MODULE 1 D.C. GENERATORS Introduction: The electrical machines in service which are of industrial importance are a.c.

. machines & d.c. machines The advantage of d.c. machines (motors) is that it provides a fine control of speed. Q- Why d.c. machines are not as common as a.c. machines? Ans- Because d.c., when required, is mainly obtained from an a.c. supply by the use of rectifiers. GENERATORS: An electric generator is a device that converts Mechanical Energy to Electrical Energy. GENERATOR PRINCIPLE: An electric generator is based on the principle that whenever flux is cut by a conductor, an emf is induced which will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. The direction of induced emf can be found out by Flemings Right Hand Rule. COMPONENTS OF A GENERATOR: The essential components of a generator are: A magnetic field. Conductor or group of conductors.

 Motion of conductor w.r.t magnetic field. SIMPLE LOOP GENERATOR: DIAGRAM CONSTRUCTION OF D.C. GENERATORS COMPONENTS OF D.C. GENERATORS Field system Armature core Armature windings Commutator Brushes

FIELD SYSTEM: The function of field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within which the armature rotates. YOKE : o Field system consists of a number of salient poles bolted to the inside of circular frame called yoke o It is usually made up of solid cast steel o It serves as a support for field poles, interpoles, compensate windings etc. o It also provides return path for the magnetic flux created by field windings.

DIAGRAM

ARMATURE CORE: The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft & rotates between the field poles It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations The armature of d.c. generator performs the functions such as : o It permits rotation for mechanical generator action o Since it houses conductors, emf is induced in them o It provides low reluctance path for the magnetic flux ARMATURE WINDING The slots of armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a suitable manner .This is known as armature winding This is the winding in which working emf is induced. The armature conductors are connected in series parallel; the conductors being connected in series so as to increase the voltage & in parallel paths so as to increase the current o TYPES OF ARMATURE WINDINGS

Q- Why armature coils in d.c. armature winding must be connected in series? Ans- The different armature coils in a d.c. armature winding must be connected in armature winding must be connected in series with each other by means of end connections in a manner so that the generated voltages of the respective coils will aid each other in the production of the terminal emf of the winding. SIMPLEX LAP WINDING : The ends of any coil are brought out to the adjacent commutator segments & the result of this method of connection is that all the coils of the armature are in sequence with the last coil connected to the first coil. SIMPLEX WAVE WINDING : The coils under consecutive pole pairs will be joined together in series thereby adding together their emfs After passing once around the armature, the winding falls in a slot to the slot to the left or right of the starting point & thus connecting up another circuit. COMMUTATOR A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes.

ACTION OF COMMUTATOR: Q- What is the role of commutator in the circuit? Ans- If connection of the coil side to the external load is reversed at the same time the current in the coil side reverses, the current through load will be d.c. . This is what commutator does. It consists of a cylindrical metal ring cut into two halves or segments C1 & C2 separated by a thin sheet of mica. The commutator is mounted on but insulated from the rotor shaft. Two stationary carbon brushes rest on the commutator & lead current to the external load The ends of coil sides AB & CD are connected to the segments C1 & C2 respectively. With this arrangement, the commutator at all times connects the coil side under S-pole to +ve brush & that under N-pole to the ve brush. WORKING : o BEFORE ROATATION : AB under N-pole CD under S-pole C1connects AB to P

C2 connects CD to Q Direction of current is from Q to P through load o AFTER HALF A ROTATION (1800 ROTATION) o AB under S-pole o CD under N-pole o C1connects AB to Q o C2 connects CD to P o Direction of current is from Q to P through load Q-Why variation of voltage across the brushes with angular displacement of the loop is not a steady current? Ans- It is because the voltage appearing across the brushes varies from zero to max. value & back to zero twice for each revolution of the loop. Diagram BRUSHES : The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating commutator & stationary external load circuit. The brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable springs. If the brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutaor & the brushes

 On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator may produce sparking For multipole machines No. of brushes = No. of poles

TYPES OF GENERATORS : The behavior of a d.c generator on load depends upon the method of field excitation adopted 1. SEPARATELY EXCITED D.C GENERATORS : A d.c generator whose field magnet winding is supplied from an independent external d.c. source is called separately excited generator. The voltage output depends upon the speed of rotation of armature & the field current The greater the speed & the field current , greater is the generated emf The d.c generators are normally separately excited types.

Armature current Ia = IL Terminal voltage V= Eg- IaRa Power developed = Ia Eg Power delivered to the load = Ia Eg (Ia)2Ra = Ia (Eg- IaRa)= V Ia

2. SELF EXCITED D.C. GENERATOR A d.c generator whose field magnet winding is supplied current from the output of the generator itself is called a self- excited d.c. generator. Depending upon the manner in which the field winding is connected to the armature ,the self excited generators are classified as : i. Series generator ii. Shunt generator iii. Compound generator SERIES GENERATOR In a series generator, the field winding id connected in series with armature winding so that the whole armature current flows through the field winding as well as the load Since the field winding carries the whole of load current , it has a few turns of thick wire having low resistance They are used as boosters Armature current Ia = IL= Ise= I Terminal voltage V= Eg- Ia (Ra + Rse ) Power developed = Ia Eg

Power delivered to the load = Ia Eg Ia2 (Ra + Rse) = Ia (Eg- Ia (Ra+ Rse))= V Ia= VIL SHUNT GENERTOR In shunt generator , the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding so that terminal voltage of the generator is applied across it The shunt field winding has many turns of fine wire having high resistance Thus, only a part of armature current flows through shunt field winding & rest flows through the load Shunt field current Ish = V/ Rsh Armature current Ia = Ish + IL Terminal voltage V= Eg- IaRa Power developed = Ia Eg Power delivered = VIL COMPUND GENERATOR : In compound wound generator there are 2 sets of field windings on each pole- one is in series & other in parallel with the armature. a) SHORT SHUNT : It is in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature winding Series field current Ise = IL

Shunt field current Ish = (V+ IseRse)/ Rsh Terminal voltage V= Eg- IaRa IseRse Power developed = Ia Eg Power delivered = VIL LONG SHUNT : It is in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both series field & armature winding. Series field current Ise = IL + Ish Shunt field current Ish = V/ Rsh Terminal voltage V= Eg- Ia (Ra +Rse) Power developed = Ia Eg Power delivered = VIL
E.M.F EQUATION OF D.C GENERATOR
Let = flux/pole in weber Z = total number of armture conductors = No.of slots x No.of conductors/slot P = No.of generator poles A = No.of parallel paths in armature N = armature rotation in revolutions per minute (r.p.m) E = e.m.f induced in any parallel path in armature Generated e.m.f Eg = e.m.f generated in any one of the parallel paths i.e E. Average e.m.f geneated /conductor = d/dt volt (n=1) Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution d = P Wb No.of revolutions/second = N/60 Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second Hence, according to Faraday's Laws of Electroagnetic Induction, E.M.F generated/conductor is

For a simplex wave-wound generator No.of parallel paths = 2 No.of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/2 E.M.F. generated/path is

For a simplex lap-wound generator No.of parallel paths = P No.of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/P E.M.F.generated/path

In general generated e.m.f

where A = 2 - for simplex wave-winding = P - for simplex lap-winding

LOSSES IN A D.C MACHINE

armature Cu loss copper losses losses in d.c. machines iron losses

shunt, series Cu loss

hysterisis & eddy current loss

All these losses appear as heat & thus raise the temp. of machine They also lower the efficiency of machine. IRON LOSSES IN MACHINES These losses occur in the armature of a d.c. machine & are due to the rotation of armature in the magnetic field of the poles. HYSTERISIS LOSS

It occurs in the armature of the d.c. machine since any given part of the armature is subjected to magnetic field reversals as is passes under successive poles. EXPLANATION Consider a small piece ab of the armature when piece ab is under N- pole , the magnetic line passes from a to b Half a revolution later, The same piece of piece of iron under S- pole & magnetic line pass from b to a , so that magnetism in the iron is reversed. In order to reverse continuously the molecular magnets in the armature core , some amount of power has to be spent , which is called Hysterisis loss Hystersis loss = B1.6 max f V n ( watts) Where, Bmax = Max. flux density in armature f= freq. of magnetic reversals = N/120 N is in r.p.m V= volume of armature in m3 n= hysteresis loss coefficient In order to reduce this loss armature core is made of such materials which have a low value of hysteresis coeff. Eg: silicon steel EDDY CURRENT LOSS : The voltages induced in armature core produces circulating currents in the armature core. These are called eddy currents. This loss appears as heat which raises the temp. Of the machine & lowers it efficiency

Q- How magnitude of eddy current increases ? Ans- If a continuous solid iron core is used , the resistance to eddy current path will be small due to large cross- sectional area of the core . Consequently, the magnitude of eddy current & hence eddy current loss will be large Eddy current loss = ke B2 max f2 t2 V (watts) Ke = constant depending upon the electrical resistance of core & system of units used Bmax = Max. flux density in armature f= freq. of magnetic reversals = N/120 N is in r.p.m V= volume of armature in m3 t= thickness of laminations in m. Total losses = constant loss + variable loss CONSATNT LOSS :Those losses in a d.c. generator which remain constant at all loads are known as constant losses. These are : a. Iron losses b. Mechanical losses c. Shunt field losses

VARIABLE LOSS: Those losses in a d.c. generator which vary with load are called variable losses. These are : a. Cu losses in armature winding ( I2a Ra) b. Cu losses in series field winding ( I2se Rse)
Various power stages in the case of a d.c generator are shown below

Following are the three gnerator efficiencies 1. Mechanical Efficiency

2. Electrical Efficiency

3.Overall or Commercial Efficiency

It is obvious that overall efficiency is the product of mechanical and electrical efficiencies. For good generators,its value may be as high as 95%. Condition for Maximum Efficiency In general generator efficiency = Output / (Output + losses) The condtion for maximum efficiency of generator is given by

i.e Variable loss = Constant loss.