Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
92420CapstoneII
2007BajaProjectSuspension
Submittedby:
Student
WilliamBombardier AhmadFadel XiangdongDing IanFunkenhauser BrianZuccato MikeBowie YeTao BoHuang
EmailAddress(NonUwindsor)
(bomb_a_deer@hotmail.com) (ahmadluay@hotmail.com) (xiangdong_ding@hotmail.com) (jackass97867@hotmail.com) (bcz1358@hotmail.com) (bowie3@hotmail.com) (tzdd2002@hotmail.com) (wongbo12345@hotmail.com)
1) Table of Contents
1) Table of Contents............................................................................................................. i 2) List of Tables ................................................................................................................. iv 3) List of Figures................................................................................................................. v 4) List of Equations............................................................................................................ ix 5) Nomenclature.................................................................................................................. x 6) Introduction to Suspension Kinematics and Kinetics..................................................... 1 6.1) Suspension Kinetics................................................................................................. 1 6.1.1) Vehicle ride modeling (vertical dynamics) ...................................................... 2 6.1.2) Vehicle handling............................................................................................. 11 6.2) Suspension Kinematics.......................................................................................... 18 6.2.1) Track width and tire scrub .............................................................................. 18 6.2.2) Instant center and roll center position............................................................. 19 6.2.3) Camber angle.................................................................................................. 21 6.2.4) Caster angle and caster trail............................................................................ 24 6.2.5) Kingpin angle and scrub radius ...................................................................... 25 6.2.6) Toe angle, roll steer and bump steer............................................................... 27 6.2.7) Aligning torque or self centering moment...................................................... 30 6.2.8) Anti-dive/anti-squat ........................................................................................ 30 6.2.9) Motion ratio and wheel rate............................................................................ 33 6.2.10) Roll stiffness ................................................................................................. 34 6.2.11) Vehicle ride height........................................................................................ 35 6.2.12) Understeering/Oversteering characteristics of vehicle ................................. 35 6.3) Spring rate determination ...................................................................................... 37 7) 2007 Suspension Kinematics........................................................................................ 38 7.1) Choosing the dimensions of the vehicle ................................................................ 38 7.2) Choosing the suspension points............................................................................. 40 7.3) Choosing the suspension geometry angles ............................................................ 41 7.4) Choosing the inner suspension points ................................................................... 42 7.5) Choosing the steering tie rods lengths................................................................... 47 7.6) Choosing the strut mounting points....................................................................... 48 7.7) Design front and rear suspension to be consistent................................................. 49 8) 2007 Suspension kinetics.............................................................................................. 52 8.1) Handling analysis on 2006 vehicle........................................................................ 52
2007 Baja Project Suspension 8.2) Approach to designing 2007 suspension kinetics.................................................. 53 8.3) 2007 front and rear suspension shocks .................................................................. 54 8.4) The required spring rates based on the Olley criteria............................................ 54 8.5) CarSim model for 2007 vehicle............................................................................. 56 8.6) Necessary combination of Elka Suspensions springs............................................ 64 8.7) Evaluation of spring rate in CarSim ...................................................................... 65 8.8) Ride, bounce, pitch and wheel hop frequencies .................................................... 67 8.9) Prediction of vehicle performance in regards to the dynamic events.................... 72 9) Suspension Component Design .................................................................................... 74 9.1) Choice of Materials........................................................................................... 74 9.2) Front Suspension System.................................................................................. 75 9.2.1) Control Arms ............................................................................................ 75 9.2.2) Finite Element Analysis............................................................................ 76 9.2.3) Joints ......................................................................................................... 78 9.2.4) Steering tie rod and bump stop ................................................................. 80 9.3) Rear Suspension System........................................................................................ 82 9.3.1) Control Arms .................................................................................................. 82 9.3.2) Finite Element Analysis.................................................................................. 84 9.3.3) Joints............................................................................................................... 84 9.4) Installation ............................................................................................................. 85 10) Shocks (Dampers & Springs) ..................................................................................... 88 10.1) Chosen shocks ..................................................................................................... 88 10.2) Adjustable Damping ............................................................................................ 89 10.3) Progressive spring rates ....................................................................................... 90 11) Hubs & Uprights......................................................................................................... 93 11.1) Background & Research...................................................................................... 93 11.2) Concepts & Brainstorming .................................................................................. 93 11.3) CATIA Modeling ................................................................................................ 94 11.4) FEA...................................................................................................................... 95 11.5) Materials & Manufacturing Procedure Used....................................................... 95 11.6) Finished Product .................................................................................................. 95 11.6.1) Testing .......................................................................................................... 95 11.7) Recommendations for Improvements.................................................................. 96 12) Tires and Rims............................................................................................................ 97 12.1) Background and Research .................................................................................. 97
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2007 Baja Project Suspension 12.2) Concepts and Brainstorming .............................................................................. 97 12.3) CATIA Modeling ............................................................................................. 105 12.4) Additional Analysis .......................................................................................... 105 12.5) Materials and Manufacturing Procedures Used................................................ 106 12.6) Finished Product ............................................................................................... 106 12.6.1) Product Assembly and Maintenance ......................................................... 106 12.6.2) Testing ........................................................................................................ 106 12.7) Recommendations for Improvement ................................................................ 107 13) Suspension tuning and testing .................................................................................. 108 13.1) Suspension kinematics adjustment and measurement ....................................... 108 13.2) Dynamic tuning of the suspension..................................................................... 111 13.3) Problems during testing ..................................................................................... 112 14) Strain gage testing .................................................................................................... 116 14.1) Background & Research.................................................................................... 116 14.2) Concepts & Brainstorming ................................................................................ 116 14.3) CATIA Modeling .............................................................................................. 118 14.4) FEA.................................................................................................................... 119 14.5) Additional Analysis ........................................................................................... 120 14.6) Materials & Manufacturing Procedure Used..................................................... 121 14.7) Recommendations for Improvements................................................................ 121 15) Suspension Prototype ............................................................................................... 122 15.1) Background & Research.................................................................................... 122 15.2) Concepts & Brainstorming ................................................................................ 122 15.3) ADAMS Modeling ............................................................................................ 123 15.4) Additional Analysis ........................................................................................... 127 15.5) CATIA & FEA .................................................................................................. 127 15.6) Materials & Manufacturing Procedure Used..................................................... 129 15.7) Finished Product ................................................................................................ 130 15.7.1) Product Assembly & Maintenance ............................................................. 130 15.7.2) Testing ........................................................................................................ 132 15.8) Recommendations for Improvements................................................................ 133 16) References and contacts............................................................................................ 139 16.1) Contacts ............................................................................................................. 139 16.2) Websites............................................................................................................. 140 16.3) Books and professional papers .......................................................................... 141
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2007 Baja Project Suspension 17) Appendixes ............................................................................................................... 143 17.1) Appendix A........................................................................................................ 143 The derivation of the half car model....................................................................... 143 17.2) Appendix B........................................................................................................ 145 The derivation of the bicycle model ........................................................................ 145 17.3) Appendix C........................................................................................................ 148 17.4) Appendix D........................................................................................................ 154 Critical speed calculations of 2006 vehicle ............................................................ 154 17.5) Appendix E ........................................................................................................ 156 17.6) Appendix F ........................................................................................................ 157 Predicted spring rates............................................................................................. 157 17.7) Appendix G........................................................................................................ 158 Acceleration Plots................................................................................................... 158 Acceleration and Cornering ................................................................................... 160 Braking.................................................................................................................... 161 Braking and Cornering ........................................................................................... 162 S Shaped Plots......................................................................................................... 163 2007 Jump Performance ......................................................................................... 165 Cornering................................................................................................................ 166 17.8) Appendix H........................................................................................................ 167 17.9) Appendix I ......................................................................................................... 180 17.10) Appendix J....................................................................................................... 193 Spreadsheets to record the data during testing........................................................ 193 17.11) Appendix K...................................................................................................... 197 17.11.1) Rear suspension assembly Bill of Material: ................................................. 197 17.11.2) Front suspension assembly Bill of Material ................................................. 201 17.12) Appendix L ...................................................................................................... 205
2) List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of vehicle dimensions......................................................................... 40 Table 2: Static Suspension Angles.................................................................................... 42 Table 3: Estimated cornering stiffness of the 2006 tires................................................... 52 Table 4: Critical speed of 2006 vehicle ............................................................................ 52 Table 5: Weight of the vehicle and weight distribution.................................................... 54
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2007 Baja Project Suspension Table 6: Ride frequencies of the 2005 vehicle.................................................................. 55 Table 7: Required spring rates for 2007 vehicle based on Olley criteria.......................... 55 Table 8: The main and auxiliary springs required to obtained the appropriate ride frequencies ................................................................................................................ 64 Table 9: Spring rate evaluation results.............................................................................. 66 Table 10: The frequencies of the vehicle.......................................................................... 67 Table 11: Summary of material properties ....................................................................... 74 Table 12: 2003 Testing Data............................................................................................. 97 Table 13: Tire Pressure ................................................................................................... 107
3) List of Figures
Figure 1: Vehicle axis system ............................................................................................. 2 Figure 2: The quarter car model.......................................................................................... 3 Figure 3: Bounce/pitch model............................................................................................. 5 Figure 4: The half car model............................................................................................... 8 Figure 5: The front and the rear suspension amplitudes as a function of time ................... 9 Figure 6: Eigenvalues verses vehicle speed for an understeering vehicle ........................ 15 Figure 7: Oversteering and Understeering Vehicle .......................................................... 16 Figure 8: The lateral force verses the slip angle ............................................................... 17 Figure 9: Vehicle track width ........................................................................................... 19 Figure 10: The roll axis of the vehicle .............................................................................. 19 Figure 11: The effect of the jacking forces....................................................................... 20 Figure 12: Roll center position of a double A-arm type of suspension ............................ 21 Figure 13: Definition of camber angle (note in the figure one is looking at the vehicle from the front)........................................................................................................... 22 Figure 14: The effect camber has on the tire contact patch .............................................. 22 Figure 15: The effect of the camber angle on the cornering curve................................... 23 Figure 16: Caster angle and caster trail............................................................................. 24 Figure 17: Kingpin angle (steering inclination angle) and scrub radius........................... 26 Figure 18: Toe angle (note the view in the figure is the top view)................................... 27 Figure 19: The necessary steps to locate the tie rod position to have no toe angle change with suspension travel............................................................................................... 29 Figure 20: The pitch center ............................................................................................... 31 Figure 21: Anti-dive suspension geometry ....................................................................... 32
2007 Baja Project Suspension Figure 22: Anti-squat suspension geometry ..................................................................... 32 Figure 23: Motion ratio..................................................................................................... 33 Figure 24: The lateral force verses the vertical force for a given slip angle..................... 36 Figure 25: Vehicle Dimensions ........................................................................................ 38 Figure 26: Rear end of vehicle.......................................................................................... 39 Figure 27: Front and Rear Uprights .................................................................................. 40 Figure 28: Wheel hub........................................................................................................ 41 Figure 29: ADAMS/Car suspension modeling ................................................................. 43 Figure 30: Anti Squat Angle ............................................................................................. 44 Figure 31: Anti Squat Reaction......................................................................................... 44 Figure 32: Longitudinal wheel travel................................................................................ 45 Figure 33: Roll Center Height and Swing Arm Length.................................................... 46 Figure 34: Camber Gain.................................................................................................... 46 Figure 35: Steering tie rod length ..................................................................................... 47 Figure 36: Tie rod clearance with control arm.................................................................. 48 Figure 37: Motion Ratio.................................................................................................... 48 Figure 38: Roll Center Lateral Position ............................................................................ 50 Figure 39: Roll Center Vertical Position .......................................................................... 50 Figure 40: Roll Stiffness ................................................................................................... 51 Figure 41: Track Width Change ....................................................................................... 51 Figure 42: The three interfaces in CarSim........................................................................ 57 Figure 43: Vehicle model in CarSim ................................................................................ 57 Figure 44: The mass, Inertia and vehicle dimensions screen in CarSim .......................... 58 Figure 45: The powertrain model in CarSim .................................................................... 59 Figure 46: The brake model in CarSim............................................................................. 60 Figure 47: The steering model in CarSim......................................................................... 61 Figure 48: The front suspension kinematics model in CarSim......................................... 62 Figure 49: The front suspension compliance model in CarSim........................................ 63 Figure 50: Motion amplitude ratio for front excitation..................................................... 68 Figure 51: Pitch/Excitation amplitude ratio for front excitation....................................... 68 Figure 52: Motion of the rear unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for front excitation.. 69 Figure 53: Motion of the front unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for front excitation 69 Figure 54: Motion amplitude ratio for rear excitation ...................................................... 70 Figure 55: Pitch/Excitation amplitude ratio for rear excitation ........................................ 70 Figure 56: Motion of the front unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for rear excitation.. 71
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2007 Baja Project Suspension Figure 57: Motion of the rear unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for rear excitation ... 71 Figure 58: The hill created to simulate the hill climb....................................................... 72 Figure 59: Suspension and traction course ....................................................................... 73 Figure 60: Front lower control arm................................................................................... 75 Figure 61: Front upper control arm................................................................................... 76 Figure 62: Front lower control arm FEA .......................................................................... 76 Figure 63: Front upright FEA ........................................................................................... 77 Figure 64: Front suspension assembly FEA ..................................................................... 78 Figure 65: Laser cut tabs................................................................................................... 78 Figure 66: Pivot joint construction ................................................................................... 79 Figure 67: Caster adjustment mechanism ......................................................................... 80 Figure 68: Camber adjustment mechanism....................................................................... 80 Figure 69: Steering tie rod ................................................................................................ 81 Figure 70: Steering stop .................................................................................................... 81 Figure 71: Schematic of rear lower control arm ............................................................... 82 Figure 72: Rear control arms ............................................................................................ 83 Figure 73: Aluminum rear upper control arm................................................................... 83 Figure 74: Rear suspension assmebly FEA ...................................................................... 84 Figure 75: Hiem joint........................................................................................................ 85 Figure 76: Upright to control arm pivot............................................................................ 85 Figure 77: Front control assembly .................................................................................... 86 Figure 78: Rear control assembly ..................................................................................... 87 Figure 79: Elka Suspensions coil over shock ................................................................... 88 Figure 80: Rebound and compression damping adjustment ............................................. 89 Figure 81: Suspension springs with the crossovers .......................................................... 91 Figure 82: Load versus displacement of Elka Suspension with longer sides of collars facing up.................................................................................................................... 92 Figure 83: Load versus displacement of Elka Suspension with shorter sides of collars facing up.................................................................................................................... 92 Figure 84: Final Catia model ............................................................................................ 94 Figure 85: Rear Assembly FEA........................................................................................ 95 Figure 86: Proposed test setup .......................................................................................... 96 Figure 87: Tire internal cord scenarios ............................................................................ 98 Figure 88 Tire contact patch reactions.............................................................................. 98 Figure 89 Contact patch aligning moment........................................................................ 99
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2007 Baja Project Suspension Figure 90 Internal Pressure Model.................................................................................... 99 Figure 91 Lateral force, traction force affect on slip %.................................................... 99 Figure 92 Aligning moment for vertical loads and slip angles....................................... 100 Figure 93 Lateral forces for brake forces at different slip angles ................................... 101 Figure 94 Lateral forces and aligning moments for different traction forces ................. 101 Figure 95 Vertical and longitudinal reactions for tire roll over a bump ......................... 103 Figure 96 Tire natural frequency vibration modes ......................................................... 103 Figure 97 Rolling loss factor graph ................................................................................ 104 Figure 98 CATIA Model of Rim .................................................................................... 105 Figure 99 CATIA Model of Rear Suspension Assembly ............................................... 106 Figure 100: Caster angle measurement........................................................................... 109 Figure 101: Toe angle measurement............................................................................... 110 Figure 102: Camber angle measurement ........................................................................ 111 Figure 103: Track with measurement ............................................................................. 112 Figure 104: The protection layer on the control arms..................................................... 113 Figure 105: The bend in the control arm ........................................................................ 113 Figure 106: Angle iron to reinforce the rear control arms .............................................. 114 Figure 107: The wear in the bushings............................................................................. 114 Figure 108: Timken tapered needle roller bearings ........................................................ 115 Figure 109: Strain gauge testing specimen ..................................................................... 117 Figure 110: Bending of test specimen ............................................................................ 117 Figure 111: Axial test on specimen ............................................................................... 118 Figure 112: Specimen modeled in Catia......................................................................... 118 Figure 113: 2004 lower control arm model .................................................................... 118 Figure 114: 2004 lower control arm FEA for 500 lb loading ......................................... 119 Figure 115: Cantilever FEA simulation.......................................................................... 119 Figure 116: Axial FEA simulation.................................................................................. 120 Figure 117: 2007 control arm gauging locations ............................................................ 120 Figure 118: Tailing arm and Semi trailing arm .............................................................. 122 Figure 119: Semi trailing arm ......................................................................................... 123 Figure 120: Tailing arm .................................................................................................. 123 Figure 121: New semi trailing arm ................................................................................. 124 Figure 122: Camber angle comparison ........................................................................... 124 Figure 123: Roll centre comparison................................................................................ 125 Figure 124: Toe angle comparison ................................................................................. 125
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2007 Baja Project Suspension Figure 125: Anti Squat comparison ................................................................................ 126 Figure 126: Wheel travel track comparison.................................................................... 126 Figure 127: Prototype Suspension Assembly 1 .............................................................. 128 Figure 128: Prototype Suspension Assembly 2 .............................................................. 128 Figure 129: Rear Lower Control Arm FEA.................................................................... 129 Figure 130: Rear Upper Control Arm FEA .................................................................... 129 Figure 131: Prototype front view.................................................................................... 130 Figure 132: Prototype back view .................................................................................... 130 Figure 133: Prototype top view....................................................................................... 131 Figure 134: prototype side view ..................................................................................... 131 Figure 135: Joint and axis control................................................................................... 132 Figure 136: Camber checking 1...................................................................................... 132 Figure 137: Camber checking 2...................................................................................... 133 Figure 138: Semi trailing arm 1 ...................................................................................... 134 Figure 139: Semi trailing arm 2 ...................................................................................... 134 Figure 140: Tailing arm 1 ............................................................................................... 135 Figure 141: Tailing arm 2 ............................................................................................... 135 Figure 142: New Semi trailing arm 1 ............................................................................. 136 Figure 143: New Semi trailing arm 2 ............................................................................. 136 Figure 144: Other suspension 1 ...................................................................................... 137 Figure 145: Other suspension 2 ...................................................................................... 137 Figure 146: Other suspension 3 ...................................................................................... 138
4) List of Equations
Equation 1: The equations of the quarter car model ........................................................... 2 Equation 2: The natural frequencies of the unsprung and sprung mass ............................. 3 Equation 3: The natural frequency of the both the unsprung and sprung mass in hertz..... 4 Equation 4: The amplitudes of displacements of both masses (unsprung and sprung) ...... 4 Equation 5: Bounce and pitch equations of motion (neglecting damping)......................... 5 Equation 6: Motion ratios at each of the natural frequency................................................ 5 Equation 7: Natural frequencies in bounce and in pitch ..................................................... 6 Equation 8: Equations of motion in bounce and pitch........................................................ 6 Equation 9: Bounce and pitch damped natural frequency .................................................. 7
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2007 Baja Project Suspension Equation 10: The half car model equations ........................................................................ 8 Equation 11: Sprung and unsprung mass.......................................................................... 10 Equation 12: The equations used in the bicycle model..................................................... 11 Equation 13: Equations of motion in steady state cornering ............................................ 12 Equation 14: Vehicle yaw rate as a function of the steering angle................................... 12 Equation 15: The cornering radius as a function of the kinematic cornering radius ........ 12 Equation 16: The kinematic turning radius....................................................................... 12 Equation 17: Body slip angle............................................................................................ 13 Equation 18: The body slip angle as a function of the steering angle .............................. 13 Equation 19: The limit of the / ratio for an understeering vehicle................................ 13 Equation 20: Critical speed of an oversteering vehicle .................................................... 14 Equation 21: Characteristic speed of an understeering vehicle ........................................ 14 Equation 22: Solution to the transients associated with the bicycle model ...................... 15 Equation 23: Magic tire Formula...................................................................................... 17 Equation 24: Tire cornering stiffness................................................................................ 18 Equation 25: Condition for proper Ackermann steering................................................... 29 Equation 26: Aligning moment......................................................................................... 30 Equation 27 : Wheel rate................................................................................................... 34 Equation 28: Roll stiffness as a function of ride rate........................................................ 34 Equation 29: 3 cases to determine whether the vehicle will oversteer or understeer based on the bicycle model ................................................................................................. 35 Equation 30: Ride frequency ............................................................................................ 37 Equation 31: The spring rate of 4 springs in series........................................................... 64 Equation 32: Caster angle from measurements .............................................................. 108 Equation 33: Toe angle measurement............................................................................. 110
5) Nomenclature
R R0
m r & r u a b Cf Cr
Actual cornering radius Low speed cornering radius (kinematic), obtained when cornering without lateral slip. Mass of the vehicle Yaw rate Rate of change of vehicle yaw rate Vehicles forward velocity Distance between the center of mass and the front axle Distance between the center of mass and the rear axle The cornering stiffness of both of the front tires The cornering stiffness of both of the rear tires x
f r Fz
yz
C E bt w rt s at alat
Fy
*
v & v I
Ff Fr x
f r
vtf vtr utfr utfl tw t m s m 2 s g deg rad s
ut vt
Front tire slip angle Rear tire slip angle Normal load at the tire Lateral Force at the tire Lateral force coefficient Camber angle Cornering stiffness Tire belt compression modulus Tire belt thickness Tire belt width Rim radius Sidewall vertical deflection when loaded (unitized percent) Tire aspect ratio (height/width) Lateral acceleration Steering angle Limit steering angle (based on a lateral acceleration of 0.5gs) Lateral velocity Rate of change of the lateral velocity Yaw inertia Body slip angle Lateral force on both of the front tires Lateral force on both of the rear tires The coordinate direction from the center of gravity to the front of the car. Also this coordinate rotates with the vehicle, rotating frame of reference. The coordinate direction from the center of gravity to the side of the vehicle (the lateral direction). Also this coordinate rotates with the vehicle, rotating frame of reference. Forward velocity of the tire Lateral velocity of the tire Front tire slip angle Rear tire slip angle Lateral velocity of the front tire Lateral velocity of the rear tire Forward velocity of the front right tire Forward velocity of the front left tire Vehicle width Time Meters per second Meters per second squared Gravity Constant (9.81m/s^2) Degree Radians/second xi
n f1 f2
s2 deg rad s sec, s m Hz lb in N m m
Second Meter Displacement of the vehicle in the x direction (forward) Displacement of the vehicle in the y direction (lateral) Mass of the vehicle Distance between the center of mass and the front axle Distance between the center of mass and the rear axle Pitch inertia Time Front suspension spring constant (for both of the front suspensions) Rear suspension spring constant (for both of the rear suspensions) Front damping coefficient (for both of the front suspensions) Rear damping coefficient (for both of the rear suspensions) Front tire spring constant (for both of the front tires) Rear tire spring constant (for both of the rear tires) Sprung mass Unsprung mass Portion of the unsprung mass associated with the front of the vehicle Portion of the unsprung mass associated with the rear of the vehicle Radius of gyration in pitch Vertical motion of the vehicle body Vehicle pitch motion Vertical motion associated with the unsprung mass at the front of the vehicle Vertical motion associated with the unsprung mass at the rear of the vehicle Disturbance (excitation) motion at the front of the vehicle Disturbance (excitation) motion at the rear of the vehicle Natural frequency Frequency of excitation Damping ratio Approximate body motion frequency Approximate wheel hop frequency
Meters per second squared Degree Radians/second Second Meter Hertz Pound Inches Newtons per meter
xii
xiii
This is a two degree of freedom system, thus there will be two natural frequencies (the unsprung and sprung mass will each have a resonant frequency). The wheel hop frequency is the frequency associated with the unsprung mass it is usually around 10Hz. The body motion frequency is the frequency associated with the sprung mass and it is usually around 1 to 1.25 Hz. Note, the damping ratios in most suspension systems is relatively low, therefore the majority of the time the undamped natural frequency will be really close to the damped natural frequency thus the damped natural frequency is usually calculated by neglecting any damping in the system. The following equation can be used to calculate the natural frequencies of the system. Note the natural frequencies are calculated by neglecting damping in the system and neglecting any excitations (Equation 2: The natural frequencies of the unsprung and sprung mass).
z m s 0 &&1 k s 0 m && + k u z2 s 2 det k M = 0
k s z1 0 = k s + k t z 2 0
Note the above equation in matrix form leads to an eigenvalue problem by assuming the displacement of each mass to be harmonic (z = Zcos(t)). By solving the determinant will lead to the natural frequencies of both masses in the system. The frequencies can be approximated by the following equations (Equation 3: The natural frequency of the both the unsprung and sprung mass in hertz).
f1 = f2 =
1 2 1 2
Equation 3: The natural frequency of the both the unsprung and sprung mass in hertz
Some important observations can be made by solving the above equations. The first observation is that the sprung mass is well isolated at high frequency, however it will be poorly isolated at low frequencies, and in some cases, at low frequencies the amplitude of the sprung mass can be amplified in such a way that it is greater than that of the excitation amplitude. Damping will have an effect on the amplitudes of motion even though it does not have a significant effect on the natural frequencies. The easiest way to solve for the amplitudes is to use a complex number approach (assume z = Zeit). If this is taken into consideration the equations of motion will be as follows (Equation 4: The amplitudes of displacements of both masses (unsprung and sprung)).
0 z i t M + iC + k 1 e it = Z 0e z2 k t + i t 0 z1 1 2 = M + i C + k Z 0 z2 k t + i t
2
Note, the result will be a complex number because of the phase lag between the motion and the disturbance (this is because of the damping in the system, note the i term next to the C in the equation of motion above). The amplitude is simply the sum of the squares fo the real and imaginary parts of the answer obtain from the above equation ( Z = real 2 + imaginary 2 ). The usual way to solve the equations to obtain the amplitudes is to assume the excitation is one, and calculate the amplitudes of the unsprung and sprung mass with respect to this input over a wide range of frequencies. This will allow the amplitude ratios to be obtained over a wide range of frequencies. The difference between the motion of the sprung and unsprung mass represents the suspension shock travel, and the distance between the travel of the unsprung mass and the excitation is the tire deflection. Tire deflection is a measure of handling because it is the normal force that generates the necessary friction to propel the vehicle forward (ie if the normal force is fluctuating up and down the tire is being prevented from griping the road). Therefore, it can be seen that a stiffer suspension will hurt the tires capability from gripping the road. The unsprung mass has almost no effect at low frequencies, but at higher frequencies a lower unsprung mass will lead to lower tire deflections and thus better handling performance of the vehicle. At mid range frequencies, a lower spring rate
2007 Baja Project Suspension leads to a reduction in tire deflections, and thus improves tire grip. However, a lower spring rate allows for increased body motions which are detrimental to vehicle handling. The bounce/pitch suspension model models the vehicle motions separately from the wheel motions (Figure 3: Bounce/pitch model).
The equations of motion that govern this system can be obtained by applying Newtons second law of motion in both pitch and bounce to the system (note damping will be first neglected so that the natural frequency can be obtained) (Equation 5: Bounce and pitch equations of motion (neglecting damping)).
m s && + k f ( z a ) + k r ( z + b ) = 0 z
2& m s ry & k f a( z a ) + k r b( z + b ) = 0
I = m s ry
The equations of motion are coupled as can be seen above. If it is assumed that the displacements are harmonic then the natural frequencies can be obtained (z = Zcos(t) and = cos(t)). The following is the equation that would be obtained from assuming the motions are harmonic for the natural frequencies (Equation 7: Natural frequencies in bounce and in pitch). The motion ratios can be obtained at each of these frequencies by substituting each of the results back into the equation of motion (Equation 6).
D Z = 2 2 1 D1 D Z = 2 2 2 D1
Equation 6: Motion ratios at each of the natural frequency
1, 2 =
D1 = D2 = D3 =
1 (k f + k r ) ms 1 (k r b k f a ) ms 1 k f a 2 + kr b 2 2 m s ry
The bounce and pitch natural frequencies are usually very close to one another. They are usually between 1 to 1.5 Hz. The bounce and pitch equations of motion can be re written to include damping in the equation of motion (damping is important when it is desired to obtained the amplitudes of motion) (Equation 8: Equations of motion in bounce and pitch).
& z && z z M && + C & + K = 0 & z && 1 z 1 z && = M C & M K 0 ms M = 2 0 m s ry bk r ak f k f +k r K= 2 2 bk r ak f b k r + a k f bC r aC f C f +C r C= 2 2 bC r aC f b C r + a C f
Equation 8: Equations of motion in bounce and pitch
The above equations of motion can be solved to obtain the natural frequencies and amplitude ratios, as well as the amplitudes for a given frequency. This can be done by reducing the equations from second order to first order (Equation 9: Bounce and pitch damped natural frequency).
It is important to note that the eigenvalues will be complex numbers because of the phase change; however the natural frequency is just the sum of squares of the real and imaginary values. The damping ratio is the negative of the real part divided by the natural frequency (=-a/n). The amplitudes at all frequencies can be solved by assuming a value for either the pitch angle or the bounce and then solving the other value over a wide range of frequencies. The bounce/pitch model and the quarter car model are two of the most powerful models to predict the vertical motion of the vehicle. These two models can be combined to create the half car model. This model couples the motions of the front and rear suspension through the motion of the sprung mass (both bounce and pitch). This model allows the wheel hop frequencies to be obtained for both the front and rear suspensions at the same time. As well as the pitch and body motion frequencies can be obtained. The half car model predicts the motions of the both the front and both the rear suspension units at once. There are certain assumptions used in this model, and these include that the tires on either side of the vehicle have the same effect on the dynamics, and the width of the vehicle is assumed to be constant. Also, it is assumed that the springs are linear, and that the damping can be modeled as viscous dampers. The model consists of four coupled equations used to find the motions associated with the sprung mass and both the unsprung masses (Equation 10: The half car model equations) (Figure 4: The half car model) (Appendix A).
ms 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 muf 0 0 0
(a C
2
(aCf bCr )
+ b 2 Cr aCf bCr
f
Cf aCf Cf 0
(a k
2
(akf bkr )
f 2
+ b kr akf bkr
The following is a discussion on the important parameters that are applied in the half car model.
The Suspension Stiffness and Damping
The suspension stiffness is one of the most important parameters when considering the vertical performance of the vehicle. It is generally best to have a moderate spring rates. This is because low spring rates reduce the tire deflection which increases the tire grip, however it also allows for increased body motions (in roll and in pitch) which are harmful to the overall handling performance of the vehicle. The opposite is true for high spring rates. Therefore, there should be a compromise between implementing high and low suspension stiffness. Also, according to Maurrie Olley the following set of rules should be followed when designing a suspension system for the comfort of the passenger, and they are: 1. Front suspension should have a 30% lower ride rate than rear suspension
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2007 Baja Project Suspension 2. Pitch and bounce frequencies should be close together, bounce frequency should be 1.2 times the pitch frequency 3. Neither the bounce nor the roll frequency should be greater than 1.3Hz. The reason for this is that the front of the vehicle will ride over the bump (or disturbance) first creating an excitation in the front suspension, and then seconds later the rear suspension will ride over the bump creating an excitation in the rear suspension. If the two suspension rates are identical the phase lag between the front and the rear suspensions will create an undesirable motion in pitch. There have been studies that have shown that the driver/passenger is/are very uncomfortable in pitch motion, it tends to cause neck muscle strains. Therefore, by increasing the suspension rate in the rear suspension allows for the rear of the vehicle to catch up to the front of the vehicle (Figure 5: The front and the rear suspension amplitudes as a function of time).
Figure 5: The front and the rear suspension amplitudes as a function of time
It can be seen from the figure above that there exists a phase lag between the front and the rear excitations, and that by having a rear suspension rate higher than the front suspension rate allows for the rear excitation to catch up to the front excitation.
The Tire Stiffness and Damping
The tires stiffness and the tires viscous damping coefficient are important to the ride quality of the vehicle, but more importantly to the handling performance of the vehicle. In typical passenger car vehicles the stiffness of the tires is of an order of magnitude greater than the suspension stiffness. It is typically the tire deflection that is important for the handling performance of the vehicle, because the tire deflection is one of the parameters in which decides the tires grip capabilities. As the deflection of the tire increases, the grip capabilities of the tire will decrease. It is very important to not allow the tire to lose contact with the ground, because if it does the car will not be controllable
2007 Baja Project Suspension in handling. Typically, the damping coefficient of the tires is neglected because it is generally very low compared to the other parameters in the system, and neglecting it results in a small error in the analysis
The Sprung and Unsprung Mass
The mass of the vehicle is an important parameter in the analysis of the vertical dynamics of the vehicle. The mass of the vehicle is one of the main parameters in which will decide the deflections of both the front and the rear tires, and the suspension units when they are excited. The mass of the vehicle is divided into two parts the sprung mass and the unsprung mass. The sprung mass consists of everything the suspension units have to support, and these include the chasis, and the engine. The unsprung mass consists of everything the tires have to support, and these include the front and rear axles. Typically the sprung mass is of an order of magnitude greater than the unsprung mass. Therefore the following formula can be used to calculate the sprung mass and the unsprung mass based on the mass of the vehicle (Equation 11: Sprung and unsprung mass).
When implementing the half car model the unsprung mass has to be further divided into the unsprung mass supported by the front tires of the vehicle, and the unsprung mass supported by the rear tires of the vehicle.
The Pitch Inertia
The pitch inertia is the inertia that arises in the rotation of the front and rear of the vehicle with respect to the center of mass. The pitch inertia is usually calculated using the radius of gyration. It is important in the study of the ride quality of the vehicle because it is one of the significant parameters in which determine the amount of deflection a vehicle will have in pitch. Generally, in order to have good ride quality in pitch the radius of gyration should be around 1.2m, and the ratio of the radius of gyration squared to the location of the front axle from the center of mass times the location of the ry 2 rear axles from the center of mass ( (a )(b ) ) should be between 0.8 and 1.2. These values provide a desirable ride in pitch because the center of oscillations in pitch and roll will be close to the front and the rear axle, thus allowing the motion in pitch created at one axle to somewhat cancel out the motion in pitch created at the other axle, and
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2007 Baja Project Suspension therefore minimizing the overall motion in pitch felt by the driver. The half car model leads to a good prediction of the vertical performance of the vehicle or the ride quality of the vehicle.
(aCf bCr ) + mu
u a Cf + b 2 Cr u
2
v Cf = r aCf
Once the above equations of motion are solved for the yaw rate, lateral velocity, lateral displacement and the vehicle yaw several other parameters can be solved for, and certain characteristics of the vehicle can be determined. Also certain cases can be analyzed in detail, and one such case is steady state cornering (lateral acceleration and rate of change of the yaw rate are equal to zero) (Equation 13: Equations of motion in steady state cornering). Solving the equations of motion in steady state leads to the following important equations (Equation 14: Vehicle yaw rate as a function of the steering angle) (Equation 15: The cornering radius as a function of the kinematic cornering radius).
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(aCf bCr ) + mu
u a C f + b 2 Cr u
2
v Cf = r aCf
= a+b
mu (aC f bC r )
2
(a + b )C f C r
mu 2 (aC f bC r ) R = 1 R0 (a + b )2 C f C r
Equation 15: The cornering radius as a function of the kinematic cornering radius
The second equation (equation 15) is important because it describes the path the understeer/oversteer characteristics of the vehicle. If the vehicle was cornering with no lateral slipping than the vehicle would corner about a perfect circular path with a radius of R0 (R0 is known as the kinematic turning radius) (Equation 16: The kinematic turning radius).
The kinematic turning radius is the radius in which the driver is aiming for the vehicle to follow. Examination of equation 15 reveals that if aCf < bCr than the vehicle will understeer. If the vehicle understeers, the radius of the path will increase with vehicle
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2007 Baja Project Suspension speed. In order to maintain the desired path of the vehicle the driver will have to increase the steering angle with vehicle speed. If aCf > bCr the vehicle oversteers, and the cornering radius will decrease with vehicle speed. The driver will have to decrease the steering angle as the speed of the vehicle increases in order to maintain the desired path of the vehicle. If aCf = bCr the vehicle neutral steers and will turn on the kinematic turning radius. The radius of curvature will be independent of vehicle speed. It is also important to note that understeer/oversteer characteristics is also affecting by the inclination of the roll axis and the front and rear suspension roll stiffness as will be seen in the suspension kinematics section. The cornering stiffness of the driving wheels will change as the traction (driving) force increases (as the traction force increases the lateral force will decrease (friction circle)). For a front wheel drive vehicle this effect is to force the vehicle to understeer, and for a rear wheel drive to force the vehicle to oversteer. When the vehicle is cornering it does not point in the direction it is traveling in, this is known as body slip. The vehicle will experience a body slip angle (Equation 17: Body slip angle).
tan =
v u
Using the steady state bicycle model the body slip angle can be solved for as a function of the steering angle (Equation 18: The body slip angle as a function of the steering angle). amu 2 b (a + b )C r = mu 2 (aC f bC r ) a+b (a + b )C f C r
Equation 18: The body slip angle as a function of the steering angle
At low speeds, the / ratio will be positive which indicates that the rear wheels will track inside the front wheels. However, at high speeds the opposite will be true; the rear wheels will track outside the front wheels. For an understeering vehicle the / ratio will tend to a limit; at high speeds it will be a constant (Equation 19: The limit of the / ratio for an understeering vehicle).
=
lim it
aC f aC f bC r
An oversteering vehicle will have larger slip angles than an understeering vehicle, and the / ratio will tend to infinity at a critical vehicle speed. The vehicle will become unstable
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2007 Baja Project Suspension at the critical vehicle speed (Equation 20: Critical speed of an oversteering vehicle).
u critical = C f C r (a + b )
2
m(aC f bC r )
If the critical speed is reached the driver is capable of stabilizing the vehicle with steering inputs. The r/ ratio will also go to infinity at the critical speed for an oversteering vehicle; however for an understeering vehicle the r/ ratio will reach a maximum at the characteristic speed (the highest amount of yaw rate for a given steering angle will occur at this speed) (Equation 21: Characteristic speed of an understeering vehicle).
u characteristic = C f C r (a + b )
2
m(bC r aC f
The transient effects of vehicle cornering can be considered by solving the bicycle model with zero steering angle; the model is solved assuming that the driver is not going to react (the steering angle is zero). It is important that the transient effects die out over time; that is the amplitude of vehicle oscillations tends to zero over time. If it does not go to zero, then the vehicle will be unstable. It is best to use an eigenvalue approach when solving the bicycle model to analyze the transient effects of the vehicle (Equation 22: Solution to the transients associated with the bicycle model). If s is smaller than zero the vehicle will be stable. Analyzing the equation that determines the value of s will indicate that if C is greater than zero than the vehicle will always be stable. This occurs for an understeering vehicle. An understeering vehicle will always be stable. However, for an oversteering vehicle the value of C will become negative at the critical speed. This is implying that an oversteering vehicle will be stable up until the critical speed, but once the critical speed is reached the vehicle will become unstable. It is also important to note that the solution can take on real and complex solutions. We are generally looking for our vehicle to have a stable response (want s to be negative or a complex number with a as being negative) indicating that the yaw rate and lateral velocity will decay exponentially to zero. If we have an unstable response the yaw rate and the lateral velocity will increase when excited causing the vehicle to loose control. It is generally better to design the vehicle so that it is an overall understeering vehicle because it is guaranteed to be stable. Negative eigenvalues are basically indicating that the system is capable of correcting itself (allow for the yaw rate and the lateral velocity to decay back to zero) if excited without any input from the driver. The only difference between the real and the imaginary parts is that in the imaginary part of the eigenvectors will fluctuate as they decay to zero, a frequency will exist (Figure 6: Eigenvalues verses vehicle speed for an understeering vehicle).
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C = (a + b ) C f C r mu 2 (aC f bC r )
2
B = mu a 2 C f + b 2 C r + Iu (C f + C r ) B B 2 4 AC 2A
A = mIu 2
s=
Equation 22: Solution to the transients associated with the bicycle model
The eigenvectors are the associated response of the vehicle when it is operating at that
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2007 Baja Project Suspension particular eigenvalue. As previously mentioned, these eigenvectors allow for the vehicle to be a stable vehicle. Also as the vehicles speed is increased the s value decreases, indicating that the yaw rate and lateral velocity will approach zero at a slower rate. That is as the vehicles speed increases itll take a longer time for the yaw rate and the lateral velocity to approach zero.
The tire cornering stiffness
The tire cornering stiffness is an important parameter in determining the handling performance of the vehicle. It is to some extent arbitrary; each tire has its own stiffness, and the tires on a vehicle can be changed. Therefore the cornering stiffness can be chosen by the user to precisely predict turning (cornering) characteristics of the vehicle. It is this parameter that will determine whether the car is an understeering (the actual cornering radius increases with vehicle speed) or an oversteering (the actual cornering radius decreases with vehicle speed) automobile because the center of mass of the vehicle is a fixed parameter (Figure 7: Oversteering and Understeering Vehicle). It is generally better to have an understeering vehicle, because the vehicle is normally more stable. In an oversteering case, the vehicle oversteers the turn, and the driver will be forced to decrease the steering angle as he/she turns in order to stay on the desired path (the path the vehicle takes when there is no lateral slipping).
There are also more chances that the vehicle spins on the spot (about its own z-axis). In an understeering case, the car understeers and the driver is forced to increase the steering angle in order to stay on the desired path. There are several ways to determine the tires cornering stiffness. Two of these ways are by using the magic tire model and second by using an estimation given the tires dimensions.
Magic tire model
The stiffness can be estimated as the slope of the linear range on the lateral force verses slip angle diagram, which can be obtained from the magic tire model (Figure 8: The lateral force verses the slip angle, on the following page).
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However, tests will have to be done on the tire in order to determine the necessary coefficients to apply the magic tire formula (Equation 23: Magic tire Formula).
Fy = D sin{C arctan[B(1 E )( + Sh ) + E arctan(B( + Sh ))]} + Sv C = a0 D = yzFz yz = a1Fz + a 2 E = a 6 Fz + a 7 Fz BCD = a 3 sin 2 arctan (1 a 5 a 4 B = BCD CD Sh = a8 + a 9 Fz + a10 Sv = a11Fz + a12 Fz + a13 a11 = a111Fz + a112
The tire cornering stiffness can also be obtained from the geometry of the tire by assuming that the tire is a cantilever beam. This cantilever beam is acted on by a selfaligning moment and a shearing stress which act together to generate contact patch twist during cornering. With some manipulation of the tire slip angle (deflection) obtained from the cantilever beam an expression for the cornering stiffness can be obtained (Equation 24: Tire cornering stiffness).
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C=
[(r + wa ) ]
t t 2
2 Ebtw 3 swat swat sin arccos1 sin arccos1 (rt + wat ) (rt + wat )
Equation 24: Tire cornering stiffness
2007 Baja Project Suspension causes the rolling tires to slip and therefore generates lateral forces. Thus if one wheel goes over a bump (causes the tire to scrub) there will be a disturbance in the lateral direction; one side of the vehicle can start to see a larger lateral force than the other and the vehicle may begin to yaw. Therefore it is important that the change in the track width be kept to a minimum.
The roll axis is the instantaneous axis where the unsprung mass will rotate relative to the sprung mass when a pure couple (moment) is applied to the unsprung mass. The roll center is the intersection of the roll axis with the vertical plane at the front and rear of the
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2007 Baja Project Suspension vehicle. Typically, the roll center position is located based on the suspension geometry and then the roll axis is located by defining a line which connects the two roll centers together. The roll axis is also the instantaneous axis in which the whole vehicle rotates with respect to the ground. The amount of body roll depends on the height of the center of mass relative to the roll center position. Therefore raising the roll center position closer to the center of mass is equivalent to increasing the roll stiffness of the suspension. However, as the roll center position is increased (roll center height measured from ground level is increased) the amount of jacking forces will increase. The jacking forces are the forces that will travel through the suspension components to the vehicle body; it is the force that is not absorb by the suspension system. Thus as the amount of jacking forces increase, the amount of forces absorbed by the shock will decrease. Forces generated at the tire have two paths into the vehicle: a flexible path and a stiff path. The stiff path is through the suspension components and the flexible path is through the suspension spring (Figure 11: The effect of the jacking forces).
Thus as the roll center is increased, the forces traveling through the stiff path will increase and the forces traveling through the springs will decrease causing less spring compression. The jacking forces will tend to lift the vehicle as it corners. Therefore, there should be a balance in roll center height between suspension roll stiffness and the jacking forces seen by the frame. It is important to note that the roll center is a fictitious point. Forces that are traveling from the ground to the chassis will not pass through this point. The location of this point will not be able to determine the suspension roll stiffness, nor will it be able to determine the magnitude of the jacking forces. This point is strictly there to give a relative idea of the roll characteristics of the vehicle. The roll center position is calculated differently for each type of suspension system. The procedure for calculating the roll center position will be outlined for the double A-arm type of suspension only (if it is desired to learn how to calculate the roll center position for a different suspension system, than it is advised to look in vehicle dynamics text book). The first step is to locate the instant center. This is accomplished by drawing a line that passes through each of the A-Arms when looking at the vehicle in 20
2007 Baja Project Suspension the front view. The intersection of these lines represents the instant center. The second step is to draw a line form the center of the tires contact patch to the instant center. The point where the line drawn in step two intersects the center line of the vehicle represents the roll center position (Figure 12: Roll center position of a double A-arm type of suspension).
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Figure 13: Definition of camber angle (note in the figure one is looking at the vehicle from the front)
If the contact patch is examined when the vehicle is moving with no sideslip angle and with a camber angle the contact will be an oval shape that will not be distorted or curved (Figure 14: The effect camber has on the tire contact patch).
Figure 14: The effect camber has on the tire contact patch
The camber thrust is the amount of force required to straighten out the contact patch so that it is perfectly oval. Therefore, there are two things which generate a lateral force; camber angle and slip angle. The lateral force generated by a slip angle will be greater than the lateral force generated by a camber angle; that is the lateral force generated from 1 degree of slip angle will be greater than the lateral force generated from 1 degree of camber angle. The cornering stiffness (Fy/) is generally five to six times greater than the camber stiffness (Fy/). Thus, the effective cornering stiffness of a tire is the addition of the cornering stiffness and the camber stiffness and it is this value that should be used to predict the handling dynamics of a vehicle. For a tire that has a positive camber angle the effect is to decrease the effective cornering stiffness, and for a tire that has a negative camber angle, the effect is to increase the effective cornering stiffness. Therefore, the peak lateral force is increased by adding negative camber to the tires
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2007 Baja Project Suspension which is a good thing; the lateral capabilities of the tire are increased (Figure 15: The effect of the camber angle on the cornering curve).
Figure 15: The effect of the camber angle on the cornering curve
As can be seen in the figure above, the effective cornering stiffness of the tire does increase as the tire is cambered in the negative direction. The camber angle at which the maximum amount of lateral force will occur will change with the initial lateral load (lateral load at 0 degree camber). As the initial load increases the maximum load will occur at a later negative camber angle. Typically the maximum amount of lateral force or maximum (Fy/Fz) will occur at a camber angle between -2 and -7 degrees. When a vehicle corners it will roll and thus will force the tires to camber by the same amount on both sides; the tires will camber at the roll angle on both sides, one will camber out and one will camber in. However, as the vehicle rolls, there will be weight transfer from the left to the right and thus the suspension on one side of the vehicle will be in jounce while the suspension on the other side will be in rebound. Therefore there will be a change in the camber angle from the movement of the tire with respect to the frame. Thus, the total camber angle when the vehicle is cornering is the addition of the roll angle and the camber angle obtained from the kinematics of the suspension. The amount of lateral force generated during roll will depend on both the roll angle and the angle generated from the kinematics of the suspension; that is the amount of camber thrust generated will depend on the roll angle. In general, it is best to go with a static negative camber angle because it improves the effective cornering stiffness of the tire and it increase the maximum lateral force or
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2007 Baja Project Suspension the Fy/Fz ratio. However too much of a negative camber angle is undesirable because eventually it will start to decrease both the cornering stiffness and the Fy/Fz ratio. Also, a large camber angle (negative or positive) increases tire wear which is undesirable. For best performance the camber angle should remain between -2 and -7 degrees throughout the suspension travel.
The caster angle is positive when the steering axis (the steering axis is defined as a line that passes through the ball joints on the upper and lower control arms) is inclined in such a way as it points to the front of the vehicle; a good way to remember positive caster angle is from the forks of a motorcycle (they are always inclined to the front). The caster angle defined in the figure above is a positive caster angle. Positive caster trail occurs when the steering axis intersects the ground at a point that is in front of the center of the contact patch. The caster trail defined in the figure above is a positive caster trail. It is important that the caster angle and caster trail be positive because both of these quantities will effect the aligning moment. The aligning moment is the moment that will act against the driver as he/she is trying to steer the vehicle. It is important that
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2007 Baja Project Suspension this moment acts against the driver so that when the driver lets go of the steering wheel it will correct itself; the moment will force the tire to re straighten itself. Caster trail is important because it defines how much of a moment will be applied to the steering axis; as the caster trail increases, the moment arm increases and thus the moment acting on the steering axis will increase. It is this moment that is acting to self center the tire if the caster trail is positive. However, if the caster trail is too large the driver will have a difficult time trying to turn the wheels about the steering axis. Caster angle will cause the wheel to rise or fall during steering. Caster angle causes the wheel to displace up or down as the wheel is turning about the steering axis. Therefore, if the caster geometry is the same on both sides the vehicle will roll as it is being steered; one side will toe out and one side will toe in, thus one side will lift and one side will fall causing the vehicle to roll. The caster angle also affects the camber angle as the wheel is turned about the steering axis. With the same positive caster angle on both wheels the outside tire in a turn will camber in a negative direction and the inside tire will camber in a positive direction. This effect is a bit desirable because it allows the vehicle to lean into the turn. Therefore, it is desirable to have a small positive caster angle and a small to moderate caster trail to produce desirable results. The caster angle should not be increased too much because it will cause too much camber angle change with steer and will cause to tire to raise or fall too much with steer.
2007 Baja Project Suspension axis to provide less scrub while steering.
Figure 17: Kingpin angle (steering inclination angle) and scrub radius
The kingpin angle affects the camber angle as the wheel is steered about the steering axis. With a positive kingpin angle, the tire will lean out as it is steered about the steering axis. Therefore, the greater the steering angle, the greater the amount of positive camber generated, and the greater the kingpin angle the greater the amount of change in the camber angle. When a wheel is rolling over a bump, the effective rolling radius of the tire will change, thus resulting in changes in the effective rolling speed of the tire. The change in the rolling speed of the tire will give rise to a longitudinal force acting at the wheel center, and this causes a kickback into the steering system. The reaction forces caused by the change in the rolling speed will try to force the wheel to toe, and thus cause a shock to the driver, and the driver will have to react quickly in order to correct this change in toe angle. The amount of kickback is proportional to the distance between the ball joints, the greater the distance, the greater the amount of kickback. Driving and braking forces will introduce a torque about the steering axis, and this torque will be proportional to the moment arm, the scrub radius. If the driving and braking forces are different on either side of the vehicle than the driver will feel a net steering torque acting to steer the vehicle. The amount the tire scrubs against the ground as the wheel turns is dependent on the scrub radius. If one the wheels losses traction when the vehicle is braking then the opposing wheel will toe an amount that is determined by the compliance in the steering system. This will tend to steer the car in a straight line even though the braking forces are the same on both sides. Note the last effect described will only occur when the scrub radius is negative. In general, a small negative scrub radius is desired, however if the scrub radius is negative than the kingpin angle will be have to be large in order to ensure the aligning torque is positive. Typically, a small positive scrub radius is used on vehicles with a small to moderate kingpin angle is used. If the distance between the ball joints is large then a smaller kingpin angle is used and if the distance is small then moderate kingpin angles are used. 26
Figure 18: Toe angle (note the view in the figure is the top view)
Toe in occurs when the front of the tire points in towards the vehicle, and tow out occurs when the front of the tire points away from the vehicle. The concept of toe in and toe out is outlined in the figure above. The toe angle is a measure of the initial steer of the vehicle. There will be usually some elastic deformation of the suspension under driving or braking that will cause changes in the toe angle. Therefore, it is common practice to put an initial toe angle on the suspension system so that the deformation in the system will force the tire to straighten when the vehicle is driving or braking. The tire is usually toed so that the tire will be straight when the vehicle is propelling forward. However, if the braking acceleration is much higher than the driving acceleration then the tire will be initially toed in so that it will straighten itself when the vehicle is braking. It is important to recognize that the suspension and steering systems are coupled. As the suspension goes through its travel, so does the tie rod and it is important that the tire does not toe with suspension travel. The inside point of the tie rod is fixed (the point at the steering rack) so that if the length of the tie rod is not at the correct length and the tie rod does not have the same instant center as the suspension system then as the
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2007 Baja Project Suspension suspension travels and thus the tie rod travels (but not at the appropriate path) it will force the tire to rotate about the steering axis. Bump steer by definition is toe angle change with suspension travel. If one tire goes over a bump and experiences a toe angle change the vehicle will steer. This condition is very troublesome for the driver because the driver will consistently have to correct the vehicle as the vehicle travels over changes in road conditions. Roll steer occurs when a vehicle rolls and there is weight transfer and thus the suspension on the inside compresses and the suspension on the outside goes into rebound. The net effect is that one side of the vehicle will toe in and one side of the vehicle will toe out, thus forcing the vehicle to steer as it rolls. The steering geometry can be chosen such that the more the vehicle rolls the more it will steer or the less it will steer. Therefore, the oversteer/understeer characteristics can be controlled by the roll steer effect. However, most of the time the suspension geometry and tie rod position and length are chosen to minimize toe angle change with suspension travel, and thus minimizing the effects of roll steer and bump steer. The following is a discussion of how to choose the position and the length of the tie rod in order to have no change in toe angle with suspension travel. This is a very important concept and needs to be considered when designing the suspension and steering systems. The tie rod should lie on a line passing through the instant center of the suspension system, and on this line a proper length can be chosen. The following is a list of the proper steps to take in order to choose the proper tie rod position and length. 1. Draw a line that passes through the steering axis (this line will pass through the ball joints of the upper and lower control arms) 2. Draw a line that passes through the joints of the A-arms at the inside section of the A-arms 3. Extend the lines drawn in steps 1 and 2 until they intercept, denote the interception point as P2 4. Locate the instant center of the suspension system, and denote it as P1 or IC 5. Draw a line that goes from the outer tie rod point to the instant center, note the tie rod must lie on this line 6. Draw a line that passes through the outer tie rod point and the outer point of the upper control arm (the ball joint) 7. Calculate the angle between the line passing through the tie rod ends to the IC (the line from step 5) and the line passing through the lower control arm points to the IC, and denote this angle 8. Draw a line that connects the IC to P2 9. Draw a line that is at an angle of from the line drawn in step 8 and that starts from the IC; draw this line until it intercepts the line drawn in step 6, denote the interception point as P3 10. Draw a line that passes through P3 and the inner point of the upper control arm and extend it until it intercepts the line from step 5 11. The interception point from step 10 locates the point where the inner tie rod point must lie to have no toe angle change with wheel travel The following figure will help clarify the steps (Figure 19: The necessary steps to locate the tie rod position to have no toe angle change with suspension travel).
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Figure 19: The necessary steps to locate the tie rod position to have no toe angle change with suspension travel
There is essentially two things that can be changed in order to deviate from the ideal position and length. The first is to change the tie rod length and the second is to raise or lower the steering rack. If the tie rod is shortened the deflection of the suspension will cause toe out, and if it is lengthened the deflection of the suspension will cause toe in. If the steering rack is raised the tire will toe in when it is in compression and will toe out when it is in rebound (roll steer behavior). The opposite is true if the steering rack is lowered. In order for the wheels to roll without slip (especially at low speeds) there must be toe out with steer. Therefore the toe angle must change with the steering angle. This can be seen on most steering angle versus toe angle curves. It is not a linear relationship between the two. This effect is usually known as Ackermann steering; the effect that there must be some toe out with steer. For proper Ackermann steering to be designed into the suspension system the following relationship must be true (Equation 25: Condition for proper Ackermann steering).
cot ( o ) cot ( i ) = j l
If Ackermann geometry is introduced into the suspension system, then there will be an increase in the slip angles at the outer tires when the vehicle is turning. Therefore, using higher slip angles at the outer tire tends to generate more lateral forces with less steer angles and rolling losses. The location of the rack position in respect to the longitudinal position effects the amount of Ackermann steering generated. Therefore the height of the rack and the size of the rack will be chosen first in order to optimize the bump steer and roll steer characteristics of the suspension system. The longitudinal position of the rack will be chosen last in order to obtain the desired amount of Ackermann steering. Most of 29
2007 Baja Project Suspension the time a little bit of Ackermann steering is designed into the suspension system. However, severe deviations from Ackermann steering lead to tire wear because deviations from Ackermann lead to tire scrub.
If either the scrub radius, caster trail, caster angle, steering angle, or kingpin angle is negative than the other parameters must be positive in a way that ensures the moment is positive; the moment acts to straighten out the tires. In general, all of the parameters should be kept positive to ensure the aligning torque is positive.
6.2.8) Anti-dive/anti-squat
There will be weight transfer from the back to the front when the vehicle is braking and from the front to the back when the vehicle is accelerating. The anitdive/anti-squat properties of a suspension are similar to the roll center concept applied earlier (5.2.2). The anti-dive/anti-squat concept applies to the longitudinal force where as the roll center concept applies to the lateral force. A portion of the forces will pass through the suspension components and be transferred to the frame, and this amount is depicted by the amount of anti-dive or anti-squat present. In the study of anti-dive/antisquat the roll center is known as the pitch center. The definition of the pitch canter is the same as that of the roll center except it is the longitudinal force and not the lateral force that is applied at the pitch center. The pitch center is the location where the longitudinal forces can be applied without causing the vehicle to pitch. The location of the pitch center is found in a similar way as that of the roll center except it is calculated by looking at the vehicle from the side. The following is the necessary steps to calculate the pitch center for double A-arm type of suspension only (note to calculate the pitch center for a different type of suspension it is advised to refer to a vehicle dynamics text). The first step is to locate the instant center of the front or rear suspension in the side plane of the vehicle. This is done by drawing a line that passes through both of the A-arms (the upper and the lower A-arm) and the interception of these lines represents the instant center. The next step is to draw a line which connects 30
2007 Baja Project Suspension the point at the center of the contact patch of the tire to the instant center. If the previous steps were done for the front suspension, repeat the steps for the rear suspension. The location where the lines going from each of the center of the tire contact patch to the instant center of their appropriate suspension intercept one another represents the pitch center. The following drawing can be used for clarification (Figure 20: The pitch center).
The pitch center can be used to indicate the amount of pitch generated. The distance between the height of the pitch center and the height of the center of mass of the vehicle gives an indication of the amount of pitch. The smaller this distance is the smaller the amount of pitch generated will be. However, just like with the roll center is the fact that the amount of jacking forces increases as the height of the pitch center is increased. Thus there should be a compromise in the height of the pitch center; it should not be too high because the jacking forces will be too high and it should not be too low because there will be too susceptible to pitch. The path of the tire in the longitudinal direction as a function of suspension travel will determine whether the suspension is classified as anti-dive or anti-squat. If the suspension is classified as anti-dive the point of contact of the tire will move forward (towards the front of the vehicle) as the suspension compresses and with move rearward as the suspension extends (goes into rebound) (Figure 21: Anti-dive suspension geometry). If the suspension is classified as anti-squat the point of contact of the tire will move rearward as the suspension compresses and will move forward as the suspension extends (Figure 22: Anti-squat suspension geometry). Anti-dive designed into the suspension system leads to harsh response over bumps; the suspension will be trying to push into the bump instead of riding over it with ease. As the suspension goes over a bump it will compress, and when the anti-dive suspension compresses it moves forward and thus tries to push into the bump. This tends to cause a harsh response, and in some cases can induce vibrations in the system which can be felt by the driver. However, antisquat designed into the suspension improves the performance of the suspension. The suspension will ride over bumps with ease. As the suspension goes over a bump it compresses and moves rearward, thus it will follow the path of the bump with ease and
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2007 Baja Project Suspension give the indication of a smooth ride to the driver.
If anti-dive is designed into the suspension system it will prevent the vehicle from diving; the vehicle dives when it is braking. If anti-squat is designed into the suspension system it will prevent the vehicle from squatting. If anti-squat is designed into the suspension it will assist the vehicle at diving, and if anti-dive is designed into the suspension it will assist the vehicle at squatting. Therefore, it is common proactive to use a small percentage of anti-squat in the rear and a small percentage of anti-dive in the front.
The reason why anti-squat is designed in the rear is that when the vehicle is squatting weight is transferred to the rear. Therefore the effect of designing the suspension to 32
2007 Baja Project Suspension prevent the vehicle from squatting will be greater by designing anti-squat into the rear suspension because the weight is being transferred to the rear. This is the same reason why anti-dive is designed into the front suspension; when the vehicle is diving weight is being transferred to the front. However, since anti-dive leads to a harsh response over bumps which are detrimental to the suspension system, therefore a small amount of antisquat is typically designed into the suspension to optimize the performance of the suspension. It is important that the amount of anti-squat be kept to a small percentage in both the front and rear when they are both designed for anti-squat. This is what is typically done to suspensions today, a small amount of anti-squat is designed into both the front and rear in order to improve the response of the suspension to changes in road conditions.
MR =
L d1 T d 2
33
2007 Baja Project Suspension The amount of force transmitted to the vehicle chassis is reduced when the motion ratio increases. This implies that the wheel rate will increase as the motion ratio increases. Since the motion ratio relates both the force and displacement of the spring to the wheel center, it must be squared to relate the wheel rate (also known as wheel center rate) to the spring rate (if the motion ratio is reduced then the amount of spring travel and the amount of force absorb by the spring will decrease) (Equation 27 : Wheel rate).
k w = k s (MR )
2
The wheel rate is the equivalent spring rate at the wheel. If a spring was attached at the centerline of the wheel, then the spring rate of this spring would be equal to the wheel rate. The forces act on the tire, and thus the wheel rate is what will give an indication as to the amount of force that will be absorbed by the spring and not the spring rate. A motion ratio as close to one as possible is desired for good ride quality of the vehicle. A motion ratio of one is ideal because it reduces the amount of load into the vehicle structure (more load is absorbed by the shock), it increases shock velocity, and it reduces the unsprung mass because the suspension components do not have to absorb as big of a load (the bending moment on the control arms decreases). However, the motion ratio is typically limited because of the desired wheel travel and the chosen shock. This is especially true for an off-road vehicle. Off road vehicles can have wheel travels anywhere from 8 to 12in, and suspension shocks typically do not run that big (the shock travel will typically not be as high as 8 to 12in). It is important that the amount of shock travel and wheel travel is chosen before the motion ratio. If a wheel travel of 10in is desired and the shocks chosen only have a travel of 6in (in compression and in rebound) then the motion ratio is limited to 0.6 and should not exceed 0.6. The wheel travel and shock travel should be chosen as close as possible to each other so that the motion ratio can be optimized.
(12)(k r )(t )2 =
2
Note, the roll stiffness resulted will be in units of lb-ft/rad, the ride rate is in units of lb/in and the track is in units of feet.
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Note, the cornering stiffness in the above three cases is the effective cornering stiffness (it includes the camber thrust effect). For further information on this effect refer to section 5.1.2. If the roll stiffness of the front suspension is greater than the roll stiffness of the rear suspension the vehicle will understeer as it turns. The vehicle will oversteer as it turns if the opposite is true. When a vehicle is cornering there will be weight transfer from the inside tire to the outside tire, and the amount of weight transfer is depicted by two things. The first is the lateral load transfer due to cornering forces (2Fyhr/t) and the second is the lateral load transfer due to vehicle roll (2k/t). The first effect is independent on the roll moment and the roll stiffness, but it is dependent on the roll center height or the inclination of the roll axis; note the roll center height in this equation is the difference between the height of the center of mass and the roll center height. As the vertical force increases the lateral force will change as depicted by the cornering curves of the tires (Fy/Fz verses slip angle). If the lateral force was plotted against the
35
2007 Baja Project Suspension vertical force for a given slip angle it can be seen that the curve is non linear (Figure 24: The lateral force verses the vertical force for a given slip angle).
Figure 24: The lateral force verses the vertical force for a given slip angle
The curve is non linear in a fashion such that the change in lateral force over the change in vertical force decreases as the vertical force increases. This implies that if there is a greater amount of weight transfer in the front of the vehicle than in the rear, the net result will be that the overall lateral force in the front will decrease causing the vehicle to understeer. The consider the following as an example, suppose both of the tires support a vertical force of 800lb at a slip angle of 5 deg, thus each tire supports a lateral force of 760lb (total is 2*760 = 1520lb). Now if the vehicle corners and there is load transfer of 400lb, the inside tire will support a vertical load of 400lb and the outside a vertical load of 1200lb. Thus the lateral load on the outside tire is 820lb and the lateral load on the inside is 460 lb and the total lateral load is 1280lb. The previous analogy shows that the lateral force will decrease as there is weight transfer for a given slip angle. If the tire wants to keep the same lateral force the slip angle will have to increase. Thus, if there is more weight transfer in the front than in the rear, the slip angle in the front will have to increase in order to produce the lateral forces necessary to complete the turn and the net effect is that the front will plough out and the vehicle understeers. If the roll axis points downwards towards the front the roll center height (distance between the height of the center of mass and the roll center height) will be higher in the front than in the rear and if the roll stiffness is higher in the front than in the rear their will be a greater amount of weight transfer in the front than in the rear thus causing the vehicle to understeer. The inclination of the roll axis affects the coupling between yaw and roll. If the roll axis is inclined downward towards the front of the car then it causes the body to yaw out (understeer) of the turn as the body rolls. Having the roll stiffness greater in the front than in the rear also causes the vehicle to yaw out in the turn (understeer). Therefore these three parameters (or effects) can be used to control the oversteering / understeering characteristics of the vehicle.
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1 k = m 2
(k r )(12)(32.2)
W
Note in the equation above the weight is in lb and it is half of the weight supported by the appropriate suspension (if the ride frequency calculation is for the front than the weight is half of the weight supported by the front suspension). Also the ride rate is in lb/in in the above equation and the frequency from the equation will be in hertz. Note the ride frequency aid in determining the rear suspensions capable of catching up to the front suspension when the vehicle goes over a bump thus minimizing the annoying motion felt by the driver (pitch motion). Once the spring rates are known, the bounce, pitch, and roll natural frequencies can be determined and compared to the Maurice Olley criteria outlined in section 5.1.1.; the necessary equations to calculate these three natural frequencies are also outlines in section 5.1.1 and in 5.2.9. The final step is to verify that the spring rates chosen for the front and rear suspensions are stiff enough to absorb the loads that they will see without bottoming out the suspension. The general rule is that if a vehicle is designed to compete around a certain track than the spring rate should be chosen such that the shock bottoms out only once as it travels around the track (bottoming out is implying that the shock compresses to the point where it is just barely touching the bump stop). With this general introduction to suspension kinematics and kinetics it will be easier to follow the section describing the suspension kinematics and kinetics of the 2007 vehicle.
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The steps taken to design the suspension kinematics for the 2007 Baja vehicle are outlined below:
Front Track
Rear Track
Ride Height
Wheel Base
Track Width: The track width of the vehicle was chosen to reduce the bending moment
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2007 Baja Project Suspension acting on the control arms as well as improve the turning radius and stability of the vehicle. By increasing the track width the control arms are subject to higher stress as a result of the bending moment induced by the shock acting on the control arms and the vertical forces acting on the tire. On the other hand, the front track width should always be wider than the rear. This allows the vehicle to handle better around corners and reduces the turning radius. The rear track width of the 2007 vehicle was designed to be 1.5 shorter than the front track width. One of the main issues considered when choosing the track width in the rear is the fact that the rear end of the frame was reduced to 4 inches by introducing a more compact differential assembly, this can perhaps be seen clearer in Figure 26:
Differential Assembly
4
Figure 26: Rear end of vehicle
Wheel Base: The wheel base length has a great impact on the turning radius and the pitch and bounce frequencies. However, it is mainly dictated by the length of the frame, where the frame has to be designed to provide enough pedal room for the driver in the front and room for the engine and drivetrain assembly in the rear. Therefore, the wheel base length was reduced as much as possible while still satisfying the frame requirements. Ride Height: In a Baja vehicle it is crucial to have enough ground clearance from the bottom of the chassis to give the car the capability of going over any terrain, and thus prevent direct hits to the chassis during the competition. One of the problems that faced the University of Windsor Baja vehicle in the past was, having to go over of logs and rocks during the maneuverability event because the vehicle did not have enough ground clearance. On the other hand, designing for high ground clearance lifts the center of gravity of the vehicle and thus increases the chances of rolling the vehicle. Therefore, there is a tradeoff between the ground clearance and the center of gravity when it comes to choosing the appropriate ride height of the vehicle. Given the fact that the compact engine transmission assembly already contributes to wards a lower center of gravity, the ride height was chosen to be 1 inch higher than the previous year to reduce the possibility of damaging the chassis or the underbody when going over rough terrain. Therefore, the initial chosen design dimensions of the 2007 Baja vehicle can be summarized Table 1: Summary of vehicle dimensions:
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2006 Front Track Width Rear Track Width Wheel Base Ride Height 49 48 64 9
2007 47.5 46 58 10
After locating the outer control arms points, the wheel center point is located by selecting the wheel hub. The Polaris 2006 Outlaw 500 wheel hub was selected for the front since it is already compatible with the front upright. In the rear on the other hand, 40
2007 Baja Project Suspension the Polaris 2003 Predator wheel hub was selected. This wheel hub was chosen due to its light weight design and the fact that it makes the wheel assembly more compact. In addition to that, the 2003 Predator rear wheel hub is almost identical to the front wheel hub of the 2006 Outlaw with the only difference is the spline pattern in the rear hubs. Therefore, choosing these hubs was also an advantage in terms of the manufacturability aspects of design. Once the front and rear wheel hubs were CMMed a 3-D model of the hubs was obtained and the wheel center point was located. Figure 28 shows the 3-D model of the wheel hub:
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2007 Baja Project Suspension with a toe out angle the wheels become at odds with each other, and thus any slight turn in front wheels will cause the inner wheel to turn at a sharper angle than the outer wheel and prompt a quick steering response. On the other hand if the vehicle is designed with a toe in angle the wheels are aligned towards each other, which gives the vehicle more straight line stability and makes the steering less responsive. The 2007 Baja vehicle was designed with a slight toe in angle in order to maintain the straight line stability of the vehicle, which plays an important role in the acceleration and hill climb events. Another factor that was considered is the tire wear, in order to insure uniform tire wear patterns it is logical to think that the toe angles should be set at zero to keep the tires aligned straight. However, due to the small compliance in the suspension system, as the vehicle accelerates the tire will try to toe out. Therefore, the static toe in angle set up on the Baja car will accommodate for the toe out effect as the vehicle accelerates. The toe angle alignment is perhaps not as important in the rear suspension as it is in the front suspension and so the rear tires were aligned to zero toe angle.
Caster Angle: The caster angle has a great impact on the handling characteristics. Depending on whether the vehicle is front wheel drive or rear while drive the caster angle can be chosen to be negative or positive. Choosing a zero angle of caster is undesirable since it allows the external vertical forces to travel through one point of contact which introduces instability in the vehicle. Given the fact that the Baja vehicle is rear wheel driven, a trailing positive caster angle is set at the front and rear wheels. The positive caster angle provides a self centering force for the steering and makes the car easier to drive in a straight line. On the other hand, a large caster angle is not recommended since it will make the steering much heavier and less responsive. In the case of a Baja vehicle where no power steering is available, keeping the caster angle within a small range is crucial. Thus, the caster angle should be kept between 0 degrees to 5 degrees (positive trailing). The static suspension geometry angles for the 2007 and 2006 Baja vehicles are summarized in the following table:
Table 2: Static Suspension Angles
2006 Front Camber Rear Camber Front Toe Rear Toe Caster -3 degrees -2 degrees 0 degree 0 degrees 10 degrees
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2007 Baja Project Suspension characteristics until the optimal suspension geometry configuration is obtained. The suspension points are input in ADAMS as shown in Figure 29:
Inner and outer tierod
UCA-Front LCA-Rear UCA-Rear-
UCA-Rear
i t
UCA-Rear LCA-Rear
UCA-Outer
LCA-Front LCA-RearUCA-Front-Outer
UCA-Front LCA-Front
One constraint that dictates the inner suspension geometry is the ride height of the vehicle, since the lower inner suspension points have to be the lowest points on the chassis at a height of 10 inches from the ground. Another restraint is the steering rack position, the steering rack points were chosen so that the rack is as low as possible, which gives the driver more leg room in the front. Therefore, once the steering rack points and the lower control arm points are decided, the upper control arm points are designed to optimize the suspension performance. When choosing the inner suspension points the following factors were taken into consideration:
Anti Squat and Anti Dive: The main causes for the squat and dive effects are the braking and acceleration of the vehicle. In the case of the Baja vehicle which is a rear wheel drive, as the vehicle begins to accelerate the vertical loads acting on the rear suspension begin to increase as a result of the sprung mass distribution shifting to the rear. At the same time the shift in weight distribution to the rear decreases the loads acting on the front suspension. Therefore, as the vehicle accelerates the rear suspension is forced to jounce and the front suspension is forced to rebound, this combination of jounce and rebound results in the vehicle pitching towards the rear end. The same concept applies when the vehicle is braking where in this case the weight will be transferred to the front instead resulting in a forward dive resulting in large moments acting on the suspension. Therefore, in order to reduce the amount of loads acting on the suspension components during braking and acceleration, the suspension geometry has to be designed to provide anti-squat and anti-dive forces, which will also reduce the vehicle pitch. Ideally the vehicle should be designed to have both anti-squat and anti-dive, however, that requires the front and rear suspensions are oriented opposite to each other. Therefore, the Baja vehicle was designed to have anti-squat in the front and rear suspensions by orienting the suspension geometry at 5 degrees from the horizontal as shown in Figure 30:
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= 5 degrees
Figure 30: Anti Squat Angle
This suspension geometry configuration allows the vehicle to go over bumps and rough terrain more easily by reducing the amount of loads acting on the suspension system components as the tire approaches a bump. This can also be explained by the fact that the wheel travel will follow a lateral profile that is perpendicular to the road profile:
The longitudinal wheel travel profile of the front and rear suspension systems is plotted below versus the vertical wheel travel of the wheels using ADAMS/Car (see Figure 32). It is clear to see from the curves that the front and rear longitudinal curves almost line up with each other and that implies that the front and rear wheel move in the same longitudinal direction. It is also important to notice from the graph that for every 1 inch of vertical wheel travel there is approximately 0.1 inch longitudinal wheel travel and thus the wheelbase length of the vehicle does not change much as the wheels go through wheel travel.
44
Roll Center Location: As the vehicle approaches a corner, the sprung mass distribution is transferred laterally from one side to the other resulting in higher loads on the outside turning wheels. This transfer in the weight distribution may cause the vehicle to roll depending on the roll moment acting on the vehicle. The roll moment depends on the location of the roll center and the vehicle center of gravity, where the distance between the roll axis and the center of gravity represents the roll moment arm. The longitudinal position of the roll center is not considered due to the fact that it does not have a great impact on the roll moment arm; the lateral location of the roll center on the other hand is given to be at the center line of the vehicle. Therefore, only the vertical position of the roll center is considered when designing the suspension geometry. By connecting the roll centers in the front and rear the vehicle roll axis is formed. The orientation of the roll axis has a great impact on the oversteering and understeering characteriscs, desiging the roll axis to be inclined towards the front of the vehicle results in understeering, while oversteering is obtained when the roll axis is inclined towards the rear of the vehicle. In general it is desirable to design the vehicle to have a small oversteering characteristic, however, the 2007 Baja car incorporates a limited slip differential that helps whip the rear end of the car around corners which contributes to oversteering. Therefore, the front roll center height is designed to be lower than the rear roll center height so that the roll axis is inclined towards the front, contributing to understeering and balancing off the oversteering effect caused by the differential and the weight transfer.
45
RC2
RC3
Figure 33 illustrates how the vertical position of the roll center is located by intersecting a line running from the center of the tire contact patch with the instant center of the suspension. The lower suspension points are dictated by the ride height and hence they can not be modified, however, the upper suspension points are used to adjust the roll center as needed. The figure above shows that as the upper control arm points are brought closer to the lower control arm points the roll center is increased, at the same time the Swing Arm Length increases resulting in less track width change. Less track width change with wheel travel reduces the camber gain. Thus, there is a trade off between the optimal roll center and the optimal camber gain.
Camber Gain: As mentioned earlier, a small negative camber angle is set in the rear and front suspensions at static in order to prevent positive camber gain during cornering. However, even with the static angle set at a small negative camber, there will still be some positive camber gain as the vehicle rolls during cornering. Therefore, the suspension geometry is designed to increase the camber gain as the wheel travels. In other words, the camber angle is maintained negative during bump and rebound. This can be achieved by designing the control arm points such the A-Arms are unequal in length. The following figure shows two possible configurations of the upper suspension points:
46
IC
The position of the inner tie rod point however is also dictated by the clearance with the frame. The worst case scenario is when the wheel is at maximum rebound and the steering wheel is turned 360 degrees, this case is shown in Figure 36: Tie rod clearance with control arm As can be seen the tie rod point has to be designed to accommodate for the clearance between the frame and tie rod. Therefore, choosing the tie rod points requires a lot of iterations to obtain the optimal bump steer characteristic while still maintain the clearance with frame.
47
From the figure shown above, the motion ratio can be calculated using the following equation: b MotionRatio = a+b Knowing the plunge displacement in the shock which is 4 inches and a desired total range of wheel travel of 10 inches, the motion ratio can be calculated and the position of the lower shock mount can be obtained from the equation above. The factors that were considered when designing the motion ratio are: 48
Bending moment: When choosing the lower shock mounting point, the amount of loads applied by the shock on the control arms must be considered. From diagram shown above, if the lower shock point is chosen to be very close to the wheel, the strut force has a larger moment arm and thus inducing higher bending stress in the lower control arm. Suspension Stiffness: The orientation of the shock (angle ) affects the overall stiffness of the suspension. If is set to be close to 90 degrees, then the shock is almost vertical and the suspension has a very high stiffness (wheel rate), while on the other hand, if the is set to be close to zero, the suspension stiffness is very low. The roll stiffness is similarly affected by the shock mount point positions, therefore, an iteration process was used to obtain the shock points that achieve the desired wheel travel and optimize the overall suspension stiffness. Half Shafts: In the rear suspension the wheel travel is constrained by the angle limitations of the Universal Joints of the half shafts. Therefore, it is important to design the motion ratio such that at maximum bounce and rebound, the shocks are the first components that bottom out by hitting the bump stops, since the bump stop help absorb some energy. Otherwise, if the Universal Joints bottom out first, large amounts of loads will be applied to the half shafts and transferred to the drive train assembly.
49
25
24.5
24
23.5
23
22.5
Vertical Roll Center Position: The vehicle is designed with a roll axis that is inclined towards the front in order to balance the oversteering characteristics. The vertical front and rear roll center positions should also follow the same pattern through out wheel travel with the rear roll center being always higher than the front:
12 10 8 Roll center vertical (in) 6 4 2 0 -6 -4 -2 -2 -4 Wheel Travel (in) Front Rear 0 2 4 6 8 10
50
91000
88000
87000
86000 85000
Track Width: The change in track width in the front and rear should follow the same pattern, where the front track width should always be higher than the rear track width in order to reduce the vehicle turning radius.
51
50
48
47
46
45
51
Given the cornering stiffness and other important parameters the critical speed of the 2006 vehicle can be calculated (Table 4: Critical speed of 2006 vehicle) (Appendix D).
Table 4: Critical speed of 2006 vehicle
77.1811
The critical speed of the vehicle is very high (277.852km/h), therefore it can be seen that it will be safe to design the vehicle to oversteer because it will never be capable of reaching this speed with a 10hp engine. Thus, the vehicle will be stable in yaw throughout its speed range. Therefore, better turning was designed into the vehicle without worrying about instabilities.
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53
Vehicle weight with 170lb driver (lbs) Front weight percent (%) Rear weight percent (%)
585 47 53
The spring rates were calculated based on the methods outlined in section 5.3 and 5.1.1. The ride rate of the front suspension should be 30% lower than the ride rate of the 54
2007 Baja Project Suspension rear suspension based on the Olley criteria. However, there is no indication as to where the ride frequencies need to be in the front and in the rear in order to obtain the appropriate ride rates. So the question becomes where did we start? In 2005, the suspension shocks were purchased from Elka Suspensions, and Elka Suspensions chose the spring rates for the 2005 team based on the weight of the vehicle, weight distribution, and suspension geometry (motion ratio). Therefore, it was decided to use the 2005 data and work backwards to solve for the ride frequencies of the front and rear suspension of the 2005 vehicle (Table 6: Ride frequencies of the 2005 vehicle).
Table 6: Ride frequencies of the 2005 vehicle
Front Rear
Elka Suspensions calculates their spring rates and ride rates based on actual test data, therefore it was assumed that the ride frequencies of the 2007 vehicle should be around the same values as those of 2005. The optimum way to determine the spring rated for the 2007 vehicle would by experimental test. However, due to time constraints this was not feasible, and we had to start somewhere. Thus it was assumed that the ride frequencies would be the same in the front and in the rear as those of 2005, and the spring rates were calculated based on this criteria (Table 7: Required spring rates for 2007 vehicle based on Olley criteria) (Appendix F).
Table 7: Required spring rates for 2007 vehicle based on Olley criteria
Front Rear
The results obtained are rather interesting. The front wheel rate is 37% lower than that of the rear wheel rate, and the front ride frequency is 16% lower than the rear ride frequency. However, it is the ride frequency that will determine the capabilities of the rear suspension to catch up to the front suspension, and in order for this to occur the ride frequency should be 30% less in the front than in the rear to allow for the rear to catch up to the front. However, Maurice Olley did most of his analysis on suspensions on automobiles which have close to twice as big of a wheelbase as the Baja car. Since the wheelbase is half of what Maurince Olley was using the percentage is decreased to 16% which will allow the rear to catch up to the front at a much faster pace. In other words, the rear suspension will hit the bump sooner in a Baja car than in an automobile. It is also to be noted that while we were waiting for other parts to go on the vehicle to get the necessary measurements to calculate the values outlined above the CarSim model was prepared. This allowed the spring rates to be evaluated at a much faster pace to ensure that they would be in by the time we were ready for vehicle testing.
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2007 Baja Project Suspension If this is not done, than the program will still run with reference to the previous file.
57
Figure 44: The mass, Inertia and vehicle dimensions screen in CarSim
The sprung mass of the vehicle was estimated to be an order of magnitude greater than the unsprung mass (this is usually the case). The inertias of the vehicle were not determined experimentally, thus they were left as the values estimated by CarSim. The dimensions of the vehicle were determined by measuring the appropriate dimensions on the vehicle. The aerodynamics model was kept the same as that estimated by CarSim. The drag coefficients were not tested on the 2007 vehicle, thus it was assumed that the values predicted by CarSim were sufficient enough for the analysis to be performed on the vehicle. The aerodynamic effects on the Baja vehicle will not be sufficient because the speeds are not that high (aerodynamic effects depend on the square of the velocity). The powertrain model was created based on the data obtained from the powertrain team. The first step in creating the powertrain model was to specify if the vehicle was a front drive, rear drive or all wheel drive vehicle. The 2007 Baja vehicle is a rear wheel drive vehicle, thus this was specified in the vehicle model for powertrain. Once this was specified, the Rear-wheel drive: RWD model was created (Figure 45: The powertrain model in CarSim).
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The torque versus RPM curve specified by Briggs and Stratton was used as the engine model. Since the powertrain consists of a manual transmission, the torque transfer device was modeled as the clutch. The transmission model is comprised of the gear ratios of each gear, the inertia of each gear and the upshift and downshift diagrams. Note, the upshift diagrams were modeled assuming they were independent on the vehicle throttle, however to accurately predict the upshift schedule experimental data is needed. The differential was modeled as a limited slip differential indicating that there will be no torque change between the left and right sides of the differential (this is by definition of this type of differential). Note to get a more accurate model of the powertrain it is advised to test the engine and obtain a fuel map for the engine. The model would be more accurate if the fuel map of the engine would be known. The brake model was created using the information specified by the brake team. With the given information from the brake team the Brake system: 4-wheel system model was created (Figure 46: The brake model in CarSim). The proportional gains were all specified to be unity because the Baja vehicle is not equipped with a proportional valve. A proportional valve is typically used on a vehicle to ensure that the front wheels lock before the rear wheels thus ensuring the vehicle remains stable in yaw. However, the master cylinder size was different for the front and for the rear thus ensuring that the front wheels will always lock before the rear wheels. The braking torques for all four wheels was inputted in the model using the values calculated by the brake team.
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The steering model was created with the assistance of the steering team for certain parameters and by using some of the data calculated in ADAMS/Car for the suspension geometry (kinematics) (Figure 47: The steering model in CarSim). The steering ratio was obtained by the steering team; it is the amount the steering wheel has to turn to turn the tire by one degree. The steering kinematics was obtained from the steering team. It is the amount the wheel will turn for a given gearbox output. The rear steering is modeled as zero, because the Baja car only has front wheel steering. It is assumed that the compliance in the steering system is zero. The kingpin geometry was obtained from ADAMS/Car and was inputted in the model by exporting the data from ADAMS/Car into an excel spreadsheet and copying and pasting the data into CarSim. Since the steering ratio is 2.25 to one than a moment of 1Nm of a steering moment gives 2.25Nm about the kingpin axis (this is just an approximation, to get a more of an accurate result, experimental data is needed) (this is the steering wheel torque). The suspension model includes the suspension kinematics, suspension kinetics and the tire data for both the front and rear suspensions. The suspension kinematics data for both the front and rear suspensions was obtained by inputting the data calculated from ADAMS/Car. The suspension compliance (kinetics) was obtained from ADAMS/Car, Elka Suspensions, and from an in house Matlab program to calculate the spring rates. Since tires are highly non-linear the only thing changed in the tire model was the dimensions of the tire. The first step in creating the models is to specify in the vehicle model screen the type of suspension in the front and in the rear. Since the suspensions in
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2007 Baja Project Suspension the front and in the rear are both independent this type of suspension was chosen for both types.
Note, the inputs will only be briefly described for the front suspension; they can be obtained in the rear in a similar fashion as they were obtained in the front. The front suspension kinematics was created by creating a model of front kinematics: independent for the front suspension (Figure 48: The front suspension kinematics model in CarSim). The unsprung mass is usually an order of magnitude less than the sprung mass. The track width and effective rolling radius were experimentally calculated and then inserted into the model. It is to be noted that the curves for both the left and right wheels are the same. The caster change was calculated by exporting the curve of caster angle verses wheel travel into an excel file and calculating the change in the caster angle from the static angle for all wheel travel. The longitudinal movement of the wheel center with suspension travel can be directly exported from ADAMS/Car (it is the wheel_travel_base in ADAMS/Car) into an excel spreadsheet and then copied and pasted into CarSim. The camber angle versus wheel travel can be directly obtained from ADAMS/Car and exported into an excel spreadsheet and then copied and pasted into CarSim. The toe angle is inputted in CarSim in a similar fashion. The lateral movement of the wheel center is found in a similar way as the longitudinal movement of the wheel center (except the curve used in ADAMS/Car is wheel_travel_track curve).
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The suspension compliance (kinetics) was created by creating a model of front compliance (Figure 49: The front suspension compliance model in CarSim). Note, tests were done on the 2006 suspension springs in order to determine the progression rate of the springs (see section 10). These test results were used as a basis to calculate the spring rates for the 2007 springs. When the CarSim model was first created the spring rates were not known, thus the test results from the 2006 vehicle were inputted into the model so that once the model is created it can be tested to ensure it is functional. The spring data was inputted into CarSim as a force verses displacement curve for both the extension and compression loops. The 0 point on the x axis represents the static position of the spring, thus the static position of the shock (or installation length) needs to be known (for 2007 this length was 18.375 in, so 4.375in of shock travel in compression and 1.625 in of shock travel in extension). The test curves need to be shifted in order to take into account the preload initially on the shocks; the amount of compression of the springs while the vehicle is at the static position. The bump stops need to be also considered which represent a sharp increase in the load once they are reached. The suspension roll stiffness was obtained from ADAMS/Car. Therefore once the spring rates were determined they were inputted into ADAMS/Car to find the suspension roll stiffness and then the roll stiffness was exported into an excel spreadsheet and then copied and pasted into CarSim. The motion ratio was calculated in excel by exporting the suspension travel verses wheel travel curve from ADAMS/Car and the slope of this curve is the motion ratio by definition. The shock data or damping data was obtained from Elka Suspensions and then inputted into CarSim by copying and pasting the data into CarSim. The compliance
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2007 Baja Project Suspension coefficients were left to be equal to the values predicted by CarSim. In order to get an accurate measurement of this, test data would be required.
The only data inputted into the tire screens was the dimensions of the tires. The tires are one of the most important parameters to vehicle dynamics analysis. However, the tire is highly non-linear and experimental data would be required to properly model the tires. Thus the tire curves and stiffness predicted by CarSim was used for the analysis because the curves were obtained from experimental results. The controls of the model are the driver inputs. It is in this section where the reactions of the driver need to be specified in order to predict the performance of the vehicle. If the vehicle is going to brake at a certain location in the model it needs to be specified as the driver pushing on the brake pedal at that particular location on the track. It is modeled as an increase in the master cylinder pressure. If the driver is going to steer the car it must be specified in the steering control path. The speed of the vehicle can be specified in the speed input section. This can be an initial vehicle speed, or a constant target vehicle speed. The throttle position and the gear shift schedule can also be used as inputs to the model. It is to be noted that the model will not do any of the controls unless it is specified to. This implies that the vehicle will not shift gears unless you tell it to through the gear shift control input. The environment section is where the track the vehicle is to follow is specified. It
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2007 Baja Project Suspension is in this section where the road friction, the shape of the track and the elevation of the track are all specified. This is an integral part of the analysis because it determines the road conditions in which the vehicle is to be tested on. The results interface is where all of the results can be viewed. The animate function allows for the performance of the vehicle to be viewed in an animator. If certain parameters are desired from the analysis than they can be plotted by choosing which figures to plot (there is a total of 8 plots that can be plotted at once) and then clicking on the plot bottom.
The springs required to obtain the required spring rate can be calculated by varying the main and auxiliary springs until the proper spring rate is reached. One thing that can be noted is that the required spring rate in the front is more or less equivalent to the required spring rate in the rear (table 5). Therefore the main and auxiliary springs can be chosen to be the same in the front and in the rear. A Matlab program was created in order to chose the main and auxiliary springs for the front and the rear, and the following is the results from the analysis (Table 8: The main and auxiliary springs required to obtained the appropriate ride frequencies).
Table 8: The main and auxiliary springs required to obtained the appropriate ride frequencies
Main spring (lbf/in) First auxiliary spring (lbf/in) Second auxiliary spring (lbf/in) Third auxiliary spring (lbf/in) Equivalent spring rate (lbf/in) Ride natural frequency (Hz) Wheel rate (lb/in)
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2007 Baja Project Suspension The wheel rates (approximately equal to the ride rate) and the ride frequencies are pretty close to the predicted values, therefore the chosen springs do meet the first part of the Olley criteria. The Matlab program also included a section which verifies that the motion ratio in the front and in the rear is chosen properly; the shock will allow for the predicted wheel travel. The program also verified that a single suspension spring was capable of absorbing the entire weight of the vehicle. The analysis showed positive results, thus allowing the spring rates to be evaluated in CarSim in order to make sure that they will be capable of absorbing the loads from the road conditions without bottoming out more than once around the track it is to drive on (note the Matlab program can be found on the attached cd).
2007 Baja Project Suspension environment and controls will be explained for the jump performance analysis of the vehicle. The controls are as follows: no braking, no steering, an initial speed of 0km/h, the throttle position is set in such a way that the driver presses on the gas pedal immediately and holds his/her foot on it for the whole time, and the shifting is such that the driver shifts from one gear to another every 1.15 seconds until he/she reaches 6th gear. The environment is as follows: the x-y trajectory of the vehicle is a straight line; the coefficient of friction is 0.5; the elevation is such that after the vehicle drives for 10m it starts to climb the jump. The jump is 0.67m tall and is 2.3m long. The elevation after the jump is flat. The vehicle was tested in each of the environments created and the results are as follows. The maximum spring compression and the maximum spring extension were determined (Table 9: Spring rate evaluation results).
Table 9: Spring rate evaluation results
Analysis Acceleration Jumping performance Handling Cornering Acceleration and cornering Braking Braking and cornering
Maximum compression (in) 0.370 3.967 0.515 0.155 0.591 0.946 1.174
Maximum extension (in) 0.878 1.392 0.905 0.437 0.896 1.118 1.126
Note, the suspension compression can be obtained by changing one of the plot options to suspension compression and then clicking plot after the analysis is complete. Based on the results it can be seen that the maximum extension and compression occur on the jump performance analysis. Thus, one can conclude that the maximum extension is safe because the shock can still be extended by an additional amount of (0.23in), which allows some room for play. One may also conclude that the maximum compression is safe because the shock can still be extended by an additional 0.408in. However, the bump stop is included in the 4.375in of compression, and it is about 1.5in thick. Therefore, the analysis is predicting that the shock will hit the bump stop, but the force is not capable of compressing the shock to its full compression. The question then became is this safe enough? It is usually best to go with a softer ride for ride comfort, and the rule of thumb is that the suspension should be designed in order to let the suspension hit the bump stops only once as the vehicle goes around the track (or the course). After analyzing the set up for the jump it was determined that most jumps the vehicle will see will not be this steep as the jump created, and the distance traveled by the vehicle after it hits the jump will be a lot less because the vehicle will normally land on a table top (top of a hill); thus potential energy will not be as high as predicted in his analysis. Thus, it was decided to go with spring rates that were first chosen. Note, if this result would have been not satisfactory than an iterative approach would be needed to determine the spring rates. The roll angle, pitch angle, yaw angle, forces at the tires, and accelerations were determined for each analysis and produced satisfactory results. The results will not be 66
2007 Baja Project Suspension presented here, but can be check by running the analysis, see the files on the CD. However, it is to be noted that in the evaluation of the spring rates, it was more important to determine if the springs were capable of absorbing the load than to determine the performance of the vehicle. However, the performance of the vehicle was evaluated to ensure that the vehicle did perform well in all areas, and based on the results from all of the analysis it was determined that this was the case. Note the animations of each of the analysis can be seen in the attached video which can be found on the CD (Some of the results can be found in Appendix G).
The pitch frequency is not below 1.3 Hz as suggested by Maurice Olley, but is pretty close to 1.3Hz. Therefore, the vehicle will perform well as vehicle ride is concerned. The amplitude ratios were also studied for two different cases. The first case is the front of the vehicle is being excited while the rear of the vehicle is not being excited, and the second case is the opposite. The following amplitude ratios for a variety of frequencies was obtained for both cases: vehicle bounce over input amplitude, vehicle pitch over the input amplitude, motion of the unsprung mass in the front over input amplitude, motion of the unsprung mass in the rear over input amplitude (note H1 is the input in the first case and H2 is the input in the second) (figures 50-57). The body motion frequencies of the front and rear suspension can be calculated from the motion amplitude ratio curves (these frequencies are the frequencies close to 1 Hz). The wheel hop frequencies are also present in these curves (they are the second hump). From these graphs it can be seen that it is at the low end frequencies where the
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2007 Baja Project Suspension loads coming from the road are transferred to the vehicle body on both bounce and pitch modes.
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Figure 52: Motion of the rear unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for front excitation
Figure 53: Motion of the front unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for front excitation
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Figure 56: Motion of the front unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for rear excitation
Figure 57: Motion of the rear unsprung mass/excitation amplitude for rear excitation
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2007 Baja Project Suspension Right at body motion frequencies the excitation amplitudes is amplified and the driver will feel the most disturbances at this frequency. Thus, performing an analysis on the vehicle ride comfort or vertical dynamics allowed the ride quality of the vehicle to be predicted (for further details refer to the program on the CD).
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2007 Baja Project Suspension There was also no data for the suspension and traction course because it was unclear what the course at the competition was going to be comprised of. Therefore a course which consisted of a lot of bumps and a handling section was created in CarSim in order to predict the performance of the vehicle as it travels along this course. The course was created in CarSim anticipating the course to be like the one predicted (Figure 59: Suspension and traction course). By analyzing the performance of the vehicle and by predicting its behavior allowed for a better in sight as to how to better prepare the vehicle for each of the events at the competition. CarSim was also used to assist the driver in acceleration and in maneuverability while testing the vehicle. This allowed the driver to get a better insight of what path to follow for the maneuverability event and what gear to start in and o shift up to for the acceleration event. The direct comparisons between CarSim simulations and the testing can be found on a video which can be found on the attached CD.
One of the areas needed for improvement as suspension kinetics is concerned is the preparation before competition. The bounce and pitch frequencies of the vehicle body were not known at the competition, and on e judge in particular was looking for these values. Therefore it is advised that a spreadsheet be prepared ahead of time and brought to competition to show the judges all of the relevant data as suspension kinetics and kinematics is concerned.
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Material
Carbon Content (%) Steel 4130 30 % (Annealed) Steel 1020 20 % CD Steel 1018 18 % CD
There is not weight difference between any of these materials since they all have the same density. Steel 4130 has higher carbon content than the other two alloys, therefore, it has better mechanical properties. The only disadvantage with steel 4130 is cost, however, since all steel tubing was donated, chormoly tubing was chosen for the control arms.
Tabs materials: Steel 4130 was again chosen for the tabs materials due to its superior properties. It was decided to use a minimum thickness of 0.08 inches steel plate for all the tabs in the suspension systems. Laser and water jet cutting was then used to fabricate the sheet metal into the required shapes and geometry for the suspension pick points tabs. Bushing materials: Past Baja vehicles have always used Delran Nylon for all the suspension bushings due to its durability and ease of machining. In the past it has been proven that Delran Nylon can withstand wear and provide very smooth connections. However, this year it was decided to try a different cheaper material which is HDPE (High Density Polyethylene). After several test runs wit the Baja vehicle it was noticed that the bushings were starting to wear resulting in compliance in the suspension mechanism connections. Therefore, it was decided to replace all the suspension bushings with a different material. In order to avoid any risks, Bronze oil impregnated was used to make the bushings, this material has a much higher wear resistance yet at the same time it is much heavier.
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Room for
Similar procedure was followed when designing the upper control arm structure. The loads traveled through the upper control arm are not as critical as the lower control arm. A combination of two tube sizes was used for the upper control arm, where the main control arm structure was made of 0.75 inches OD by 0.049 inches Thickness, while the back tube that forms he pivot of the control arm with the frame is 1 inch OD by 0.049 thick inch. Despite the fact that the loads transferred through the upper control arm are small, the back tube was added to support the structural rigidity of the control arm. Figure 61 below shows the structure of the upper control arm (Appendix H) The clearance between the control arms, shocks and steering tie rods at full wheel travel and steering was taken into consideration as well. An iterative design process was used, where the control arms design was checked for clearance in ADAMS/Car then modified accordingly in CATIA until a design that is easy to manufacture and at the same
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2007 Baja Project Suspension time provides the required clearance was obtained.
Loads
Pivot Restraint
Figure 62: Front lower control arm FEA
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2007 Baja Project Suspension The magnitude of the load was calculated based on the maximum vertical force acting on the tire using the following equation:
Strut _ Force = ( Normal _ Tire _ Force ) (MotionRatio )
Where, the motion ratio was used to convert the normal tire force into the force acting through the shock. A finite element analysis on the front suspension upright was also done. The upright was modeled with the upper and lower ball joints boundary conditions and the normal tire force acting on the spindle of the upright. Figure 63 further explains how the upright was modeled and the FEA results: Upper Ball Joint Restraint Steering Tie Rod Ball Joint Maximum Stress
Performing finite element analysis on the front suspension as one mechanism is difficult due to the fact that it is not possible to model the ball joint connect between two members, and thus the degrees of freedom of the system will not be accurately modeled. However, if the ball joints are modeled as solid part that are fastened to the control arms and the upright, then the results from the finite element analysis will simulate the worst case scenario of the ball joint reaching their maximum rotation angle and the front suspension bottoming out. Despite the fact that this model does not give an accurate measure of the amount of stress through each member, it allows for simulating the effect of the normal tire force as well as the strut force simultaneously. The full front suspension FEA model is shown in Figure 64: Front suspension assembly FEA.
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9.2.3) Joints
Pivot Joints: The tabs and used to form pivot joints between the control arms and the frame which allows the control arms to rotate as the wheel travel. The control arms are connected to the frame by attaching them to steel tabs that are welded to the frame. The tabs were made from a 0.080 inches thick steel 4130 sheet metal. Being subjected to large bending and tensional stress, the tabs are considered the weakest link in the suspension assembly and thus the strength of the suspension system is only as strong as the tabs. In order to give the tabs more resistance to bending stress and increase the weld area, bends were incorporated to the tabs structure as shown in Figure 65:
The tabs were manufactured using water jet cutting, where the desired profile was cut and then a bending machine was used to obtain the correct bends. Designing the pivots and connection points to be as smooth as possible contributes to the overall suspension stiffness. Any small resistance in the pivots or connections degrees of freedom will add up to slow the movement of the suspension system as it rotates about its instant center. Therefore, the suspension joints were designed with the appropriate 78
2007 Baja Project Suspension bushings and lubrications to reduce friction and improve the suspension response. The front suspension system incorporates two joints on each control arm, connecting it to the frame and the wheel upright. The basic construction of a pivot joint is shown in Figure 66: Bushing Tube Insert Tubing
Gap
Figure 66: Pivot joint construction
Tab Bolt
As shown in the diagram, bronze bushings are used to prevent direct metal on metal contact and allow the joint to move smoother. A small steel tube is used to run through the joint assembly so that the joint pivots about that tube, it is also used as a protection to the bolt that fastens the whole joint together. It can be seen from the diagram above that the insert tubing that runs through the joint assembly was made slightly longer than the length of the tube and the bushings, which leaves a small gab between the bushing and the tab. This was done intentionally to prevent the tabs from crushing on the bushings as the bolt is tighten to fasten the whole assembly and thus allowing the joint to pivot freely. The bushings were also used in the front suspension system to give more control over the caster angle orientation. The caster angle can be changed by adjusting the bushing sizes on each side of the upper control pivot joint. This caster adjustment method can be better understood from the following simplified diagram (Figure 67: Caster adjustment mechanism).
Ball Joints: The control arm is connected to the upright using a ball joint which allows for the front suspension to control the vertical travel and the steering angle of the wheel. A Ricky Stator ball joint that allows 30 degrees rotation range is used in the front suspension. The ball joint is attached to the control arm using a threaded steel insert that has a hex head lip (see Figure 68).
The ball joint is fastened to the steel insert using the two nuts as shown in the figure. If the nuts are unfastened and the steel insert is rotated it will result in moving the ball joint out towards the wheel or in towards the frame. Thus, given the fact that this mechanism is used for both the upper and lower control arms, it can be used to adjust the camber angle orientation of the wheel without having to disassemble the suspension 79
2007 Baja Project Suspension system. This camber adjustment mechanism is very handy when it comes to finalizing the suspension geometry before driving the car as it is very convenient to test different camber angles.
Bushing Control Arm Bushing
Insert
Control Arm
Upright
2007 Baja Project Suspension most likely to break. Therefore, it was decided to use hiem and ball joints with stronger material and bigger diameter, also steel 4130 with an OD of 0.75 inches and a thickness of 0.065 inches was used to make the tie rods. A left hand and right hand threaded inserts are welded to each end of the tie rods. The combination of left and right hand threads allows the length of the tie rods to be easily adjusted to change the toe angle of the front wheels.
Ball Joint
Tie rod
Figure 69: Steering tie rod
Hiem Joint
The steering system also incorporates a steering stop that dictates the maximum and minimum angle of steering. The main purpose of the steering stop is to prevent the wheel upright from hitting the control arm as the wheel reaches maximum steering angle and maximum wheel travel. A rubber sleeve was attached to the steering stop to absorb some of the impact energy. For the convenience of packaging, the steering stop was mounted on the upright where the tie rod attaches to the wheel upright. Figure 70 shows the steering stop and how it was installed:
Steering Stop
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The above diagram shows that due to the clearance constraints, the control arm structure was designed such that the width of the control arm near the wheel is much smaller than the width near the frame. This resulted in the shock mount point being concentrated on one member rather than distributed equally on the entire control arm structure. Thus, the strut force acting on the control arm has two main bending moment arms, which is a weak point in the design; however, it was accounted for by using bigger tubing for the control arm member that is subjected to highest bending stress. A circular tubing of 1.25 inches OD and 0.065 thickness was used for the tube member which takes most of the load from the strut. The rest of the control arm members were made out of 1 inch OD and 0.065 thickness circular tubing. The upper control arm design is not as critical as the lower control arm, since most of the load is transferred though the lower control arm. The main function of the upper control arm is to maintain the orientation of the wheel and give better control over the suspension geometry. Clearance however, is 82
2007 Baja Project Suspension still a factor when designing the upper control arm, where the clearance with rim and the shock being the main factors dictating the geometry of the upper control arm. 0.75 OD circular tubing with 0.049 thickness was used for the structure of the upper control arm. The ease of manufacturing was again taken into consideration when designing the rear control arms, most of the members were designed to be straight and bends were reduced where possible, however, it was necessary to add bends still due to the compact packaging in the rear suspension assembly. Figure 72 shows the design model of the upper and lower control arms, with each member of the structure being drawn separately in order to obtain an accurate measure of the member lengths and notch sizes(Appendix H):
Given the fact that the upper control arms are not subjected to as high loads as the lower control arms, the option making the upper control arms out of aluminum was considered. Figure 73 shows a picture of the constructed aluminum upper control arm:
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Contact
Maximum Stress
9.3.3) Joints
Hiem Joints: similar to the front suspension system, the control arms are connected to the frame using sheet metal tabs that are welded to the frame. However, in order to gain more control over the rear suspension camber and toe angles, hiem joints were fastened to the ends of the control arms and then attached to the tabs on the frame. By threading the hiem joints in and out of the control arms ends, the length of each side of the control arms is adjusted separately and hence given control over the wheel orientation. The joint between the control arm and the tab is shown in details in Figure 75:
In order to give the joint more structural rigidity, small spacers were inserted between the hiem joint and the tab walls; this will prevent the tab walls from crushing the joint as the bolt is tightened.
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Hiem Joint
Tabs
Figure 75: Hiem joint
Bolt
Pivot Joint (A-Arms to Upright): The joint connection between the control arms and the uprights were constructed in similar manner to that of the front control arm pivot connection with the frame, where a combination of bushings and steel insert were used to make the joint less stiff. The length of the steel insert was made longer than the bushings in order to make sure that the bolt fastening the joint together is not crushing the bushings. The upright-control arm connection is shown in Figure 76:
Bushings
Gap
9.4) Installation
The installation of the suspension system on the frame was done by first assembling each component of the suspension system which includes the upright, control arms, bushings, pivot joints, hiem joints as well as ball joints. The suspension system 85
2007 Baja Project Suspension geometry points were designed to an accuracy of 0.01 inch, however, when it comes to installing the suspension system on the frame, it is very difficult to maintain the suspension points as desired in the design. In order to some what install the suspension system close to the actual designed points, the tabs were not welded on the frame directly, instead the tabs were attached to the control arms joints and then welded to the frame. The first step in locating the suspension points on the frame was setting the frame on a flat table and the planar coordinates of the points were inscribed on the table. The vertical location of the points was determined by using a threaded rod that is mounted on a square block. The height can be located in the threaded rod by threading a nut on the rod and then adjusting the height of the nut to match that of the desired suspension point. Once the height is located using the nut, the threaded rod can now be moved on the flat table where the planar coordinates of the suspension points are scribed. It is very important to keep in mind that the suspension points obtained from ADAMS/Car represent the center of the joints between the frame and the control arm and hence thus clearance distance between the frame and the control arms had to be taken into consideration. The approximate location of the suspension points is then marked on the frame. The installation of the front suspension system was done by first tack welding the tabs for the lower control arm to the frame. The tabs for the upper control arms were tack welded by first using a fixture as shown in the figure below to maintain the suspension point geometry. The fixture shown in the figure consists of two magnetic base poles that were used to attach a shaft to act as the upper control arm pivot point.
The rear suspension system was assembled differently than the front suspension. The control arms, upright, bushings, hiem joints and tabs were all assembled together before attaching the rear suspension to the frame. The suspension points were then located on the frame using a similar procedure to that used in the front. Small spacers and the magnetic base poles where used to fix the entire suspension assembly to the frame while it was being welded. The figure below shows the rear suspension assembly being 86
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These shocks were chosen because they have adjustable damping in both rebound and compression; they have a progressive spring rate; and they have adjustable pre load. It is to be noted that if it was not for cost constraints the same Elka Suspension shocks would have been chosen, but they have been chosen with the reservoirs directly connected to the shock and not with remote reservoirs and with a greater amount of shock travel. A greater amount of shock travel would have been more desired because it would have allowed the shock to be moved closer to the wheel in the rear and in the front thus allowing the bending moment to decrease on the control arms, thus improving their strength. It was also desired to have a greater shock travel because then the motion ratio can increase which permits less amount of force to be transferred to the vehicle body thus permitting a better ride. The Elka Suspensions coil over shock will also permit the springs to be changed which allowed us to choose the appropriate springs to give us a desired spring rate. It is to be noted that in the past (before 2005) the University of Windsor Baja teams used Billstein suspension shocks. These suspension shocks are designed for the particular vehicle; the damping coefficient of the shocks is chosen based on the dimensions of the suspension system and vehicle, it is not adjustable. It was more
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2007 Baja Project Suspension desired to go with the Elka Suspensions coil over shock suspension shocks because theses shocks have adjustable damping which allows the damping of the suspension system to be tuned through vehicle testing which is the more desired route to take. The springs on the Elka Suspension coil over shocks suspension shocks are much narrower in diameter (about half the diameter) which is more desired for clearance problems between the upper control arm and the shock. It will be easier to design the upper control arm around a narrower shock.
The compression knob is used to adjust the hydraulic resistance of the shock to high speed impacts. The compression knob can be set to full hard or full soft or dome where in between; there are 30 clicks of adjustment between full soft or full hard. A full hard compression setting will provide a better resistance to impacts, but the ride will be stiffer. A full soft setting will provide a smooth ride, but there will be less resistance to impacts. The rebound knob can be set to full fast or full slow. The rebound adjustment is what determines the speed at which the shock will return to its initial state after it is being compressed from an impact; it determines the kickback of the suspension system. A correct rebound adjustment would imply that the rear wheels will keep the maximum traction of the vehicle by keeping the wheels on the ground without inducing any kickback to the vehicle; without launching the driver from the vehicle. There are 50 clicks of rebound adjustment between full soft and full hard. With a full fast position the shock will return to its initial position very fast, and the effect is that the rear of the 89
2007 Baja Project Suspension vehicle will kick and move from side to side after hitting a series of bumps. In this situation the driver will as if he/she is being launched from the car. With a full slow position the shock will return to its initial position very slow, and the effect is that the suspension shock will not have time to return to its initial position when a series of bumps is encountered. In this case the shock will run out of suspension travel and may bottom out. It is not recommended that the rebound position be set to full soft or full hard. The compression and rebound settings that best suit the vehicle need to be determined through vehicle testing. There are 30 clicks of compression adjustment and 50 clicks of rebound adjustment, so where did we start; what values were they set at the beginning of testing? The initial values of the compression and rebound settings were set to be equal to the values used by the 2006 team. The settings were then changed in order to optimize the performance of the vehicle by testing the vehicle through a various amount of tests. The compression and rebound settings were first adjusted as the acceleration and braking of the vehicle were tested. The reason for this was because the vehicle needs to be tested in gradual steps. If the settings are not properly set or there was a mistake in the calculations for the appropriate spring rates then the vehicle should not jump over jumps because this is where major damage can occur. Thus, the vehicle was first tested in braking and acceleration and the jounce and rebound of the suspension were verified. If the spring rates were not chosen properly the pitch of the vehicle will be noticeable as the vehicle is accelerating or braking. The estimated pitch of the vehicle was determined from the analysis performed on the vehicle in CarSim, and this value was used to verify if the suspension compression or extension was too much while the vehicle was accelerating or braking. The compression and rebound settings were also adjusted while testing the acceleration and braking performance of the vehicle. The performance of the vehicle was then evaluated as the vehicle drove over a series of bumps, and the compression and extension of the shocks were verified. The rebound setting was also changed in order to eliminate the kickback of the vehicle and to eliminate the shock from bottoming out. The final test performed on the vehicle in order to tune the suspension was a jump performance of the vehicle, and the compression damping was adjusted in order to ensure that the suspension shocks had enough impact resistance set into them. Once the compression damping was set, the rebound damping was set in order to ensure that the vehicle did not kickback after hitting the jump.
2007 Baja Project Suspension softer side, and the manner in which they are placed in the shock play a role in depicting the spring progression. If all of the crossovers are placed in the shock in a manner that the larger portion (longer sides) of the crossover is facing up (as depicted in the figure), then the effect is to increase the spring progression. The crossovers are what determines how much the auxiliary springs will compress, thus the effect of putting the longer sides facing up is to cancel out the active stroke of the auxiliary springs sooner when the shock is in compression. If all the crossovers are placed in the shock in a manner where the shorter sides face up than the effect is to reduce the progression of the springs, and the rate decreases.
This leads to a softer ride, but the suspension will be more susceptible to bottoming out. The positions of the crossovers were changed while testing the vehicle and the optimum position was found through vehicle testing. The positions of the crossovers were chosen to allow for a soft ride, but to ensure that the suspension shocks do not bottom out more than once around the track. The 2006 shocks were tested on a test rig to determine the progression of the springs and to determine the effect of the position of the crossovers. The following is the results for when the longer side of the crossovers are all facing up and for when the shorter side of the crossovers are all facing up for the front suspension of the 2006 vehicle (Figure 82: Load versus displacement of Elka Suspension with longer sides of collars facing up) (Figure 83: Load versus displacement of Elka Suspension with shorter sides of collars facing up). It can be seen from the results that the springs are indeed progressive springs and that by placing the crossovers in the shock with the longer side facing up does indeed lead to a higher spring rate. These curves were used to predict the load verses displacement curve of the 2007 shocks which were inputted into the CarSim model and ADAMS/Car models. It is recommended that a new set of suspension shocks with a greater shock travel be chosen for next year if there are funds to do so. If there are money constraints as there was in 2007, and the Elka Suspension coil over shock suspension shocks are re used on
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2007 Baja Project Suspension the vehicle than it is advised that the shocks get sent back to Elka Suspension to get re valved. Further information regarding the suspension shocks can be found in Appendix L.
Figure 82: Load versus displacement of Elka Suspension with longer sides of collars facing up
Figure 83: Load versus displacement of Elka Suspension with shorter sides of collars facing up
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2007 Baja Project Suspension used as a fastening method, welding would be optimal. For such a thick part, major edge preparation and groove cutting would be required. In addition, TIG welding must be used (skilled trade). Basically, making it out of sections and welding would cost as much as machining it, since there is so much time spent manually prepping edges and TIG welding. To the added cost you must add weight, so now what you have is a part that would cost nearly the same as machining the block of Aluminum, but heavier. Monoshell casting was seriously considered at Nemak but was rejected for the following reasons: The rear upright is made from A356 Al with a T6 temper. An A356 alloy has superior properties when compared to A319 (the alloy used to produce the engine blocks). The A319 should not be used for suspension components without again, significantly altering the part. A hand poured casting is a very risky process, especially when being performed by an inexperienced pourer. This is a risk that could jeopardize the teams performance in the endurance race (the most heavily weighted portion of this competition). If testing (destructive and non-destructive) is to be performed on the finished part, there will not be sufficient time to arrange this once we finally have a finished part. Fixturing must be made as well as arrangements and machine time at the testing facility. Through speaking to a member of the 2006 U of W casting team, it was explained that this process took 2 years to perfect one part. Seeing as a dissimilar part is to be produced, time becomes a major issue Several design iterations were considered before finalizing the current structure. This evolution is shown in Appendix I
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11.4) FEA
The rear uprights structure exhibits several important design considerations that were used to help strengthen the part, add minimal weight and best accommodate the control arms. Such features include re-enforced webbing to support both upper and lower rear control arms; added underlying surface structure that proved to increase strength with an insignificant addition of weight; a slightly decreased overall width to fit the control arm assembly. The finalized design geometry was kept very simplistic as to minimize CNC machining time. An assembly FEA of the rear suspension assembly is shown below in (Figure 85: Rear Assembly FEA).
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2007 Baja Project Suspension Since the rear upright is a rather robust part, testing was implemented using only FEA. It was determined that parts like tabs for instance would fail long before this part. Considering the process used to manufacture this part, the structure is far stronger than the part this one is based upon (cast OEM Polaris). Other testing methods that were considered and recommended include tensile/compressive and fatigue. Tensile/compression tests can easily be performed using an Instron machine with the appropriate fixturing. This type of set-up was planned but omitted due to timing and priority (Figure 86: Proposed test setup).
It was recommended by Polaris to do fatigue testing as an assembly. This is how they test the parts at their facility. A fixture that tests the fatigue properties of the assembly supports a full quarter of the vehicles suspension. This also gives a good idea of how the part functions as an assembly with all the appropriate bearings and accessories fitted and to provide the most realistic test of the part.
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Tire size 18 19 20 21 22 23
Wheel/Tire Calculations tire Centerline X Y height factor factor 4 12.3 2.794 1.517 4.5 12.8 2.908 1.403 5 13.3 3.022 1.289 5.5 13.8 3.135 1.176 6 14.3 3.249 1.062 6.5 14.8 3.362 0.949
wheel width 5 5 5 5 5 5
Fast Trekker tires were selected based on this test data (completed in 2004). Just prior to the competition, we were interested in Dunlop tires based on the tread pattern observed from one tire we obtained. So, three more tires were ordered to give the vehicle a full set and the vehicle was tested with these four tires. The Dunlop tires prove to give better cornering performance, a more responsive ride and gave a faster vehicle speed. Therefore it was decided to use these tires at competition.
Under acceleration and braking, there is more slippage than normal because of the rubber deforming to overcome changing friction forces, due to the changing distribution of the normal forces.
Upon cornering, the tires experience shear forces acting on the contact patch in contact with the ground. The distribution of the forces is asymmetric, so the tire patch in contact with the terrain is under elastic deformation while cornering due to the lateral forces. The net lateral force induces a self-aligning moment about the tire vertical axis so that the moment applied by the steering rack on the tire is balanced. 98
Tire stiffness is modeled as a series of springs. They are located at the surface of the tires that are in contact with the ground. Smaller slip angles induce smaller lateral forces during cornering, so understeering is desired whenever possible. Tires are essentially modeled as pressure vessels, with the internal forces caused by the air pressure inside the tire tubes.
As the tire provides traction force by gripping the road, it must slip relative to the road. Behavior is evident by the following graph (Figure 91 Lateral force, traction force affect on slip %).
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2007 Baja Project Suspension Slip angle is defined according to the following behavior for different slip angles. Theoretically it is the angle during cornering between the tires direction of heading and the tires direction of travel.
At low slip angles, lateral force is linearly related to the slip angle. Fy = C*, C is the cornering stiffness The magnitude of the cornering stiffness is dependant on a list of parameters: 1. Tire size, type 2. Number of cords in tire 3. Cord angles (radial, bias-ply type dependant) 4. Wheel width 5. Tread 6. Load inflation pressure Vehicle cornering speed is irrelevant. Larger tires have greater cornering stiffnesses for a specified loading. They also have higher load capacity than smaller tires. For tires with the same diameters but greater widths than normal tires carcass stiffnesses (in the interior cords of the tire) will be higher than normal, so cornering stiffness will also be higher. Aligning moment is dependant on the size of the contact patch and the growth of the slip region. Shear stress and torque responsible for aligning moment are dependant on the distance from the centerline of the contact patch and the tire centre. So, the mean contributors to the aligning moment are the tread elements edge of the contact patch. At greater slip angles, the aligning moment decreases.
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This plot shows the general effect on lateral force when braking is applied for different slip angles. As the driver hits the brake pedal, the net lateral force decreases due to the increase in the tire, induced by the braking demand. Knowing that the friction limit for a tire is defined by the dynamic coefficient of friction multiplied by the load, it is evident that the friction can be increased for a lateral force, a braking force or a combination of both. However, the vector sum of the two must not exceed the friction limit defined by the plot. Therefore, the limit is defined as a friction circle in the plane of longitudinal and lateral forces.
Figure 94 Lateral forces and aligning moments for different traction forces
Using zero traction force as a reference, it is clear that when lateral forces are applied the aligning moment decreases. So, applying a braking force tends to stiffen the tires with respect to the mechanism that generates lateral force. The reduction of aligning moment implies a reduction in the net lateral force acting on the contact patch, because of
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2007 Baja Project Suspension the decrease in shear stresses at the contact patch. High sensitivity to the vertical load is evident in the plots. The sensitivity is due to the moments influence by the size of the contact patch. Doubling the load doubles the size of the contact patch, where aligning moment is most affected (at extremities of the contact patch). So, the aligning moment increases gradually as shown in the graph with increasing vertical load (traction force increase induces vertical load increase). When the vehicle is operated under combined braking and cornering, the longitudinal and lateral forces change from their independent behaviours drastically. Longitudinal slip generally decreases the lateral force for a given slip angle. An increase in slip angle reduces the longitudinal force developed for a certain braking condition. As traction forces are applied towards their maximum value, lateral force decreases because the friction approaches its limits. As well, the aligning moment decreases to the point where it may even be negative towards the braking limit. Negative aligning moment tends to steer the wheels to a greater slip angle, as well as affect the stability in braking through the steering system. For a positive normal traction force the lateral force decreases slightly and the aligning moment increases drastically. Near the maximum braking force, both lateral force and aligning moment decrease. However, the aligning moment never becomes negative for the maximum driving force. In regards to vehicle performance, braking during a steady turn causes the tires to slip and the lateral forces to decrease. This alters the path of the vehicle while braking. Also, when steering is applied during braking, the vehicle will have lower steering and braking performance compared to the results when applied independently. The minimum decrease in braking performance occurs while cornering with a lateral acceleration of 0.3g. As the maximum braking force is approached, the vehicle response can be degraded to the point of total loss of control. The description of the control loss depends on the order in which the front and rear tires approach the wheel-lock condition. Frontwheel lockup will make the vehicle unsteerable while rear-wheel lockup will induce spinout motion. For ideal tires, lateral force is zero for zero slip angle. In reality, this is not the case. At small slip angles, real tires show the above behavior for forward and reverse gear selections. The lateral force behaves differently for forward and reverse drives, and usually has a nonzero value at = 0. This is the result of the cords in the radial-ply tires for the BAJA vehicle, due to the angles of these cords in the belt layers. To avoid this imbalance in forces, belts are made with alternating belt layers at opposite angles. However, perfectly balancing the cords is impossible. So, a free-rolling tire will not travel in a straight line, but will travel in a skewed line with respect to its center plane. As well, when rolling forward, if the tire experiences a force to the right, it will experience a force to the right when it rolls in the opposite direction due to the cords. Thus, when tire lateral force is measured with zero slip angle, the result is the force averaged from both directions of travel. Ply-steer is dependant on the vertical reaction of
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Figure 95 Vertical and longitudinal reactions for tire roll over a bump
Reactions plotted above show that as the tire collides with the leading edge of the bump, the vertical force starts to rise due to the vertical displacement of the tire. The force continues to rise until the tire completely rolls out of the depression. A longitudinal force is also generated due to the suspension control arms providing the pulling force required for the tire to rise up onto the bump. Thus, the tire will have a reaction. Once on the bump, the vertical force increases so the rolling resistance increases. The longitudinal force decreases and will not return to its original value but will rise again when the control arms balance to adjust to a new height to balance the vertical forces. During vehicle operation, the tire also acts as a vibration absorber, smoothing out the roughness in the terrain. This influences the vertical motion of the body and wheels. So, vibration analysis needed to be considered. The tire has a natural frequency in which it will resonate, affecting the transmission of vibrations to the vehicle frame. This may also cause vehicle frame resonance. A large amount of tire mass is concentrated at the treads. These treads connect to the tires by sidewalls which are compatible with treads. This compatibility allows the treads to resonate when excited by road inputs. Vibration modes and corresponding tire behaviors are shown here.
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The first mode involves a simple vertical disturbance without distortions. It is easily excited with vertical forces in the contact patch at a certain frequency. The motion is vertical, so it is transmitted to the wheel and suspension control arms. The second mode shows an elliptical vibration such that the oscillation is symmetrical about the horizontal and vertical axes. The top and bottom of the tire are always moving out of phase such that there is no disturbance to the wheel. Vertical loads at the control patch are generally absorbed by the tire avoiding their transmission to the wheel and suspension control arms. Similarly, the third and higher modes are effective in avoiding transmission of vibrations to the wheel and control arms, and have similar elliptical vibrations except with more axes of symmetry. In-between these modal resonant frequencies the tire does not resonate. There are no axes of symmetry for vibration isolation. This asymmetry results in net forces that are imposed around the circumference of the wheel, with the net force affecting the motion of the wheel. The contact patch is stationary, so the tire is a very stiff element for all vertical forces acting on it at these frequencies. The natural frequencies of the tires and the frame respectively were = 10 Hz for wheel hop, = 1 Hz for body motion. Damping in the tire was very small relative to the damping in the suspension (shocks), so tire cornering stiffness was usually negligible for vibration frequency calculations. For the entire suspension system, compression damping was usually less than rebound damping. So, there is little difference between damped and undamped natural frequencies. Rolling loss factor determines how much of the wheel radius is subtracted from the original to obtain the effective radius. This is the slope of the angular speed and the speed of the vehicle relationship. V = *Re
An appropriate rim offset for the tires was needed for proper track width. For example, if a 5 rim had its centreface 1 from one outer surface, 4 from the inner surface, the track width (distance between centerlines of tires) would be greater for the outer surface pointing away from the vehicle, and vice-versa. The track width affects the
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2007 Baja Project Suspension scrub (distance the tire displaces when the vertical load is placed on the frame. Tires needed to have the best tread pattern possible for off-road driving. Material selected was required to be low weight for rotation support purposes. Specifically, centrifugal forces are applied to the rims more than the actual tire when the tires are rolling. Stresses would result from these forces, so the material would also need to be tough enough to tolerate this while still being low weight. Tire tubes were used for the purpose of preventing leaks if the rims were disturbed during the competition. The rim width was selected for compatibility with our 7 tires, so we selected 5 thick rims to give a 1 offset from the face of each tire. The surface where our hubs were bolted to inside the rim is 1 from one outer surface and 4 from the other surface. So, the track width is adjustable depending on which side of the rim you want to face away from the vehicle. The rims that we found at the shop in the CARE centre that we utilized are made of aluminum. Rim type is TIP.
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Rims and tires were put together by first deflating the tire if necessary and sliding the rims into the tire using a lever tool to ply the tire side surfaces up to provide enough clearance for the rim to enter the tire body. This was taken care of by Bruce Durfy, technician at the CARE Centre at the University of Windsor. Tubes were inserted into the tire for the purpose of easier filling and to prevent leakage during the competition.
12.6.2) Testing
Tires and rims were tested many times prior to competition by driving the vehicle on the CARE Centre parking lot, the once open-dirt field across the street from the CARE Centre, Dylan Langloiss off-road course in Kingsville. Cornering stiffnesses were calculated for each tire for turning the vehicle around a corner at a certain slip angle. Scrub was measured by weight being applied to the rear and front parts of the vehicle. This is the distance the tires displace laterally when the frame is loaded enough (eg. when the vehicle land from a high jump). Tire pressures were adjusted for each of the dynamic events at the competition for optimal vehicle performance. The following table illustrates
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2007 Baja Project Suspension our optimal pressure readings for each event.
Table 13: Tire Pressure
Event Name Suspension & Traction Maneuverability Hill Climb Acceleration Endurance
The logic behind our tire pressures is behind the off-road conditions of each event. For Suspension and Traction, the front tire pressure is set at 15psi giving a differential of 10 psi with the rear tire pressure to give maximum traction in the front for steep hill climbs while not dragging the vehicle down in the rear. For maneuverability, the same effect is desired without as steep hills. Likewise, Hill Climb requires the most traction with a front pressure of 16psi and a differential of 11 psi with the rear. Acceleration pressures were set at 8psi for the front, 4psi in the rear for stability upon achieving high vehicle acceleration. Endurance was a four hour race with many steep hills, so the tires needed to last with good uphill climb capabilities, so a front tire pressure of 8psi with a rear tire pressure of 4psi was selected. As well, at low tire pressures the shock should be adjusted so that minimum threads are showing to give minimum preload. This is to minimize the already large contact patch causing traction with the road, giving the shocks some control over the ride quality. So, powertrain has the most influence over the tires rather than the suspension system. Likewise, at high tire pressures the shock should be adjusted so that the maximum number of threads are showing for maximum preload. This is to maximize the tire contact patch with the ground, to give the tires an adequate amount of control of the ride quality since they are such a high pressure that they are basically solid, having little control over the traction with the terrain. So, without this preload the powertrain system has all the control over the tire ride, so there is not as much shock absorption by the shock and strut systems as compared with low pressures.
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= tan 1
L2 L1 L3
If the caster angle is measured and is not equal to or close to the desired value, than the bushing size of the upper control arms needs to be changed in order to change the caster angle, and the measurement process needs to be repeated. The toe angle was measured in the front and in the rear of one side of the vehicle simultaneously (with one setup). The toe angle measurement should be performed when the vehicle is at its static position; therefore the static ride height of the vehicle was set.
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The angle was measured using two jack stands, a rope, and a measuring device (tape measure or vernier caliper). The rope was wrapped around one jack stand and then pulled tight and wrapped around the second jack stand. The two jack stands with the rope tight between them was pushed close to the vehicle and the distance between the rope and the centerline of the vehicle was measured at the front and rear of the vehicle. The position of the two jacks with the rope tight between them was moved until the two distances were equal to each other. The locations on the tire where measurements were going to be taken were marked on the tire with a marker. The measurements were taken at the middle of the tire (middle of the tire when looking at the side view of the vehicle; the middle distance between the top and bottom of the tire) and the distance between the center and the front and the center and the rear of the tire was marked as the same. The distance between the rope and the marked location on the tire was measured at the front and at the rear marked locations on the tire (L1 and L2), and the distance between the two measurements was taken (L3). These measurements were taken for both the front and rear tires which allowed for the toe angle to be measured at the front and at the rear (Equation 33: Toe angle measurement) (Figure 101: Toe angle measurement). 109
The toe angle in the front suspension was adjusted by changing the length of the tie rod and it was adjusted by changing the heim joints in the rear. The toe angles were measured on both sides of the vehicle. If the measured toe angle is not equal to or close to the desired value than the static toe angle needs to be changes and the measurement process needs to be repeated. The camber angle was measured using a camber angle measurement tool (note this tool belongs to Formula SAE). A flat piece of metal was placed on the tire in the
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2007 Baja Project Suspension middle of the tire when looking at the vehicle from the side view. The camber angle measurement tool was placed on this piece of metal and the measurement was read from the tool (Figure 102: Camber angle measurement).
The camber angle for each tire was measured independently, and if the values were not equal to or close to the desired static values than they need to be adjusted to the desired values. The camber angle is adjusted in the front by rotating the camber adjustment insert and is adjusted in the rear by changing the heim joints. If the measured values were not close to the desired values than the camber angle needs to be changed and the measurement process needs to be repeated. The wheelbase and track width of the vehicle were measured using a tape measure. The track width was measured by taking the distance between the inside of the left tire and the outside of the rear tire; the opposite can also be done (Figure 103: Track with measurement). The wheelbase was measured in a similar way as the track width. The distance was taken by measuring the distance between the front of the front tire and the front of the rear tire at the centerline of the vehicle. The wheelbase can also be measured by taking the distance between the front and rear spindles.
2007 Baja Project Suspension for each of the tests and the shocks adjustments were changed in order to optimize the performance of the vehicle.
The compression damping is used to adjust the shocks resistance to impact and to measure the quality of the ride. The rebound adjustment is used to determine how fast the shock returns to its original position after it is being compressed. The rebound damping is used to adjust the kickback of the suspension. The pre load and the position of the crossovers will determine the effective spring rate of the shocks (the progression of the shocks). A greater pre load and placing the crossovers such that the longer end is facing up both lead to a greater spring rate, and thus increase the resistance of the shock to impacts. A higher spring rate also leads to a stiffer ride (for more details about the shocks refer to section 10). A spreadsheet was created in order to keep track of the changes in the suspension system (Appendix J). It is a good idea to keep track of the changes made in the suspension system because this will allow for the information to be stored which will allow the optimum performance of the vehicle to be assessed after all three of the tests are complete.
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The second issue that came about was the bending of the rear control arm. The vehicle was tested by running it over a big jump at the testing grounds for the Baja vehicle (Powerband). The impacts of the jump caused the rear control to bend directly underneath where the shock connects to the control arm (Figure 105: The bend in the control arm).
The control was bent back and a new one was created with a greater diameter and wall thickness. The control ended up bending a second type, thus a third one was built and it was reinforced by putting angle iron underneath the control arm (Figure 106: Angle iron to reinforce the rear control arms). It is to be noted that it was expected that the control arm was bending because the shock would lock up before coming close to bottoming out. The control arm kept bending on the same side, so the expected reason is that something is wrong with the shock that it is causing it to lock up sooner than it should. Thus, if these shocks are re used next year than they need to be re-valved. The third issue that occurred while testing the vehicle was the wear in the bushings. After putting many hours on the vehicle, the bushings wore down to a point where there was too much play in the suspension system (Figure 107: The wear in the bushings).
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This issue was resolved by changing the bushings to oil impregnated bronze. This material is more resistance to wear and has an oil impregnated into it which allows lubrication to be present even after the material starts to wear. The lower control bushings in the font and all of the bushings in the rear were changed to the oil impregnated bronze bushings. The fourth issue that arose was an outside bearing on the front suspension exploded. The front suspension was originally assembled with the original Polaris bearings. These bearings are cheaply made and are not strong enough to support the loads seen by the vehicle. One of the outside bearings was disassembled and there was a minimum amount of balls in the bearing which is not good. Therefore, it was decided to go with Timken tapered needle roller bearings for the inside and outside front suspension bearings (Figure 108: Timken tapered needle roller bearings). These bearings were assembled into the wheel hub and were tested through several tests and at competition and proved themselves as they did not break or explode. Thus, it is highly recommended that these bearings be used on next years vehicle.
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The final suspension issue that arose during testing was that a heim joint seized. This caused an additional load on the suspension system and could lead to failures. This could also be one of the reasons why the rear control arm bent. This issue was overcome by greasing the heim joints before each test. Thus it is recommended that all of the heim joints equipped on the vehicle are equipped with a grease nipple, thus permitting them to be greased on a per test basis. It is very important to have time to test the car. There are five major issues that occurred to the suspension system while the vehicle was being tested and they would have not been spotted if it wasnt for vehicle testing and poor results could have arose from this. Thus, it is recommended that the vehicle should be done 2 months before competition permitting time for vehicle testing.
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116
Before the strain gauges were mounted to the specimen, it was cleaned and polished using a fine sand paper. Pat Seguin was contacted for help in applying the gauges. He went through the necessary steps and procedures needed to successfully apply a strain gauge. Gauges were mounted on the top and bottom of the specimen. Two gauges were needed to account for temperature change in the specimen during testing and also, in this set up, the gauges could detect tension and compression. The box tube was used to securely attach the specimen to the fixtures used for testing. Axial and bending tests were completed on the specimen. For the bending test, the specimen was clamped horizontally to the side of a metal fixture and weights were attached to the end of the specimen as illustrated in Figure 110: Bending of test specimen. For the axial test, the specimen was clamped vertically to the top of a truss and weights were attached to the end of the specimen as illustrated in Figure 111: Axial test on specimen. The tests were conducted in the Structures Lab in Essex Hall under the supervision of Pat Seguin. The data obtained from the tests were compared to the data obtained from the Catia model to quantify the results. Fully understanding the data acquired from the strain gauge experiment is the key to being successful when implementing strain gauges on the Baja car.
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14.4) FEA
Data acquired from the static strain gauge test was used to calculate the Von Mises stresses. This was used for comparison with the stresses calculated using Catia FEA technology. The FEA for a 500 lb loading is shown in Figure 114 - 2004 lower control arm FEA for 500 lb loading. The maximum stress was found at the bottom of the control arm just above the clamped cylinders, which are shown in the figure. Percentage errors were calculated with Microsoft Excel 2003 formula option.
Figure 114 - 2004 lower control arm FEA for 500 lb loading
An FEA analysis was completed using Catia to simulate the testing performed in the Structures Lab. The results from the FEA quantified the results obtained from the static testing with a reasonable 6.8% error that may have been a result of several factors. These include exact material properties, gauge mounting (adhesive), precise dimensions and equipment inaccuracy. Two separate analyses were conducted as described below. 1) Cantilever FEA simulation of the specimen.
The above image illustrates the Von Misses stresses (left) and displacement (right) of the specimen in the cantilever set up. It was found that the highest Von Misses stresses occurred where the shaft attached to the box beam and the largest deflection occurred at 119
2007 Baja Project Suspension the end of the shaft. These results were very similar to the actual results found from the strain gauge test conducted in the Structures Lab. 2) Axial FEA simulation of the specimen
Figure 116 illustrates the Von Misses Stress (left) and the displacement (right) of the specimen in the axial set up. Similar to the bending simulation, the highest Von Misses stress was found to be where the shaft attaches to the box beam and the largest deflection was found to be at the end of the shaft. Once again, these results were found to be comparable to the results found during the physical axial test of the specimen.
Gauge 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 117 - 2007 control arm gauging locations
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2007 Baja Project Suspension Loads were applied to the vehicle with the instrumentation installed. This was carried out at the Structures lab in Essex Hall to obtain actual strain values that can be compared to the FEA.
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122
2. Trailing arm
123
124
125
The difference between the trailing arm and semi-trailing arm is that the axis of the trailing arm is at right angles to the vehicle centerline whereas the semi-trailing arm axis angle inboard and toward the rear. The trailing arm is relatively simple and is popular on FWD vehicles. It offers the advantage that the car body floor pan can be smooth and more free space can be obtained for power train between the suspension control arms. If the pivot axes lie parallel to the 126
2007 Baja Project Suspension floor, the compressing and rebounding wheels undergo no track width, camber or toe-in change, and the wheel base simply shortens slightly. If torsion springs are applied, the length of the control arm can be used to influence the progressivity of the springing to achieve better vibration behavior under load. The low body roll centre at floor level is a disadvantage as is the fact that the wheels incline more with the body when cornering than with other independent wheel suspensions. The semi trailing arm is a special type of half trailing and half transverse, which is fitted mainly in RWD and four-wheel drive cars. We can analyze it by splitting it into two vectors, one is the trailing component and another is the transverse component. The trailing component leads to understeer. On the other hand, the transverse component is actually equals to a swing axle suspension, which always introduce oversteer due to body roll. As a result, the two components cancel each other and result in near neutral steering response. Semi-trailing has a disadvantage - when the wheel moves up and down, camber angle changes, unlike double A arm. No matter semi-trailing arm or trailing arm suspensions, since they are rigidly attached to the wheels, inevitably more shock and noise could be transferred to the car body. The new semi trailing arm is a combination type of double A arm and semi training arm. It is simpler than double A arm, which will reduce the unsprung weight. However, it will keep the advantage of double A arm, such as characteristic of no mutual wheel influence. Moreover, it will overcome some of the disadvantages of semi-trailing arm, especially under hard cornering or running on bumpy roads.
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We separated the upper and lower control arm for the Finite Element Analysis. For the upper control arm the resultant force was applied on the end connecting to the upright. And also the force applied by the shock mounted on the lower control arm was considered. For the lower control arm, the resultant force is only applied on the outer point while the inner ends are assumed to be clamped in the analysis. 128
2007 Baja Project Suspension Actually, these parts can not assembly together when we attempted to attach them to frame mockup. Therefore, the sizes of the final prototype are modified to fit the frame mockup. The size adjustment for lower control arms was not too much, but the upper control arm was extent 1.5 inch.
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15.7.2) Testing
After the prototype was built, the wheel travel distance, camber angle, toe angle, caster angle and force distribution were checked. Therefore, the following characteristics were got for this new semi trailing arm: 1. Large wheel travel distance, larger than 12; 2. Small camber and toe angle change; 3. Large caster angle change.
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134
135
136
137
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Damon A. Becker Mechanical Simulation 912 North Main Street, Suite 210 Ann Arbor, MI 48104 USA Phone: (734) 668-2930 Fax: (734) 668-2877 Email: dbecker@carsim.com
- Custom Rear Upright CNC:
Omni Tool Ltd. Rino S. Marinelli 5495 Outer Drive Windsor, ON N9A 6J3 Phone: (519)-737-7147 Fax: 1(519)-737-7448 Email: Rino.marinelli@omni-tool.com
- Aluminum Casting:
Robert Mackay, Ph.D. Metallurgical Engineering Specialist Nemak Engineering Centre 4655 G.N. Booth Drive Windsor, ON N9C 4G5 Phone: 1-519-972-2005 Fax: 1-519-972-1133 E-mail: rmackay7@nemak.com
- Fabrication of control arms:
Dino Favaro Valco Fabricating & Machining Division of Valiant Machine & Tool Inc 1235 St Luke Road, Windsor, ON N8Y 4W7 Phone: 519-971-9666
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Dan Pominville Centerline (Windsor) Limited 415 Moton Drive, Windsor, Ontario N9J 3T8 Phone: (519) 734-8464
- Power coating control arms:
Robert Brant SES Power Coating 786 Howard Ave R.R.#1 McGregor, Ontario Phone: (519) 726-4658 - OEM Polaris parts: Pat McArdle Polaris Industries 7290 East Viking Boulevard Wyoming, MN 55092 Email: pat.mcardle@polarisind.com.
16.2) Websites
1. Picture of camber angle. Retrieved July 2007, from http://www.redranger.com.au/images/Faqs/Camber%20angle.JPG 2. Vehicle suspension system, (2006). Retrieved January 2007, from http://www.twbbs.net.tw/1297490.html 3. Automobile Ride, Handling, and Suspension Design, (2006). Retrieved January 2006, From http://www.rqriley.com/suspensn.htm 4. SAE Mini Baja, (2007). Retrieved January 2007, from http://www.egr.msu.edu/baja 5. Independent Suspension, (2000). Retrieved January 2000, from http://www.autozine.org/technical_school/suspension/tech_suspension21.htm 6. Suspension geometry, (1999). Retrieved January 2006, from http://www.rqriley.com/suspensn.htm
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2007 Baja Project Suspension 7. Suspension geometry. Retrieved March 2005, from http://home.scarlet.be/~be067749/58/c1/index.htm (Note this website is recommended as a reference) 8. Tire curve, Retrieved April 2006, from http://code.eng.buffalo.edu/dat/sites/tire/img54.gif 9. Camber angle, Retrieved April 2006, from http://www.crcc.org.uk/images/image004.jpg 10. Toe angle, Retrieved March 2006, from http://www.bastiantire.com/images/toe_in.gif 11. Kingpin axis, Retrieved May 2006, http://www.desertrides.com/reference/images/terms/sai-scrub.gif 12. Tire slip angle, Retrieved April 2006, http://www.donpalmer.co.uk/cchandbook/images/tyrebasics.gif
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2007 Baja Project Suspension Thomson Delmar Learning 9. Reimpell, Jrnsen. & Stoll, Helmut (1996) The automotive chassis: engineering principles, Warrendale, PA : Society of Automotive Engineers 10. Matschinsky, Wolfgang (2000) Road vehicle suspensions, London, UK: Professional Engineering Pub 11. BOSCH, (2004) Automotive Handbook 6th Edition, Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers
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17) Appendixes
17.1) Appendix A
The derivation of the half car model
FBDs: Sprung mass: ms
(Zs + a Zf )kf
Zs
f
(Zs b Zr )kr
(Zs + a Zf )kf
muf
Zf
(Zf )ktf
The unsprung mass at the front of the vehicle:
F = (ktf )(hf )
(Zs b Zr )kr
mur Zr
(Zr )ktr
From the first FBD (free body diagram)
F = (ktr )(hr )
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Zs
&& =msZs
& & & & & & && (Zs + a Zf )kf (Zs b Zr )kr Zs + a Zf Cf Zs b Zr Cr = msZs & & & & && & & msZs + Zs + a Zf Cf + Zs b Zr Cr + (Zs + a Zf )kf + (Zs b Zr )kr = 0
( )
& = I& & & & & & & & a Zs + a Zf Cf + (Zs + a Zf )kf + b Zs b Zr Cr + (Zs b Zr )kr = I& & & & & & & & I& + Zs + a Zf aCf Zs b Zr bCr + (Zs + a Zf )akf (Zs b Zr )bkr = 0
[(
pitch axes
] [( )
& & & (Zs + a Zf )kf + (Zs + a& Zf )Cf (Zf )ktf + (hf )ktf = mufZ&f & && & & mufZf + (Zf (Zs + a ))Cf + (Zf (Zs + a ))kf + (Zf )ktf = (hf )ktf
From the third FBD:
& & & (Zs b Zr )kr + (Zs b& Zr )Cr (Zr )ktr + (hr )ktr = murZ&r & && & & murZr + (Zr (Zs b ))kr + (Zr (Zs b ))Cr + (Zr )ktr = (hr )ktr
Zf
&& =mufZf
Zr
&& =murZr
Combining all of the equations into matrix form yields the equations of the half car model:
ms 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 muf 0 0 0 && 0 Zs (Cf + Cr ) && (aCf bCr ) 0 && + 0 Z f Cf && mur Zr Cr & Cr Zs & a C f + b Cr bCr & aCf 0 Zf & bCr C r Zr kr Zs 0 bkr 0 = 0 Zf (hf )(ktf ) (kr + ktr ) Zr (hr )(ktr )
(aCf bCr )
2 2
Cf aCf Cf 0
(a k
2
(akf bkr )
f 2
+ b kr akf bkr
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17.2) Appendix B
The derivation of the bicycle model FBD:
Fy = ma M
G
lat
& aFf bFr = Ir (2) It is possible to further simplify the equations by assuming that the lateral force is linearly related to the tire slip angle through the cornering stiffness. This is usually acceptable for
145
By considering the front and the rear tires separately, it is possible to find expressions for the tire slip angles () using kinematics.
vtf = v + ra
( 2) = u + r (t ) 2
vtr = v rb Further assume that the vehicles forward velocity (u) is much greater than the width of the vehicle (u >> r(t/2)), therefore
u = utfr = utfl = utrr = utrl tan (f + ) = tan (r ) =
(v + ra )
u
(v rb )
u
) r = aC
f
Combining equation 1, and 2 into matrix form leads to the linear bicycle model
(aCf bCr ) + mu
u (a Cf + b 2 Cr ) u
2
v Cf = r aCf
147
17.3) Appendix C
148
149
150
151
152
153
17.4) Appendix D
Critical speed calculations of 2006 vehicle
The cornering stiffness of the front and rear tires were calculated using equation 24. E = 27 x10 6 N 2 (belt compression modulus) m s = 0.15 (sidewall vertical deflection) b = 0.015m (belt thickness)
0.0254m w = (7in ) = 0.1778m (width of the tire) in OD ID (21in 10in ) 2 = 2 = 0.785714 (aspect ratio) a= 7in w ID 10in 0.0254m = r= = 0.127 m (inner radius) in 2 2 2 Ebtw 3 C= (rt + wat )2 sin arccos1 swat sin arccos1 swat (rt + wat ) (rt + wat )
(2)(27 10 6 )(0.015)(0.1778)3 C= 0.15 . 0. [(0.127 + ((0.1771)(0.785714)))2 ]sin cos 1 1 (0.(127 +)((0(01778)()(0785714) ))) .1771 .785714
1 (0.15)(0.1778)(0.785714) sin cos 1 (0.127 + ((0.1771)(0.785714))) C = 59419.5 N rad
Since the same type of tire is used in the front and in the rear the cornering stiffness will be the same in the front and rear. The following is the calculation of the critical speed.
154
(2 59419.5 N rad )(2 59419.5 N rad )(1.6256m) ) (0.715264m)(2 59419.5 N rad )) 272.155kg ((0.910336m )(2 59419.5 N rad
2
u critical
5915.27 N 2 m 2 = kgmN
( )
3.6 km h = 277.852 km 1m h s
155
17.5) Appendix E
156
17.6) Appendix F
Predicted spring rates
The following shows the analysis used to determine the predicted spring rates. The wheel rates can be predicted from the ride frequencies. 2 w front k rf = (( f n , front )(2 )) 2g
lbf in k rr = 31.1148
lbf in The spring rates can be calculated from the wheel rates and the motion ratios of the front and rear suspensions. k rf kf = (MR f )2
lbf in kf = (0.5375)2 lbf k f = 67.6295 in 19.5386 Similarly, k r = 68.4321 lbf in
157
17.7) Appendix G
Acceleration Plots
158
159
160
Braking
161
162
S Shaped Plots
163
164
165
166
17.8) Appendix H
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
17.9) Appendix I
180
2007 Baja Project Suspension Weight saving methods were investigated but were not significant enough to jeopardize strength
192
17.10) Appendix J
Spreadsheets to record the data during testing
193
Test Number
Test Date
Weight per Tire (lb) Driver Front left N/A Herman N/A 140 Front right N/A 140 Rear left N/A 155 Rear right N/A 155 Front left N/A 2.307
Shock Preload (in) Front right N/A 2.345 Rear left N/A 2.254 Rear right N/A 2.252
N/A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
2006 Vehicle
465 419
635 590
N/A
10.125
May 14/07 May 15/07 May 15/07 May 15/07 May 15/07 May 19/07 May 28/07
406
Kamil
135
129
151
152
2.182
2.22
2.004 2.017
2.185
2.216
2.503
194
194
Camber Angle (degree) Front left N/A -3 Front right N/A -3 Rear left N/A -2.1 Rear right N/A -1.8 Front left N/A 0.37
Toe Angle (degree) Front right N/A 0.25 Rear left N/A 0 Rear right N/A 0.37
Rebound Adjustment (clicks from full fast position) Front left 30 24 19 19 15 Front right 24 24 19 19 15 Rear left 40 26 21 21 17 Rear right 26 26 21 21 17
Compression Adjustment (clicks from full soft position) Front left 12 7 Front right 7 7 Rear left 0 3 Rear right 3 3
4 4
4 4
0 0
0 0
-2
-2
0.3
0.3
22 32 20 5 10 15 10 5 3 5 15 15 3
22 32 20 5 10 15 10 5 3 5 20 10 3 5 5 20 10
10 15 20
10 15 20
20 10 5
20 10 5
-1.5
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.25
195
195
Test Number
Tire Pressure (psi) Front left Front right Rear left Rear right Left top
Spacing between rotors and frame (in) Left side Right side
Notes
N/A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 6.25 6.25 6.5 6.5 0.352 0.425 0.317 0.333 0.132 0.327 Control arm rear dented 7 6.2 6 6
196
196
17.11) Appendix K 17.11.1) Rear suspension assembly Bill of Material: Picture Part Description # of part s 2 Material Specifications Supplier Manufacturer
Tire
Rubber
Tires Unlimited
Dunlop
Rim
Aluminum
ITP
Wheel Hub
Aluminum
Predetator
Polaris
Polaris
Upright
Aluminum
Outlaw 500
Polaris
Polaris
197
197
Bearing
2- Race Roller Bearing Bronze (Oil impregnated) 0.5" x 0.049 thick x 4 inches length 0.5" x 0.049 thick x 7 inches length
Polaris
Polrais
Bushings
24
Canadian bearing
Steel 4130
EMJ tubing
Machined in shop
Steel 4130
EMJ tubing
Machined in shop
Essex Metal
198
198
Steel 4130
EMJ tubing
Fabricated at Valient
Steel 4130
EMJ tubing
Fabricated at Valient
Chormonely
Aurora Bearing
Aurora Bearing
Mild Steel
Aurora Bearing
Aurora Bearing
199
199
Tabs
18
Steel 4130
Shoulder Bolts
1/2" Shoulder Bolt (length of 1.25") M10 Shoulder bolt (length of 30mm )
Fastenal
Fastenal
Shoulder Bolts
Fastenal
Fastenal
Lock Nuts
M8 Nylock Nuts
Fastenal
Fastenal
Lock Nuts
Fastenal
Fastenal
200
200
17.11.2) Front suspension assembly Bill of Material Picture Part # of Description parts Material Specifications Supplier Manufacturer
Tire
Rubber
Dunlop
Rim
Aluminum
ITP
Wheel Hub
Aluminum
Outlaw 500
Polaris
Polaris
Upright
Aluminum
Outlaw 500
Polaris
Polaris
201
201
Bearing
Timken
Timken
Bushings
12
Bronze (Oil impregnated) 0.5" x 0.049 thick x 12 inches length 0.5" x 0.049 thick x 3 inches length M10 x 12 inches
Canadian bearing
Steel 4130
EMJ tubing
Steel 4130
EMJ tubing
Essex Metal
M10 x 8 inches
Essex Metal
202
202
Steel 4130
EMJ tubing
Fabricated at Valient
Steel 4130
EMJ tubing
Fabricated at Valient
Ball Joint
Mild Steel
M16 x 1.75 RH
Ricky Stator
YAMAHA
Mild Steel
M12 x 1.5 RH
Polaris
Polaris
Mild Steel
Aurora Bearing
Aurora Bearing
203
203
Tabs
14
Steel 4130
Shoulder Bolts
Fastenal
FAstenal
Lock Nuts
Fastenal
Fastenal
204
204
17.12) Appendix L
Other Relevant information
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213