Psychology

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Psychology
Welcome to the A level (A2 level revision and AS level revision) Psychology revision section. Click on the links below to see resources for Approaches to Psychology, Key Terms, Research Methods, Studying Psychology at University, Themes, Issues and Debates,Social Psychology. These resources are constantly being added to.
Approaches to Psychology Cognitive Psychology What is Cognitive Psychology?

Cognitive Psychologists look at our higher mental processes such as language and memory.
Assumptions
The Study of our internal mental processes is important to understanding our behaviour. The human brain, like a computer is an information processor. We receive, interpret and respond to information and these processes can tested scientifically
Methods of Investigation
1) Experimental Cognitive Psychologists conduct their research under strict laboratory conditions. An Independent variable is manipulated and a dependent variable is measured. For example, the IV in Loftus and Palmers eye witness testimony experiment is the wording of the critical question and the DV is the how fast the participants estimated the car was travelling. 2) Case Study This method is used by Cognitive Psychologists when conducting research on an unusual case. A case study involves conducting research on just one participant in detail and over a long period of time. For example, cognitive psychologists may use the case study method when looking at rare cases of amnesia
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or when attempting to teach an animal to use language.
Core Studies from Cognitive Psychology Loftus and Palmer (1974) Eye Witness Testimony
Aim: To see if the wording of a question affects memory Design: Experimental Variables: the IV: The wording of the critical question. DV:the estimated speed and whether participants reported seeing non-existent glass Procedure: Participants watched video clips of car crashes and were asked a number of questions. The Critical question: how fast were the cars travelling when they smashed/collided/bumped etc Results: Participants who had heard the more emotive verbs e.g. smashed were significantly more likely to estimate that the cars were travelling faster and they were significantly more likely to have reported that they had seen glass than those who had heard the less emotive verbs- e.g. contacted This shows us that memories can be distorted after an event and that the wording of questions affects memory
Teaching sign language to a chimpanzee, Gardner and Gardner (1969)

Aim: To see if a chimpanzee can be taught to use American Sign Language Design: Longitudinal Case Study Materials: A mobile home (where the Chimpanzee lived) Toys Procedure: Washoe, a chimpanzee, was looked after in a mobile home and had a similar routine to a child. Life evolved around feeding and playing. She was trained to use American Sign Language using Operant Conditioning. Washoe was encouraged to imitate signs and she was rewarded with a tickle for imitating a sign. A sign was recorded as learnt when 3 observers saw the sign used in the correct context over 15 consecutive days Results: Washoe learnt 30 signs after 22 months. She was able to display some of the following key features of language: differentiation, transference and combining signs. This study supports the view that language is learnt through positive reinforcement.
Contributions to Psychology
Cognitive Psychology has helped us to understand the following:
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Memory: Research into the nature and structure of memory / Methods to improve memory / Explanations of forgetting. Therapy: Cognitive behavioural techniques Education: Improving teaching techniques
Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths It mostly uses rigorous scientific methods The approach has had many practical applications This area has worked with other areas of psychology to produce the following: social learning theory, social cognition and artificial intelligence Weaknesses It is too simplistic. It ignores the complexity of the human functioning. It ignores biological influences of human functioning It ignores emotions, conscious experience and free will.
Summary
Cognitive Psychologists look at our internal mental processes They carry out their research using the experimental method and the case study method Their research has many practical applications in understanding our how our memory works, how people learn, and in therapy. It is scientific, but it has been accused of being overly simplistic.
QUESTIO S Quick Fire Questions Gardner & Gardner
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Question 1
Why did Gardner & Gardner teach Washoe, the Chimpanzee, to speak using sign language rather than spoken language? (2)
Answer
Chimpanzees do not have the vocal apparatus to speak, (1) their palates are too low (1) and their tongues are too large. (1)
Question 2
What is meant by the term reinforcement(2)
Answer
Reinforcement is when a good behaviour is rewarded to encourage this behaviour to be repeated (2)
Question 3
Identify one example of how positive reinforcement was used in Gardner and Gardners study. (2)
Answer
The chimpanzee is encouraged to sign by being rewarded with a tickle for a correctly signed word. (2)
Question 4
Describe the participant in Gardner and Gardners study.(2)
Answer
The participant is called Washoe and she is a female chimpanzee (1) captured from the wild. (1)
Question 5
Identify two materials used by Gardner and Gardner in the study.(2)
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Answer
A Mobile Home (1) Toys (1)
Loftus & Palmer Question 1

In the study by Loftus and Palmer on eyewitness testimony, the participants watched film clips of car accidents. Describe one difference between witnessing these film clips and witnessing a real accident (2)
Answer
Participants were purposely watching the film clips as part of a psychology experiment and expected to be asked questions about the content of the film clip where as witnessing a real accident would be unexpected.(2) Watching a real accident would be more arousing. It would be more frightening and shocking than watching a film clip. (2)
Question 2
In the study by Loftus and Palmer on eyewitness testimony, the participants gave different estimates of the speed of the cars depending on how the critical question was asked. Give one explanation for this. (2)
Answer
The critical question varied in the verb used to describe how the cars collided. When using words such as smashed it altered the participants memory of the event and consequently they thought that the cars were travelling more quickly than when the experimenters used a verb like hit. (2)
Question 3
The table below features in the study by Loftus and Palmer on eyewitness testimony. Outline two conclusions that can be drawn from this table (4) Response to the question: Did you see broken glass? Verb condition Response smashed hit control
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Yes No
16 34
7 43
6 44
Answer
Participants were more likely to report seeing glass when the verb smashed is used, than when the verb hit is used in the critical question.(2) The wording of a question can create false memories. No glass featured in the video clips. (2)
Question 4
Identify the independent and the dependent variable in part one of the Loftus and Palmer study on eyewitness testimony (2)
Answer
IV = The wording of the critical question. (1) DV = The estimated speed in which the cars were travelling. (1)
Question 5
Briefly describe one finding from the study on eyewitness testimony by Loftus & Palmer (2)
Answer
Participants who had heard the emotive verbs, e.g. smashed were significantly more likely to estimate that the cars were travelling faster and they were significantly more likely to have reported that they have seen glass than those who had heard the less emotive verbs- e.g. collided. This shows us that wording of questions can affect memories (2)
Essay Questions Question 1

Describe what each of the following studies from cognitive psychology tells us about our cognitions. (12) Loftus and Palmer. Eye witness testimony Gardner and Gardner. Teaching a chimpanzee to speak Baron and Cohen. Does the autistic child have a theory of mind.
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Deregowski. Pictorial Perception and Culture
Answer
Loftus and Palmers study tells us that our memory can be distorted after the event by the wording of questions. For example using an emotive verb like crashed led participants to believe that they had seen glass. Gardners study tells us about the origins of language. A chimpanzee was able to pick up basic language using operant conditioning. This supports the view that language is learnt rather than innate. It also tells us that a non-human species can pick up basic language Baron and Cohens study tells us about a theory of mind. Autistic children were significantly less able to correctly answer the false belief question than downs syndrome children. This tells us that a theory of mind is unrelated to intelligence and is something associated with autism Deregowski showed us that perception of depth cues is dependent on education. It is learnt rather than innate. This was demonstrated by Deregowskis reports that Africans did not understand western depth cues.
Question 2
Describe 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of the cognitive approach to psychology. Use examples to illustrate your points. (12) Split into Point/Example/Concluding comment
Answer
Advantage 1 P Cognitive Psychology is very scientific E Baron and Cohens study is scientific. It is set in a laboratory and it is very controlled. C Being scientific increases Psychologys status as a science Advantage 2 P Cognitive Psychology has practical applications E Loftus and Palmers study tells us that when interviewing witnesses we should be careful about the wording of the question as it can distort memory. C Practical applications justify time and money spent on research. Disadvantage 1 P - Cognitive Psychology uses lots of lab research which is low in ecological validity.
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E Seeing car crashes on television in Loftus and Palmers study is a very different experience from seeing real car crashes C Low Ecological validity = Less easy to apply results to everyday life. Disadvantage 2 P Cognitive Psychology uses the case study method to look in more depth at cognition. The disadvantage here is that case studies lack generalisability E- Gardner and Gardners research involved just one Chimpanzee. It is possible that this Chimpanzee was different to other Chimpanzees. C-Case study information can only be applied to that participant and therefore findings are less applicable to the whole population = less useful
P = Point / E = Example / C = Concluding point
Comparative Psychology What is Comparative Psychology?

Comparative psychology is the study of the behaviour and mental life of non-human animals Comparative psychology should, but rarely does, involve the use of a comparative method in which similar studies are carried out on animals from different species. There has been a recent reversal in its approach. In the past researchers have looked to apply findings from animals to humans, but researchers are now taking principles uncovered in the study of human cognition and testing these principles on animals.
Animals Studied
Dogs Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments Cats Thorndikes early work on operant conditioning Rats Thorndikes operant conditioning work and current day work Pigeons
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Skinners learning theory Primates Harlows study of maternal deprivation / Intelligence in animals / Language development.
Core Studies - Comparative Psychology Pavlov (1927) Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is learning by association Aim To demonstrate that animals learn by association Design Laboratory Procedure A dog was placed in a harness and fed food in a bucket. Each time the dog ate a bell rang. A salivation recording device measured salivation Results The dogs started to salivate before the food bucket arrived, often at the sights of the food bucket or the sound of the bell. The dogs had learnt to associate new external stimuli (e.g sights and sounds) with the original stimulus (food). This shows us that animals can learn by association.
Thorndike (1911) Operant Conditioning Experiments

Aim To demonstrate that cats learn through operant conditioning (Learning through the consequences of behavioural responses) Design Experiment Procedure Cats were placed in a puzzle box and had to learn to escape. Their escape entailed pulling a string inside the box which released the catch on the door and provided escape (a desirable consequence) Results
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Cats gradually learnt how to escape from the box. Each time the cat was put in the box they escaped more quickly by using methods that had previously provided a desirable consequence (escape) and they avoided behaviours that led to an undesirable effect. This is known as the Law of Effect.
An animal's psychological condition is recognised as an important part of its well being in captivity Significant advances in our understanding of memory, problem solving and other cognitive abilities in animals The Development of Learning Theory Recognition of the following causes of disordered behaviour in animals kept in captivity: lack of stimulation, inappropriate stimulation, or over stimulation. Recognition that a dogs character and breed will determine how they will react to stimulation problems Dogs are prone to psychological problems if they are violently treated.
Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages Useful Findings. Learning and language theories. An interesting insight into the animal world Disadvantages The Ethics of animal testing. Can you really generalise results from animals to humans? Subjectivity Researchers working with dolphins and primates have been criticised for becoming overly attached to the research and exaggerating findings.
Summary
Comparative Psychology looks at animals. It has helped us to understand basic learning and it has provided an insight into animal psychology It has been accused of being unethical and lacking in generalisability to humans.
QUESTIO S
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Quick Fire Questions Quiz 1 Question 1

What is Comparative Psychology? (2)
Answer
Comparative psychology is the study of the behaviour and mental life of animals other than human beings.
Question 2
Pavlov investigated whether animals can learn using Classical Conditioning. What is Classical Conditioning? (2)
Answer
Classical conditioning is the action of pairing an originally neutral stimulus with a stimulus that reliably produces a response, so the neutral stimulus comes to produce a version of the response on its own. (Learning by association)
Question 3
Describe how Pavlov trained the dogs to salivate using classical conditioning (2)
Answer
A dog was placed in a harness and fed food in a food bucket. Each time the dog ate a bell rang. The dog began to associate the bell with food.
Question 4
How did Pavlovs dogs respond when the bell was activated? (2)
Answer
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The dogs started to salivate before the food bucket arrived, often at the sight of the food bucket or the sound of the bell. The dogs had learnt to associate new external stimuli (e.g. sights and sounds) with the original stimulus (food). (2)
Question 5
What is operant conditioning? (2)
Answer
Operant conditioning assumes that learning of an appropriate action is likely to be strengthened if the action is followed by a pleasant consequence. Operant conditioning is rewarding appropriate behaviours with a positive response or by the avoidance of something negative.
Quiz 2 Question 1
Identify the 2 different types of animals Thorndike used in his experiments on operant conditioning? (2)
Answer
Cats (1) Rats (1)
Question 2
How did Thorndike teach cats to escape from a box using Operant conditioning? (2)
Answer
Their escape involved pulling a string inside the box which released the catch on the door and provided escape. (A desirable consequence) (2)
Question 3
Comparative Psychology has been criticised for having problems with generalisability. Explain this problem. (2)
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Answer
People question whether you really can generalise results from animals to humans. Animals and humans are very different. (2)
Question 4
Outline two advantages in studying psychology using the comparative approach. (2)
Answer
Useful Findings. (1) An interesting insight into the animal world (1)
Question 5
Comparative Psychology using a scientific methodology. Outline two strengths with using scientific methodology. (2)
Answer
Scientific methodology is reliable and standardised making retesting possible.(2) Scientific methodology allows cause and effect to be ascertained in a controlled environment.(2) Scientific methodology increases Psychologys status as a science. (2)
Developmental Psychology What is Developmental Psychology?

Developmental Psychology is an area of psychology that looks at how people change through the lifespan. It includes research from other approaches to psychology, for example, it includes research from cognitive psychology on how we develop abstract thought.
Experimental
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Developmental Psychologists conduct their research under laboratory conditions. An Independent variable is manipulated and a dependent variable is measured. For example the IV in Banduras (1961) study is whether the children are exposed to an aggressive or non-aggressive role model and the DV is the number of imitative and non-imitative acts of aggression displayed by the child when no model is present. A Quasi (or natural) Experiment is where a researcher can not control the independent variable. In developmental psychology the iv is often the age of the child. This allows researchers to compare children of different ages. An alternative method to the Quasi Experiment is Longitudinal research Longitudinal Research Involves studying people in detail over a number of years. This allows the researcher to collect information on how an individual changes through the life span. It allows researchers to see how events in childhood affect people later in life. The benefits of Longitudinal research over quasi experiments is that the researcher can trace the development of one individual rather than comparing people of different ages which will be liable to individual differences rather than differences.
Core Studies from Developmental Psychology Social and Family Relationships of ex-institutional Adolescents. Hodges and Tizard (1989)
Aim To examine the effects of ex-institutional upbringing on attachments. Design Longitudinal research Participants 31 ex-institutional children. All children had been in institutional care until the age of 2. At 2 they were either restored to their families and or adopted. Children were compared to a comparison group of children who had always lived with their parents. Procedure Interviews, questionnaires and psychometric tests were conducted over a number of years. Data collected
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included: attachment to parents; relations with siblings and peer relationships. Results Adopted children were more attached to parents than those restored to a biological parent. Both groups required more adult attention and had more difficulty with social relationships than the comparison group.
Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Bandura et al (1961)

Aim To demonstrate that learning can occur through the observation of a model and that imitation will occur when no model is present. Design Laboratory Experiment Procedure Children were individually taken to a room containing toys. They played in the corner for 10 minutes while either: an adult behaves aggressively towards a 5 foot inflated Bobo doll; an adult plays in a quiet and subdued manner; no adult is present. Children are then subjected to mild aggression arousal through being stopped from playing in a room with desirable toys. They are then taken to a room with a Bobo doll and various other toys and observed through a one-way mirror. Results Children who were showed the aggressive model displayed significantly more imitative and non-imitative aggression than the other children. This shows us that children copy behaviour.
Developmental Psychology has helped Psychologists to understand: - How children learn. - The psycho-sexual stages of development. - The development of abstract thought. - The development and variety of attachments. - The development of language. - The effects of maternal deprivation and privation.
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- The effects of day care on childrens cognitive and social development.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Developmental Psychology

Advantages Wide Applications Developmental research has helped with childhood problems/issues. The use of the longitudinal method allows us to see how people change through the lifespan which provides rich information about factors affecting development. Disadvantages Ethical Concerns. Experimental research on children raises ethical concerns surrounding informed consent, debriefing and harm. Longitudinal research can be an invasion of privacy.
Summary
Developmental Psychology looks at how people develop/change through the life span. Research is conducted using both longitudinal methods and experimental methods. Longitudinal methods allow the same individuals development to be tracked, but this is time consuming and expensive. Experimental research often compares children of different ages allowing results to be obtained more quickly. This area of psychology has wide applications, but is often criticised for being unethical.
QUESTIO S Quick Fire Questions Bandura Question 1

Outline two ethical concerns raised by Banduras study on imitation of aggressive behaviour. (4)
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Answer
The children were taken from the University Nursery without the consent from parents to be in the experiment. (2) The children may have been psychologically harmed from seeing an adult behaving aggressively (2) It is possible that the children may have learnt aggressive behaviour and may, as a result of the experiment, be more aggressive in the future. (2)
Question 2
Banduras study suggests that children learn from imitation. Suggest one implication for society if children do learn by imitation (2)
Answer
It may be that children will imitate violent or aggressive behaviour seen on television suggesting that there is a need for increased censorship. (2)
Question 3
Outline the difference between the aggressive behaviour displayed by boys and the aggressive behaviour displayed by girls in Banduras study. (2)
Answer
Boys were more aggressive than girls. (2)
Question 4
In Banduras study on aggression, describe how the children were subjected to mild arousal of aggression. (2)
Answer
The children were shown a room of attractive toys, (1) they were told that they could not play with the toys (1) and that the toys were for other children. (1)
Question 5
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Outline one finding from the study on aggression by Bandura. (2)
Answer
Children who were shown the aggressive model displayed significantly more imitative and non-imitative aggression than the other children. (2) Boys were more aggressive than girls. (2)
Hodges & Tizard Question 1

Identify 2 of the methods used to collect information on attachment in Hodges & Tizards study. (2)
Answer
Interviews (1) Questionnaires (1) Psychometric tests (1)
Question 2
Hodges and Tizards study on attachments is a natural experiment. What is a natural experiment? (2)
Answer
An experiment that compares naturally occurring differences between people (2)
Question 3
What was the independent variable in this study? (2)
Answer
How the children are brought up. (2)
Question 4
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Outline one of the differences that Hodges and Tizard found between the restored children and the adopted children. (2)
Answer
Adopted children were more attached to their adopted parents than those restored to their natural parents (2)
Question 5
Outline one advantage of a longitudinal study. (2)
Answer
Longitudinal research allows the researcher to collect information on how an individual changes through the life span. (2) It allows researchers to see how events in childhood affect people later in life. (2)
Essay Questions Bandura

Bandura gathered data about aggression by observing the ways in which the children behaved after being exposed to either an aggressive or non-aggressive role model. Suggest two other ways in which data could be gathered in Banduras study on aggression. (8)
Answer
Interview/ Questionnaire/ Self Report: Parents/teachers and children could be asked questions about factors influencing behaviour. This method would not entail the children ever being exposed to an aggressive model.Case Study: Again instead of observing behaviour in a laboratory setting Psychologists could carry out research on aggressive children and explore the causes of their behaviour
Question 1
What does developmental Psychology tell us about Human behaviour? (12)
Answer
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Bandura: Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive role models. Banduras research shows us that children copy aggression even when the aggressive role model is no longer present. It also tells us that children are more likely to imitate same sex models. Hodges and Tizard: Institutional care This study tells us that being brought up in an institution at a critical age will affect childrens social and family relationships. E.g. Children who were adopted after living in an institution at a critical age had less friends at school. Freud: Analysis of a phobia Freuds study told us that Little Hans was in the oedipus stage of development. He wished his father dead and felt sexually attracted to his mother. Samuel and Bryant. Asking 1 question in the conservation experiment Samuel and Bryants study tells us that children are able to conserve at a younger age than Piaget previously estimated. The study also showed us that older children are better at conservation than younger children. Samuel and Bryant discovered that children were confused by being asked the same question twice.
Question 2
Describe 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of the developmental approach. (12) Split into Point / Example / Concluding comment
Answer
Split into Point / Example / Concluding comment Advantage 1 P Developmental Psychology shows us how early events can affect us later in life E Hodges and Tizards research shows us that being reared in an institution leads to family and social problems C- Developmental research findings are very useful and can help with issues/problems in childhood. Advantage 2 P Research often uses the longitudinal method which traces the same person through life
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E- Freud used one child and showed a child move through the psycho-sexual stages of development C- Studying the same person rather than comparing people at different ages is less liable to differences being as a result of factors other than age Disadvantage 1 P- Ethical concerns with the use of children and being able to follow guidelines E - Samuel and Bryant used children who may have been too young to understand their rights. (informed consent/right to withraw) C - Being ethical ensures protection of Participants. Disadvantage 2 P - Subjecting children to some experimental conditions may actually affect development E- Children may have learnt to become aggressive in Banduras study C Research shouldnt change peoples behaviour. Unethical.
Individual Differences Psychology What is Individual Differences Psychology?

An approach to psychology that focuses on how people differ from one another
Assumptions
People are unique!
A whole range of methods. As well as conducting experiments Individual Differences Psychologists use the following methods: Case Study This method involves an in-depth and detailed look at an individual or particular group. It is often used when looking at exceptional cases Participant Observation This method involves the researchers joining a particular social group and making often secret observations over a long period of time. Review Study
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Looking at previous work and drawing conclusions.
Core Studies from Individual Differences Psychology A Case of Multiple Personality. Thigpen and Cleckley (1954)
Aim To document a case of Multiple Personality Disorder Design Case Study Participant A 25 year old woman with Multiple Personality Disorder Procedure Information was collected from Eve White. This information included: interview material, psychometric tests and physiological tests. During therapy Eve Whites two other alters (personalities) came out. The Researchers conducted a range of tests on the alters and researchers documented her treatment. Results Researchers identified three separate alters. Each alter had separate personalities as shown by observations and a range of tests e.g. IQ test scores. The researchers named the alters Eve White, Eve Black and Jane. Eve White was demure, neat, polite and very anxious. Eve Black was the opposite, she was mischievous and had little concern for her husband. Jane was more mature and interesting. She eventually took over from Eve White, but she couldnt get rid of Eve Black.
A ation of Morons.Gould (1982)

Aim To review Yerkes work on IQ testing Design A Review Study
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Procedure Gould reviewed Yerkes work. Yerkes conducted a mass IQ testing programme on the American army during the first world war. He claimed that his tests measured native intellectual ability, in other words, intelligence that was unaffected by culture or education. After conducting his tests Yerkes concluded that people from Southern European countries and Africa were less intelligent than people from North America and Northern Europe. Results Gould reviewed Yerkes tests and claimed that the tests were invalid. Instead of measuring innate intelligence the tests were measuring cultural knowledge and were dependent on fluency of English. This explains why recent immigrants to America did not do very well in the tests. He also identified problems with the way in which the tests had been administered
This area of Psychology has led to a greater understanding of the way we differ from each other. This has been useful in the following areas: 1) The understanding and treatment of usual mental illnesses 2) A greater understanding of different cultural groups 3) This area has challenged previously ethnocentrically biased research
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Practical Applications. Particularly in the treatment of the mentally ill. Unlike the rest of Psychology it focuses on how we are different from each other rather than generalising findings to everybody. Disadvantages It is often lacking in scientific rigour. Research methodology can lead to subjective findings. It lacks generalisability. The findings can only be applied to a small group of people. Research is often time consuming and expensive.
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Summary
Individual Differences Psychology looks at the differences between people. It uses case studies, participant observation and review studies. It has helped further the treatment and understanding of mental illness It has wide applications, but it has been accused of lacking in generalisability.
QUESTIO S Quick Fire Questions Quiz 1 Question 1

What method did Thigpen and Cleckley in their research on multiple personality? (1)
Answer
Case Study (1)
Question 2
Identify two psychological tests that were carried out on Eve White and Eve Black in the case study on multiple personality disorder by Thigpen & Cleckley (2)
Answer
IQ test (1) Memory Test (1) Projective test (human figure drawing & Rorschach test) (1)
Question 3
Thigpen and Cleckley use the individual differences approach to Psychology. What is the individual differences approach? (2)
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Answer
An approach to psychology that focuses on how people differ from one another. (2)
Question 4
Define DID. (2)
Answer
Dissociative Identity Disorder.
Question 5
Summarise Eve Blacks character. (2)
Answer
Eve Black is a party girl. She is childish, vain and egocentric. (2)
Quiz 2 Question 1
Yerkes believed that his IQ tests measured native intellectual ability. What did Yerkes mean by native intellectual ability? (2)
Answer
Intelligence that you inherit from your cultural/ethnic group. (2)
Question 2
This is an example of a task similar to those found in the Army Beta Test. Task: Convert the numbers to symbols (1)
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Identify one problem with this task and say why it is a problem (1)
Answer
The Beta test was the picture test for illiterate recruits. Recruits could only answer this question if they could read English. (2)
Question 3
Outline one effect that such test items had on Yerkes conclusions. (2)
Answer
Yerks test scores lacked validity. Only people with a good grasp of English could do well in the tests. (2)
Question 4
Describe one problem that Gould identifies in his report on Yerkes IQ tests. (2)
Answer
The tests were culturally biased. (2) The tests were poorly administered. (2) The Beta test for illiterate recruits required that they read written English.(2)
Question 5
Identify the three tests Yerkes used to measure IQ. (3)
Answer
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The Alpha Test. (1) The Beta Test. (1) The Spoken Test. (1)
Physiological Psychology What is Physiological Psychology?

This approach is sometimes known as the Biological approach. This area of psychology focuses on nature rather than nurture. Physiological Psychologists study how the body affects behaviour.
Assumptions
All of our thoughts, feelings and behaviours have a biological cause Much of our behaviour has a genetic basis Psychology should investigate the brain, the endocrine system, neurochemistry and genes
Laboratory Experimentation The IV often involves giving drugs, removing part of the brain or stimulating the brain to look at the effects on behaviour, the DV. Laboratory Observations Controlled observations of our biological processes. Sleep laboratories are often used to look at brain activity. Correlations Correlations measure the relationship between 2 variables to see if there is a trend or pattern. Physiological psychologists have found a significant positive correlation between time spent in rapid eye and time spent in REM sleep.
Case Studies from Physiological Psychology Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Raine (1997)
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Aim To see if people who have claimed not guilty reason insanity to a murder charge have a dysfunction in the brain areas associated with aggression. Method Participants: 41 Prisoners charged with murder and claiming Not Guilty reason Insanity. Each participant was matched with a normal person on age, sex and mental illness, where relevant. Procedure All participants were injected with a tracer substance that was taken up by the brain to show the location of brain activity. A positron emission tomography was used to show brain activity during a cognitive task. Results Murderers brains had less activity in areas associated with aggression, self control and inhibitions. For example the pre-frontal cortex, the corpus callosum and the amygdala.
The relation of eye movements during sleep to dream activity. Dement and Kleitman (1957)
Aim To test whether: 1) Significantly more dreaming occurs during REM sleep than non-REM sleep 2) There is a a significant positive correlation between lengths of time spent in REM sleep and duration of dreaming 3) There is a significant relationship between the pattern of rapid eye movement observed during sleep and the content of the dream reported on waking Participants 7 adult males and 2 adult females Design Laboratory experimentation using observation Procedure Participants sleep individually in a sleep laboratory. Electrodes were placed near their eyes to record eye movement and on their scalp to measure brain waves. Participants were awoken several times during the night and they were asked to recall whether they had been dreaming, the length of the dream and the
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dream content Results 1) Significantly more dreaming was reported during REM sleep than non-REM sleep 2) There is a a significant positive correlation between length of time spent in REM sleep and reported duration of dreaming 3) There is a significant relationship between the pattern of rapid eye movement observed during sleep and the reported content of the dream reported on waking.
Physiological Psychologists have increased our understanding of the following: Aggression - Biological causes of aggression Abnormality - Biological causes of mental illness Memory - The impacts of brain injury on memory Localisation of Function - Damage to specific parts of the brain has shown specific behavioural effects Gender - The effects of hormones and genetics on our behaviour.

Advantages Rigorous scientific methodology. Many practical applications. This approach has developed many effective treatments for mental illness. Provides evidence in support of the nature side of the nature/ nurture debate. Disadvantages Over Simplistic. This approach places too much emphasis on biology when clearly humans are influenced by many other factors Reductionism. This approach explains complex emotions, behaviours and thoughts in terms of our biology. There may be a more complex explanation.
Summary
Physiological Psychologists explain human behaviour through looking at our biological make-up.
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Physiological Psychologists use scientific methods to carry out their research. Physiological Psychology has furthered our understanding of aggression, abnormality, memory etc. It is very scientific, but it has been accused of reductionism
QUESTIO S Dement & Kleitman Question 1

What was the design of Dement and Kleitmans study? (2)
Answer
Laboratory experiment (1) Using observation to collect data (1)
Question 2
Identify one of the hypotheses from the study on sleep and dreaming carried out by Dement and Kleitman. (2)
Answer
Significantly more dreaming occurs during REM sleep than non-REM sleep. (2) There is a significant positive correlation between length of time spent in REM sleep and duration of dreaming (2) There is a significant relationship between the pattern of rapid eye movement observed during sleep and the content of the dream reported on waking. (2)
Question 3
Outline one finding on the relationship between sleep and dreaming (2)
Answer
Significantly more dreaming was reported during REM sleep than non-REM sleep. (2)
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There is a significant positive correlation between length of time spent in REM sleep and reported duration of dreaming. (2) There is a significant relationship between the pattern of rapid eye movement observed during sleep and the reported content of the dream reported on waking. (2)
Question 4
Outline one way in which Dement and Kleitmans study is low in ecological validity. (2)
Answer
Sleeping in a laboratory is a very different and unnatural experience. (2)
Question 5
Identify two controls employed in the study on sleep and dreaming by Dement and Kleitman. (2)
Answer
Participants were not allowed to drink any caffeine. (1) Participants were not allowed to drink any alcohol. (1)
Raine Question 1
The participants were claiming the defence not guilty reason insanity to a murder charge. Identify one of the reasons for insanity. (1)
Answer
Schizophrenia (1) Brain Injury (1) Personality Disorder (1)
Question 2
Briefly describe the experimental group (2)
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Answer
The experimental group were Prisoners charged with murder and claiming Not Guilty Reason Insanity. (2)
Question 3
Briefly describe the control group in the study by Raine (2)
Answer
The control group were people who had not murdered. (1) They were matched to the experimental group on age, sex and mental illness, where relevant. (1)
Question 4
Why are control groups used in experimental research? (2)
Answer
Control groups have not been subjected to the independent variable allowing researchers to conclude that differences between participants are a result of the independent variable. (2)
Question 5
What was the aim of Raines study? (2)
Answer
To see if people who have claimed not guilty reason insanity to a murder charge have a dysfunction in the brain areas associated with aggression. (2)
Social Psychology What is Social Psychology?

"The scientific investigation of how thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are influenced by actual, imagined or implied presence of others. Allport (1935)
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This area of Psychology focuses research on our social behaviours. These areas include helping, obedience, conformity, prejudice, aggression and attraction. Social Psychology looks at the influence of the individual, the group, the society and the culture on individuals behaviour.
Assumptions
All behaviour occurs within a social context A major influence on peoples behaviour, thoughts and feelings are other people and society
Experimentation Social Psychologists carry out experiments both in the laboratory and on the field. Both methods involve the manipulation of an independent variable and the measurement of a dependent variable. Surveys Social Psychologists carry out questionnaires. Questionnaires are a useful tool in researching peoples attitudes. Observations Social Psychologists carry out observations of real life social settings
Case Studies from Social Psychology Study of Obedience. Milgram (1963)

Aim To investigate how far people will go in obeying an authority figure Design Laboratory Experiment using observation to collect data Participants 40 males aged between 20 and 50 from a range of occupations recruited by a newspaper advertisement offering payment to take part in an experiment on learning punishment. Procedure Participants believed that they were playing the teacher and another participant was playing the learner.
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Participants were told by an authority figure to administer fake electric shocks to another the learner (who was actually an actor) in another room. Each time the learner got a question wrong the teacher (the real participant) was required to administer an electric shock to the learner. An authority figure stood over the participant insisting that he had to administer electric shocks. The electric shocks and recorded responses of discomfort from the learner increased in intensity as the task progressed. Results 65% of participants administered electric shocks to the highest level of 450 volts. All participants administered shocks of up to 300 volts. Participants were observed sweating, trembling, groaning and three participants had uncontrollable seizures. Clearly participants found the task very stressful but continued to obey because of the presence of an authority figure.
Zimbardo et al (1973) A Study of Prisoners and Guards in a Simulated prison

Aim To demonstrate that situational factors (the environment) rather than dispositional factors (personality) cause negative behaviour in prison settings. This was achieved by conducting a prison simulation with normal participants allocated the roles of either prisoner or guard. Participants 22 males were selected from a large group of volunteers. All were considered to be stable, mature and without any anti-social tendencies. Procedure The participants were split into prisoners or guards. The prisoners were taken by surprise by being arrested at home and charged with a crime at a real police station. They were given a prisoners uniform and a number. The guards wore a military style uniform and worked shifts in the prison. They were told to maintain a reasonable degree of order. They were prohibited from using physical violence. Results The experiment had to be called off after 6 days because of the abnormal reactions shown by prisoners and guards.
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The Guards Participants showed the pathology of power. They enjoyed the power at their disposal and abused the prisoners rights. For example they withdrew privileges. They treated going to the toilet and eating as a reward and they verbally abused the prisoners. The Prisoners They showed Pathological Prisoner Syndrome. This included disbelief followed by rebellion. They became excessively obedient and half showed signs of depression. This experiment demonstrates that normal peoples behaviour can quickly be affected by the environment and by conformity to roles.
This area of Psychology has led to a greater understanding of how our behaviour is influenced by other people. It has been applied to the following areas: Criminology Social Psychology has revealed how juries can be swayed by a powerful juror Education Social Psychology has warned teachers about the dangers of labelling people Industry Social Psychology has helped people in industry to identify potential leaders Sport We now know more about how an audience affects an athletes performance The Environment Social Psychology has revealed that a crowd can change peoples behaviour.
Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths The approach has demonstrated the strong effect of social influences on peoples behaviour. The approach has explained many phenomena. For example Why the Nazis obeyed Hitler. Wide applications
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Scientific Methodology Weaknesses Reductionism. This area fails to acknowledge the role of individual differences within a social setting. Unethical. It has been argued that some research has been unethical
Summary
Social Psychologists explain behaviour through the influence of other people. They carry out research using the experimental method, observations and surveys. Social Psychology has contributed to many areas such as criminology, education and industry. It is scientific and very useful, but it can be unethical.
QUESTIO S Milgram Question 1

In Milgrams study on obedience, the participants were observed showing tension. Give one example of the behaviour of the participants that indicated extreme tension. (2)
Answer
Participants were observed sweating (2) trembling (2) stuttering (2) biting their lips (2)
Question 2
How did Milgram recruit his Participants in his study on obedience? (2)
Answer
They volunteered (1) after seeing an advertisement in a newspaper article (1) or through direct mail advertising. (1)
Question 3
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Milgrams study is often criticized for being unethical. Give two examples of how the ethics of this study can be defended. (4)
Answer
Milgram did not expect his Participants to obey (2) It was necessary that participants were deceived in order for the study to work. (2) Milgram claimed that no participants were damaged in the long term. A Psychiatrist followed Participants for a year after the study (2)
Question 4
Describe the experimenter (the authority figure) in Milgrams study on obedience. (2)
Answer
A 31 year old stern biology teacher who wore a grey lab technicians coat. (2)
Question 5
Outline one way in which Participants were deceived in Milgrams study on obedience. (2)
Answer
The advertisement used to recruit participants claimed that the experiment was on memory and learning, rather than obedience. (2) The participants were told that the learner was another participant. (2) The participants believed that they really were administering electric shocks. (2)
Zimbardo Question 1
In the prison simulation study (by Haney, Banks and Zimbardo), the guards and the prisoners were given distinctive uniforms. Briefly describe the guards uniform. (2)
Answer
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The guards wore a military style uniform, consisting of a khaki shirt and trousers, reflective sunglasses, a whistle and a long truncheon. (2)
Question 2
Describe one effect the uniform had on the guards behaviour.(2)
Answer
The uniform made the guards feel powerful and authoritative (2)
Question 3
Briefly describe the prisoners uniform. (2)
Answer
The prisoners had loose-fitting smocks with identification numbers, nylon stockings on their heads and rubber sandals
Question 4
Outline how Haney, Banks and Zimbardo selected participants for their prison simulation study.
Answer
Participants volunteered after responding to a newspaper advertisement asking for male volunteers to take part in a study on prison life. (2)
Question 5
What was the aim of Zimbardos research on prison life? (2)
Answer
To demonstrate the situational rather than the dispositional (personality) causes of negative behaviour found in prison settings by conducting a prison simulation with normal participants allocated the roles of either prisoner or guard.
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Key Terms Definitions

Abnormal Behaviour: Behaviour that differs from the norm Adaptive: Behaviours that promote survival and reproduction. Agentic State: When a person is under the control of an authority figure. Alturism: Helping behaviour. Putting other people before your self. Attachment: The strong emotional bond between a baby and their carer. Behaviourism: An approach to Psychology that believes that all behaviour can be explained by the learning theory. Bystander behaviour: The theory that within a potential helping scenario the presence of other people reduces the victim's chances of recieving help. Case Study: A research method that involves looking in detail at a single person, event or organisation. Cognition: This refers to our higher mental processes such as believing, acquiring knowledge and perceiving. Control: Control refers to the extent to which an experimenter can claim that the behaviour recorded in experiment is as a result of the independent variable. Correlation: A measure of the extent to which two variables are related. For example, a positive correlation is when two variables increase together and a negative correlation is when one variable increases and the other one decreases. Deindividuation: When loss of personal identity occurs. E.g. when a person is part of a crowd. Determinism:The belief that all human actions are determined by causes that are outside of our control Demand Characteristics: Features within an experiment that give away the experiment's aim. This can lead to participants displaying artificial behaviour in order to please the experimenter. Ecological Validity: Whether a psychological method/technique corresponds to its equivalent in an everyday natural setting. Laboratory settings are often low in Ecological Validity and therefore behaviour is unnatural. Ethics: To do with rights and wrongs. Psychologists must follow ethical guidelines to reduce the chances of deception/ danger/damage. Ethical Guidelines are laid down by the British Psychological Society. Ethnocentric Bias: When a situation is interpreted unfairly due to the psychologists own biases/ point of view. Ethnocentrism: Only being able to interpret the a situation from your own point of view. Extraneous Variables: These are variables that are controlled by the experimenter because they may interfere with the investigation. For instance in an experiment measuring the effect of noise on perfomance, temperature may be controlled because it may be possible that temperature could affect participants' performance. Free Will: The belief that we all choose how to behave Gender Bias: When people are treated differently or unfairly because of their gender. Gender Identity: The part of your self concept that identifies with a gender. "I am a girl." Generalisability: The extent to which research findings can be applied to people away from the study. Helping Behaviour: Alturism. Assisting somebody who is in need. Hormone: Chemicals in our bodies that can alter our behaviour. Hypothesis: When Psychologists conduct experiments they formulate hypotheses. Hypotheses are
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both testable statements and predictments. The experiment is designed to test the hypotheses. Individual and Situational Explanations: When a persons behaviour is explained using their personality (individual) or when a persons behaviour is explained using the situation they are in. (situational) Informed Consent: One of the ethical guidelines. It is when an experimenter asks a participant's full permission before they take part in the research. Inter-rater Reliability: This is the extent to which two or more experimenters, usually within an observation, gather similar findings/information. Just-world hypothesis: This is the belief that we live in a fair and predictable world Laboratory: A very controlled and often artificial environment where experiments take place. Minimal Group: A group that has nothing in common and therefore group identification is based on nothing meaningful. atural Experiment: When the Independent variable in an experiment is naturally occuring and is not manipulated by the experimenter. E.g. Gender Observation: A research method that involves watching people. Operant Conditioning: A type of learning that takes place because of the consequences punishment and reinforcement. Participant: A person who is measured/questioned/observed within research. Personality: A person's relatively stable set of characteristics. Qualitative measures: Techniques for obtaining information that assume that the meaning of the information is the most important thing. Methods include interviews, case studies, observation. Measures are usually descriptive and interpretation can be subjective. Quantitative measures: An approach to psychological information that is primarily concerned with the collection of numerical information. Reductionism: An argument that takes the view that an event, behaviour or phenomenon can be understood as nothing but its component parts. E.g. stimulus response. This argument ignores deeper explanations and is simplistic. Reliability: Consistency of measure. How likely an experimental design is to produce the same results if used again in the same circumstances. Validity: The extent to which a psychological technique really assesses what it intends to measure. Variable: Anything that varies. In a psychology experiment any measure of performance or behaviour taken in a study is referred to as a variable.Independent variable (iv): Manipulated by a psychologist.Dependent variable (dv): Measured by a psychologist
QUESTIO S Quiz 1 Question 1

What is the name given to the variable manipulated by the experimenter? (1)
Answer 1
Independent variable (1)
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Question 2
What term means consistency of measure? (1)
Answer 2
Reliability (1)
Question 3
What term refers to whether a psychological method/technique corresponds to its equivalent in an everyday natural setting? (1)
Answer 3
Ecological Validity (1)
Question 4
What is the name of the belief that all human actions are determined by causes that are outside of our control? (1)
Answer 4
Determinism (1)
Question 5
What is the term given to features within an experiment that give away the experiment's aim? (1)
Answer 5
Demand Characteristics(1)
Question 6
What type of measurement technique assumes that the meaning of the information is the most important thing?(1)
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Answer 6
Qualitative (1)
Question 7
What type of measurement technique is primarily concerned with the collection of numerical information. (1)
Answer 7
Quantitative (1)
Question 8
What type of guidelines reduce the chances of deception/ danger/damage to participants in psychology experiments?(1)
Answer 8
Ethical Guidelines (1)
Question 9
Which type of variables are controlled by the experimenter because they may interfere with the investigation?(1)
Answer 9
Extraneous Variables (1)
Question 10
Which term refers to whether a psychological method/technique measures what it intends to measure?(1)
Answer 10
Validity (1)
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Research Methods Introduction

Research Methods Psychologists carry out research using a number of techniques Planning Research Formulate a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a prediction or a testable statement. Choose an appropriate research method for testing the hypothesis. 1) The Experimental Method 2) Questioning 3) The Observational Method 4) Case Studies 5) Correlational Method
The Different Methods Questioning

There are many questioning techniques. Psychologists use both interviews and questionnaires. Questionnaires Often used to find out peoples opinions or behaviours. They can be highly structured enabling results to be easily analysed using descriptive statistics. Questionnaires can be less structured allowing the respondent to give further details. Interviews This involves the researcher asking verbal questions to the participant. Interviews range from having no structure e.g just a topic area established to being very structured e.g a list of pre-prepared questions.
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Advantages Questionnaires Questionnaires can be highly structured enabling results to be easily analysed using descriptive statistics. Easy to analyse and quantify Easy to replicate Easy to administer Interviews Very Detailed Very Flexible allowing the researcher to explore interesting things that may arise Disadvantages Questionnaires Lacks flexibility People may give biased answers to create a socially desirable response. Interviews Very Time Consuming Difficult to analyse and quantify Potential for participants to give incorrect responses.
The Case Study Method

This method involves studying one individual or one social group in detail. Case studies are often used when looking at people who have gone through an unusual experience or they are used when looking at exceptional cases e.g. looking at an individual with a rare mental disorder. It can be used to look at a broad range of traits as opposed to a small number of traits that can easily be looked at in a laboratory.

Advantages
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Highly detailed data is collected. The data is high in Ecological Validity It is often the only suitable method. E.g. Teaching a Chimpanzee to speak. (Gardner and Gardner 1969) It is the only suitable method when researching very rare cases. E.g. A Case of Multiple Personality. Thigpen and Cleckley (1954) Disadvantages It lacks generalisability to the rest of the population due to having a very small and unrepresentative sample. o cause and effect can be legitimately established. Very difficult to replicate. Low reliability Time Consuming and Expensive Problems with a participants memory distortions when recalling past events. Validity problems More potential for observer bias due to the subjective nature of the method. Can lead to subject attrition (Loss of Participants)
The Correlation Method

Correlation measures the relationship between 2 variables to see if there is a trend or a systematic pattern. In Psychology the pairing of two variables would usually be a particular individuals score in 2 variables. E.g Stress Score and Caffeine intake. Stress is not determined by caffeine intake so there can be no cause and effect from a correlation. Correlation can be plotted out on scatter grams.

Advantages Precise information about the degree of the relationship can be established by the correlation coefficient No manipulation of behaviour is required Establishing a relationship between the 2 variables may imply that there could be a cause and effect relationship. Further experimental research can be conducted to establish cause and effect. Disadvantages o cause and effect can be established. E.g. There may be a positive correlation between caffeine intake and stress scores, but the correlation does not indicate that caffeine is causing the stress.
The Experimental Method

Psychologists carry out experiments both in the laboratory and in the field (the outside world).
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Both methods involve the manipulation of an independent variable (iv) and the measurement of a dependent variable (dv). Experimental method is more controlled than other methods allowing Psychologists to claim that behaviour is a result of the independent variable. (cause and effect)

Advantages Manipulation of the independent variable under controlled conditions allows cause and effect to be inferred, although there is less control in field experiment. Easy to replicate due to standardised procedure More accurate data collected Data is more objective than other methods Disadvantages Experiments are artificial environments which may produce artificial behaviour. Field experiments are less artificial and therefore they are more ecologically valid. Ethical Problems over deception, consent, invasion of privacy, potential harm etc.
The Observational Method

This method involves observing peoples natural or freely chosen behaviour. Observation can take place within an experiment, but the term observational method usually refers to research carried out in a natural environment like a town centre. Controlled Observations measure peoples natural behaviour, but under contrived conditions. E.g a laboratory setting. aturalistic Observations involve the recording of peoples natural behaviour in a natural setting.

Advantages Controlled Observations More controlled enabling more accurate observations. Easy to replicate aturalistic Observations High in Ecological Validity This method is often the only appropriate and ethical method. Disadvantages
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Controlled Observations Validity problems. If the participants know that there behaviour is being observed their behaviour may change. This would mean that their behaviour was unnatural. aturalistic Observations Cause and Effect can not be established Ethical Concerns. Is this an invasion of privacy?
Summary
Psychologists carry out research using experimental and non-experimental methods Experiments are more scientific, but they lack ecological validity Questioning people can be a useful way to measure opinions. An interview would allow more depth than a questionnaire, but a questionnaire is easier to administer. The observational method allows observations of naturally occurring behaviour. The presence of an observer can change participants behaviour. Case Studies are used when more detail is required or when looking at an unusual case. They are time consuming and lack generalisability. A correlation indicates whether there is a relationship between 2 variables, but it does not establish cause and effect.

Identify two strengths of carrying out research using the experimental method (4)
Answer
Manipulation of the independent variable under controlled conditions allows cause and effect to be inferred (2) Easy to replicate due to standardised procedure (2)
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More accurate data is collected (2) Data is more objective than other methods. (2)
Question 2
Describe two problems psychologists may face when conducting research using the interview method. (4)
Answer
Very time consuming (2) Difficult to analyse and quantify (2) Potential for participants to give incorrect responses. (2)
Question 3
What validity problems may a psychologist face in using a questionnaire to investigate teenagers smoking habits? (2)
Answer
Teenagers may not want to admit to smoking because they fear that they would get into trouble (1) meaning that data collected lacks validity (1)
Question 4
What is the observational method? (2)
Answer
Research carried out in a natural environment involving the recording of naturally occurring behaviour. (2)
Question 5
What would be an appropriate visual display of data collected using the correlation method? (1)
Answer
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Scatter grams. (1)
Quiz 2 Question 1
If a researcher found a positive correlation between stress levels and the number of units of alcohol drunk, could they conclude that drinking alcohol makes people stressed? Explain your answer. (3)
Answer
No. A correlation does not indicate a cause (1) Correlations simply identify a positive correlation between 2 variables. (1) It may be that people drink more alcohol when they are under stress (1)
Question 2
What is a naturalistic observation? (1)
Answer
Naturalistic Observations involve the recording of peoples natural behaviour in a natural setting. (1)
Question 3
What is the difference between a questionnaire and an interview? (2)
Answer
Interviews are more detailed than questionnaires. (2) Interviews are more flexible than questionnaires allowing researchers to explore interesting concepts as they arise whereas questionnaires feature a list of set questions. (2)
Question 4
What is the difference between a laboratory and a field experiment? (2)
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Answer
Laboratory experiments take place in a controlled environment and questionnaires take place in real life environments. (2)
Question 5
Name one piece of research that uses the case study method? (1)
Answer
Thigpen and Cleckley: A case of multiple personality (1) Gardner and Gardner 1969: Teaching a chimpanzee to speak. (1)
Essay Questions Applications of Psychology

Applications of Psychology to everyday life refers to the extent to which we can apply research to real life. Use each of the following studies to answer the following question. Hodges and Tizard (social relationships) Bandura (aggression) Loftus and Palmer (memory) Thigpen and Cleckley (a case of multiple personality) What are the practical applications of each study? (12)
Answer
Thorndikes Operant Conditioning Experiments The principles can be used in both the teaching of animals and humans. Banduras aggression experiment Censorship/Preventing further childhood aggression Loftus and Palmers memory experiment Can be applied to people giving interviews/ eye witness testimony Thigpen and Cleckleys a case of multiple personality:
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Can be applied to other patients with multiple personality disorder.
Ecological Validity
The extent to which a study can be generalised to real life. If a piece of research is high in ecological validity it is easy to relate to real life. For example, an experiment conducted in realistic conditions would be said to be high in ecological validity and an experiment conducted in artificial conditions would be said to be low in ecological validity. Describe 4 problems in attempting to conduct ecologically valid research. Use either Milgram, Zimbardos or Piliavins research to illustrate your problems (12) (Problems are split into Point/ Example/Concluding comment)
Answer
(Problems are split into Point/ Example/Concluding comment) Problem 1 P - Realistic research conducted in real settings may involve distressing or embarrassing participants E Milgrams electric shock machine and fake screams were so realistic that participants really believed that they were administering electric shocks on another person. Participants found this distressing. C Distressing participants breaks the ethical guidelines laid down by the British Psychological Society. Problem 2 P - What do we mean by realistic situations? E- Zimbardo attempted to create a realistic prison, but Participants may have different ideas on what constitutes a realistic prison. C- One participant may experience an artificial experimental situation as if it was real and another may not. Problem 3 P - Often ecologically valid research is conducted in real situations and may use methods such as observation and field experiment. E- Piliavin set his research on a real life train. The scenarios therefore couldnt be easily controlled C- This means that there is a lack of control over the situation and this can make drawing conclusions very difficult. Problem 4 P - It may be difficult to replicate the study
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E- Recreating Piliavins study would have been difficult as it was set in the field and it would be difficult to recreate those exact surroundings C - It is important to be able to replicate a study to check and expand findings.
Ethical Guidelines
Describe 4 problems Psychologists may face following the ethical guidelines. Use examples from Milgrams study to illustrate your points. (12 marks) Hint: Select an ethical guideline and for each guideline explain why this guideline might be difficult to follow. Illustrate your problem using Milgrams research.
Answer
Informed Consent: Some experiments wouldnt work if participants knew the full aim. E.g. In Milgrams study, if Participants knew that the study was about obedience, rather than learning and punishment, they would focus on obedience and their behaviour would be unnatural. Deception: Sometimes it is necessary to deceive Participants in order to make an experiment work E.g. If the participants in Milgrams study had known that the electric shock machine was fake, the task would not have worked. Obeying the authority figure would have been meaningless. Protection from Physical and Mental Harm: Sometimes unintentionally harm is caused to participants. E.g. Milgram never expected Participants to obey the authority figure and administer strong electric shocks. Any harm was unexpected. Right to withdraw: Reminding Participants of the right to withdraw may affect the validity of some experiments. E.g. Milgram could not remind the participants of the right to withdraw because his experiment was on obedience and the nature of the task was to encourage participants to continue to give electric shocks. The experiment would not have worked if he had both urged them to continue and at the same time told them that they could withdraw from the experiment.
Social Psychology Social Cognition

ATTRIBUTIO OF CAUSALITY
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Theories of attribution Theory of nave psychology: Heider (1958) Commonsense or nave theories about behaviour are based on two sources: the person internal or dispositional factors, such as a persons beliefs the situation external or situational factors, such as social norms or luck. Dispositional attributions are preferred (fundamental attribution error, FAE). Research evidence Heider and Simmel (1944) found that participants described objects (e.g. triangles) in a film in anthropomorphic terms, indicating our tendency to infer personalities even when no causation could possibly be involved. Ross et al. (1977) demonstrated the FAE. Observers rated questioners (quiz participants who made up the questions) as superior to answerers, a dispositional attribution even when situational factors were clearly involved. Evaluation Not a true theory of attribution but inspired others to formulate theories. FAE is not universal Correspondent inference theory: Jones and Davis (1965) We infer that an individual has a corresponding disposition when a behaviour is: intentional, unusual, low in social desirability, has personalism and/or hedonic relevance. Research evidence Jones and Harris (1967) showed that participants judged an essay writers opinion to be the same as expressed in their essay (pro- or anti-Castro) even if the raters knew the essay was written under no-choice conditions. Evaluation Attribution may be more complex in real life. Jones and Nisbett (1971) gave additional information about essayists opinions affecting judgements. Some behaviours are not intentional (e.g. clumsiness) but seen as dispositional. Some behaviours confirm expectations (e.g. stereotypes) but they lead to correspondent inferences. Covariation model: Kelley (1967) Kelley proposed that attributions are based on covariations: consistency e.g. John always laughs at this comedian (high consistency)
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distinctiveness e.g. John laughs at just this comedian (high distinctiveness) consensus e.g. everyone laughs at this comedian (high consensus). External attributions are made when there is sufficient evidence of all three. Internal attributions occur when distinctiveness and consensus are low and consistency is high. Research evidence McArthur (1972) used sentences with information (high or low) about all three axes. Participants attributed external/internal causes predicted. Evaluation The evidence is based on artificially created situations. Real-life is different. Possible to explain the results differently, e.g. attending to salient features. We often have rather incomplete information. Causal schemata: Kelley (1972) Causal schemata (heuristics) provide rapid interpretation of ambiguous social data: multiple necessary causes a group of behaviours are jointly necessary multiple sufficient causes attributions are made on the basis of only one instance of behaviour using, e.g. the discounting principle (select most obvious potential cause) or the augmenting principle (a behaviour against the odds is given greater weight). Evaluation Can explain how attributions are made when information is incomplete. However, the model lacks empirical support. Three-dimensional model: Weiner (1980) Locus: external or internal (E or I). Stability: stable or unstable (S or U). Controllability: controllable or uncontrollable (C or U). Evaluation Includes other dimensions than just the internal/external. The model has interesting applications such as attribution retraining.
Social Perception
IMPRESSIO FORMATIO
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Impression formation consists of taking a limited amount of information and producing a global perception of another individual. Research evidence Asch (1946) gave participants descriptions of a person (e.g. energetic assured talkative cold ironical inquisitive persuasive). If key words were changed (e.g. warm instead of cold) participants gave different descriptions of the target individual. Kelley (1950) arranged real-life encounters where students were given a description of a substitute lecturer and, after the lecture, asked the students to assess the lecturer. Biases in impression formation Central traits: Adjectives such as warm/cold or intelligent have greater weight than other words, such as polite and blunt. Primacy/recency: First impressions do count, though when there is a time interval the recency effect may come into play. Halo effect: A person who possesses one desirable characteristic, such as being physically attractive, will be assumed to possess other desirable traits. Contrast effect: When an object is contrasted with something even less appealing, in contrast it looks much better. Kenrick and Gutierres (1980) asked male students to rate a blind date. Those who did this after watching an episode of Charlies Angels (with attractive girls) gave lower ratings than those who did the rating beforehand. STEREOTYPI G A D SCHEMATIC THEORY Both schema and stereotypes provide a means of organising information and generating future expectations which simplify our social perceptions. Stereotypes are more fixed and culturally determined. Explaining stereotypes and schema Cognitive misers: Stereotypes/schema allow us to conserve cognitive energy because they summarise large amounts of information. Such simplified cognitive processing depends on heuristics and categorisation (identifying groups of individuals). Grain of truth hypothesis: At least some stereotypes are derived from experience and contain some truth. Once formed they are resistant to change possibly because they tend to be self-fulfilling leading to self-fulfilling prophecies. See also confirmatory bias, below. Illusory correlations: When two things co-occur people often perceive relationships where none exists, especially when the two things are unusual such as presence of a minority ethnic group and a crime being committed. This can explain negative stereotyping of minority groups. Biases in stereotyping False consensus effect: Individuals overestimate the degree to which others think the same. Sherman et al. (1984) found that smokers estimated a higher percentage of smokers than did non-smokers (51% to 38%).
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Confirmatory bias: We seek out information which confirms rather than challenges our beliefs. Cohen (1981) found that people tended to remember data consistent with stereotypes when shown a video about a waitress or a librarian. Evaluation Stereotypes aid cognitive processing but they are at least partly inaccurate. The motivated tactician. People dont always use heuristics, they can also act as a fully engaged thinker. Kruglanski and Freund (1983) asked participants to assess the quality of dissertations attributed to individuals of different ethnic origins. When time was limited and there was no expectation of evaluation, participants were more affected by the ethnic origin of the writer. When given more time and told they would be assessed, participants thought more carefully and were less affected by stereotypes. Complex situations. Most people are aware of the effects of stereotypes and try to control them but this may break down in complex situations. Darley and Gross (1983) showed videos of Hannah playing in a high-class or run-down neighbourhood and asked participants to estimate her academic ability. If the information was minimal participants resisted the influence of stereotypes but when shown further videos (increasing the complexity of the task) their judgements were more affected by stereotypes. SOCIAL REPRESE TATIO S Cultural knowledge is constructed and transmitted via social representations. Moscovici (1981) first described social representations as shared beliefs that evolve within a social/cultural group and are used to explain social events. Social representations are more than schema because they include social dynamics. How are social representations formed? Moscovici (1984) suggested that social representations are the product of: Anchoring unfamiliar objects and events are set in familiar contexts by using known classifications. For example, by labelling a behaviour as childs play one is creating a host of expectations and understandings. Objectification unfamiliar abstract concepts are made more accessible through personification (linking a concept to a person, e.g. Freudian principles), figuration (use of metaphorical images, e.g. Freuds concept of the id) and ontologising (making the abstract more material, e.g. discussing brain rather than mind processes). Research evidence Moscovici (1961) used the idea of social representations to explain how psychoanalysis moved from a scientific theory to a broader explanation of why society is like it is. The first, scientific phase, is when scientists use the theory. Second, the ideas become more widely known and finally, in the ideological phase, the concepts are applied to society in general. Echabe and Rovira (1989) used the concept of social representations to explain distorted recall of AIDS-related information by individuals who had different beliefs about AIDS (conservative or liberal). Evaluation The concepts of schema and social representations are complementary. Schema operate at a more individual level whereas social representations operate at more collective or macro level.
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Some critics feel that social representation theory doesnt lend itself to scientific research, which may be true in terms of the experimental tradition, but discourse analysis is more appropriate. Social representation theory may be non-falsifiable because any data can be interpreted in a way that is consistent with the theory. Social representations may not be consensual, a basic element of the concept. Litton and Potter (1985) analysed the St Pauls riots in Bristol and noted that the range of explanations offered by participants showed consensus but also individual variation some people acknowledged but rejected the shared accounts.
Prejudice and Discrimination

THEORIES OF THE ORIGI S A D MAI TE A CE OF PREJUDICE A D DISCRIMI ATIO Social identity theory (SIT) Social identity is determined by categorisation (creates ingroups and outgroups, simplifies interpersonal perception), social comparison (ingroup favouritism and outgroup negative bias enhance social and personal esteem) and social beliefs (our beliefs/attitudes generate different social behaviours). Research evidence Tajfel (1970) conducted the minimal group experiments; Linville et al. (1982) demonstrated the illusion of outgroup homogeneity; Breakwell (1978) showed how group members react to threat. Evaluation Good explanation of ingroup favouritism, generates a number of testable propositions, which in turn can support the theory, and can account for prejudice in situations of minimal information. Doesnt fully explain the violence associated with some prejudices. Realistic conflict theory Prejudice stems from direct competition between social groups over scarce and valued resources. Outgroup becomes the scapegoat. Research evidence Sherif et al. (1961) used the Robbers Cave Experiment to demonstrate conflict and superordinate goals; but Tyerman and Spencer (1983) didnt obtain the same results. Hovland and Sears (1940) found a negative correlation between number of lynchings and economic wealth. Evaluation Prejudice is likely to exist prior to conflict, but conflict is the trigger to hostile behaviour. Can be applied to reducing prejudice (see the jigsaw method ) The authoritarian personality Adorno et al. (1950) suggested that some individuals may be more prejudiced, conformist and obedient personalities as a consequence of parenting styles. Research evidence The F scale tested authoritarianism. It found that the authoritarian personality had a positive self-concept, rigid cognitive style, favoured law and order and tended to repress feelings. The parents of such individuals
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tended to give conditional love, strict discipline and expected unquestioning loyalty. Such experiences would create an insecure adult who respects authority, conforms readily, and who may increase selfesteem through ingroup favouritism. A person with repressed feelings will project these on to scapegoats (realistic conflict). Evaluation Accounts for existence of prejudices and the hostility element. Sample was biased, and some data was retrospective. Questionnaires may have contained a response set. The study was correlational. Reduction of prejudice and discrimination Contact hypothesis - Contact may reduce stereotyping and prejudice. Research evidence Deutsch and Collins (1951) found that prejudice possibly increased when Black and White residents lived in separate buildings, whereas it decreased when they were randomly assigned apartments in the same buildings irrespective of race. Evaluation Increased contact may increase conflict. Forced desegregation may have an effect opposite to that intended, increasing aggression through resentment. For the minority group, integration may lead to lowered self-esteem because it emphasises their inferior position, thus creating stronger hostilities. It is quite common for people to like individual members of an outgroup, but still feel prejudiced towards the group as a whole. For example, Stouffer et al. (1949) found that racial prejudice amongst soldiers diminished in battle but did not extend to relations back at base. Pursuit of superordinate goals Sherif et al.s study (1961) found that cooperation and superordinate (shared) goals overcame prejudice. Research evidence Aronson et al. (1978) developed the jigsaw method to foster mutual interdependence. Schoolchildren worked in groups where each member had a piece of work to prepare and teach to other group members for an end-of-project test. Evaluation In Aronsons study, there was some attitude change but it was limited, probably because time spent in the classroom is low compared with home and cultural influences. Equal status When the US Supreme Court declared segregation unconstitutional in 1954, they sought the advice of social psychologists who argued that equal status would be necessary to eliminate false stereotypes. Research evidence Minard (1952) found that Black and White miners were not prejudiced when they worked together below ground. However, above ground, when their positions were unequal, their attitudes changed. Evaluation Equal status doesnt address the hostility factor from intergroup conflicts. Needs social and political change, which is at best slow.
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Equal status may be impossible. For example, Abeles (1976) suggests that even though conditions are improving for Blacks in America, the gap between the rich and the poor remains. A survey of Black people living in poor areas of America showed that they have rising expectations which leads to a sense of dissatisfaction and militancy. Challenging stereotypes through the use of advertising and instruction Phrases like Black is beautiful try to create a positive bias. Direct campaigns about the danger of stereotyping have been mounted in America, using the caption We shouldnt infect children with poisonous stereotypes. Research evidence Elliott (1977) gave a lesson in discrimination by telling her brown-eyed pupils that they were more intelligent and treating them more favourably. The blue-eyed children became the underdogs until she reversed her treatment. Years later the children said that this taught them to be more careful about discrimination. Evaluation Prejudice is inevitable. Stereotype formation and social identity are processes basic to human nature and make the world more manageable. Holding prejudices has benefits: positive discrimination for the ingroup increases selfesteem and prejudices provide a means of displacing aggression.
Relationships
ATTRACTIO A D FORMATIO OF RELATIO SHIPS Explanations of interpersonal attraction Physical attractiveness Many studies show that people who are physically attractive tend to be treated better. For example, Landy and Sigall (1974) found that male participants rated essays thought to be written by a more attractive woman more highly. The matching hypothesis predicts that people select partners of comparable physical attractiveness. This may be to maintain balance (see Equity Theory ), or due to a fear of rejection, or because of the halo effect. Research evidence Murstein (1972) asked dating couples to rate themselves in terms of physical attractiveness, and asked independent judges to rate them. He found that real pairs were more similar in terms of physical attraction than random pairs. Silverman (1971) confirmed these findings in a field study, noting that the greater the degree of physical attractiveness, the more physical intimacy was displayed. The computer dance experiment (Walster et al., 1966) did not find support for the matching hypothesis. Nearly 400 male and female students were randomly paired at a dance, and later asked to rate their date. Physical attractiveness (which was independently assessed) proved to be the most important factor in liking, rather than similarity. It was also the best predictor of the likelihood that they would see each other again. Evaluation Individual differences. Towhey (1979) found that individuals who scored high on the Macho Scale were
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much influenced by physical attractiveness. Artificiality in the computer dance. Walster and Walster (1969) found that when students met before the dance and had time to think more about their dates, they later expressed the most liking for those who were at the same level of physical attractiveness as themselves. Physical attractiveness is important in initial attraction, matching is more important later. The matching hypothesis has been extended to include matching in terms of other highly attractive features, such as intelligence or wealth. Proximity Physical closeness increases the probability of interaction and acquaintance. Research evidence Festinger et al. (1950) found that people who lived near the stairways (in the end apartments) in a U-shaped housing block had most passive contact with other residents, and had developed the greatest number of friendships with other residents. Clarke (1952) found that 50% of the people living in Columbus, Ohio, married people who lived within walking distance of their house. Saegart et al. (1973) gave participants the task of rating the tastes of various drinks, during which they came into contact with a stranger one, two, five or ten times; liking of the stranger was positively related to the frequency of meeting. Evaluation Proximity may polarise relationships. Ebbesen et al. (1976) found that most enemies also lived close by. Proximity can be psychological as well as physical, explaining by Internet relationships. Similarity Similarity reinforces our own attitudes, reducing uncertainty and anxiety. Research evidence Newcomb (1961) offered 17 male students rent-free housing; 58% of those paired with a room-mate with similar attitudes formed friendships as opposed to friendships between 25% of those with dissimilar room-mates. Byrne and Nelson (1965) found a significant linear relationship between attraction and similar attitudes when participants rated people on the basis of seeing their responses to an attitude questionnaire. Evaluation It is important to distinguish between similarity in attitudes, demographic characteristics and personality. Winch (1958) argued that people seek a partner whose personality is complementary. Theories of relationship formation Reinforcement-Affect Model (Clore and Byrne, 1974) We learn to associate positive feelings (affect) with people or situations which reward us (reinforcement). Research evidence Veitch and Griffitt (1976) placed participants in a waiting room where they listened to either good or bad news with a stranger present. When they were asked to rate the stranger the degree of liking was related to the kind of news they had been listening to. Evaluation Duck (1992) criticises such bogus stranger methods for being artificial. Need satisfaction (Argyle, 1994) There are seven basic motives or needs, each of which can be satisfied at least in part by interpersonal
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relationships: biological (e.g. eating together), dependency (e.g. being comforted), affiliation (seeking company), dominance (establishing social order), sex (reproduction), aggression (interpersonal hostility), and self-esteem (being valued by others). Evaluation Presents a one-sided picture, omitting the behaviour of other people. Sociobiological theory Only those behaviours which increase an individuals reproductive success are naturally selected (see page 108). This theory would predict, for example, that women can increase their reproductive success by choosing high-status males who can control sufficient resources to provide for the offspring. Men use physical characteristics, such as youth and symmetry (= attractiveness) as a guide to reproductive ability. Research evidence Dunbar (1995) found that lonely hearts ads supported this: women seek resources and offer attractiveness whereas the reverse is true for males. Evaluation This approach is directed at reproductive relationships only, is deterministic and based on studies on non-human animal behaviour.
Relationship Maintenance & Dissolution

THEORIES OF RELATIO SHIP MAI TE A CE Social exchange theory (Thibaut and Kelley, 1959) Satisfaction (profit) is determined by exchange of rewards and costs. There are two comparisons: between actual and expected rewards (comparison level, CL), and the comparison level for alternatives (CLalt). Relationships develop through key stages: sampling explore rewards and costs directly or indirectly (observing others) bargaining prospective partners establish sources of profit and loss commitment routines are established institutionalisation norms and mutual expectations are established. Research evidence Rusbult (1983) found that costs are only calculated after the honeymoon phase. Simpson et al. (1990) found that participants who were dating rated members of the opposite sex as less attractive, demonstrating that they close themselves off from attractive alternatives. Evaluation Mechanistic approach. In reality it is difficult to define rewards or costs precisely. The model doesnt quantify the point of dissatisfaction. Relationship differences. Clark and Mills (1979) argued that romantic relationships are communal rather than exchange relationships. Equity theory (Walster et al., 1978) Balance is achieved more through perceived fairness, as in the matching hypothesis. Inequity results in striving to restore balance or in dissolution.
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Research evidence Hatfield et al. (1972) interviewed over 500 students about equity in their relationships. Three months later the inequitable relationships were more likely to have ended. Evaluation Equity may be maintained by matching any attractive characteristics, such as physical looks, money or status. Individual differences. Individuals low in exchange orientation dont bother about equity (Buunk and VanYperen, 1991). Cultural differences. Equity is not a norm for all cultures. THEORIES OF RELATIO SHIP DISSOLUTIO Lees (1984) stage model Dissolution is a process taking place over a period of time: dissatisfaction problems recognised exposure problems identified and brought out into the open negotiation discussion about the issues raised during the exposure stage resolution attempts both partners try to find ways of solving the problems termination if the resolution attempts are unsuccessful. Research evidence Lee (1984) studied over 100 premarital romantic break-ups, and drew up the five stages. Those relationships that had been the strongest took the longest time to work through the five stages of dissolution. Ducks (1984) model of relational dissolution Breakdown: dissatisfaction leads to crisis. Repair strategy : correct own faults. Intra-psychic phase: thinking about the relationship; in private, then with confidants. Repair strategy: re-establish liking for partner. Dyadic phase: deciding whether to break up or repair. Repair strategy: express conflict, clear the air and reformulate rules for a future relationship. Social phase: including others in the debate, enlisting support for your side. - Repair strategy: outsiders may help patch things up or encourage separation. Grave dressing phase: public and private post-mortem. Repair strategy: decide on a mutually acceptable version of events; salvage friendship. Evaluation Lees model is mainly concerned with events leading up to dissolution, whereas Ducks model concerns processes after breakdown. Neither model explains why breakdown occurs; they are descriptive. Ducks (1982) risk factors 1 Predisposing personal factors (dispositional): distasteful personal habits, change in interests, poor role models (e.g. parents divorced), poor social skills. 2 Precipitating factors (situational): such as deception, boredom, relocation, conflict. Evaluation These factors offer an explanation for dissolution. Many relationships are stable despite the presence of such factors. Some of the factors are intervening variables, for example lower educational levels may be associated with divorce but not the cause.
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PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLA ATIO S OF LOVE Romantic and companionate love (Bersheid and Walster, 1978) Companionate love is an extension of liking. It develops through mutual rewards, familiarity, and tends to deepen over time. Romantic/passionate love is based on intense emotions which often become diluted over time, and a mixture of emotions (e.g. excitement and deep despair). Sternbergs (1986) triangular theory of love Intimacy (emotional component): mutual understanding and support. Passion (motivational): physical attraction, need for self-esteem. Decision/commitment (cognitive): short- and longterm decisions. Evaluation Classifications can be used to identify where changes can be made. Some of the components are rather vague. Stemberg Theory of Love
Three-factor theory of love (Hatfield and Walster, 1981) (i) a state of physiological arousal (ii) an appropriate label for that arousal (cultural influence) and (iii) an appropriate love object. See Schachter and Singers (1962) cognitive labelling theory of emotion Research evidence Dutton and Aron (1974) arranged for men to be interviewed by an attractive female either on a high suspension bridge (high arousal) or a low bridge. The high arousal condition led to greater attraction presumably because the men misattributed the arousal they felt as sexual attraction rather than fear. Evaluation Can explain cultural differences and love at first sight. May only be relevant to certain love experiences.
Cultural & Sub-cultural Differences in

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Relationships
DIFFERE CES BETWEE WESTER A D O WESTER CULTURES Individualist and collectivist Many theories of relationships are more appropriate for individualist, Western, societies probably because they are based on research studies conducted there. Research evidence Argyle et al. (1986) compared the friendship rules selected by people from Japan and Hong Kong (collectivist cultures), and Italy and Britain (individualist cultures). They found evidence of universal features, for example all respondents distinguished between intimate and non-intimate relationships. They also found differences, such as the Japanese endorsing more rules for avoiding conflict, the Italians being more concerned with regulating intimacy, and there were more rules for obedience in the East. LeVine et al. (1995) interviewed young people in 11 countries, asking them If a man/woman had all the other qualities you desired, would you marry this person if you were not in love with him/her? In most collectivist societies the highest percentage was yes (e.g. India 49%) whereas in England it was 7.3%. Voluntary and involuntary Moghaddam (1998) identifies the major difference between Western-style marriage and non-Western arranged marriages in terms of Sternbergs love triangle . In Western, romantic marriages, passion is most important during the initial stages of a relationship but in arranged marriages commitment is, and that commitment involves the entire family. Research evidence Harris (1995) found that only 6 out of 42 societies world-wide gave individuals complete freedom of choice of marriage partner. Ghuman (1994) studied Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims living in Britain and found that arranged marriages are common. Yelsma and Athappilly (1988) compared happiness in arranged Indian marriages with both Indian and American love matches, and found satisfaction higher in the former. Permanent and impermanent Social norms affect the way individuals conduct their relationships. Research evidence Statistics indicate Chinese divorce rates are less than 4% and US rates are over 40% (US Bureau of Census, 1992). Divorce is likely to be higher in individualist societies because of the view that one should seek the ideal partner. Brodbar-Nemzer (1986) found greater marital stability in traditional New York Jewish families (collectivist) than those who had assimilated more into the individualist US society. Over 4000 households were interviewed. All Muslim men are permitted to have up to four permanent wives, Shii Muslims are additional allowed any number of temporary wives (lasting between 15 minutes and 15 years) (Haeri, 1989). This means that extramarital affairs are essentially condoned and more common than, e.g. in the US where 25% of men admit to such affairs (Gagnon et al., 1994). Sub-cultural differences in relationships
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Research evidence Risavy (1996) found that men tended to display Lees love style called Agape (altruistic love) whereas women endorsed Pragma (logical love). Older men were generally more pragmatic than younger men. There were no social class differences. Haskey (1984) reported that divorce rates were four times higher in unskilled manual families than in professional families. Argyle (1994) noted a tendency for middle-class individuals to have friendships based on shared interests and attitudes, and with work colleagues. Evaluation of cultural research Research conducted in different cultures is likely to suffer from observer bias and the use of imposed etics (such as the use of Western questionnaires to assess attitudes). Conclusions may be based on small and possibly biased samples. The differences within cultures may be as great as those between cultures. Understudied relationships Gay and lesbian relationships Kitzinger and Coyle (1995) suggest that research on gays and lesbians has gone through three phases: heterosexual bias heterosexuality is more natural than homosexuality liberal humanism homosexual and heterosexual couples are basically similar liberal humanism plus there are special characteristics of gay and lesbian relationships. Research evidence Similarities: Kurdek and Schmitt (1986) measured love and liking and found no significant differences in married, heterosexual cohabiting, gay and lesbian couples. Differences: Blumstein and Schwartz (1983) interviewed couples who had been together for more than ten years; 22% of wives, 30% of husbands, 43% of lesbians and 94% of gay men reported having had sex with at least one person other than their partner. They also found that a lack of power equality was more a factor in the breakdown of lesbian and gay relationships than heterosexual marriages. Kitzinger and Coyle (1995) point out that gay and lesbian couples have to survive in the face of considerable hostility from society. The longer duration of heterosexual relationships is likely to be due to the greater social support they receive. Electronic relationships Usenets Discussion groups (usenets) exist for sharing information (e.g. about sleep problems), seeking advice (e.g. counselling services), conversation (e.g. chat rooms) or playing games (e.g. MUDs Multi-User Dungeons). Cyberaffairs Griffiths (1999) suggests that there are three types of cyberaffair: two people meet on the Internet and engage in an erotic dialogue relationships that are more emotional than sexual, leading to offline contact two people meet offline but maintain their relationship online, possibly because of geographical distance. Young (1999) explains the appeal of such relationships with the ACE Model (anonymity, convenience and escape) and Cooper (1998) uses the Triple A Engine (access, affordability and anonymity). Problems with electronic relationships Individuals may masquerade as something they are not.
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Internet relationships encourage vulnerable individuals to be seduced emotionally and sexually, and may replace real-life relationships; the latter are ultimately more complex and satisfying.
Pro- and Anti-Social Behaviour

ATURE A D CAUSES OF AGGRESSIO Social psychological theories of aggression Social learning theory (SLT) We learn both aggressiveness and how to express aggression through direct reinforcement (conditioning theory) and indirect reinforcement (social learning). Bandura (1977) suggested that there are four steps in the modelling process. Attention. If a person (model) is prestigious or similar you will pay more attention. Retention. Actions must be remembered (i.e. cognitive processes involved). Reproduction. Vicarious reinforcement is not enough, imitation requires skills. Motivation. Imitation depends on direct and indirect reinforcements and punishments. Research evidence Bandura et al. (1961, 1963) showed that, if children watched someone else behave aggressively towards Bobo-the-doll (punching it, shouting at it and hitting it with a hammer), they were more likely to be aggressive and to imitate specific actions when they were placed on their own with the doll (after being mildly frustrated). Other findings and later variations found that imitation was even more likely if: the model was rewarded the model had high status, for example, a favourite hero or heroine on TV the child identified with the model, for example same sex live models were more effective than a film or a cartoon the person had low self-esteem. Evaluation Research findings may be due to demand characteristics in an unfamiliar social situation (the children had to look for cues of what to do with Bobo). Can explain media influences Can explain influence of coercive home environments. Parents solve disputes ggressively, children model their behaviour on this (Patterson et al., 1989). Can account for cultural and individual differences between people. It explains the fact that people imitate specific acts of violence. Oversimplified. People are not consistently rewarded for aggression, often they are punished. Environmental determinism. Suggests that aggression is externally caused. Deindividuation The presence of a crowd (or group) leads individual members to feel anonymous and act according to a different set of rules than they would normally. Zimbardo (1969) suggested that: individuated behaviour is rational, consistent with personal norms - deindividuated behaviour is unrestrained, acting on primitive impulses, leads to antisocial acts. Research evidence Zimbardo (1963) repeated Milgrams (1963) obedience experiments with participants either wearing a
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name tag (individuated) or in a hood (deindividuated). The latter gave more shocks. Diener et al. (1976) observed the behaviour of over 1000 children on Halloween; the house owner asked some of the children to give their names. Those who remained anonymous were more likely to steal some money and/or extra chocolate when briefly left alone (i.e. behave anti-socially). Evaluation In some instances deindividuation leads to increased pro-social behaviour . As with obedience, an individual can elect whether to behave autonomously. Relative deprivation theory The gap between what one has and what one feels one deserves leads to feelings of relative deprivation and aggression. Runciman (1966) distinguished between two forms of relative deprivation: egotistic deprivation derived from comparison with other similar individuals fraternalistic deprivation derived from comparisons with other groups. Research evidence Abeles (1976) interviewed over 900 poor Blacks living in the US to find out why, when socioeconomic conditions were improving for Blacks, there were still so many urban riots. The respondents felt they were still worse off when compared with White counterparts whose incomes had also increased. They also had increased expectations. Evaluation Can explain feelings of aggression expressed by a whole group. Can explain why some well-off members of minority groups continue to feel relative deprivation (fraternalistically rather than egotistically). Effects of environmental stressors Research evidence Overcrowding: Calhoun (1962) described behavioural sink, a pathological response to overcrowding in rats. Co et al. (1984) studied prison populations and found as density increased so did disciplinary problems and death rates. Temperature: Baron and Ransberger (1978) linked collective violence in the US and heat, up to a point. When it becomes very hot, people become lethargic. Pain: Berkowitz et al. (1979) placed participants hands in cold or warm water. They caused greater harm to a partner in the cold water condition. oise: Glass et al. (1969) found that unpredictable noise has a psychic cost because it required attention, whereas constant noise can be tuned out. Noise led to frustration. Lack of control: Glass et al. (1969) found that when some participants were given a button, ostensibly to control the noise, they showed greater task persistence. Donnerstein and Wilson (1976) found angered participants gave greater shocks except when they had a control button. Frustration-aggression hypothesis Environmental stressors may increase frustration. Dollard et al. (1939) suggested that frustration always leads to some form of aggression and aggression is always the result of frustration. Research evidence Frustration triggers aggression. Geen and Berkowitz (1967) frustrated their participants using insoluble
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puzzles. If the participant then watched an aggressive film and the confederate used a name from the film (Kirk as in Kirk Douglas) then the number of shocks given to the confederate was greater. Cues also trigger aggression. Berkowitz and LePage (1967) showed that when students received electric shocks from a confederate and then were given the opportunity to do the reverse, level of shocks were higher when a gun was close to the shock machine. Evaluation General levels of arousal may be a better explanation (arousal-aggression hypothesis) since environmental stressors are physiologically arousing. Some events are physiologically arousing but lead to positive behaviour, such as loud music. Stressors may amplify mood (density-intensity hypothesis). This explanation combines biological and social factors (physiological arousal and learned responses to cues).
Altruism and Bystander Behaviour

EXPLA ATIO S OF ALTRUISM Biological and psychological altruism Biological altruism: The principle of natural selection predicts that individuals should behave selfishly to promote their own survival and reproduction. However, even though an altruistic act may decrease reproductive potential, it increases the survival of the genes; altruism is selfish at the levels of the genes. This is called kin selection (because ones kin are being favoured) and is referred to as apparent altruism because it is actually selfish behaviour. Psychological altruism: Altruism in humans is influenced by personal choice, empathy, morals and social norms. The behaviour of the bystander, Lenny Skutnik, who drowned while saving passengers from an aircrash in the Potomac River illustrates all of these. The empathy-altruism hypothesis (Batson et al., 1981) People are more motivated to help when they feel empathy for a victim rather than just seeing the distress. Batson claims that empathy is an innate trait, like altruism. Research evidence Batson et al. (1981) asked female students to take the place of Elaine who was receiving mild electric shocks. Those who were led to believe that a placebo drug they took led to empathetic concern offered to take the shocks whereas those who had been led to believe that they would feel distress were more likely to leave. Evaluation Developmental evidence suggests that children do become more altruistic as their empathy develops. Smith et al. (1989) proposed the empathic joy hypothesis, that we help another because empathy leads to shared feelings of joy. However, Batson et al. (1991) found those lowest in empathic concern were keenest to hear about their successful altruistic act, supporting the empathy-altruism hypothesis. The negative-state relief model (Cialdini, 1987) Altruists act because of a desire to reduce their own negative state of distress which has been created through empathising with the victim.
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Research evidence Cialdini et al. (1987) misinformed participants about the effects of a placebo drug saying it would fix their mood. They found, as predicted, that participants were less prepared to help a student who was receiving shocks if this wouldnt help them to reduce their own sad feelings. Evaluation There is evidence that people do not always act out of self-interest. Lerner and Lichtman (1968) found participants would voluntarily receive electric shocks in place of their partner if told the other girl was scared or that she would leave the experiment unless she was the control. We may only feel distress when we are attached to the other person, therefore this model cannot explain all altruistic behaviour. Explanations of bystander behaviour Bystander intervention is pro-social behaviour at minimal cost to the helper. The various studies by Latan and Darley were the result of questions asked after the tragic death of Kitty Genovese. She was fatally stabbed despite the fact that at least 38 people heard her screams. Why did no one act, even to phone the police? Diffusion of responsibility Darley and Latan (1968) arranged a conversation over an intercom between students. The empathy altruism model suggests that people are not always motivated to behave selfishly. One confederate said he suffered from seizures and later appeared to collapse. When participants thought they were the only listener, 85% helped; if there was one bystander 62% helped; with four bystanders 31% helped. It is worth noting that participants couldnt actually see if anyone else was helping. Latan and Darley (1968) asked participants to fill out a bogus questionnaire in a room which filled with smoke. If the participant was alone 75% reported the emergency within six minutes; with two other participants this dropped to 12%. Evaluation Laboratory studies may not represent real responses. In a field experiment on the New York subway Piliavin et al. (1969) demonstrated a reversal of the diffusion of responsibility effect. The more passengers in the immediate vicinity of the victim, the more likely help would be given. This may be because the costs of helping were low and not helping were high; it was also clearly an emergency and the victim could be seen (i.e. relatively unambiguous) and was less easy to ignore. Pluralistic ignorance Clark and Word (1972) arranged for a maintenance worker to walk through a room with a ladder while participants were filling out a questionnaire. Later a crash is heard. If this was followed by Oh my back, I cant move everyone offered help, whether alone or in a group, whereas only 30% helped in the ambiguous situation when nothing was heard after the crash. In ambiguous or novel situations we look to others to tell us what to do. Each non-responding bystander is communicating: Its OK, no action needs to be taken. Evaluation apprehension Latan and Darley (1976) tested all three explanations by observing participants willingness to help a victim when they could (i) see the victim and be seen by other bystanders (diffusion of responsibility), (ii) see but not be seen (diffusion plus social responsibility), (iii) not see but be seen (diffusion plus audience inhibition), (iv) neither see nor be seen by onlookers (diffusion plus social responsibility plus audience inhibition). The likelihood of help was least in condition (v) and most in (vi). Characteristics of the victim Piliavin et al. (1969, above) found that when the victim carried a cane 95% of bystanders helped within 10
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seconds, if he appeared drunk help came in 50% of the trials. Varying the race (Black or White) of the victim, or his attractiveness (presence of an ugly facial birthmark) also altered the likelihood of helping. Bickman (1974) left a dime in a telephone box. If the experimenter was dressed in a suit he got the dime back 77% of the time, if he was wearing unkempt work clothes there was a 38% return rate. Characteristics of the helper Piliavin et al. (1969, above) found that men were more likely to help than women. Bierhoff et al. (1991) found that helpers at the scene of a traffic accident were likely to have a high internal locus of control, held a belief in a just world, were more able to empathise, and were less egocentric than non-helpers.
Models of Bystander Behaviour

The decision model (Latan and Darley, 1968) The factors which lead a person to decide whether or not to help in an emergency: 1 otice something is wrong. Darley and Batson (1973) showed that students who were rushing to a lecture were less likely to help a man moaning and many said it was because they had not noticed. 2 Interpret it as an emergency (ambiguity). Shotland and Huston (1979) found that people were more likely to help in emergencies (e.g. a person needs an insulin injection) than non-emergencies (e.g. needing an allergy injection).~ 3 Decide whether to take personal responsibility (diffusion of responsibility), e.g. Darley and Latan (1968, above). 4 Decide what type of help to give. Bryan and Test (1967) showed that where a man stopped to help a stranded woman motorist, observers were more likely to do the same for another driver 5 minutes down the road. This is social learning. 5 Implement the decision. At any stage the decision may be no. Evaluation This model is a rather mechanistic approach to behaviour. People may not have the time for such apparently logical decisions and are more likely to act impulsively. Doesnt explain why people are helpful. Arousal: cost-reward model (Piliavin et al., 1969) The decision to help is based on a cost-benefit analysis, driven by arousal. 1 Physiological arousal. The primary motive is the need to reduce the arousal created by seeing someone in distress. 2 Labelling the arousal, e.g. as personal distress or empathetic concern . 3 Evaluating the consequences of helping, consider costs of helping (e.g. effort, potential harm) and benefits of helping (e.g. social approval, self-esteem). Evaluation
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Arousal has been shown to be an important component. This model does not explain selfless behaviour.
Cultural Differences in Pro-social Behaviour

Identifying cultural differences National differences Whiting and Whiting (1975) measured altruism in six countries and found 100% of Kenyan children behaved altruistically compared with 8% of American children. The others (India, Japan, Philippines, Mexico) were in between the two extremes. Gender differences Eagly and Crowley (1986) concluded from past research that men are more likely to help when the situation involves some danger, or when there is an audience. Individualist versus collectivist societies Nadler (1986) found that children raised on kibbutzim (collectivist society) were more likely to seek help on an anagram task than those raised in Israeli cities (individualist society). Explaining cultural differences Social norms and social learning In different cultural settings, we learn different social norms for behaviour. People are more helpful in rural locations. Korte and Kerr (1975) found that 70% of the stamped postcards dropped in small towns around Boston were posted as compared with 61% of those dropped in Boston itself. We model our own behaviour on others. See Bryan and Test (1967, above). Childrearing practices Children learn pro-social behaviour through parents and the media. For example, Rosenhan (1970) showed that helpfulness is learned from parents. Those who had warm relations with parents who were concerned about moral issues and the parents acted on this were more likely to behave altruistically. It is important to distinguish between a culture and a nation. Many studies of a culture are actually studies of a national group.
Explanations Of Media Influence

EXPLA ATIO S OF MEDIA BEHAVIOUR Imitation We learn to behave in a pro- or anti-social manner from observational learning and vicarious reinforcement (social learning theory). This is especially likely if the observer identifies with the characters. Bandura et al.s research (see page 28) shows that children imitate specific acts and general levels of aggression increase. Disinhibition effect The media present social norms about what behaviours are common and acceptable. Normally we are inhibited about behaving in certain ways. These new social norms may alter our behaviour. In America, the lawyer for a 15-year-old who shot his neighbour in the course of a burglary claimed that the boys sense of reality had been distorted through excessive exposure to television.
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Desensitisation Exposure to violence may desensitise us so that we tolerate it more easily in real life. Drabman and Thomas (1975) showed young children a film which was either violent or non-violent but exciting. The participants were then asked to monitor the behaviour of two younger children via a TV link. When the confederates started hitting each other, the children who were exposed to the violent film were slower to call for help. Cognitive priming Cues presented in the media may later trigger pro- or anti-social thoughts and feelings.Josephson (1987) showed a violent TV programme, involving a walkie-talkie, to one group of boys while another group watched a programme about a motocross team. Later, during a game of hockey, those boys who had instructions via a walkie-talkie and had watched the violent film were most violent. Stereotypes All media need to communicate a great deal of information in a relatively short time, so they use standard cultural stereotypes such as foreigners playing baddies, overweight people depicted as jolly, and wolves as big and bad. Such stereotypes may or may not reflect reality, and may be positive or negative. Gunter (1986) found that people who watch a lot of television hold more stereotyped beliefs, suggesting that the use of stereotypes on television does have an influence. Alternatively, people (e.g. children) who have a more simplistic cognitive style and tend to use stereotypes may prefer to watch more television. Displacement effect A media bias would be less harmful if it was sufficiently counterbalanced by experience of the real world. However, people who spend a lot of time watching television or reading books have less time for real interactions. Gerbner and Gross (1976) found that people who watch a lot of television rate the outside world as being more dangerous and threatening than it actually is (deviance amplification). Keith et al. (1986) found that children who watch far more television than average perform less well at school. Stimulation hypothesis Television is an ideal medium to present educational information, and is a resource much used by schools. Sesame Street provides preschool children with carefully considered material to promote emotional, social and intellectual development. The value of television and all media is related to what you actually watch, read or listen to. Evaluation There are important individual differences. For example, people who are more aggressive may choose to watch anti-social programmes and/or are more influenced by them.
Model Exam Question
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Social Psychology Model Answer
Media Influences on Pro & Anti-social Behaviour

Media influences on pro-social behaviour Friedrich and Stein (1973) studied American preschool children, who watched episodes of a pro-social television programme called Mister Rogers Neighbourhood. These children remembered much of the pro-social information contained in the programmes, and they behaved in a more helpful and cooperative way than did children who watched other television programmes with neutral or aggressive content. They became even more helpful if they role-played pro-social events from the programmes. Lovelace and Huston (1983) suggested three types of pro-social programming. 1 Pro-social behaviour only, e.g. Sprafkin et al. (1975) showed TV episodes to 6-yearolds, after which they had the chance to help some distressed puppies. Those children who watched a boy rescuing a puppy spent longer helping than those who watched a programme where no helping was involved. This shows that they imitated specific acts they had seen. 2 Pro-social conflict resolution. More typically pro-social programmes include conflict resolution. Paulson (1974) reported mixed effects of a Sesame Street programme that showed pro-social resolutions of anti-social behaviours. 3 Conflict without resolution. This may be better for older children, and requires someone to discuss the conflict with the child. Evaluation Messages presented in an artificial environment may not generalise to real-life and are situation-specific. Children may model the anti-social behaviours that are resolved instead of the resolution. Media influences on anti-social behaviour Correlational studies Robinson and Bachman (1972) found a positive correlation in adolescent self-reports of the number of TV hours watched and amounts of aggressive behaviour. Wiegman et al. (1992) followed 400 Dutch secondary school pupils over a period of three years, and found that positive correlations between watching television violence and aggressive behaviour disappeared if initial levels of aggression were taken into account. Field experiments Parke et al. (1977) looked at the effect of violent and non-violent films on Belgian and American male juvenile delinquents. Aggression increased on some measures in the violent-film group but on other measures increased only in those who were naturally high in aggression. atural experiments In Williams (1985) study of Canadians who had their first exposure to TV (the residents of Notel) it was found that levels of aggression increased physically and verbally. Charlton (1998) has documented the effects of Western TV on St Helena and as yet observed no increase in violence. Longitudinal study Huesmann et al. (1984) related the amount of television watched and levels of aggressiveness in some young children with the same information when the children were older. The amount of television violence watched at a young age was correlated with later aggressiveness (measured by the number of criminal convictions by the age of 30) and also with the amount of violent TV watched. This suggests that watching violent TV may be a cause of aggression and also an effect.
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Essay Practice Questions

(a) Describe one theory of attribution. (12 marks) (b) Evaluate the theory of attribution that you described in part (a) in terms of research evidence. (12 marks) (c) Discuss the nature of social representations in social perception. (24 marks) (d) Discuss two ways in which prejudice and/or discrimination might be reduced. (24 marks) (e) Discuss research studies related to interpersonal attraction. (24 marks) (f) Describe one theory related to the maintenance of relationships. (12 marks) (g) Evaluate the theory related to the maintenance of relationships that you described in part (f) (12 marks) (h) Discuss cultural and sub-cultural differences in relationships, with reference to understudied relationships. (24 marks) (i) Critically consider one social psychological theory of aggression. (24 marks) (j) Describe two research studies related to bystander behaviour. (12 marks) (k) Assess the value of these studies for understanding altruism and/or bystander behaviour. (12 marks) (l)Discuss explanations of media influences on anti-social behaviour. (24 marks)
Studying Psychology at University

What do Psychology Graduates do? Between 15 and 20 % of psychology graduates work as professional psychologists, but only after pursuing further training. 1/3 of psychology graduates go into business 1/3 enter the public services (armed services, police, NHS etc) Of the remainder, about a 1/10 teach and research in schools, colleges and universities.
Skills from a Psychology Degree

Employers like Psychology Graduates. Even if you never intend to pursue Psychology further than an inital degree you will gain wide ranging skills that can be transferred to many areas of employment. Communication - Gained from discussion and group work
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umeracy - A Psychology degree would involve some number crunching. Analysis and Critical thinking- A Psychology degree requires that you look critically at research Information Technology - Psychology Students will use IT to present your work, to carry out research and to analyse data Independent Learning - As with most degrees, Psychology Students have to manage their own time and to engage in independent learning Research Skills- Any Psychology degree will involve Students carrying out their own research
Professional Psychologist Training

It takes a long time to become a Psychologist and training places are fairly limited so you will need a good A Level profile and a good initial Psychology degree. How to become a Psychologist Complete a degree course that is accredited by the British Psychological Society. A full list of these degrees can be found on the British Psychological Society's website. www.bps.org. Make sure that the degree awards graduates with the Graduate Basis for Registration (GBR). After completing your initial Psychology degree you would then pursue society accredited postgraduate training specialising in your chosen area of psychology. This would take a minimum of 3 years.
What do Professional Psychologists do?

Professional Psychologists work in a number of areas including: Clinical Counselling Education Forensic Health Neuropsychology Occupational Sport and Exercise Teaching and Research If you think that you would like to become a Professional Psychologist you will need to find out more about what each of these areas involve. A good place to do this is the British Psychological Society's website. www.bps.org.uk
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Themes, Issues and Debates Applications to Everyday Life

When evaluating psychological research you may have to assess whether the research has applications to everyday life. Applications to everyday life = Can real life behaviour be explained using the research? Assessing whether research has practical applications 1. You must identify applications of the research 2. You must consider whether there are any factors within the research that limit it's practical applications.
Identifying Applications
When looking at Psychological research you should try to consider whether the research has practical applications. Examples Loftus and Palmer's Study on Eyewitness Testimony - This study has practical applications. It helps to explain how eyewitnesses' memories can be distorted through leading questions. Bandura's Aggression Study - This study has practical applications. It helps us to understand how children learn by demonstrating the influence of imitation. It also serves as a warning of the effects of exposing children to aggression.
Problems Applying Research

There are many problems making research applicable to everyday life. Laboratory Studies Laboratory studies are low in ecological validity because laboratories are artificial environments. This means that behaviour displayed in a laboratory may not occur in everyday life. Higher potential for demand characteristics. A Participant may realise the researcher's aim and this may change their behaviour, again making behaviour artificial and less applicable to everyday life. Questioning People may not give trueful answers because they want to create a socially desirable image. Observations If people know that they are being watched their behaviour may not be natural
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Observations lack control so establishing cause and effect is difficult. Generalisability In order to generalise results to everyday life the sample size must be large enough and representative of the particular cultural, political and social context
Ecological Validity What is Ecological Validity?

Ecological Validity refers to whether a psychological method/technique corresponds to its equivalent in an everyday natural setting Generally Research that takes place in realistic settings has high Ecological Validity Research that takes place in artificial settings or that features artificial tasks has low Ecological Validity
Why is Ecological Validity Important?

When research has high ecological validity it means that behaviour recorded within the research can be applied to everyday life. This means that the results are more useful.
High Ecological Validity

What makes Research high in Ecological Validity? When it is conducted in the field When participants do not know that they are being observed When participants are behaving naturally When tasks/settings are natural.
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Low Ecological Validity

Most Psychologists try to avoid carrying out a study that is low in ecological validity. Creating a study that is both scientific and ecological valid is challenging. What problems do Psychologist's face conducting ecologically valid research? Recreating a natural/realistic environment is subjective. What is realistic? The most ecologically valid research is conducted in the field, but field experiments lack control. Creating a realistic environment could be expensive. Not letting Participants know that they are in an experiment/study is unethical.
Studies with High Ecological Validity

Piliavin (Subway Samaritans) This experiment has high ecological validity because it is set in the field (the New York Subway) and participants do not know they are in an experiment.Rosenhan (Sane in insane places)Again this study is high in Ecological Validity because it is set in a real life hospital and the hospital staff do not know they are being observed.
Studies with Low Ecological Validity

Tajfel (Minimal groups) This experiment measures prejudice through an artificial task (allocating points to matrices) It ought to be pointed out that both this experiment benefitted from being artificial. It established that prejudice occurs simply through the creation of an in-group and an out-group. Bandura (Aggression) Again this experiment is artificial. A child is exposed to an adult being aggressive towards a large BOBO doll. This would normally be considered unusual behaviour!
Ethics
The Ethical Dilemma: How far should Psychologists go in the pursuit of knowledge? Psychologists continually seek to gain a greater understanding of human behaviour and experience for the benefit of people. Research can be used to control and understand deviant behaviours. It can be applied to many aspects of human life in order to enhance human welfare. Sometimes, however, conducting research on human beings can involved participants being deceived, subjected to a lack of privacy or even subjected to embarrassment, pain and anxiety.
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Do the Ends Justify the Means?

Milgrams Obedience Experiments Milgrams research demonstrated the power of an authority figure. His research demonstrated that given the right environmental conditions people will obey an authority figure to the point that they are willing to subject another human being to serious physical harm. This research helps us to understand many historical events as well as serving as a warning to the dangers of corrupt authority figures. Some claim that Milgrams research was so definite and so influential to the understanding of obedience that it virtually closed down the field for further research on obedience. In order to gain these shocking results Milgram subjected his partipants to extreme tension. Participants were ordered to electrocute another participant. In the process of obeying Participants suffered from extreme tension. One participant even suffered a seizure.
Ethical Guidelines
The following Ethical Guidelines have been laid down by the British Psychological Society in order to protect participants in psychological research Consent - Researchers should inform all participants of the objectives of the research. Deception- Researchers should not withhold or mislead the participants if they are likely to object to this deception during debrief. Debriefing - Researchers must debrief the participants before they leave the setting. Debrief does not provide a justification for unethical aspects of the research Withdrawal -Researchers must make it clear to the participants that they have a right to withdraw from the experiment at any time during the research. Confidentiality - Researchers must keep all information obtained from the participants confidential, unless agreed otherwise. Protection- Researchers must protect partipants from any physical or emotion harm Observations - Researchers must only observe partipants in environments that people would expect to be obseved by strangers or with prior consent.
Problems Adhering to Ethical Guidelines

Consent - If Participants fully understand the researchers objectives this could change their behaviour. This is known as conforming to demand characteristics. Demand characteristics are aspects of research that give away the researchers expectations. This is most likely to lead to participants trying to please experimenters by giving them the results that they are looking for, thus results lack validity.
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Protection and Deception - Avoiding protection and deception limits Psychological research. Milgram would have found it very difficult to research the extent to which participants would obey an authority figure without deception and without subjecting Participants to any level of discomfort. Debriefing- Sometimes this is not possible when research is carried out on a large number of people in a public setting. Piliavins study on helping behaviour used the public on the New York Subway who were unaware that they were in an experiment and whom moved on after the experiment took place.
Free will v Determinism

Some Psychologists believe that people are free to choose how to behave, this is known as free will. Some Psychologists believe that all behaviour is caused by other physical factors, this is known as determinism. Who believes in free will? Humanistic Psychologists believe that all human beings have direct control over their own behaviour. Who is deterministic? To some point, most Psychologists are deterministic. Physiological Psychologists believe that behaviour comes from the body. Behaviourists believe that behaviour comes from the environment. Social Psychologists believe that behaviour comes from the influence of other people.
Benefits of Free Will and Determinism

Benefits of Free Will Promoting Free Will encourages self responsibility and a feeling of control over our lives. Benefits of Determinism Assuming behaviour is deterministic means that it can be tested scientifically. Most of Psychology tries to identify the factors that determine behaviour.
Problems with Free Will and Determinism

Problems with Free Will The notion of free will is incompatible with Psychologys status as a science. Science assumes cause and effect. There are a range of drugs, illnesses and conditions that will control peoples behaviour Problems with Determinism
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Determinism is controversial. For instance, if aggression is deterministic, does this mean that aggressive people are not responsible for their own actions? Taking a deterministic stance on life is not good for you. When an individual feels that they have no control over their lives they are shown to feel more stress. Clearly human beings are very complicated and it is unlikely that there is one determining factor controlling behaviour. Our behaviour is likely to be controlled by a complex relationship between many variables making isolating one variable in a study very difficult. The determining factors in a study, where people know their behaviour is being investigated, are likely to be different from real life determining factors. People's behaviour in a laboratory, for instance, is often unnatural and affected by the strange environment.
Determinants of Behaviour.
Factors that are suggested as determinants of behaviour in the following studies Study Milgrams Obedience Study Zimbardos Conformity Study Banduras Aggression Study Thigpen and Cleckleys case of Multiple Personality Determinants of Behaviour The presence of an authority figure. The allocation of roles (Prisoner or Guard) The presence of an aggressive role model The diagnosis of a multiple personality disorder
Individual and Situational Explanations

When explaining behaviour Psychologists usually offer either an Individual Explanation or a Situational Explanation. Individual Explanation = Something about the person is used to explain behaviour. Situational Explanation = Something about the situation is used to explain behaviour. Examples An Individual Explanation- A person falls off his bike because he hasn't got a very good sense of balance. A Situational Explanation - A person falls off his bike because there is a hole in the road. An Individual Explanation - A child is aggressive because they have some sort of anti-social personality. A Situational Explanation - A child is aggressive because they have copied other aggressive children.
Explanations offered by Psychologists

You will sometimes need to be able to identify whether a Psychologist is making an individual explanation or a situation explanation.
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Explanations offered by the following Psychologists Milgram's Obedience Study - Situational. Milgram explains obedience through the presence of an authority figure. Zimbardo's Prison Study - Situational. Zimbardo explains conformity through the allocation of roles given to the participants. Raine's Murderers' Brains Study- Individual. Raine explains his Participants' aggression through a lack of activity in the parts of the brain associated with violence. Thigpen and Cleckley's Multiple Personality Study - Individual. Thigpen and Cleckley explain Eve White's strange behaviour through the diagnosis of a Multiple Personality Disorder.
Problems deciding between Individual and Situational Explanations.

People are often unable to tell you whether their behaviour comes from them self or the situation. This means you can not simply ask people to explain their behaviour. Behaviour is likely to come from both the individual and the situation When researching whether behaviour comes from the individual or the situation it is very difficult to separate the two factors. You can not take away all of an individuals past experiences and personality even in the most controlled experiment. Researching whether it is the individual or the situation controlling behaviour could lead to some ethical problems. For instance it would be unethical to take two people with similar personalities and expose them to various distressing situations and watch how they respond.
Is Psychological Research Biased?

In order to produce scientific, valid and meaningful results psychologists must conduct research that is free from bias. There are many types of bias and prejudice, but psychology has faced the following criticisms: Gender Bias Cultural Bias
Cultural Bias
Ethnocentric Bias The tendency to interpret human behaviour from our own cultural stance/standards. E.g. Deregowski's perception studies were ethnocentrically biased as Deregoski concluded that Africans
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who couldnt perceive depth in a picture featuring Western depth cues lacked education. Generalising findings ascertained from one culture to another culture. E.g. Most of the research on helping behaviour involves white Americans. Conclusions, therefore, can not be generalised to other cultures as factors affecting helping behaviour may be culturally determined.
Causes of Cultural Bias

Most researchers are white Europeans and white north Americans. There is a lack of researchers from a range of cultures Researchers are sometimes unable to suspend their own biases which could lead to bias in the interpretation of results or even an abuse of the results to fuel prejudice. E.g. Goulds A Nation of Morons documents Yerks IQ testing that was conducted in an unfair way that meant that Africans had a poorer IQ. This research was then used to influence government policy. This has been termed Scientific Racism. Most participants are white Americans and white Europeans. Cross Cultural research is difficult to conduct as researchers still struggle to suspend their own biases. Cross Cultural research is expensive, time consuming and faces language barriers. The use of unfamiliar and alien materials could have a significant effect on participants' performance.
Gender Bias
Gender Bias in Psychology The tendency to hold prejudiced views based on gender that may influence the interpretation of research and the formation of hypotheses Generalising results from one gender to another
Causes of Gender Bias

Fewer female psychologists in senior research positions. Researchers being unable or unwilling to suspend prejudiced attitudes leading to misinterpretation of results, tests that benefit one gender and the use of psychology to reinforce prejudiced attitudes. Historically most research has involved male participants Equal Opportunities Legislation, changing attitudes and the growth of women in the field has meant that gender bias in psychology is becoming less frequent and less of a problem.
Examples of Gender Bias in Psychology

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Some claim that Bowlby and Freuds research has been constructed to reinforce male dominance and female inferiority. Bowlbys Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis could be interpreted as suggesting that women should stay at home and look after their children rather than pursue career opportunities. Freuds penis envy suggests that women are sexually inferior to men. Many important and influential psychology experiments use only male participants. (Milgram, Zimardo, Tajfel, Sherif, Asch, Kohlberg)
Is Psychology a Science? What is a Science?

A Science consists of: Sound theories and hypotheses A Subject Matter Rigorous Methodology ( e.g. fair, objective, controlled, replicable)
Are Psychology's Theories and Hypotheses Sound?

Sound Theories are : Easy to Understand Formulated as Predictions Useful Arguments Against Psychological Theories being Sound Some Psychology doesnt predict anything. Psychoanalysis tends to explain an individuals behaviour after an event which isnt very useful in predicting behaviour. Humanistic Psychology does not try to have sound theories or hypotheses. Humanistic Psychologists argue that each individual is unique and they would rarely try to predict human behaviour. Arguments For Psychological Theories being Sound Cognitive, Social and Physiological Psychology have sound theories that are easy to understand, constructed as predictions and have practical uses.
Does Psychology have a Subject Matter?

To have a Subject Matter, there must be some agreement about what is studied, how it is studied and some shared basic assumptions.
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E.g. Most people would agree that Biology is a science and therefore it must have a subject matter. Biologists agree to study living organisms and they study their subject matter through doing experiments. They also tend to agree how living organisms function. Arguments For Psychology having a Subject Matter Most Psychologists would agree that their subject matter is the mind and behaviour. Arguments Against Psychology having a Subject Matter Many people would argue that Psychologists do not share assumptions and methods. There are many conflicting approaches to studying behaviour. Physiological Psychologists believe that behaviour is a result of our physiology whereas Social Psychologists would explain behaviour through the influence of other people.
Is Psychological Methodology Rigorous?

For Many Psychologists (Behaviourist, Cognitive, Social and Physiological) attempt to conduct research in controlled laboratory environments. They use objective methods that are free from bias. Their procedure is standardised. Psychological experimental research, like other scientific research, involves the manipulation of one variable (the independent variable) and the measure of another variable (the dependent variable) to establish cause and effect. Control groups are often used. These control groups are not exposed to the manipulation of the independent variable providing a comparison group and a higher level of control Against Many Psychologists would argue that the use of rigorous methodology is unsuitable for the study of the human mind. Some Psychologists use unscientific methods to conduct research. The use of more qualitativ,e methods such as the case study, can lack scientific rigour. Some Psychological research has been criticised for lacking validity and from being subject to experimenter bias.
Psychometrics
Psychometric tests measure psychological abilities and/or characteristics. Psychological characteristics - personality Psychological abilities- intelligence.
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Psychometric tests are used in a variety of settings such as in job interviews.
Psychometric Tests in Psychological Studies

Many psychological studies use psychometric tests. Below are some examples of tests used in well known studies: Hodges and Tizard (social and family relationships) Rutter B Test This test identifies psychiatric problems such as anxiety, paranoia and depression. Gould (Review of IQ testing) IQ Tests - Gould reviews IQ tests used by Yerkes. IQ tests are used to measure intelligence. Thigpen and Cleckley (A case of multiple personality) IQ Tests IQ tests showed that Eve White had a higher IQ than Eve Black. Memory Tests Memory tests showed that Eve White had a good memory and Eve Black had a reasonable memory. Rorschach Test - This test identified Eve Whites anxiety and obsessive compulsive traits. Personality Test This test highlighted the differences in personality between the alters.
Strengths
They are fairly easy to administer - They mostly come in a questionnaire format. They are cheap to conduct. Once you have purchased the test very little materials/personnel are needed. They provide quantitative information about a person's abilities and characteristics allowing comparisions between people to be drawn. They can be used in a variety of professional settings. They enable people to predict future behaviour/ability. This is particularly useful in a job interview setting.
Weaknesses
Validity Problems Problems within the test itself. Sometimes Psychometric tests don't actually measure what they set out to measure.
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Participants do not always give truthful responses. For instance, participants may choose to give socially desirable responses in a personality test. People may get better through practice which could mean, for instance, that participants would have an artificially high intelligence test score. Some tests are biased towards one group of people. For example, Yerke's IQ tests favoured Native Americans by measuring cultural information rather than IQ. Reliability Problems Mood can affect peoples scores. For example, if somebody was feeling tired they might not try as hard. This coud mean that the test produces different results when used at different times.
Qualitative v Quantitative
Psychologists collect information about people using both qualitative and quantitative measures. Qualitative Measures - The information gathered will not contain any numbers, but instead will feature descriptions. Quantitative Measures - Information gathered will be numerical.
Methodology
The methods below feature predominately qualitative or quantitative measures. There are exceptions; it is possible that an experiment could collect descriptions of behaviour and a case study could involve the collection of numerical data. Qualitative Methods Interview Unstructured observation Case study. Quantitative Methods Experiment Questionnaire Correlation Structured observation.
Qualitative Strengths and Weaknesses

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Strengths Can be used to answer questions about what motivates behaviour rather than simply counting behaviours Rich in detail Can be used to collect rich information on rare conditions/cases Weaknesses Open to interpretation/subjectivity Difficult to analyse Time consuming to collect
Quantitative Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths Easy to collect Easy to analyse/make comparisons Weaknesses Lacking in detail Simply recording numbers of behaviours does not address what motivates behaviour.
Reductionism V Holism
Reductionism is explaining complex human behaviour in a simplistic way usually by focusing on one single factor. Holism is explaining complex human behaviour by looking at how a number of factors interact to produce that behaviour Examples A reductionist explanation for aggression is that the perpetrator has copied the behaviour and a holistic explanation would be that this behaviour has come from an interaction between a number of development and biological factors.
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Examples of "reducing behaviour"

Most of Psychology is reductionist. The studies below reduce behaviour to one simple factor. Examples of Reductionism Loftus and Palmer (Eye witness testimony) Problems in eye witness testimony is explained by and reduced to the wording of questions. Tajfel (Minimal groups) This study explains and reduces prejudice to simply the act of putting people into groups Raine (murderers' brains) This study explains and reduces murder to a lack of activity in the parts of the brain associated with aggression.
For and Against Reductionism

For Reductionism Reductionist explanations enable a scientific approach because it makes concepts easier to test in a experimental setting. For instance, if you assume that one factor causes behaviour, it is relatively easy to isolate that one factor and perform controlled tests on the effects of that one factor. Against Reductionism Human beings are very complex and it is very unlikely that all human behaviour can be explained on such a simple level.
Reliability
Reliability is the extent to which a measurement tool is consistent. For a measurement tool to be reliable it would give you the same results if you tested the same person over a long period of time. In an observation reliability is achieved if several observers record the same behaviour.
Assessing Reliability
When assessing whether a study has reliability the following factors should be considered:
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Is there a standardised procedure/set of instructions? Is the study free from bias? Is there inter-rater reliability? (reliability between researchers) Has inter-rater reliability been tested? Is data interpretation standardised?
The ature- urture Debate

This debate is very important in Psychology it concerns the relative importance of the influence of nature or nurture in explaining human behaviour. ature = Inherited influences such as our genes and physiological make-up urture = How life has influenced us through our experiences This debate can be applied to many aspects of human life. 1. Are people born clever or do they become clever through hard work and good teaching? 2. Are criminals born with a tendency to commit crime or do they commit crime because they have lived an impoverished life?
Evidence for ature

Twin and Adoption studies indicate that identical twins reared separately share many inherited similarities. There are genetic links to various conditions that influence behaviour such as schizophrenia There is a wealth of research demonstrating the link between hormones and aggression Biochemical theory of gender identity suggests that we acquire our gender identities through genetic and hormonal factors rather than through socialisation.
Evidence for urture

Some Psychologists regard the mind as a blank slate at birth and therefore all knowledge and understanding is ascertained through life experience. The social learning theory suggests that we learn through observation and imitation. Operant and classical conditioning techniques demonstrate that behaviour can be easily influenced
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by the environment. Environmental Psychologists have conducted a weatlth of research that demonstrate the influence of the environment on peoples performance, health and social behaviour.
Problems Investigating ature- urture

Ethical Restrictions -It would be ethically challenging to rear two identical twins separately in order to establish the relative influence of nature and nurture. Control - Controlled experiments are virtually impossible. For example, how can you isolate all nurture influences. When establishing relationships between parents and children you still can not conclude that nature is having an influence because it could be that similarities are down to the way in which children are brought up. Nurture can affect Nature! - The environment can change the way our bodies work. For example, drug and alcohol abuse can affect the way in which our brains function.
The Approaches Stance on ature- urture

ature Physiological/Biological. Psychologists taking this approach believe that behaviour can be explained via innate influences such as hormones and genetic influences Psychoanalysis - Psychologists taking this approach believe that behaviour is controlled by the innate aggression and sex drives. They do recognise that society restricts these drives and that these drives are controlled via the ego and the supergo urture Behaviourism - Behaviourists believe that human behaviour is learnt Humanism - This area of psychology explores the impact of a wide range of social and environmental influences on human behaviour. Developmental - Psychologists looking at development have explored many developmental factors, such as child rearing practices and the influence of role models, all of which have shaped human behaviour. Social - Social psychologists have identified the profound influence of other people and social phenomena such as conformity and group behaviour on our behaviour. An Interaction between ature and urture Cognitive - Cognitive psychology looks at innate cognitive abilities, but recognises that experience shapes these abilities.
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Conclusions
Some research shows that nature is paramount whereas other research shows the profound influence of nurture. As with many debates there is also a wealth of research and a widely accepted believe that human experience is made up of an interaction between both nature and nurture influences.
Validity
Validity is the extent to which a measure/test measures what is is intending to measure. Internal Validity Whether the results can be attributed to the independent variable External Validity Whether the results can be generalised to different environments.
Validity Problems
Psychologists seek to make research as valid as possible, but they face a number of validity threats: Whether a test really measures what it claims to measure Whether the participant's behaviour is coming from factors other than the independent variable. Order effects, demand characteristics or experimenter bias) Whether the artifical nature of the test is affecting participants behaviour. (Ecological validity)

Identify 2 problems Psychologists face making their research applicable to everyday life.
Answer
Any 2 of the following problems: Ecological validity. Behaviour displayed in a laboratory may not occur in everyday life. Demand characteristics. A Participant may realise the researcher's aim and this may change their behaviour, again making behaviour artificial and less applicable to everyday life. Social Desirability. People may not give trueful answers because they want to create a socially desirable image
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Observer Effect. If people know that they are being watched their behaviour may not be natural Level of Control. Observations lack control so establishing cause and effect is difficult. Generalisability. In order to generalise results to everyday life the sample size must be large enough and representative of the particular cultural, political and social context
Question 2
What two things should be considered when assessing the extent to which research has practical applications?
Answer
1. The research's practical applications of the research 2. Whether there are any factors within the research that limit it's practical applications.
Question 3
What practical application does Loftus and Palmer's study on eye witness testimony have in a criminal/courtroom scenario?
Answer
Loftus and Palmer's study warns us that leading questions can distort a person's memory. Professionals working with eye witnesses have to be careful not to alter eye witness testimony's through leading questions.
Question 4
Describe a practical application of Bandura's research on imitation of aggression.
Answer
It warns us that children copy behaviour. This highlights the importance of not exposing children to aggression. This research is useful in parenting and censorship laws.
Question 5
Identify a practical application of Hodges and Tizard's research on social relationships.
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Answer
This research is useful to social workers. It highlights the importance of attachment to a care giver at a young age.
Quiz 2 Question 1
What is the name of the ethical guideline that advises that researchers should inform all participants of the objectives of the research?
Answer
Consent
Question 2
What is the name of the ethical guideline that advises that researchers should not withhold or mislead the participants if participants are likely to object to this deception during debrief?
Answer
Deception
Question 3
Which ethical guidelines does Milgram break in his obedience study?
Answer
Protection - Milgram subjected his participants to extreme tension. Participants were ordered to electrocute another participant. In the process of obeying Participants suffered from extreme tension. One participant even suffered a seizure. Deception - The participants were told that they were electrocuting another participant. Withdraw - The participants were not told of their right to withdraw. Even when they pleaded to stop they were told that they must continue.
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Question 4
Describe the ethical guideline concerning observational research.
Answer
Researchers must only observe participants in environments where people expect to be observed by strangers or with prior consent.
Question 5
Identify which guideline is difficult to follow because of the reason below? When research is carried out on a large number of people in a public setting participants are unaware that they are in an experiment and they may moved on after the experiment takes place.
Answer
Debriefing
Quiz 3 Question 1
What is the difference between an individual explanation and a situational explanation?
Answer
An individual explanation is when something about a person is used to explain behaviour and a situational explanation is when something about a situation is used to explain behaviour
Question 2
Is the explanation below an individual or a situational explanation? Milgram explains obedience through the presence of an authority figure.
Answer
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Situational
Question 3
Is the explanation below an individual or a situational explanation? Raine explains his Participants' aggression through a lack of activity in the parts of the brain associated with violence.
Answer
Individual
Question 4
Describe 3 problems Psychologists face when they try to establish whether behaviour is a result of individual or situational factors.
Answer
People are often unable to tell you whether their behaviour comes from them self or the situation. This means you can not simply ask people to explain their behaviour. Behaviour is likely to come from both the individual and the situation When researching whether behaviour comes from the individual or the situation it is very difficult to separate the two factors. You can not take away all of an individuals past experiences and personality even in the most controlled experiment. Researching whether it is the individual or the situation controlling behaviour could lead to some ethical problems. For instance it would be unethical to take two people with similar personalities and expose them to various distressing situations and watch how they respond.
Question 5
A teacher claims that a child in her class is aggressive because they have copied another aggressive child in the class. Is she making an individual or a situational explanation?
Answer
Situational
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Quiz 4 Question 1
What 3 things make a science?
Answer
1) A Subject Matter 2) Sound theories and hypotheses 3) Rigorous Methodology
Question 2
What is psychology's subject matter?
Answer
The mind and behaviour.
Question 3
What makes a theory sound?
Answer
1. Easy to Understand 2. Formulated as Predictions 3. Useful
Question 4
What makes methodology rigorous?
Answer
Methodology that is fair, objective, controlled, replicable.
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Question 5
Is there a consensus of opinion over whether psychology is a science?
Answer
No
Quiz 5 Question 1
What is a qualitative measure?
Answer
The information gathered will not contain any numbers, but instead will feature descriptions.
Question 2
What is a quantitative measure?
Answer
Information gathered will be numerical.
Question 3
Interviews usually gather qualitative or quantitative information?
Answer
Qualitative
Question 4
Experiments usually gather qualitative or quantitative information?
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Answer
Quantitative
Question 5
Which type of information can be difficult to analyse - qualitative or quantitative?
Answer
Qualitative
Quiz 6 Question 1
What is the term given to the extent to which a measurement tool is consistent?
Answer
Reliability
Question 2
Is a measurement tool reliable if it gives you the same results, if you tested the same person over a long period of time?
Answer
Yes
Question 3
Would a standardised procedure increase or decrease a study's reliability?
Answer
Increase
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Question 4
What is inter-rater reliability?
Answer
Reliability between 2 or more observers
Question 5
True or false ? Experiments and questionnaires are usually unreliable.
Answer
False
Quiz 7 Question 1
What is the name of the term given to the extent to which a measure/test measures what is is intending to measure?
Answer
Validity
Question 2
What is the term given to whether the results can be attributed to the independent variable?
Answer
Internal Validity
Question 3
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What is the name given to the term that means whether the results can be generalised to different environments?
Answer
External Validity
Question 4
What other factors within an experiment could influence the independent variable?
Answer
Order effects, demand characteristics or experimenter bias
Question 5
What is Ecological Validity?
Answer
When a piece of research is easy to relate to everyday life.
Quiz 8 Question 1
Research done in the field is considered high in ecological validity. True or False?
Answer
True
Question 2
When participants are behaving naturally the research is considered low in ecological validity. True or false?
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Answer
False
Question 3
When the research setting is natural, the research is considered to have low ecological validity. True or false?
Answer
False
Question 4
Why is creating a realistic environment within an experiment difficult?
Answer
A realistic environment is subjective. What 2 people consider to be realistic could be different.
Question 5
What guidelines would you break if you carried out an observation without the consent of your participants?
Answer
Ethical Guidelines
Quiz 9 Question 1
What is the term given to the belief that people are free to choose how to behave?
Answer
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Free Will
Question 2
What is the name given to the belief that all behaviour is caused by physical factors?
Answer
Determinism
Question 3
Who believes in free will?
Answer
Humanistic Psychologists
Question 4
What is suggesting to be the determining factor in Milgrams Obedience Study?
Answer
The presence of an authority figure.
Question 5
What is the factor determining the children's behaviour in Banduras aggression study?
Answer
The presence of an aggressive role model
Quiz 10 Question 1
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What is the term given to the tendency to interpret human behaviour from our own cultural stance/standards?
Answer
Ethnocentric bias
Question 2
What is the term given to the tendency to hold prejudiced or stereotypical views based on gender that may influence the interpretation of research and the formulation of hypotheses?
Answer
Gender bias
Question 3
Is Bowlby's research considered to be ethnocentrically biased or gender biased?
Answer
Gender Biased. Bowlbys Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis could be interpreted as suggesting that women should stay at home and look after their children.
Question 4
Why have the following Psychologists been accused of conducting research that is gender biased? Milgram, Zimardo, Tajfel, Sherif, Asch, Kohlberg.
Answer
All of the Psychologists have carried out important and influential experiments using only male participants.
Question 5
Why was Yerks accused of carrying out ethnocentrically biased research?
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Answer
Yerks conducted research in an unfair way that meant that Africans were labelled as having a poorer IQ.
Quiz 11 Question 1
What do Psychometric tests measure?
Answer
Psychological abilities and/or characteristics.
Question 2
What type of psychometric test did Hodges and Tizard use in their study on family relationships?
Answer
Rutter B Test This test identifies psychiatric problems such as anxiety, paranoia and depression.
Question 3
What did Yerkes measure in his famous experiments on the US army?
Answer
IQ
Question 4
Psychometric tests enable people to predict future behaviour. True or false?
Answer
True
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Question 5
Is this a validity or a reliability problem? If somebody was feeling tired they might not try as hard. This could mean that the test produces different results when used at different times.
Answer
A reliability problem
Quiz 12 Question 1
What is the name of the term given to explaining complex human behaviour in a simplistic way?
Answer
Reductionism
Question 2
What is the name of the term given to explaining complex human behaviour by looking at how a number of factors interact to produce that behaviour?
Answer
Holism
Question 3
How is Raine's study on brain abnormalities in murderers reductionist?
Answer
This study explains and reduces murder to a lack of activity in the parts of the brain associated with aggression.
Question 4
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How is Tajfel's minimal group study reductionist?
Answer
This study explains and reduces prejudice to simply the act of putting people into groups
Question 5
Is the following statement an argument for or against reductionism? Human beings are very complex and it is very unlikely that all human behaviour can be explained on such a simple level
Answer
Against
Quiz 13 Question 1
What is the nature-nurture debate?
Answer
The debate concerns the relative importance of the influence of nature or nurture in explaining human behaviour. Nature is inherited influences such as our genes and physiological make-up and nurture is how life has influenced us through our experiences.
Question 2
Does this statement support the nature or nurture stance? There are genetic links to various conditions that influence behaviour such as schizophrenia.
Answer
Nature
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Question 3
Does this statement support the nature or nurture stance? Social psychologists have identified the profound influence of other people and social phenomena such as conformity and group behaviour on our behaviour.
Answer
Nurture
Question 4
Does behaviourism support nature or nurture?
Answer
Nurture. Behaviourists believe that human behaviour is learnt.
Question 5
What is the biochemical theory of gender identity?
Answer
Biochemical theory of gender identity suggests that we acquire our gender identities through genetic and hormonal factors rather than through socialisation.
Useful LI KS
A Level Psychology - Psychology News and Resources for students and teachers of A Level Psychology. All About Psychology - Written and regularly updated by a lecturer in psychology, this website is designed to help anybody looking for informed and detailed information on psychology. Bluffers Guide to Psychologyde.htm - Philip Banyard, a well known Psychologist/ Chief Examiner/Author has put together the Bluffer's Guide to Psychology. British Psychological Society's website - This is the British Psychological Society's website. There is a wealth of information here about careers in Psychology. Gerard Keegan's Psychology Site is the first website of its kind dedicated to those studying pre-university psychology in Scotland.
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Holah - This site provides excellent revision material for the OCR AS Psychology course. Pass Psychology - Psychology tutoring Psychology - Info for students of Psychology Psychologymatters - This is the American Psychological Association's site. It contains a wealth of research that may be useful when you need to find research relevant to your own coursework. Psychologystuff - Another good site and for about 10 per year you can access some excellent resources. Some material is avaliable free of charge. Psychology Teacher - Learning resource for GCSE and A Level Psychology students and teachers Simply Psychology - Designed specifically for A level psychology students, although degree and GCSE students will also find it useful. Uniview - Uniview have been providing high quality educational resources to teachers & health professionals for over 15 years.
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This is where teaching and learning resources can be downloaded and added. DOW LOAD If you would like to download a resource then click on the relevant attachment at the bottom of the page. You need to be a registered member (FREE) to see these links. Click here to register or log in CO TRIBUTE If you would like to share a resource with fellow colleagues then please click here
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STUDY HELP
If you'd like to ask for help with any aspect of Psychology then please visit our study help discussion rooms by clicking here
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Approaches to Psychology Cognitive Psychology What is Cognitive Psychology?

or when attempting to teach an animal to use language.

Teaching sign language to a chimpanzee, Gardner and Gardner (1969)

Strengths and Weaknesses

QUESTIO S Quick Fire Questions Gardner & Gardner

Loftus & Palmer Question 1

Essay Questions Question 1

Deregowski. Pictorial Perception and Culture

P = Point / E = Example / C = Concluding point

Comparative Psychology What is Comparative Psychology?

Core Studies - Comparative Psychology Pavlov (1927) Classical Conditioning

Thorndike (1911) Operant Conditioning Experiments

Advantages & Disadvantages

Quick Fire Questions Quiz 1 Question 1

Developmental Psychology What is Developmental Psychology?

Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Bandura et al (1961)

- The effects of day care on childrens cognitive and social development.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Developmental Psychology

QUESTIO S Quick Fire Questions Bandura Question 1

Outline one finding from the study on aggression by Bandura. (2)

Hodges & Tizard Question 1

Essay Questions Bandura

Individual Differences Psychology What is Individual Differences Psychology?

Looking at previous work and drawing conclusions.

A ation of Morons.Gould (1982)

Advantages and Disadvantages

QUESTIO S Quick Fire Questions Quiz 1 Question 1

Physiological Psychology What is Physiological Psychology?

Advantages and Disadvantages

QUESTIO S Dement & Kleitman Question 1

Social Psychology What is Social Psychology?

Case Studies from Social Psychology Study of Obedience. Milgram (1963)

Zimbardo et al (1973) A Study of Prisoners and Guards in a Simulated prison

Strengths and Weaknesses

QUESTIO S Milgram Question 1

Key Terms Definitions

QUESTIO S Quiz 1 Question 1

Research Methods Introduction

The Different Methods Questioning

Advantages and Disadvantages

The Case Study Method

Advantages and Disadvantages

The Correlation Method

Advantages and Disadvantages

The Experimental Method

Advantages and Disadvantages

The Observational Method

Advantages and Disadvantages

QUESTIO S Quiz 1 Question 1

Scatter grams. (1)

Essay Questions Applications of Psychology

Can be applied to other patients with multiple personality disorder.

Social Psychology Social Cognition

Prejudice and Discrimination

Relationship Maintenance & Dissolution

Cultural & Sub-cultural Differences in

Pro- and Anti-Social Behaviour

Altruism and Bystander Behaviour

Models of Bystander Behaviour

Cultural Differences in Pro-social Behaviour

Explanations Of Media Influence

Model Exam Question