal listening means keeping your ears open for key words or sounds that will tell you when to start listening and paying attention. For instance, although parents always hear their child crying, they often only pay attention to crying that signals pain or fear. You may not hear

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what is on the radio until the station plays a particular tune or sounds to signal the start of news and/or weather reports. Effective listeners adapt these natural filtering skills until they are able to filter out what they dont need and accurately identify what they want to attend to. As well, they know how to focus their attention and listen even when they dont agree with the speakers opinion? They are tired? Hungry? Frustrated? Angry? Their personal problems overwhelm you? They think something will be too difficult for them? They encounter new ideas? They think a topic, like history, classical music, etc. is boring or stupid? Good listeners (and learners) never tune out automatically. They always make sure that the messages they decide to ignore are only those that are not important to them.

(C) Attentive Listening Attentive listening means listening with a purpose. This is the kind of listening to do when you have decided to pay attention because you need the information. Perhaps you are at a lecture on how to use the Internet, or maybe you are listening to a friend tell you how to get to someplace special. Once you have decided that the message is important to you, you focus your attention fully on everything the speaker says and does. Attentive listening is really just concentrating on the what you hear and using all your energy to understand the message. It takes place when you are listening to instructions, lectures, explanations, directions, or anything you need to remember.

(D) Critical Listening Critical listening is really a part of attentive listening. It takes place when you are looking for correct and accurate information. Not everything you hear or everyone you listen to provides accurate messages, so the listener has to judge or evaluate both the speaker and the message before deciding to accept or reject it. Good listeners need to develop strategies to help them evaluate what they listen to. Critical listening skills are helpful many times during every day. When you are shopping for a new car, you need to decide how much of what the salesperson tells you is fact, what is opinion, what is exaggerated, and which details are not being presented. When someone is talking about a coworker or classmate, you need to decide how much is true, how much is wishful thinking, or how

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much is revenge or jealousy. You even need to listen critically to the information you hear in class. Does what you are hearing match what you have read/heard somewhere else? Does it seem realistic and sensible? Much of what you listen to every day is designed to persuade you to change your mind or act in a certain way. Commercials coax you to buy a new laundry detergent or try a particular brand of soft drink. Motivational speakers try to get you to change the way you live or to buy into a guaranteed money-making scheme. Friends present arguments to make you move to a different location, or participate in a group activity. You need to listen critically so you can separate the facts from the persuasion. Persuasion is often the speakers goal. As a listener, it is your responsibility to evaluate the speakers truthfulness and motivation as well as understand and evaluate the accuracy of his/her message before you act. To be a critical listener, you should 1. Decide whether the speaker has the experience and knowledge to give the correct information. 2. Decide whether the speaker is impartial. 3. Decide if the speakers sources and facts are reliable. 4. Decide whether there is enough information to make a good decision. 5. Decide whether the speakers reasoning is accurate and logical.

(E) Appreciative Listening The words appreciate means to grasp the quality or significance of something and are often used to mean the ability to understand, enjoy or admire the excellence of something. Often appreciative listening relates to music or literature. It involves both attentive and critical listening as well as open-mindedness. When you are listening to appreciate something, you are really cooperating with the person presenting the message and allowing their words (or music) to create a mood or image they have in their heads enter your mind.

DECIDING HOW TO LISTEN

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A good listener decides beforehand how he/she will listens and controls the kind of listening he/she does. The kind of listening depends on the listeners needs and circumstances. There are only two different situations for listening. (i) Mass listening is often passive; that is, it doesnt require any feedback from the listener. For example, when you watch/listen to television or sit in a lecture, you have little opportunity to respond to the speaker. (ii) The second type of listening is the face to face listening you do in a conversation. It can be as simple as a quick hello or a few sentences at coffee break. At other times, face to face listening means trying to understand how someone else with a personal problem feels. Almost one third of the listening you do every day is face to face with family, friends, or at work. Mass listening Face to face listening

15 16 17 18 19

STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING 1 Have a positive attitude about what you are going to hear.

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In general, attentive listening is easy if you are interested in, or need, the information. If, however, you decide it will be too difficult, boring, or doesnt relate to you, listening attentively will be difficult. The first step to listening attentively is to talk yourself into a positive attitude before you start listening. Your brain is both your best ally and worst enemy. If you have a negative attitude, your brain will automatically pay less attention. No matter how hard you try to listen, your brain will actually prevent you from absorbing and understanding. On the other hand, if you are positive, your brain will help you listen with less effort and remembering will be easier. If you have a yes, I can attitude, your brain will make sure you do listen and learn.

2 Make a commitment to listen attentively. Just as in other kinds of learning, you must decide that you are going to listen carefully and focus on the speakers words. If you have even a whisper of a doubt in your mind about whether you are going to listen, you will find your mind wandering and you will end up doing marginal listening instead of paying full attention. 3 Be physically fit. Listening is actually a physical activity just like running, walking, or exercising. When you listen attentively your heart rate increases, your respiration speeds up, and your temperature rises. You can increase your listening abilities by simply making sure that you are physically fit. 4 Be Alert. If you are tired, your body simply doesnt have the resources to listen and understand effectively. When there is something you want to know or learn, make sure to get a good nights sleep before you expose yourself to the information. 5 Eat Smart. Eat a little bit before you go into a listening session from which you need to get information. If you try to listen right after a big meal, your body will be diverting energy to digestion and leaving little for concentration. After a big meal, your body naturally wants to sleep, so you may fall asleep in class after a big meal with lots of sweets? On the other hand, make sure you are not hungry. Hunger will also distract you and keep you from paying full attention.

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6 Be comfortable. Find a seat that is comfortable to sit in. Dont be too warm or too cold. Sit where you can hear well and see the speaker clearly. In a classroom or lecture situation, sit in the front of the room. The closer you are to the speaker, the more likely you are to pay attention because you feel that the speaker can see you and will notice if you fall asleep or if your attention wanders. Those people who sit in the back have usually already made a decision that they arent really interested and dont intend to listen. They may talk, eat, etc., all things that will distract your attention. 7 Be an active listener. Make regular eye contact with the speaker. This helps you pay attention and concentrate. It also gives the speaker the feedback he/she needs. Sit up straight and even lean forward a little. This is part of making a commitment to listen. With this posture, you are telling yourself and the speaker that you intend to listen. It also means that you are more likely to remember. 8 Listen to the Whole Message Before Making a Judgement Dont jump to conclusions. Listen critically to everything the speaker says before making a decisions or taking any actions. 9 Paraphrase As you listen, put the speakers ideas into your own words. This makes sure that you understand what is being said. It also makes the ideas your own. If you can paraphrase what a speaker says it means you understand. Your brain can only use and store information that makes sense to you in your own words. 10 Concentrate Focus on the details you are hearing and work to keep your mind from wandering by simply telling yourself listen to this. Concentrating 100% of the time is difficult for anyone, but you can work to increase your concentration. As you listen to something, simply place a check mark on a piece of scrap paper every time you find your attention has wandered. At the end of the presentation, count the number of check marks. Just making a check mark acts as a reminder to listen and refocus on the message. Soon, your brain will catch itself daydreaming and, through practice, will automatically put you back on track. Concentrating means listening to the whole message before you act. When you are trying to follow oral

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instructions, it is often tempting to try to do each step as it is given. This rarely works because you have to shift your attention away from the words you are hearing to the activities you are trying to perform. Listen to the whole set of instructions first.

11 Remove Distractions. Small things can eat away at your ability to concentrate: a ticking clock, a pile of unfinished laundry, the telephone, a wobbly desk. When you find your attention wandering, identify the thing that distracted your attention and do something about it.

12 Learn to Block Out Distractions Some distractions cant be removed, so you must learn to live with them. With practice and a commitment to listen, you can learn to block out the unimportant sounds around you just as easily as you block out the sounds of heavy traffic or household noises. The next group of listening strategies can make your mass listening experiences more effective. Use them when listening to lectures and classroom lessons.

13 Be Prepared. In a formal listening situation, prepare yourself to listen by reading and thinking about the topic before you arrive. Do as much as you can to learn specific vocabulary and concepts before you start to listen, so that you dont have to waste time and energy understanding the basics.

14 Listen for Main Ideas Well-prepared lectures, lessons, and oral presentations are designed to make listening easier. The introduction should contain the main idea and purpose in a clear thesis statement.

15 Listen for major headings The introduction of an oral presentation will also probably include a blueprint statement which clearly outlines the major points the speaker will cover. Remember these major headings as you listen, and mentally tick them off as the speaker deals with each one in turn.

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16. Listen for numbered lists Effective speakers understand that listening can be more challenging than reading, so they use strategies to help the listeners keep track of the information they are presenting.

17 Listen for repetition. One thing that makes listening more difficult than reading is the fact that the listener cant go back and review or reread the material. For this reason, a good speaker includes lots of repetition of the main points and important details. Listening for these repetitions not only helps you remember the major points, but also helps the listener keep track of where the speaker is in his/her overall speech.

18 Listen for transitions and other structural devices. Transitions like however, in addition, or on the other hand act like sign posts to show the listener where the speaker is going next. Sections of an oral presentation can be highlighted with words like Lets review what we know so far. or Before continuing, an investigation of some side issues is in order. or In conclusion.

19 Pay attention to visuals. Charts, graphs, overheads, props or anything you can see have an important place in oral presentations. They help you understand the main ideas and visualize the importance of details like statistics. As well, they can act as a mnemonic that will make it easier for you to remember. Visuals are included to help you understand. Be sure to make full use of them as you listen or speak.

20 Pay attention to the speakers voice Speakers use their voices to underline important words, phrases, or sections of their presentation. The voice sends about 30% of the actual message. When the speaker speaks slowly, the information is usually important. Pauses allow the listeners to gather their thoughts and review what has been said. As well, presenters add emotion to their speeches with pitch and tone. It is particularly important to pay attention to these when the presentation is persuasive. Be aware that

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the speaker may use his/her voice to get an emotional response from you and to make you more open to persuasion.

21 Watch the speakers body language, gestures, facial expressions As much as 50% of any oral message is sent with body language. Learn to watch for gestures, facial expressions, and posture as you listen. They cannot only tell you a lot about the speakers truthfulness, enthusiasm, and expertise, but they can also act as a memory aid. In other words, listen between the lines to get the full meaning.

22 Ask Questions To listen successfully, the listener needs to understand the message being sent clearly. If you dont understand, or even if you just feel fuzzy, ask the speaker for more information or clarification. Dont give up until YOU do understand. Some people feel uncomfortable asking questions, particularly in a group situation, for fear they may look stupid. Work to get rid of this notion! There is no such thing as a stupid question. If you have a question, its probably because the speaker didnt meet your learning needs. Think of yourself first and ask for the information YOU need. You will soon discover that in most cases, many people had the same need for information or clarification that you did, but they were just afraid to ask, so you will be doing everyone a service.

23 Listen critically Select what is important in any message. Filter out your own (or the speakers) anger, hostility, fatigue. Evaluate the believability and accuracy of the message by thinking about the speakers experience, knowledge, and motives as well as the logic, supports, and statistics of the content. Keep an open mind and dont jump to conclusions or make a final judgement until youve listened to the whole presentation. Pay attention to what is left out as well as what is included. Sometimes people are persuasive because they omit the negative details.

24 Make Notes

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Taking notes while someone is speaking is a skill that requires lots of practice because it is easy to get so involved in writing that you stop listening for minutes at a time. When you finally do tune-in again, you may have missed some really important facts or concepts. Here are some tips: (a) Dont try to write every word. Record mostly main ideas, major headings, important supports, dates, and statistics. (b) Use the empty moments to make your notes. Speakers deliver words at about 120 words a minute, but your brain works two or three times faster than that. Often you can predict what the speaker will say next, so once youre sure where the speaker is going with a thought, you can make a quick note. If some of the material is familiar to you or you already grasp a concept well, use these moments for recording other important ideas. (c) Develop your own short hand symbols like $ for dollars or money. For words that you write often create your own symbols like for paragraph; for with; for not, never, dont. Use short forms where possible and develop your own abbreviations like imp for

(d)

important; ing for ingredients; ss for small; bb for big, large. (e) Rewrite your notes immediately after a presentation. Because you are using short forms and abbreviations, your notes may be next to meaningless if you leave them in this form too long. Rewrite them in longer form while your memory of the presentation is still clear. Add details, facts and explanations to your point form lists as soon as possible. Rewriting your notes in greater detail serves several purposes. First, it ensures that your notes will be meaningful days or weeks later. Second, it takes advantage of your short term memory. Third, writing is an effective way for many people to learn new materials. Fourth, it acts as a review and helps place the information in your long term memory.

25 Review what youve listened to within 2 to 3 hours.. then daily or weekly Listening is like any other form of learning: Use it, or lose it. To be useful, review information regularly so all of it will be available when you want it.

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TYPOGRAPHY
It is about the design of text, which covers a very wide range of things: books, posters, and websites are all textual. Typography goes beyond the letters on screen or paper: Its also concerned with the space around the text, the way it sits on a page or screen, and the size and proportions of those mediums. In this chapter were sticking closely to the core typographic concerns for the Web. Youll learn how to use type intelligently and to set text so that it works for you. The typographers job is to make things clear and to make things workto make sure that the text is legible and that the underlying structures in the authors manuscript (such as headings, chapters, and sections) are accurately reflected in the final work. Good typography is just as important on a Web page as it is in any other medium. The fact that it appears on a computer screen and not on a piece of paper is immaterial; it should still be pleasing to look at and easy to read. In every situation where type is used in publishing, signage, packaging, television, etc. designers have to adapt their techniques to suit the medium. Definition: The design and use of typefaces as a means of visual communication from calligraphy to the ever-developing use of digital type is the broad use of the term typography. However, the art and practice of typography began with the invention of moveable type and the printing press. Typography is sometimes seen as encompassing many separate fields from the type designer who creates letterforms to the graphic designer who selects typefaces and arranges them on the page. In general usage typography is the practical and artistic arrangement of type and printing with type. "The history of typography generally begins with Gutenberg and the development of moveable type, but it has its roots in handwritten letterforms -- whether transcribed with pen and ink or chiseled in stone -- for they are the basis of type designs." and "Typography in graphic design involves the selection of appropriate typefaces and their arrangement on the page." TEXT TYPOGRAPHY In traditional typography, text is composed to create a readable, coherent, and visually satisfying whole that works invisibly, without the awareness of the reader. Even distribution of typeset
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material, with a minimum of distractions and anomalies, is aimed at producing clarity and transparency. Choice of font(s) is the primary aspect of text typographyprosefiction, nonfiction, editorial, educational, religious, scientific, spiritual and commercial writing all have differing characteristics and requirements of appropriate typefaces and fonts. For historic material established text typefaces are frequently chosen according to a scheme of historical genre acquired by a long process of accretion, with considerable overlap between historical periods. Contemporary books are more likely to be set with state-of-the-art seriffed "text romans" or "book romans" with design values echoing present-day design arts, which are closely based on traditional models. Typography is modulated by orthography and linguistics, word structures, word frequencies, morphology, phonetic constructs and linguistic syntax. Typography is also subject to specific cultural conventions. For example, in French it is customary to insert a non-breaking space before a colon (:) or semicolon (;) in a sentence, while in English it is not. Right Choice Choosing the right font is about readability and legibility Readabilityhow easily words, phrases, and blocks of text can be read Always consider your audience when selecting typefaces for your publication Legibilitythe ease with which individual letters can be distinguished

Letter Forms Baseline Descender x-height Caps height Ascender

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TERMINOLOGY Baseline-An imaginary horizontal line along which the base of a letter sets Descender- The part of any character (g, j, p, q, y, and sometimes J) that falls below the baseline. x-height-The height of lowercase letters, specifically the lowercase x, not including ascenders and descenders Caps Height-The height of capital letters from the baseline to the top of caps, most accurately measured on a character with a flat bottom (E, H, I, etc.) Ascender-The part of a lowercase character (b, d, f, h, k, l, t) that extends above the x height. Typeface-A family of alphabetic characters, numbers, punctuation marks and other symbols that share a consistent design Example: Times New Roman, Arial, etc.

Font Guidelines Use serif for long, extended text; sans serif for headlines Use 1-2 fonts/typefaces (3 max) Use of normal, italics, bold Never use bold, italics, capitals for large sections of text Use 1-3 point max Be careful of text to background color issues

Size and Case Type sizes are not standard UPPER and lower case Avoid heavy use of all upper case Studies have found that mixed case promotes faster reading

Letter spacing-Kerning
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The space between TWO letters is kerning The space AMONG more than 2 letters is tracking Because of optical illusions, spacing between letterforms are not fixed, but are adjusted according to the shapes of the two letters, which are called kern pairs.

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Alignment Definition: lining up text or graphic elements to the top, bottom, sides, or middle of a page or box Center Justified (Full) Left (Ragged right) Right (Ragged left)

Important Rules Know Your Audience: what I am writing? If the answer is Someone who is living in the

Think, Who will read

middle ages, it may be appropriate to use Blackletter. Dont choose fonts that blend in.

Arial and Times New Roman are everywhere. An article written in Times New Roman might as well be saying Im Boring. Dont read me. That being said, an article written in Curlz MT says You dont want to be taken seriously. When was the last time you saw an article in The New York Times written in Blackletter? Choose fonts like Baskerville, Georgia, Adobe Caslon, or Garamond. Be Consistent.
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Dont change fonts all of the sudden. Dont change from Arial to Comic Sans for no reason. Stick with one typeface for your whole document, or with one typeface for headings and one for content.

ILLUSTRATIONS
Definition: An illustration is a displayed visualization form presented as a drawing, painting, photograph or other work of art that is created to elucidate or dictate sensual information (such as a story, poem or newspaper article) by providing a visual representation graphically. 1 Effective Illustration Editorial Illustration - Used to support an editorial article in a publication (newspapers, magazines, etc) Medical Illustration - Ranges from illustrating medical products to physical anatomy and microscopic organisms. Fashion Illustration - Exaggerated proportions to represent the sleek and slender style of a model/high fashion Portraits - Usually realistic representations of a person Caricatures - Exaggerating features to create a comical representation of a person Children's Book Illustration - Usually in a whimsical style, it accompanies a children's story, and contains multiple illustrations throughout the book Book Jacket Illustration - Single image used on the cover of a book/novel to give potential readers a feel for the book's content and increase sales. 2 Technical Illustration It is the use of illustration to visually communicate information of a technical nature. It can be the components of technical drawings or diagrams. To generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer.

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Technical illustrations generally have to describe and explain the subjects to a non technical audience. The visual image should be accurate in terms of dimensions and proportions, and should provide "an overall impression of what an object is so as to enhance the viewers interest and understanding.

3 Illustration logos Its not just the drawing itself thats important. The artwork should be visually comfortable with appropriate text work and the typography featured. The illustration needs to be self-contained enough to be effective as a stand alone design. Creating a illustrative logo is not just making a pretty pictures, slapping on some font work and hoping for the best. 4 Pros of Illustration logos Easier to create unique illustration. Less risk of imitators. Is more effective for fun establishments (bars, restaurant logos, clubs, sports logos, etc.) Once established, has a very high recognition factor (characters, mascots). Less likely to infringe on other copyright, and/or be confused with other designs. Lends itself to logo variations and situations (i.e. characters in various poses). Text portion of logo, if designed effectively, can stand alone as an icon design or text logo. 5 Cons of Illustration logos Requires very experienced graphic designer with developed illustration skills. Is more difficult (costly) to animate and may not lend itself to 3D. Is more difficult to recognize when reproduced at small sizes or from distances. More difficult to trade mark the logo (unless a truly unique concept featured in illustration). Runs risk of looking amateurish if not illustrated effectively.

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CONTEXTS OF WRITING THESIS, PAPER AND REPORT 1 General form of a Research Paper
Journals require the sections, submitted in the order listed, each section to start on a new page. There are variations of course. Some journals call for a combined results and discussion, for example, or include materials and methods after the body of the paper. The well known journal Science does away with separate sections altogether, except for the abstract. This paper focuses on proposal writing rather than on the development of research ideas. (A) Title: It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, "An investigation of . . ." could be omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. However, if possible, think of an informative but catchy title. An effective title not only pricks the reader's interest, but also predisposes him/her favourably towards the proposal. (B) Abstract It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the research question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the method and the main findings. Descriptions of the method may include the design, procedures, the sample and any instruments that will be used. (C) Introduction The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or context for your research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in proposal writing. If the research problem is framed in the context of a general, rambling literature review, then the research question may appear trivial and uninteresting. However, if the same question is placed in the context of a very focused and current research area, its significance will become evident. The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a
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focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for the proposed study. The introduction generally covers the following elements: a) State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study. b) Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to show its necessity and importance. c) Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing. d) Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research. e) Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment. Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study. f) State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological research, you may not have any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null hypothesis.) g) Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus. h) Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional)

(D) Literature Review Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section. However, most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the literature. The literature review serves several important functions: a) Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel". b) Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research. c) Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem. d) Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your research question. e) Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information. f) Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.

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g) Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for your research. h) Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the literature). Most students' literature reviews suffer from the following problems:

Lacking organization and structure Lacking focus, unity and coherence Being repetitive and verbose Failing to cite influential papers Failing to keep up with recent developments Failing to critically evaluate cited papers Citing irrelevant or trivial references Depending too much on secondary sources

There are different ways to organize your literature review. Make use of subheadings to bring order and coherence to your review. For example, having established the importance of your research area and its current state of development, you may devote several subsections on related issues as: theoretical models, measuring instruments, cross-cultural and gender differences, etc.

(E) Methods The Method section is very important because it tells your Research Committee how you plan to tackle your research problem. It will provide your work plan and describe the activities necessary for the completion of your project. The guiding principle for writing the Method section is that it should contain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether methodology is sound. Some even argue that a good proposal should contain sufficient details for another qualified researcher to implement the study. You need to demonstrate your knowledge of alternative methods and make the case that your approach is the most appropriate and most valid way to

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address your research question. More importantly, the data collection process in qualitative research has a far greater impact on the results as compared to quantitative research. That is another reason for greater care in describing how you will collect and analyse your data. For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following sections: a) Design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design do you choose? b) Subjects or participants - Who will take part in your study? What kind of sampling procedure do you use? c) Instruments - What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use? Why do you choose them? Are they valid and reliable? d) Procedure - How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved? How long does it take? (F) Results Obviously you do not have results at the proposal stage. However, you need to have some idea about what kind of data you will be collecting, and what statistical procedures will be used in order to answer your research question or test you hypothesis. 18.1.7 Discussion It is important to convince your reader of the potential impact of your proposed research. You need to communicate a sense of enthusiasm and confidence without exaggerating the merits of your proposal. That is why you also need to mention the limitations and weaknesses of the proposed research, which may be justified by time and financial constraints as well as by the early developmental stage of your research area. Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing a) Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question. b) Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research. c) Failure to cite landmark studies.
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d) Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other researchers. e) Failure to stay focused on the research question. f) Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues. g) Too much rambling -- going "all over the map" without a clear sense of direction. (The best proposals move forward with ease and grace like a seamless river.) h) Too many citation lapses and incorrect references. i) Too long or too short

2 How to Write Thesis

In some ways, writing a thesis is no different than writing other academic papers, and much of the advice that appears elsewhere in this site will be relevant to the thesis writer. Still, as any thesis writer will tell you, there are some important differences between writing a thesis and writing a course paper. Sizing up your topic:Most thesis writers caution that topics are almost always initially too big and try to include too much. Some tips to remember: Make your topic broad enough to address an important issue, yet narrow enough to address that issue thoroughly in the time allotted. You will want, in six months' time, to feel as if you know just about everything about your topic. Understand the limitations of your particular situation. For instance, if your project requires lab work, know how much you can reasonably expect to accomplish in the time you have. Understand that your topic will only seem bigger once you get into your research. If your topic is interesting and rich, new issues and new ideas will always emerge, so, focus your

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ideas tightly as soon as you are able. If you can't summarize your argument in a single paragraph, your topic is too big. Think about pertinent classes you have taken or may want to consider taking while you are working on your thesis. Thesis are very time-consuming, so you may appreciate being able to tie it into your other academic work

(A) Most Important Things to Remember About Report Writing Follow the report writing outline in your manual. Feel free to be somewhat flexible with the order, but dont leave out whole sections. Make your own internal outline including who is responsible for which sections. Be sure that you leave time for stakeholders to help you with editing/making revision. Read your work if you cant understand it, chances are others wont be able to either. Think, in simple terms, about what you are trying to say, and then write that. Use complete sentences and standard English grammar conventions. You can rely some on bullets and be limited in your transitions, but be sure your reader can follow your logic. Formatting is your friend. Use headers and sections to help your reader know what is happening in your report. Be consistent about where and how they appear (centered, bold, underlined, side headings etc.). Use tables and Graphs to help illustrate findings. ALL TABLES AND GRAPHS MUST HAVE TITLES, LABELS AND LEGENDS OR FOOTNOTES SO THAT THEY STAND ALONE. Use quotes from field notes to illustrate your findings. Remember quotes should have quote marks around them and be attributed to the speaker or writer. If you are presenting field notes, be sure they are clearly identified. Be consistent in your use of language, capitalization, punctuation etc. For the most part, evaluation reports should be written in the past tense only report what you actually did and what you found. The action steps or Issues for Further Consideration sections can include references to future actions.

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Do not introduce totally new topics into your report in the final sections. Do not use the report to explain why you changed your design, what you didnt do, and what should be happening with a program regardless of the findings presented in the report.

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3 Suggested Evaluation Report Outline

(A) Introduction A. Introduction to program (mission, goals, and main activities) B. Purpose of evaluation C. Evaluation Questions Clear and concise questions that are in alignment with program mission and goals. If there are several evaluation questions, group them into categories

D. Report Organizer (optional and un-necessary if report is short)

(B) Methods/Data Collection Strategies A. Description of selected methods (in narrative or table form) B this describes what actually happened during data collection, not what the evaluator set out to or attempted to do. B. Relationship between questions and data collection strategies (usually done as a table) C. Why methods were chosen including clarification regarding use of participatory data collection. D. Why they were selected and whether there is any missing data. E. Data collection challenges F. Description of targets for analysis (this can also be addressed in the findings section).

(C) Evaluation Findings A. Summaries of the results of data collection and analysis B. Response to evaluation questions (where feasible) C. Comparison of findings to targets (where feasible and appropriate)

(D) Conclusions A. Summary of Key Findings B. Final Analysis How does the author understand the data How does the author believe the data will impact the work
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Strengths and weaknesses of the work as revealed by evaluation findings

C. Issues for Further Consideration (any outstanding issues raised by the evaluation).

Unit IV

Thinking levels and Styles Thinking style also called cognitive style is a term used to describe the way individuals think, perceive and remember information. Thinking style differs from thinking level, the latter being measured by aptitude tests or so-called intelligence tests. If a person has a similar thinking style to his/her teacher, the chances that the person will have a more positive learning experience are improved. Likewise, team members with similar thinking styles likely feel more positive about their participation with the team. Four types of thinking style

Concrete sequential: Concrete sequential thinkers are based in reality. They process information in an ordered, sequential, linear way. To them, "reality consists of what they can detect through their physical sense of sight, touch, sound, taste and smell. They notice and recall details easily and remember facts specific information, formulas and rules with ease.

Concrete random:
Concrete random thinkers are experimenters.

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Like concrete sequentials, they're based in reality, but are willing to take more of a trial-and-error approach. Because of this, they often make the intuitive leaps necessary for true creative thought. They have a strong need to find alternatives and do things in their own way.

Abstract random:
Abstract random thinkers organise information through reflection, and thrive in unstructured, people-oriented environments. The 'real' world for abstract random learners is the world of feelings and emotions. Their mind absorbs ideas, information and impressions and organises them through reflection. They remember best if information is personalised. They feel constricted when they're subjected to a very structured environment.

Abstract sequential: Abstract sequential thinkers love the world of theory and abstract thought. They like to think in concepts and analyse information. They make great philosophers and research scientists. It's easy for them to zoom in on what's important, such as key points and significant details. Their thinking processes are logical, rational and intellectual. A favourite activity for abstract sequentials is reading Levels of Thinking Level 0: Reacting (Chaos) Level 0 is a pre-thinking stage, reacting. There is no model of change, nor can we say that there is any real thinking, because people in this state of mind are just responding to stimuli. Change happens to them, not the other way around. They do the best they can, moving away from what is threatening,

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toward what is pleasing. All of us know this stage of development because it happens when we are placed in a new context, when we are not feeling well, when weve received bad news, or when we just dont know what is going on. Our environment is in control of us. It is mostly from this level that the voting public currently operates, lurching from one position to another, depending on the dictates of the media and the mood of the situation. Some young people operate from here as well. Level 1 Thinking: Decision-making Level 1 thinking is decision-makingevaluating options and selecting them according to a particular description of goodness. This style of thinking assumes we can make decisions through codified procedures. Level 2 Thinking: Problem-solving The transition to Level 2 thinking, problem-solving, begins by acknowledging unintended consequences and letting go of the idea that black and white answers will always work. It is a step away from the idea that there is one right answer and a step toward carefully considering many ideas, discussing reasons for and against each one. Level 2 is the logical, reason-oriented mode of thinking in our system, sometimes called deliberative democracy. It is when we rely on evaluative, critical thinking skills, along with discussion and debate, to rationally determine the best answers. It assumes a systems model of change, where we recognize that the apparent problem may just be a symptom of some deeper issue, and we seek to understand what is really happening. Level 3 Thinking: Creative Thinking Level 3 is creative thinking. All of us open ourselves to Level 3 thinking when we dream, stand in the shower, play music, or sit quietly. Such thinkers often gather them together, for example, to develop a company vision, fashion a mission statement, or formulate shared values. Just holding meetings and developing these statements,

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whether specific actions are taken or not, help raise the organizations level of capability for selforganizing change Level 4 Thinking: Choice-creating Level 4 is Choice-creating. Choice-creating can happen naturally when we care deeply about a problem that seems impossible to solve. The trick is to stay both caring and creative, even to the point of letting go of who we think we are. Then we open a door to the possibility of personal transformation.

Common sense and scientific thinking

According to Aristotle, the common sense is an actual power of inner sensation (as opposed to the external five senses) whereby the various objects of the external senses (color for sight, sound for hearing, etc.) are united and judged. Common sense, based on a strict construction of the term, consists of what people in common would agree on: that which they "sense" as their common natural understanding. Some people use the phrase to refer to beliefs or propositions that in their opinion most people would consider prudent and of sound judgment, without reliance onesoteric knowledge or study or research, but based upon what they see as knowledge held by people "in common". Thus "common sense" (in this view) equates to the knowledge and experience which most people already have, or which the person using the term believes that they do or should have.

The scientific thinking or scientific method is the general name that is given to a collection of differing procedures that have been developed by humans to obtain knowledge from their observations. Common sense basically comes among the factors which limits the application of scientific thinking. The imagination and creativity required by a scientist to be able to devise meaningful experiments or insightful hypotheses may be limited by his/her common sense. Common sense is usually the logic based on our observations in the macroscopic world of everyday objects. This logic frequently cannot be used to describe matter adequately at the microscopic or submicroscopic levels. For example, if we carefully mix white and black powder the resulting
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mixture is gray. Gray is a useful and meaningful concept on the macroscopic level. On the microscopic level, however, you would see only black particles and white particles side by side. At this level, the concept of gray has no meaning.

Problem solving strategies- reformulation or rephrasing

Problem solving strategies Solving complex problems is a challenging task and warrants ongoing effort throughout your career. Any quantitative problem, whether in economics, science, or engineering, requires a two-step approach: analyze, and then compute. Jumping directly to number-crunching without thinking through the logic of the problem is counter-productive. Conversely, analyzing a problem and then computing carelessly will not result in the right answer either. Analysis Stage Read the problem carefully at least twice, aloud if possible, and then restate the problem in your own words. Write down all the information that you know in the problem and separate, if necessary, the givens from the constraints. Think about what can be done with the information that is given. What are some relationships within the information given? What does this particular problem have in common conceptually with course material or other questions that you have solved? Draw pictures or graphs to help you sort through whats really going on in the problem. These will help you recall related course material that will help you solve the problem. However, be sure to check that the assumptions underlying the picture or graph you have drawn are the same as the assumptions made in the problem. If they are not, you will need to take this into consideration when setting up your approach. Computing Stage

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If the actual numbers involved in the problem are too large, small, or abstract and seem to be getting in the way of your thinking, substitute simple numbers and plan your approach. Then, once you get an understanding of the concepts in the problem, you can go back to the numbers given. Once you have a plan, do the necessary calculations. If you think of a simpler or more elegant approach, you can try it afterwards and use it as a check of your logic. Throughout the computing stage, pause periodically to be sure that you understand the intuition behind each concept in the problem. Doing this will not only strengthen your understanding of the material, but it will also help you in solving other problems that also focus on those concepts. Resist the temptation to consult the answer key before you have finished the problem. Problems often look logical when someone else does them; that recognition does not require the same knowledge as solving the problem yourself. Check your results. Does the answer make sense given the information you have and the concepts involved? Does the answer make sense in the real world? Are the units reasonable? Are the units the ones specified in the problem? If you substitute your answer for the unknown in the problem, does it fit the criteria given? Does your answer fit within the range of an estimate that you made prior to calculating the result? One especially effective way to check your results is to work with a study partner or group. Discussing various options for a problem can help you uncover both computational errors and errors in your thinking about the problem. Before doing this, of course, make sure that working with someone else is acceptable to your course instructor. Ask yourself why this question is important. Lectures, precepts, problem sets, and exams are all intended to increase your knowledge of the subject. Thinking about the connection between a problem and the rest of the course material will strengthen your overall understanding. If you get stuck, take a break. Research has shown that the brain works very productively on problems while we sleepso plan your problem-solving sessions in such a way that you do a first pass. Then, get a nights rest, return to the problem set the next day, and think about approaching the problem in an entirely different way.

Reformulation or rephrasing of the problem

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The reformulation of a problem is intended to make the problem more amenable to efficient solution. While problems can usually be expressed in many ways, it is often the case that a particular problemsolving strategy is applicable only to problems expressed in a certain form. In this case, reformulation is the means by which a useful strategy can be brought to bear on a problemthe problem is reformulated in the canonical form in which that the particular strategy can be applied. Similar benefits can be obtained when the original problem expression is already in a form that can be tackled by a strategy, but reformulation can allow the strategy to be applied more effectively. Both of these situations can be seen as cases within the scenario depicted in figure 1. The figure illustrates how reformulation of a problem can allow different elements (or strategies) within a problem-solving system to be brought to bear on a problem by reformulating it. The figure illustrates that reformulation of a problem can allow different problem solving strategies to be applied to it. A special case is where reformulation can allow the same strategy to be applied but in a more efficient way. The figure also suggests an important point: a single problem might require multiple strategies to solve it and reformulation might change the combination of strategies that can be applied to solving the problem. In this paper we consider the role of reformulation in planning, examining several of the ways in which it has been exploited. We then turn to an important use of reformulation based on our notion of generic types and discuss how this approach can be used to improve planner performance. We also consider how generic types can be used to support alternative approaches to reformulation and, finally, discuss how the strategy that we have identified, for applying reformulation to planning, might generalize to other problems

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Fig. 1. Reformulation and redeployment: reformulating a problem can allow different problem solving strategies to be deployed to solve it.

Division of sub-problems
The previous step generates a basic problem list that details the visible problems that are apparently clear because of the experience of the customer. There is a high probability that each of these listed visible problems might contain invisible sub-problems. The key to this process is identifying these inherent invisible sub-problems. Using methods like "Creative Brain Storming" and "Problem Post-Mortem" by Functional Experts these Sub-Problems can be identified and listed out. Sub-Problem listing is more difficult than the visible problem listing. Even Seriousness can be associated to these sub-problems but it is not mandatory because TOPE is concerned more on the Seriousness measure of the Parent problem rather than the Sub-Problem. The pasted Stick-It sheets are segregated as different groups after filtering for redundancy and each of this group becomes the software modules in the development phase. The major advantage with TOPE is that it follows a two-phase approach for the entire problem solving: Pilot Phase Production Phase. Initially the Sub-Problem generation and other subsequent processes are applied only to the visible problems having High & Major Seriousness levels.

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This in effect will result in a Pilot system that can merge all the major operations that are required by the customer. The customer can then use this prototype for getting a feel for the problem solving software application. This in effect can help the customer realize the intangible system to an initial level of working system

Techniques of representation

6 7 8 9 10 Fig 2 Semantic networks nodes and links stored as propositions

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1 2 3 4 Fig 3 Lists - linked lists are used to represent hierarchical knowledge

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Schemas - used to represent commonsense or stereotyped knowledge. 1. Frames - Describe objects. Consist of a cluster of nodes and links manipulated as a whole. Knowledge is organised in slots. Frames are hierarchically organised. 2. Scripts - Describe event rather than objects. Consist of stereotypically ordered causal or temporal chain of events. Logic-based representations - may use deductive or inductive reasoning which contain: Fig 4 Trees - graphs which represent hierarchical knowledge

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1. Facts and premises 2. Rules of propositional logic (dealing with complete statements 3. Rules of predicate calculus (allows use of additional information about objects in the proposition, use of variables and functions of variables

4. Measures of certainty - may involve Certainty Factors (eg. If symptom then diagnosis) which could be derived from expert estimation or from statistical data

Verbalization
To use words to express or communicate meaning ether to your self or to others

Verbal self directed statements provide a thinking strategy and serve as a guide through the process of problem solving: Problem definition (i.e., clarifying and understanding the exact requirements of the task at hand), Problem approach (planning a general strategy for solving the problem), focusing attention, selecting all answer, and self-reinforcing for correct performance or using a coping statement for incorrect performance

Order of Scale
A type of order that comprises several limit orders at incrementally increasing or decreasing value. A Rank Order scale gives the respondent a set of items and asks them to put the items in some form of order.

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The measure of 'order' can include such as preference, importance, liking, effectiveness and so on. The order is often a simple ordinal structure (A is higher than B). It can also be done by relative position (A scores 10 whilst B scores 6).

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Logical thinking
In order to think rationally (Come to a conclusion based on facts rather than emotion) You need to think in a logical manner. There are two main ways in which this can be achieved:

1. Inductive reasoning : It is thinking skill that involves observing something and then forming a conclusion based on what has been observed. For example, 150 years ago Gregor Mendel formed his theory of heredity based upon his observation of sweet pea plant characteristics. His conclusion was based on observation. Inductive reasoning is the basic method of scientific investigation, but it is also a thinking skill we use throughout our life. For example, if you are driving in your car and it start

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making a noise, you may come to a conclusion that something is wrong and so you decide to get it serviced. Inductive reasoning = A thinking skill that forms a conclusion based on observation

2. Deductive reasoning: It is thinking that involves forming a conclusion which follows from a premise. For example, deductive reasoning would involve saying something like: If this happens ... than that will happen, which means the answer is Deductive reasoning is a thinking skill which involves a process of investigation, and is therefore built upon a series of arguments that ultimately allows you to make some sort of prediction. Predicate thinking: According to Freud there is a type of thinking that occurs at the unconscious level which is neither inductive nor deductive, he called this predicate thinking (also called paleological thought) and is something which is commonly used by preschool children. Predicate thinking is one example of how logical thinking can be lead astray, although there are many other types logical errors that can occur.
Some logical errors are explained as bellow: Overgeneralisation: Overgeneralisation involves jumping to a conclusion without having all the facts to support it. For example, if you are talking to someone and they appear rude and abrupt, you may come to the conlclusion that they do not like you. However this person may have just lost their job, and so how they reacted to you were more out of frustration rather that anything personal towards you. Overgeneralisation is quite a common way in which logical errors can occur, and causes people to form incorrect conclusion based on incomplete information. False Analogy: An analogy is a comparison between two things that are similar in some way. This can lead you to believe that if they are alike in one way, they must be alike in other ways. A false analogy occurs when

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this comparison results in an incorrect conclusion. For example, water is a liquid and is good for you to drink. Engine oil is also a liquid and must therefore be good to drink. In this example two things have been compared which are similar in one way (liquid). The false analogy leads us to believe that they are also similar in other ways, when in fact they are not. Appeal to Authority An appeal to authority involves backing up a weak argument by making reference to an authority figure. For example, you tell your friend they should eat more green vegetables. When they ask you why, you say because nutritionist on TV said they were good for you. In this rather than presenting factual information such as nutritional content of green vegetables, you have chosen to back up your argument based on what someone else has said. In other words, you didnt realy have the facts to back up your argument, so you made an appeal to authority. Arguing in circles Arguing in circles involves making an argument that doesnt contain any real meaning to it. For example, you say to your friend I like you. They reply why? you say because I really like you, they say why? You say because you are such a likable person. In this type of circular argument no factual information is given to backup a statement. Thus in such errors Attack on character An attack on character involves using something someone has done wrong in the past, to discredit them or their argument. For example, John is in a debate and arguing his case, when his opponent counters by saying John was caught stealing money at work two years ago, so you cant trust anything he says. In this example johns argument has been discredited with a reference to his past, even though his past actions have nothing to do with his speech

Importance of graphical representation

Data are basic inputs to any decision making process in research. The processing of data gives important statistics to study. After data are collected , proper tools and techniques should be used for data

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analysis. The tools of data classification are frequency distribution, cumulative frequency distribution, relative frequency distribution and charts. Charts are the graphical representation of data. They can be further classified in following different forms:

1. Pie chart: This is a chart in which area of a circles is divided in to different sectors representing different categories such that the angle of each sector is proportional to frequency of respectivecategory

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2. Bar chart: Is a graphical view of the given data such that the frequency of each category of the multiple data is shown as an adjacent vertical strip against that category in proportion to the heights of other such vertical strips within that multiple data at each point on X-axis and across different points on x-axis.

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3. Stacked bar chart: It is the graphical view of multiple data such that the frequency of each category of multiple data is shown as an adjacent vertical strip against that category in proportion to the heights of other such vertical strips within that multiple data at point on x-axis and across multiple points on x-axis

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4. Histogram: it is a graphical view of given data such that the frequency of each range of variable of intrest is shown as an adjacent vertical strip against that range of variable in proportion to the heights of other such vertical strips

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5. Frequency polygon: is a line diagram connecting the mid points at the top of different vertical strips of the histogram of given problem

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6. Ogive curve: is a cumulative frequency curve. In less than ogive curve the upper limit of each class interval is taken on X-acis in increasing order. For each such upper limit on xaxis the cumulative frequency of all class limit from first class interval to that class interval is taken on y-axis.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 CREATIVITY IN DAY TO DAY LIFE: Our day is filled with repetitive tasks. We are all busy people, and in order to save time and wear-and-tear on our already-stressed energy systems, we try to find better and more efficient ways of functioning by adding a little creativity to those day-to-day tasks

CREATIVITY
DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY: Creativity refers to the phenomenon whereby a person creates something new (a product, a solution, a work of art etc.) that has some kind of value. What counts as "new" may be in reference to the individual creator, or to the society or domain within which the novelty occurs. Creativity as the act of turning new and imaginative ideas into reality. Creativity involves two processes: thinking, then producing. Innovation is the production or implementation of an idea. If you have ideas, but don't act on them, you are imaginative but not creative. "Creativity is the process of bringing something new into being creativity requires passion and commitment. Out of the creative act is born symbols and myths. It brings to our awareness what was previously hidden and points to new life. The experience is one of heightened consciousness-ecstasy." Creativity is the mental and social processfuelled by conscious or unconscious insightof generating ideas, concepts, and associations. Innovation is the successful exploitation of new ideas: it is a profitable outcome of the creative process, which involves generating and applying in a specific context products, services, procedures, and processes that are desirable and viable.

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At Home: Turn off your TV for an evening and pick up the book of your interest .It is the best way or technique to get maximum. It makes you more creative by getting interest in reading. For maximize your creativity in kitchen you can click one new recipe to try for yourself or your family and friends. You can search on-line food sites and look for dishes containing ingredients you already have in your pantry. At Work: Clear off your desk and complete all the work well in time. When your desk is clean and you have space to work, you will find that you can be more efficient as well as better able to come up with a new idea or two. Decorate your workspace. Many companies have restrictions on displaying personal photographs and family pictures, so do something a bit different. Check your local markets for postcard depictions of art in their collection. Get a fantastic 2011 calendar with images of things you love. There are calendars now for just about every interest and they are so easy to find. With Friends and Family Instead of meeting friends for drinks or dinner, try meeting for a hike or walk. Or gather at a museum to spend some time. You will have new and inspiring conversations. Dig out your camera and vow to take one photograph every day of your children, just doing ordinary things and taking a photograph every day will actually force you to think creatively as you plan your shot. Make room in your home for art. It doesnt have to cost much, and it can actually be free or nearly free. You can find treasures at garage or yard sales, discarded on the sidewalk, growing in the nearby field. Art can be found as a beautiful note card in your local card shop, and you can put that card in a simple frame or just magnet it to your fridge.

CREATIVITY IS A GIFT OR SKILL: It is in Gods nature to be creative. The gift of creativity given by god can be shaped by the personality of the person who possesses the gift. As a result, people with the gift of creativity tend to fall into the following preferred roles.. This is achieved by pursuing following skills:-

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a. Communication Arts: Communication Arts includes oral and/or written communication skills. Such roles might include preaching and teaching, but may also include large-group leadership of childrens or student ministries. With todays emerging technology, oral communication skills are also required for on air and on-line radio and television broadcast. b. Craftsmanship Arts: Craftsmanship Arts are typically found in Artesian personalities . The craftsman desires to become a virtuoso in their craft. They like to work with their hands, using their hands to create something from nothing. Woodcraft, metalcraft, sculpture, painting, sewing and software programming are all hands-on arts that require expertise skill. c. Graphic Arts: Graphical Arts (computer based) have become a necessity for the contemporary and postmodern ministry. Graphic arts are utilized in multi-media video, Macromedia Flash and PowerPoint; as well as static brochure and website design. If a picture is worth a thousand words, then it is no wonder that ministries are seeking to communicate more effectively through the integration of graphical arts into their ministries. d. Performing Arts: Performing Arts are creative expressions that bring to life the issues and emotions of our everyday reality. Performing Artists are most effective when they hold a mirror up to our lives, enable us to remove the mask from our own lives, and truly see who we are and who God wants us to be. e. Relational Arts: Relational Artists are skilled in the art of relationship-building. They are impeccable hosts. They know how to throw a party, but more importantly, they know how to make every participant at that party feel valued. Relational Artists thrive at networking people with people. People-skills, manners, appropriateness and tact are defining traits of the. f. Technical Arts:

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Technical Arts like Sound, lighting, multimedia, computer technology, software, networking and internet-based are all areas that require this non-traditional creative artist. With the advent of the internet and e-Te the Technical chnology,Artist will find more and more opportunities to unleash his or her skill and creativity. g. Visual Arts: Visual Arts involve an eye for presentation. The Visual Artist may be an interior decorator, floral arranger, stage and set designer, lighting director, etc. They may excel at drawing, painting or photography. Our present culture acquires information through the eyes much more effectively than through the ears. The Visual Artist is uniquely gifted to help pastoral teachers to communicate more effectively by integrating the visual arts into their messages and programs. CREATIVITY PROCESS: The Creative Process has six phases: Inspiration, Clarification, Evaluation, Distillation, Incubation, Perspiration . The first letter of each phase spells 'ICEDIP' which may help you to remember the phases. i. Inspiration: In which you generate a large number of ideas. This is the research or idea-generation phase. Many people wonder where creative people find their good ideas. The answer is, in amongst a huge pile of bad ones. Creativity is like mining for diamonds, most of what you dig is thrown away, but that does not make the digging a waste of time. If you cannot think of anything' you are having difficulty with this inspiration phase, perhaps because you are too self-critical, or expect good ideas to come too quickly. ii. Clarification: In which you focus on your goals. The aim here is to clarify the purpose or objective of the work. It is easy to lose your sense of direction while dealing with detailed difficulties in creative work. So you need occasionally to disengage from these obstacles and ask "what exactly am I trying to do?" iii. Evaluation: This is a review phase in which you look back over your work in progress. In the evaluation phase you examine your work for strengths and weaknesses. Then you need to consider how the work could be improved, by removing weaknesses but also by capitalizing on its strengths. Then there will probably need to be another perspiration phase to respond positively to the suggestions for 200

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improvement. Perspiration and evaluation phases often alternate to form a cycle. Hardly anyone gets things perfect first time. Creative people adapt to improve. Many people dislike the evaluation phase at first. However, highly creative people are nearly always confirmed revisers. They tinker with work that would make others gape in delight. Actually this evaluation phase can be very rewarding, and no work of real merit will be produced without it. iv. Distillation: In which you decide which ideas to work on. Here ideas from the inspiration phase are sifted through and evaluated usually in the light of the findings of a clarification phase. The best ideas are chosen for further development, or are combined into even better ideas. This is a self-critical phase. It requires cool analysis and judgment rather than slap-happy spontaneity. However it should not be so critical as to inhibit productivity entirely. Remember, the ideas you have had are only ideas, not complete solutions about where you want the ideas to take you, and daring enough to take on original ideas. You need to be realistic but ready to take on challenges. Common mistakes are to choose ideas which are familiar and well worked out instead of those that will best achieve your intentions. v. Incubation: In which you leave the work alone, though you still ponder about it occasionally, leaving it 'on the surface of your mind'. Many brilliant ideas have occurred in the bath, or in traffic jams. If you are able to stop work on a project for a few days, perhaps to work on other things, this will give your subconscious time to work on any problems encountered, it will also distance you somewhat from your ideas so that you are better able to evaluate them. 'Incubation' is particularly useful after an 'inspiration' or a 'perspiration' phase, or if a problem has been encountered. Creative people are often surprisingly patient and untidy, and are content to let half-baked ideas, loose ends and inconsistencies brew away in their sub-conscious until 'something turns up'. vi. Perspiration:

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In which you work determinedly on your best ideas. This is where the real work is done. You are involved in determined and persistent effort towards your goal, this will usually involve further 'inspiration' 'distillation' and 'clarification' phases. Perspiration usually involves a number of drafts separated with clarification and evaluation phases. Uncreative people often accept the first draft as completion. Very creative people often go over and over a piece until it is too their liking. Matisse for example produced over 20 versions of his 'Pink Nude'. The end result is child like simple and paradoxically spontaneous looking. It is surprising to people who do not understand the creative process that a talented person like Matisse should need so many 'drafts'. But such strategies are common in very creative people.

REQUIREMENT OF CREATIVITY: Numerous studies have been conducted for requirement of creativity from these studies we can extract:-

a. Creativity required for introducing something new (a product, a solution, a work of art etc.) that has some kind of value for society. b. Creativity required for turning new and imaginative ideas into reality. Innovation is the production or implementation of an idea. If you have ideas, but don't act on them, you are imaginative but not creative.
c. Creativity generate excitement and commitment, it brings to our awareness what was previously hidden and points to new life. d. Creativity required for generating ideas, concepts and links which involve generating and applying in a specific context products, services, procedures, and processes that are desirable and viable. ROLE OF MOTIVATION IN CREATIVITY: Three reasons why people are motivated to be creative: 1. Need for novel, varied, and complex stimulation. 2. Need to communicate ideas and values.

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3. Need to solve problems. There are two types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. a. Intrinsic motivation - It is that where a task is completed for its own sake. Characteristics of intrinsically motivated people include commitment to work, passionate involvement, total absorption and devotion to their work, interest and satisfaction in their work, challenged by their work. b. Extrinsic motivation It is where a task is completed for an ulterior motive (e.g. payment). It is the motivation to engage in an activity primarily in order to meet some goal external to the work itself, such as attaining an expected reward, winning a competition or meeting some requirement. Extrinsic motivation is itself split into two categories: i. Synergistic extrinsic motivation: Synergistic extrinsic motivators provide information or enable the person to better complete the task and act in accordance with intrinsic motives. ii. Non-synergistic extrinsic motivation: Non-synergistic reward leads a person to feel controlled and is incompatible with intrinsic motivation.

OPEN MIND VS CLOSED MIND IN PROBLEM SOLVING IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY:a. Open mind: Definition: An open mind is a mind that is receptive to new ideas and information. It is often compared to a closed mind which will reject ideas without any consideration. Open-minded means to be willing to consider new ideas, to diverge, to expand, to fly, and to see wholeness. .Role in sciecnce and technology: To make any advances in science and technology, new ideas need to be presented constantly. Through open minded consideration of these new ideas and thorough studies

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of them, which wouldn't be possible without said open mindedness, science can then wipe out the bad ideas and keep the good ones. The open mode is more relaxed, more receptive, more exploratory, more democratic, more playful and more humorous.

b. closed mind: Definition: A closed mind is not only closed to outside thoughts, it is often closed to itself as well. closed mind which will reject ideas without any consideration. Closed-minded means to be willing to consider a single idea, to converge, to focus, to dig, and to see details Role in sciecnce and technology A closed minded researcher, unwilling to consider alternatives to their own pet theory or hypothesis will not advance very far or contribute much to science.The closed mode is the tighter, more rigid, more hierarchical, more tunnel-vision.

REASONING There are various types of reasoning: a. Analogical Reasoning. b. Analytical Reasoning. a. Analogical Reasoning: Analogy is a cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject (source) to another particular subject (the target), and a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. In a narrower sense, analogy is an inference or an argument from one particular to another particular, as opposed to deduction, induction, and abduction, where at least one of the premises or the conclusion is general. The word analogy can also refer to the relation between the source and the target themselves, which is often, though not necessarily, a similarity, as in the biological notion of analogy. Analogy plays a significant role in:

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Problem solving. Decision making. Perception Memory, Creativity, Emotion, explanation and communication.

Analogy is important not only in ordinary language and but also in science, philosophy and the

The analogical reasoned process consists of the eight phases: 1. Retrieval of candidate source analogs: This phase selects from the set of known simplifications those that have the same point of view as the problem and which are similar to the problem. Similarity is measured in terms of the number and kind of elements (e.g., components, relations and attributes) they share. 2. Selection of the source analog: Each candidate analog retrieved has associated with it a score which measures its similarity to the object to be simplified. This score is used to select the simplification that is closest to the problem. Mapping of the source analog onto the problem: This phase will produce several global mappings that are consistent sets of correspondences between relevant elements in the source analog, and elements in the problem. Selection of the best global mapping: Each of the global mappings obtained will be evaluated for quality by combining the scores of the member correspondences (e.g., correspondences between relations will assigned higher scores than correspondences between attributes for analogical reasoning). The scores of the member correspondences are assigned at the time of retrieval. The global mapping with the highest score will be selected to be used for transferring the simplification knowledge. Transfer of simplification knowledge: The best global mapping will be used to produce several candidate simplifications by associating the unmapped elements in the source analog with elements in the problem. Application and evaluation of candidate simplifications: All of the candidate simplifications are applied to the simplification problem, producing new objects. The objects produced will be evaluated against the problem constraints and for the simplification condition. If an object

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produced does not satisfy the constraint or is not simpler than the object specified in the object, it is dropped. 7. Selecting the solution: The object that has the minimal complexity from among those solution to the simplification problem. 8. Generalization and learning: If the simplification that was applied is significantly different than the source analog it has been derived from, it will be added to the database of known simplifications. Also, if a useful generalization over the new simplification and the source simplification can be built, it will also be added to the database. b. Analytical Reasoning: The science of analytical reasoning provides the reasoning framework upon which one can build both strategic and tactical visual analytics technologies for threat analysis, prevention and response. Analytical reasoning is central to the analysts talk of applying human judgments to reach conclusions from a combinations of evidence and assumptions. Analytical reasoning must be a richly collaborative process and must adhere to principles and models for collaboration. Collaborative analysis provides both the human scalability and the computational scalability necessary to support reasoning, assessment, and action. Example of analytical reasoning is: Three men (Tom, Peter and Jack) and three women (Eliza, Anne and Karen) are spending a few months at a hillside. They are to stay in a row of nine cottages, each one living in his or her own cottage. There are no others staying in the same row of houses. 1. Anne, Tom and Jack do not want to stay in any cottage, which is at the end of the row. 2. Eliza and Anne are unwilling to stay besides any occupied cottage. 3. Karen is next to Peter and Jack. 4. Between Anne and Jack's cottage there is just one vacant house. 5. None of the girls occupy adjacent cottages. 6. The house occupied by Tom is next to an end cottage. which satisfy the constraint and are simpler than the object to be simplified, will be reported as

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Which of the above statements can be said to have been derived from two other statements ? a. Statement 1

b. Statement 2 c. Statement 3 d. Statement 5 e. Statement 6 Ans : (d) Various methods of analytical reasoning are: i. Sense-making Methods: Above we discussed the analytical reasoning process from the practitioners point of view and described the implications for visual analytics. Sense-making provides a theoretical basis for understanding many of the analytical reasoning tasks that the analyst performs. Many analytical reasoning tasks follow a process of: Information gathering. Re-representation of the information in a form that aids analysis. Development of insight through the manipulation of this representation. Creation of some knowledge product or direct action based on the knowledge insight.

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Figure: The analytical reasoning process As illustrated in figure, these activities may be repeated and may come out of order, although there is the notion of an overall cycle. We call tasks that follow this sort of pattern sense-making tasks or sometimes knowledge crystallization tasks. ii. The Role of Visual Analytics in Sense-Making: Visual analytics seeks to many techniques from information visualization with techniques from computational transformation and analysis of data. Information visualization itself forms part of the direct interface between user and machine. Its purpose is to amplify human cognitive capabilities. It does this in six basic ways: 1. By increasing cognitive resources, such as by using a visual resource to expand human working memory. 2. By reducing search, such as by representing a large amount of data in a small space. 3. By enhancing the recognition of patterns, such as when information is organized in space by its time relationships. 4. By supporting the easy perceptual inference of relationships that are otherwise more difficult to induce. 5. By perceptual monitoring of a large number of potential events. 6. By providing a manipulable medium that, unlike static diagrams, enables the exploration of a space of parameter values. 7. 4.8 Puzzle Solving in research methodology and problem solving The magnitude of the creative leap forms a continuum (variety), from minor problem solving to major creative insight to mystical experience. Some classic puzzle-solving techniques also promote both insight (approaching) and scientific problemsolving: Redefine the problem by breaking it down into several components, then attack one or more of these pieces individually. Decide which thread to grasp, to start unraveling the puzzle.

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Analyze all assumptions and detect inappropriate, overlooked, or invalid assumptions. Provisionally assume an answer, then look at its implications for the problem. Perhaps a hobby of puzzle solving can improve our ability to recognize hidden scientific assumptions. The practice of puzzle solving improves the ability of the mind to see patterns and associations. This ability, like other acquired skills, can be enhanced by practice. Researchers often want to examine the determinants of insight--the event in which the answer to some problem or puzzle suddenly materializes after individuals experience a period in which they cannot solve this puzzle. This process is an important topic in psychology, but researchers have developed few valid and reliable problems to assess insight. First, to solve the problem, individuals must redirect their attention and cognition away from the dominant or typical inclinations. In the previous example, they should not merely read the letters popped in the usual order. Second, when the solution does arrive, individuals are usually unaware of the intervening processes. That is, the solution seems to materialize unexpectedly. Third, the solution often coincides with a specific subjective experience, called an "aha" moment.

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING IN RESEARCH Creative problem solving is the mental process of creating a solution to a problem during research. It is a special form of problem solving in which the solution is independently created rather than learned with assistance. Creative problem solving always involves creativity. However, creativity often does not involve creative problem solving, especially in fields such as music, poetry, and art. Creativity requires newness or novelty as a characteristic of what is created, but creativity does not necessarily imply that what is created has value or is appreciated by other people.

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Iwhen a created solution becomes widely used in research, the solution becomes an innovation and the word innovation also refers to the process of creating that innovation. A widespread and longlived innovation typically becomes a new tradition. "All innovations [begin] as creative solutions, but not all creative solutions become innovations." Some innovations also qualify as inventions. Inventing is a special kind of creative problem solving in which the created solution qualifies as an invention because it is a useful new object, substance, process, software, or other kind of marketable entity. Techniques and tools for problem solving: Many of the techniques and tools for creating an effective solution to a problem are described in creativity techniques and problem solving. Creative-problem-solving techniques can be categorized as follows: a. Creativity techniques designed to shift a person's mental state into one that fosters creativity.. b. Creativity techniques designed to reframe the problem. c. Creativity techniques designed to increase the quantity of fresh ideas. d. Creative-problem-solving techniques designed to efficiently lead to a fresh perspective that causes a solution to become obvious. The following formalized and well-known methods and processes combine various creativity and creative-problem-solving techniques: 1. TRIZ, which is also known as Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TIPS), was developed by Genrich Altshuller and his colleagues based on examining more than 200,000 patents. This method is designed to foster the creation and development of patentable inventions, but is also useful for creating nonproduct solutions. 2. Mind mapping is a creativity technique that both reframes the situation and fosters creativity. 3. Brainstorming is a group activity designed to increase the quantity of fresh ideas. Getting other people involved can help increase knowledge and understanding of the problem and help participants reframe the problem.

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TRIZ: A TOOL FOR CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION: The theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ) is an approach that can increase a persons ability to generate creative solutions and help almost every organization to develop innovative capabilities. TRIZ can be used to boost creativity and systematic innovation on a number of levels. It provides an underlying philosophy, a method and a toolbox for creative solutions. Systematic Innovation is a complete problem-solving and creativity framework utilizing the best aspects of TRIZ. a. Principles for creativity in TRIZ: 1. Contradiction: A technical contradiction occurs when 2 different parameters are in conflict with each other. TRIZ researchers have developed a systematic method that problem solvers can use to identify contradictions and find ways to resolve them. 2. Functionality: The idea of Functionality provides problem solvers an effective means to analyse a system and generate ideas to improve a system. The techniques that are related to the idea of Functionality are SubstanceField Model & Inventive Standards, Function Modeling & Analysis and Knowledge/Effects. 3. Ideality: The Ideality of a system is defined as its sum of useful functions over its sum of harmful functions. The concept of Ideality shows problem solvers the principle direction for improving a system and also encourages them to break out from within the box when thinking for solutions, and start instead from what is described as ideal results. The related techniques are Ideal Final Result, Function Modeling and Analysis, and Trends of System Evolution. 4. Resources: The Resources principle relates to the importance placed on the identification and utilization of anything that is available in and around the system to deliver a function, to counter a harmful function or to resolve a contradiction. With this way of thinking problem solvers become more creative when identifying improvement ideas. Knowledge/Effects is a useful resource in TRIZ that can help problem solvers to generate creative ideas.

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5. Space, Time and Interface: TRIZ researchers emphasize the importance of thinking about a problem and finding the solutions from all angles. The collection of TRIZ techniques can be broadly classified into two categories namely techniques used for analyzing a problem and techniques used for generating solution ideas. When applying TRIZ, a problem solver needs to understand the nature of the problem and select the appropriate the techniques to apply. b. Key findings of TRIZ research: 1. All innovations emerge from a small number of inventive principles and strategies. 2. Technology evolution trends are highly predictable. 3. The strongest solutions transform the unwanted or harmful elements of a system into useful resources. 4. The strongest solutions also actively seek out and destroy the conflicts and trade-offs most design practices assume to be fundamental. References: 1. A. I. Ujomov.( 1967). Die Hauptformen und -regeln der Analogieschlusse. In G. I. Ruzavin, editor, Studien zur Logik der wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnis, pages 307360. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 2. Bolte, A., Goschke, T., & Kuhl, J. (2003). Emotion and intuition: Effects of positive and negative mood on implicit judgments of semantic coherence. Psychological Science, 14, 416-421. 3. Bowden, E. M., & Beeman, M. J. (1998). Getting the right idea: Semantic activation in the right hemisphere may help solve insight problems. Psychological Science, 9, 435-440. 4. Bryman, A. (1988). Quantity and quality in social research. London: Unwin Hyman. 5. Denis Bridoux, Darrell Mann. (2002). Evolving TRIZ Using TRIZ and NLP/Neurosemantics. First published by the Altshuller Institute for TRIZ Studies in the Proceedings of TRIZCON 2002. 6. Firestone, W. A. (1993). Alternative arguments for generalizing from data as applied to qualitative research. Educational Researcher, 22(4), 16-23.

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7. Glaser (Eds.), Foundations for a psychology of education (pp. 251-294). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 8. Hogarth, R. M. (2001). Educating intuition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 9. Mitchell, J. C. (1983). Case and situational analysis. The Sociological Review, 31(2), 187-211. 10. Olivier Serrat. (2009). Harnessing Creativity and Innovation in the Workplace. Knowledge Solutions. 61. 11. Seale, C. (1999). The quality of qualitative research. London: Sage. 12. Silverman, D. (1993). Interpreting qualitative data. London: Sage. 13. Warr, A. & O'Neill, E. (2005) Understanding Design as a Social Creative Process. Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Creativity & Cognition, London, UK, April 2005, 118-127. 14. Warr, A. (2007). Understanding and Supporting Creativity in Design. PhD Thesis, University of Bath, UK. June, 2007. 15. Warr, A. & O'Neill, E. (2007). Tool Support for Creativity using Externalisations, Creatvity and Cognition 2007, 13 - 15 June 2007, Washington D.C., USA. 16. Yin, R.K. (1984) Case study research: Design and methods. London: Sage.

17. Yin, R.K. (1994) Case study research: Design and methods (2nd ed.). London: Sage.

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