III.

THE PREDICATE
The phrase structure rules for the V (predicate) indicate that its constituents are Aux (auxiliaries) and MV (main verb). Aux consists of subconstituents which mark the grammatical categories of the verb: tense, modality, aspect. Aux always precedes MV occuring on the left branch of the VP. Classification (according to the structure and meaning of the predicate): 1. SIMPLE VERBAL Predicate, represented by a verb in a simple or a compound tense. e.g. I teach daily. I am teaching right now. I have visited him in the hospital. I have been teaching for 7 years. Grammars include here predicates expressed by phrasal verbs (give up, give in, turn off, etc.); light verb constructions (have a smoke / drink / walk / swim, take a walk/ look, etc.); idioms (change one's mind, get hold / rid of something, etc.) e.g. She turned off the radio. I've made up my mind about these mobile phones. I had a walk in the evening. 2. COMPOUND VERBAL Predicate which consists of 2 parts: verb which cannot form the predicate by itself, though it has a full semantic value (it is not an auxiliary) the non-finite form of a lexical verb. Depending on the 1st part of the predicate, grammars distinguish between a modal compound verbal predicate whose 1st element is a modal verb & an aspective compound verbal predicate whose 1st element is an aspective verb. (a) The Modal Compound Verb Predicate 2 basic structures: in which the modal verb is followed by a short infinitive: e.g. He may arrive any time. You shall never set foot in my class with a ringing mobile. I'd rather sit than stand. followed by a long infinitive: ought to, used to, have, be, a modal phrase like to be able. e.g. I am to meet the dean at 2 o'clock. John has to deal with this matter. You ought not to smoke during breaks. He was able to deal with the situation.

(b) The Aspective Compound Verb Predicate = a lexical verb that expresses the beginning (start, begin, commence, etc.), duration (go on, keep on, continue, etc.), or end (end, conclude, finish, stop, etc.) of an action, followed by a non-finite form. PATTERNS: + long infinitive (begin, start, etc.) e.g. e.g. She started to talk at 2 o'clock. + gerund She gave up smoking. She kept on talking during the break. She began asking questions. 3. The COMPOUND NOMINAL Predicate consists of a link/ intensive verb (copula) & a predicative. It is the link verb which expresses the categories of tense, aspect, mood, etc. The typical link verb is [BE], which is devoid of any meaning. There are, however, other verbs functioning as link verbs, which preserve their meaning to some extent: to grow, to get, to look, to turn, to remain, to run, to fall, to stand, to go, to work, etc. e.g. The button has worked loose. He went mad. Please stand still. Compare: The doctor felt my pulse. (lexical verb) and She felt close to ther mother. (link verb) He is growing a beard. (lexical verb) and I've grown fat. (link verb) The predicative will be discussed in detail below. 4. The MIXED Predicate is a combination of two of the three previous types. (a) modal nominal predicate: MODAL + Link Verb + PREDICATIVE e.g. e.g. e.g. You must be very sleepy. She began to feel afraid. You must start to read your notes. You ought to stop smoking. 5. The DOUBLE Predicate is the result of the condensation of 2 clauses: one that contains a lexical verb & one which contains a link verb + predicative. By contraction, the link verb is lost & what remains behind is the lexical verb & the predicative. This special type of predicative is called a predicative adjunct. It is usually a noun or an adjective. e.g. He died a bachelor. (He died and he was a bachelor) The book lay open on the desk. (The book lay on the desk and it was open.) The sun shines hot. (The sun shines and it is hot.) (b) aspective nominal predicate: ASPECTIVE Verb + Link Verb + PREDICATIVE (c) mdal aspective predicate: MODAL Verb + ASPECTIVE Verb + Infinitive / Gerund

The Predicative
It is also called subject complement, as it completes the meaning of the subject. There are two major types of predicative: adjectival and nominal. The Adjectival Predicative is expressed by an Adj P. In English, adjectives can be classified as: a) Adjectives that can be used ONLY as predicatives (The door was ajar.) b) Adjectives that occur BOTH as noun modifiers/ attributes and predicatives (She is beautiful.) c) Adjectives that can be used ONLY as modifiers (* The problem is main.) a) Adjectives that can be used ONLY as predicatives . 1. Adjectives prefixed by a-, expressing some state or condition: alive, asleep, alike, afraid, ablaze, aghast, ajar, akin, alone, askew, awake, ashamed, etc. e.g. The child is asleep. vs. * An asleep child. However, some of these adjectives may occur in the surface structure as modifiers in post-position to the noun; these patterns are derived from deep structures where the adjective functions as a predicative in a relative clause. e.g. The only man alive was Smith. (surface structure form) Smith was the only man who was alive. (deep structure form) If quantified, these adjectives may occur as modifiers in pre-position: e.g. a half-asleep child, a very ashamed person, a somewhat afraid child, a fully awake 2. Prepositional adjectives: ashamed of, averse to, fond of, subject to, etc. e.g. My students are fond of syntax. We are all subject to colds in winter. Some of them may take a finite clause or a non-finite infinitival clause after them. In the surface structure, the preposition is deleted. e.g. I'm sorry about it. that you have lost the game. to hear of your loss. b) Adjectives that occur BOTH as noun modifiers/ attributes and predicatives. 1. Deverbal adjectives derived from attitudinal verbs: horrifying, astonishing, disappointing, disgusting, pleasing, overwhelming, etc. e.g. He displayed a disgusting behavior / His behavior was disgusting. 2. Deverbal adjectives derived from past participles. When used predicatively, these adjectives may transform the sentence into an ambiguous one. e.g. The truck was unloaded. (ambiguous: passive / nominal predicate) student.

* There are some past participles used as adjectives which cannot be employed predicatively unless modified by an adverb: e.g. The child was well-behaved. He was well-spoken. 3. Deverbal adjectives derived from transitive verbs by suffixation: forgetful, hopeful, hopeless, envious, etc. e.g. She is forgetful. The material is washable. 4. Pseudo-adjectives are used as both noun-modifiers/ attributes and predicatives in one meaning, and only attributively when having a different meaning: civil, criminal, dramatic, atomic, etc. e.g. civil: BUT predicative) criminal: BUT A criminal person / She is a criminal. He is a criminal lawyer. (criminal cannot be used here as a predicative) This is a civil answer./ The answer is civil. John is specializing in civil engineering. (civil cannot be used here as a

5. Adjectives like old, new, wrong, true, complete, perfect, total, clear, sheer, etc. may be used in 2 ways: e.g. e.g. To characterize the referent of the noun directly (inherently) in which case they may be employed both as modifiers and as predicatives: an old bag / The bag is old. a new dress. / The dress is new. to characterize the referent of the noun indirectly (non-inherently), in which case they cannot be employed as predicatives. He is an old friend. The friend is old. John is the wrong person for the job. The person is wrong. You are a complete fool. The fool is complete. c) Adjectives that can be used ONLY as modifiers 1. Adjectives hypothetically derived from adverbs: former, latter, utter, actual, main, mere, sole, prime, etc. e.g. His eventual failure upset me. (He failed eventually.) 2. Past participles which never occur in passive constructions: escaped, departed, etc. e.g. An escaped prisoner, a departed relative. !!! The Reciprocal Predicative is the adjectival predicative that can take only a subject expressed by a plural NP or by two coordinated NPs. e.g. Mike and Harry are alike. All men are alike. The Nominal Predicative is expressed by a NP or by a NP substitute.

1. The noun may take a zero article. e.g. He was master of the situation. The wish is father to the thought. These nouns behave like adjectives, they are quantifiable, gradable. e.g. John was more hero than scoundrel. He was scoundrel enough to do it. 2. The noun may take a definite article. e.g. Hats are the thing today. 3. The noun often takes an indefinite article. (This is typical for nouns denoting jobs / professions). e.g. e.g. He is a teacher/a worker/etc. 4. The NP may be preceded by a preposition; thus the predicative is expressed by a PNP. Our country is in a constant state of change. His behavior is not above reproach. My car is beyond repair. The drinks were on the house. The preposition may be deleted. Many nouns which indicate colour, size, age, quality, shape, the appurtenance to a style, to a trend, allow the deletion of the preposition. Sometimes even the article is deleted. e.g. The hat is (of ) the right size. Your hair is (of) the same length as mine. These two bags are (of) the same weight. Her dress was (of) a dark shade. This information was (of the) first hand. This building is (of the) 19th century. 5. The predicative may also be expressed by a basic noun substitute (pronoun). e.g. This was mine. He was somebody. What is he? I'm not myself today. As a rule, the personal pronoun used as predicative should be in the Nominative case. e.g. Who's there? It is I. But nowadays it is used in the Objective case: It is me. 6. The predicative can be another noun substitute. 6.1. Numeral. e.g. You are 200. He was the second. 6.2. A non-finite clause with / without expressed subject.

e.g.

Their idea was to go away. (Non-finite infinitival clause without expressed subject) This is for John to solve. (Non-finite infinitival clause with expressed subject) His hobby was playing chess. (Non-finite gerundial clause, without expressed subject) The topic was John's being absent. (Non-finite gerundial clause, with expressed subject) 6.3. A finite clause.

e.g.

The truth is that I don't know anything about it.

The Object Complement refers to the Direct Object of a sentence. It expresses the state or quality of the person or thing denoted by the object. e.g. Can be a noun: They elected him secretary. They christened her Mary. I think it a great success. They crowned him king. I pronounce you man and wife. can be an adjective: This situation makes me sick. She keeps her house clean. He knocked the door shut. can be an adverb: I ordered him away. I talked him out of it. can be an Infinitive in an "Accusative + Infinitive" construction: I would like you to be less talkative.

e.g.

e.g.

e.g.

can be a participle in the Accusative + Participle construction: I hear them talking outside. I will appreciate John's writing his essay. (= object complement) The adjective functioning as an object complement may be introduced by the preposition can be a gerund in the Genitive + Gerundial construction:

e.g. e.g. as. e.g.

I consider her as pretty. They describe the situation as hopeless. The NP functioning as an object complement may also be introduced by the prepositions

as or for. e.g. We consider her as the best student. They recognize him as their leader.

I took you for your sister. I mistook you for my niece. Remember that the object complement will be distinguished, from the predicative adjunct as the predicative adjunct accompanies intransitive verbs (no object present in the structure), while the object complement accompanies transitive verbs (a direct object is always present in the sentence). e.g. He died a poor man. I regard him as poor/ a poor man.