Technical & Professional Writing

This course has been designed to explore systematically the process of writing technical and professional documents. Types of Technical and Professional writing 1) The Report of an Investigation: Scientists present the results of their investigations in journals in the form of research papers. These are highly formal accounts of the procedure, results, conclusions and implications. These papers and the like are the keystone of the scientific communications network. Scientific report or investigation Compon ent Title Purpose Description

Indicates the Concise and informative; using key topic or subject of words relating to content. the investigation. A short paragraph describing what was done, how it was done and what the main findings were. Explains why the investigation was undertaken and places it in the context of previous work. For a report of a scientific investigation, the main body would generally comprise 3 sections.

Gives a brief Abstract summary of the investigation. Outlines the purpose of the Introduc investigation or tion scope of the report. Main Describes how Body the study was conducted.

Gives the results The Materials and Methods section of the study. contains experimental details Interprets or evaluates the results. The Results section should detail the results of the experiments performed. A commentary leads the reader through the data (presented in an appropriate form, e.g. graphs, tables, images, diagrams). The Discussion section should contain a critical interpretation of the results and discuss them in the context of other researchers
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Scientific report or investigation Compon ent Purpose Description observations. Summarises (in This may not always be a necessary Conclusi one or two part of a report. However it can ons sentences) the usefully include suggestions for further main conclusions. research.

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2) Technical Business Report: It takes the standard parts of procedure, results and conclusion and shapes them to commercial objectives. A recent survey by IBM disclosed that report writing can be crucial to employees careers, providing the personal visibility that results in recognition form both management and peers, and more responsibility. 3) Laboratory Notebooks: These documents are a source for detailed procedural information not available in journals.The laboratory notebook ensures that there is proper documentation of a research study. Not only can the investigator accurately review the research data, monitor the progress of the study and staff, but these records are also the source documents for data analysis, reports, and publications related to the research study. These source documents can also be used to establish and defend intellectual property rights, authorship, and other compliance issues resolved by auditing records. 4) The proposal: A formal offering to do a particular job on particular terms, it is a combination of a basic literary form and a formal rigorous research paper. 5) Daily commercial applications: Examples: Letters, memos, oral technical presentations, new product releases, specification sheets, preparation of technical information for advertising or marketing people. Style in professional writing: The way you present your ideas in scientific and technical writing is quite different from literary writing: 1. No impressionistic detail as in literary writing.

2. Language is obviously not emotive or suggestive. In

technical writing we reduce the emotional involvement of the readers response rather than to evoke it. 3. Elaborate prose is rare. Information is transmitted as objectively as possible. Language is full of ambiguity. It
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is technically important that we cut away at this ambiguity, using mathematics and other symbols when possible, and the language of daily life as the last resort. 4. Precision and consistency: Scientific and technical writing should be precise and consistent. The language of science is distinguished by translatability (The linguist Leonard Bloomfield). This is because the meaning of many words has been sharply fixed by agreement e.g. absolute-critical fundamental- have precise meanings which do not vary from user to user as they do in popular language.

5. Less is better in scientific writing: more is in vain when

less will serve Newton said in his Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy. Audience The nature of the reader or listener is always crucial in writing. There are five basic guidelines to handle the difficulties of audience background and complex subject matter:

1. Consider your audience: (the people you address) what do

they know already? How much more do you want them to know? You need to bridge differences in audience background by being specific and clear. 2. Consider your objective: why are you writing the report? List your goals and think about them before you write: I am writing this for ___________ because I want ____________

3. Develop clear, usable, everyday prose. Despite the popular

notion that Scientists arent good writers, the literature tells another story. The tools of fine writing are precision and brevity of explication. 4. Be brief: No matter what you are writing brevity is a virtue. 5. Expect to rewrite: The most skilled writers go through two or three drafts of a composition. You cant expect to do much better. The writing Process The process involves three stages: 1. Stage one: prewriting
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It is a stage of experimentation and rehearsal developing from experience and observation ideas, details, suggestions: words and phrases that will become your final piece of writing. The prewriting techniques will usually provide more than enough material for your writing. 2. Stage Two: writing Once you have gathered enough material that you feel you have something to say, you are ready to enter the second stage of the process writing (gathering on scraps of paper, in your mind, or on neat, lined paper-it doesnt matter). In this stage you will complete your first draft, composing your ideas in sentences and paragraphs. That simply put your thoughts on paper, to be rearranged and organized later. 3. Stage Three: postwriting This includes writing all later drafts and the final piece. It may involve writing. Proofreading includes attention to such details as grammar, spelling and punctuation. It helps to cleanup the mistakes than lessen the effectiveness of what you want to say. Conclusion: Its a mistake to think of the writing process as orderly and linear, or to assume that you have to know precisely what you are going to say before you ever put pencil to paper. Writing is a creative process in which you start writing things down from the very beginning-even before your total meaning is clear to you. Then you allow your words gradually to change and evolve. Only at the end will you discover exactly what to say and how you want to say it. Proofreading: Generally means correcting a manuscript before submitting it to another reader. The process of proofreading is simple but it requires concentration. When you proofread a composition, you examine each line carefully for errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation and style. It
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several additional drafts before you arrive at the

final product. It also involves proofreading, the cleanup part of

is recommended using a ruler to scan a work from the bottom to the top of the page and from right to left. Since proofreading is the final stage in the writing process, its your last chance to make improvements in your manuscript. Here, there is a checklist of Edited Standard English (ESE) which will help you make full use of the proofreading process:1. Sentence structure is accurate. There are no fragments or run-on sentences. 2. Participial phrases, prepositional phrases, and dependent clauses are clearly attached to the words they modify, to avoid misunderstanding. 3. Verb tenses are correct, and verbs agree with their subjects.

4. Pronouns are the correct subject or object forms and agree

with their antecedents. Singular pronouns such as each, anybody, everybody, or nobody are used with singular verbs. 5. Capitalization, punctuation, and spelling are correct. 6. Slang and other inappropriate words are avoided.

The Plural Form

1. The plural of most nouns is made by adding s to the singular: customer customers. Singular: material brochure. Plural: brochures. A. Nouns ending in s, x, ch, sh, z take es. Singular: address quiz. Plural: addresses s only: Singular: boy. Plural: holidays surveys attorneys essays boys. C. Nouns ending in y following a consonant, the plural is formed by changing the y to i and adding es: holiday survey attorney essay taxes branches witnesses quizes. B. Nouns ending in y following a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) take tax branch witness materials envelopes contracts committees envelope contract committee

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Singular: opportunity enemy. Plural: enemies. opportunities

industry

apology apologies

vacancy vacancies

industries

D. Nouns ending in o are different: (i) some take s piano solo soprano radio dynamo pianos solos sopranos (ii) others take es echo ego hero potato tomato echoes egoes heroes potatoes tomatoes (iii) Others take both, but the first one is preferred Cargo Cargos motto mosquito zero zeros Cargoes mattoes mosquitoes zeroes mattos mosquitos Unless you are certain of the correct spelling of the plural of a noun ending in o, then the best policy is to consult your dictionary. 2. Calf life Calves halves knives scarves shelves wives thieves selves wolves lives But others are not: Belief Beliefs brief briefs chief chiefs cliff cliffs safe safes staffs staffs Nouns ending in f or fe takes ves half knife scarf shelf wife thief self wolf radios dynamos

3. Compound nouns: if a compound noun is written as two or more hyphenated sister- in- law receivable sisters- in- law chiefs to police price lists receivable But if the compound noun is written as one word, change the last part of the Compound to its plural: airport bookcase bookshelf
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words or as two or more separate words, chief to police price list account

change the principal word to its plural form:

accounts

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airports 4.

bookcases

bookshelves.

Letters and figures: A) Capitals and figures take s only: Bs 2s Except: A's I's a's b's U's c's B) Small letters take (s) two m's in recommend three l's in parallel. Cs Ds 3s Hs Js Ks Is 10s 11s 12s

5. Personal Titles: Mr. Ms. Messrs Mses. or Mss. Dr. Drs. 6. Noun always singular: they require singular verbs when they are used as subjects: equipment music information integrity child mice. 8. The plural of foreign nouns Agenda: the foreign plural of agendum, is generally used in business to refer to a list or an outline things to be done at a meeting or conference; it is used with singular verb. Agendas, the English plural of agenda, is used with a plural verb to refer to two or more lists or outlines of things to be done at meetings and conferences. Agendums is rarely used. Criteria: the plural of criterion. ox weather attention man oxen woman men milk cooperation. goose women mouse geese assistance news education advice Mmes or Mesdames Misses Mrs. Miss

7. Nouns with irregular plurals: tooth teeth children

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Data: the plural of datum, is commonly used in business as both a singular noun and a plural noun; it may refer either to a single fact or principle or to a collection of facts or principles. It is used with a singular verb. Indexes: the English plural of index, is commonly used in business to refer to alphabetic and numeric used listings. Indices, the foreign plural, is most often to refer to signs or indications of economic conditions. Media: the foreign plural of medium, is used to refer to newspapers, magazines, radio, television and similar English means of communication. Mediums, the plural, are generally used for all other meanings. Memoranda: the foreign plural of memorandum and memorandums, the English used in business to refer to letter-type communications written by employees to other employees of the same company. plural, are both commonly

Logic and writing

Logic is clear and orderly thought. In writing, logic is necessary: 1. To support an argument. 2. To answer an essay question. 3. To support an opinion by supply evidence. Bertrand Russell is supposed to have said People would rather die than think and most do. We are not sure whether his generalizations are true, but we agree with the cautionary note implicit in his remark. Each one of us uses logic daily, sometimes in trivial and sometimes in momentous matters. Logicians ask what would be true if we were to assume a certain set of facts or beliefs. They ask what follows from a given set of views or beliefs. Whereas we ask these things about the particular facts and beliefs that are the circumstances of our own lives, they ask these questions more abstractly. As we learn what logic is all about, the relevance of logic to the concerns of our own lives will grow clearer. It will become more
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and more obvious that the ability to think logically and to analyse arguments logically is of tremendous practical importance.

Key Words:
What is that to be a really logical person? Is that different from being a reasonable person? How about being sharp? How do all these differ from being an emotional person or, again, from being persuasive? There are answers to these questions. They may not be hard and fast, definite answers, but they are good answers. There are answers because each of the key terms: logical, sharp, reasonable, emotional, persuasive, has a slightly different meaning in our language.

The Differences:

Being logical focuses on following the consequences of an idea. It is logical to ask: If we accept your assumption, what would then be true? When we want to test a hypothesis, we must first be logical enough to see what the hypothesis implies. A logical person recognizes which ideas contradict certain others, which are consistent with others, and which guarantee the implication that the others are true. Being sharp relates to being discerning, discovering solutions, and creating strategies to accomplish goals. Being reasonable relates to knowledge and preliminary assessment of the overall wisdom of certain beliefs or courses of action. It also relates to knowing ones options and being able to tell the absurd ones from the more or less plausible ones. Being emotional relates to using ones own emotions or eliciting the emotions of other people in order to accomplish goals. It also relates to situations, especially stressful ones, with emotion.

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Being persuasive is being able to get others to believe you. Emotion and logic are both tools used by persuasive people.

Being logical can be contrasted with each of the characteristics we have been discussing. Being logical means being able to infer the consequences of various views, beliefs, ideas and assumptions. A logical person is one who uses his or her intellectual powers to think through situations, to try to predict the likely outcome of various alternative courses of actions, to anticipate the necessary and probable consequences of believing certain things or acting certain ways. A person can have any of the characteristics we discussed, or a person can fail to have any one of them. Since they are different, a person can have any combination of them. So, for example, one person can be logical, sharp and emotional while another is persuasive and reasonable and still another is logical, unemotional and unreasonable.

Exercise
In the Space to the left of each question, identify the concern raised by that question? Select your answer from:
A. The concern is with being logical B. The concern is with being reasonable or sharp C. D.

The concern is with persuasion through appeals to emotion The concern is none of the above

_____ 1. Yes, Senator, but I ask you, what do you take to be the consequence of this mass of evidence? _____ 2. Doctor, please tell me what you do in my situation? _____ 3. Im very sorry but I just havent finished the job. As considerate as you are, Im sure youll give me an extension. _____ 4. When do we eat? Deductive Reasoning Begins with generalization, adds a related statement and ends with a conclusion that is necessarily drawn from the two statements:
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The three statement argument in deductive reasoning is called syllogism major premise: All seniors at Bayan college must take a course in research methodology. Major premise: Alnasri is a senior at Bayan college. Conclusion: Alnasri must take a course in research methodology. In a deductive argument the statements move from the general (All seniors at Bayan college) to the specific (Alnasri). You can see if the first two statements in the syllogism. are, true, the conclusion must necessarily be true. Truth and validity A syllogism may look like a good argument, yet the conclusion might be false. In order for the conclusion to be true, two requirements must be met: 1. The major premise and the minor premise must both be true Major premise: All red flowers are roses Minor premise: this geranium is red Conclusion: this geranium is a rose. You can see immediately that the major premise in this syllogism is false: it is not true that all red flowers are roses. Therefore, the conclusion drawn from the premises is necessarily false. You cannot arrive at a true conclusion when one or both of the premises are false. 3. The argument must be valid thats the argument must follow the rules of logic. (i) One rule of logic is that no conclusion can be drawn unless the major premise state a universal. Thats the major premise must state or imply the words: all, every, no, or none. The statement made in the major premise must be true of every person. The following are examples of premises that make universal statements: All suns are stars. No mammals have gills. All insects have six legs.

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In deductive reasoning a statement that contains a limiting word such as: many, most, some, several, few, usually, or sometimes cannot lead to a valid conclusion. Examples of statements that cannot be used as either a major or minor premise in a syllogism: -1 Most people prefer travelling by train. -2 Some spiders have four eyes. -3 Professional musicians usually play more than one instrument. -4 Many displaced people live in shanty areas. Now take this syllogism: Premise: most freshmen take four courses. Premise: Adil is a freshman. Conclusion: ? Both premises are true, yet no valid conclusion is possible because the major premise contains the limited word most. You do not know whether Adil is one of the most freshmen who are taking four courses or one of the other freshmen who are taking three or five courses. (ii) A second rule of logic is that when the conclusion does not follow from the two premises: major premise: All members of the key club visited the Northeast Nursing Home Saturday morning. Conclusion: Jeffrey jack is a member of the key club. The syllogism is not valid because the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the two premises Jeffrey may have visited the nursing home for any number of reasons. Perhaps a friend or a relative is a patient there. Perhaps he had decided to volunteer sometime to visiting patients in the Nursing Home. The fact that Jeffreys visit coincided with that of the key club does not necessarily mean that he is a member of that club. In fact no conclusion is possible from the premises as stated. Now consider the following syllogism. on Saturday morning. minor premise: Jeffrey jack visited the Northeast Nursing Home on

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major premise: All members of the key club visited the Northeast Nursing Home on Saturday Morning. minor premise: Jeffrey Jack is a member of the key club. conclusion: Jeffrey Jack visited the Northeast Nursing Home on Saturday Morning. The argument is valid because the conclusion must necessarily be true if the first two premises are true. Writing Practice Write the conclusion that follows from the two premises of each of the following sets. Then tell whether the argument is valid and whether the conclusion is true, and explain why. If no conclusion is possible tell why: 1. All violins have four strings. This instrument is a violin. _________________________ 2) A person who serves as the President of the United States must have been born in the United States. - Franklin Roosevelt was the thirty-first president of the United States. _______________________________________________________________ 3) In order to vote, a person must be eighteen and must have lived in an election district for six months. - Mahasin Omer has just registered to vote. 4) Since 1964 no quarter contains silver. -5 This quarter was minted in 1958. ____________________________________

Logic is concerned with arguments:

P: Everyone who goes to Bayan College is intelligent. P: Shaza goes to Bayan College. C: Shaza is intelligent. Logic is concerned with the relationship that exists between the premises and the conclusions of arguments. If the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.

Logic studies relationships:

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Logic studies the relationship between the stated premises and their conclusion. If the premises entail, imply, strongly warrant, strongly support the conclusion, we say that the argument is logically correct. But if the premises neither entail, nor imply, nor strongly support, nor strongly warrant the conclusion we say that the argument is not logically correct P: Any act performed voluntarily should be subject to either praise or blame. P: Ali voluntarily entered into a contract to redecorate the Family Park. C: So Alis act of entering into the contract should be subject to praise or blame. P: We want to become parents by becoming biological parents or adoptive parents. P: We should not adopt a child unless we both really want to do that. P: We do not both really want to do that at this time in our marriage. C: So we should try to become biological parents rather than adoptive parents at this time.

Examples of arguments that are not logically correct:

P: I took one course in economics and the Prof was a real bore. C: So all economics Profs must be terrible teachers. Here the premise asserts that only economics Professor is boring, so you can see that there is no basis supplied for the conclusion that all are boring. P: Everyone who goes to Bayan College is intelligent. P: Adil does not go to Bayan College. C: Therefore Adil cannot be intelligent. Here the first premise asserts the intelligence of all those who do go to Bayan College. But no premise says anything about the intelligence of those who dont attend. Thus, the fact that Adil doesnt go, allows us no conclusion about his intelligence.

N.B.
P: means that the statement that follows is a premise. C: means that the statement that follows is a conclusion. Syllogism: If A=B, and B=C it follows (from you say) that A=C.

Premises and Conclusions

A.
Finding the Premises: What (assertive) sentences has the author supplied as the basis from which the conclusion is supposed to be derived? Or what (assertive) sentences are presented as the support or justification for the conclusion? Since
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B.

After all .. Given that .. Whereas . But .. Although . And . Finding the Conclusion:

Assume .. Lets take it that Here are the facts .. Lets begin with This is the evidence .. We all know that ..

What did the author of the argument claim to prove? That statement is the arguments conclusion.

Here is a list of the words that tell on the presence of the conclusion (the conclusion indicators): Thus .. This evidence warrants that .. Therefore This supports the view that . So . As a consequence . Hence .. So it seems that . It follows that . And so probably .. Lets conclude . We can deduce that .. This means that . We can justifiably infer that . This implies that .. Lets infer that . These facts indicate This supports believing that . We can now infer .. , then .

Categorical Syllogisms The Structure of Syllogism

A categorical syllogism (i.e. deductive logic) is an argument consisting of three categorical propositions (two premises and a conclusion) in which there appear a total of three categorical terms, each of which is used exactly twice. One of those terms must be used as the subject term of the conclusion of the syllogism, and we call it the minor term of the syllogism as a whole. The major term of the syllogism is whatever is employed as the predicate term of its conclusion. The third term in the syllogism doesn't occur in the conclusion at all, but must be employed in somewhere in each of its premises; hence, we call it the middle term. Since one of the premises of the syllogism must be a categorical proposition that affirms some relation between its middle and major terms, we call that the major premise of the syllogism. The other premise, which links the middle and minor terms, we call the minor premise. Consider, for example, the categorical syllogism: No geese are felines. Some birds are geese Therefore, Some birds are not felines. Clearly, "Some birds are not felines" is the conclusion of this syllogism. The major term of the syllogism is "felines" (the predicate term of its
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conclusion), so "No geese are felines" (the premise in which "felines" appears) is its major premise. Similarly, the minor term of the syllogism is "birds," and "Some birds are geese" is its minor premise. "geese" is the middle term of the syllogism. Standard Form A categorical syllogism in standard form always begins with the premises, major first and then minor, and then finishes with the conclusion. Thus, the example above is already in standard form. Although arguments in ordinary language may be offered in a different arrangement, it is never difficult to restate them in standard form. Once we've identified the conclusion which is to be placed in the final position, whichever premise contains its predicate term must be the major premise that should be stated first. Form and Validity This method of differentiating syllogisms is significant because the validity of a categorical syllogism depends solely upon its logical form. Remember our earlier definition: an argument is valid when, if its premises were true, then its conclusion would also have to be true. The application of this definition in no way depends upon the content of a specific categorical syllogism; it makes no difference whether the categorical terms it employs are "mammals," "terriers," and "dogs" or "sheep," "commuters," and "sandwiches." If a syllogism is valid, it is impossible for its premises to be true while its conclusion is false, and that can be the case only if there is something faulty in its general form. This suggests a fairly straightforward method of demonstrating the invalidity of any syllogism by "logical analogy." If we can think of another syllogism which has the same mood and figure but whose terms obviously make both premises true and the conclusion false, then it is evident that all syllogisms of this form, including the one with which we began, must be invalid. Diagramming Syllogisms The modern interpretation offers a more efficient method of evaluating the validity of categorical syllogisms. By combining the drawings of individual propositions, we can use Venn diagrams to assess the validity of categorical syllogisms by following a simple three-step procedure: 1. First draw three overlapping circles and label them to represent the major, minor, and middle terms of the syllogism. 2. Next, on this framework, draw the diagrams of both of the syllogism's premises.
o

Always begin with a universal proposition, no matter whether it is the major or the minor premise. Remember that in each case you will be using only two of the circles in each case; ignore the third circle by making sure that your drawing (shading or ) straddles it.

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3. Finally, without drawing anything else, look for the drawing of the conclusion. If the syllogism is valid, then that drawing will already be done. Consider now how this could be applied, step by step, to an evaluation of a the following syllogism: No M are P. Some M are S. Therefore, Some S are not P. First: we draw and label the three overlapping circles needed to represent all three terms included in the categorical syllogism:

Second: we diagram each of the premises:

Since the major premise is a universal proposition, we may begin with it. The diagram for "No M are P" must shade in the entire area in which the M and P circles overlap. (Notice that we ignore the S circle by shading on both sides of it.) Now we add the minor premise to our drawing. The diagram for " Some M are S" puts an inside the area where the M and S circles overlap. But part of that area (the portion also inside the P circle) has already been shaded, so our must be placed in the remaining portion.

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Third: we stop drawing and merely look at our result. Ignoring the M circle entirely, we need only ask whether the drawing of the conclusion "Some S are not P" has already been drawn. Remember, that drawing would be like the one below, in which there is an in the area inside the S circle but outside the P circle. Does that already appear in the diagram above? Yes, if the premises have been drawn, then the conclusion is already drawn.

Now consider the following statements and conclusion: (1) Statement 1: All men are animals Statement 2: Some animals are aggressive Conclusion: Some men are aggressive

This seems to be a reasonable conclusion, but then consider the following: (2) Statement 1: All men are animals Statement 2: Some animals are female Conclusion: Some men are female

Now the conclusion appears to be ridiculous and false - yet the reasoning is exactly the same as in the first example. The first example thus has a false conclusion. The animals who are aggressive are not necessarily men. What is happening here is that we are using what we know to be true as a substitute for the logic of the statement. In less certain situations, we use the same unspoken assumptions and beliefs to less acceptable ends. Using Venn diagrams The diagram below is a valid drawing that explains the first two statements in the example.

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The conclusion of the example falls into the traps of making the assumption that the 'aggressive animals' and 'men' subsets necessarily overlap, whereas there is no necessity for this in statements one and two. Although the conclusion could be true it does not have to be true.

So what?
Beware of making linked assertions that seem reasonable but in fact are logically incorrect. You can, of course, make such assertions deliberately, using logic that seems valid to persuade. If you do this, of course, you run the risk of the other person exposing your false logic.

Writing Definitions
In professional and technical writing, precise carefully presented definitions are essential. The kind of definition you write depends on your audience-or how much they already know before you begin, and how much more you decide to tell them. The classic pitfalls of definition include: begin circular, wordy, or too general. 1. Circular A circular definition contains the name of the object defined. Adhesive tape dispenser: Device for dispensing adhesive tape. 2. Wordy: Verbiage can obscure even a relatively simple term. Network A network is anything reticulated or decussated, at equal distances, with interstices between the intersections. 3. Too general: These are definitions that lack precision. A spoon is used for eating. A ruler is used for measuring. A banjo is a musical instrument. A knife is used for cutting. Now, terms are too difficult and too abstract. It's true that in science some terms are so abstract that one can not do justice to all of the finer points in the definition. And some terms are so complex that the definition may take much time and
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thought. But with practice it is possible to define most terms you use in your working world at a level appropriate to your reader's background. The difficulty of the concepts won't vanish, but specific techniques will aid you in writing clear, comprehensible definitions. These techniques are: 1. Definition by class and Differentiation (Logical definitions). To use it assign the object to a class, or genus, then explain how the object differs from other objects within the class. Consider the item banjo 1. Assign it to a class, Instrument would be more general. Likewise musical adequate. 2. Then differentiate it from other stringed instruments. The banjo is a stringed musical instrument which combines a long neck, similar to a guitars, with a drum- like body similar to a tambourines.There are usually four or five strings plucked with a pick or the fingers. instrument would be general. be Stringed musical instrument, however would

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Term Banjo

Class Instrument

Differentiations With a neck, body, and four or five strings.

Musical instrument

With a long neck and a drumlike body, and four or five strings.

Stringed musical instrument

With along neck similar to a guitars and a drumlike body similar to a tambourines. There are usually four or five strings plucked with a pick or the fingers.

Summarizing the technique is to: 1. Assign item to a class, and then. 2. Distinguish it from others in the class. What are its Salient features? How is it different? 2) Definition by Form and Function (Functional definitions) It entails asking: what does it look like? How does it work? It is often paired with a class and differentiation definition and then followed by a figure reference: Example An ax is an instrument for hewing, clearing or chopping trees. It has a squarish head fixed by a socket on a handle. To define by form and function: 1. Assign the object to a category, and 2. Distinguish it from all others asking: what does it look like? How does it work? 3) Definition by Etymology To use it, give the root of the word when the etymology will help the reader understand the new term. Then follow with a logical or functional definition: Thermometer: Derived from the Greek therme, heat, and metron to measure. An instrument that measures temperature, often
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through the use of a confined substance such as mercury, the volume of which changes with the change in temperature. 4) Definition by Analysis It is often useful to follow a general definition with an analysis that is to define the term in general, and then divide it into parts Example: (from thermometer above) two of basic types of thermometers: 1. Clinical thermometers: These are used to determine body temperature. 2. Electric thermometers: Resistance thermometers are based on the increase in resistance with increase in temperature. 5) List of properties For may expand a general definition with a list of properties or characteristics. 6) Use of Synonyms You may have to address a general audience, and want to use a general term yet also tag the term with its technical name. In synonym is usually placed example. in cases like these, the technical

parentheses (brackets) as shown in the following

During a heart attack (myocardial infraction), a coronary artery is blocked, cutting off the flow of oxygen - rich blood to the heart muscles it serves. Expanded Definition: Expanded definitions may combine: Class and differentiation Form and Function Etymology Analysis List of properties Synonyms Techniques Example: Contrast is the heart of the logical definition. You define by showing the difference between X and Y the technique of contrast is basic to scientific and technical definitions. in defining a term: Contrast, Comparison, and

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Comparisons and examples from daily life are often useful in definitions. Such comparisons give the reader a bridge to the new term. Summary In his article on scientific terms, Wayne Biddle argues that the language of science may be too complex to explain quickly; too abstract at its theoretical roots to clarify every nuance. Yet we make a mistake when we assume technology cant be explained Dont make this mistake. You may not be able to do perfect justice to a term specially when the audience is outside your field, but you can get close. To do so, use logical and operational definitions. Examples, contrasts, and comparisons from daily life are particularly useful in expanding a definition. -6 Avoid circllar definitions and definitions that are too general or wordy. -7 Adjust your definition according to your audience. Whether management or marketing, they may know less than you about your own text so that its comprehensible. Do 1. Operational definitions 2. Logical definitions 3. Examples 4. Comparisons. 5. Contrasts. Don't 1. Circular definitions. 2. Wordy prose. 3. Overly general definitions. special field. If so, modify your

Derivatives
1. Using prefixes look at these examples and add more of your own, using the root words below with one of the prefixes in this list. co mid over under re co-chairman midnight overact undercharged rebuild co-worker midair overpaid underpaid reappear redone
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midweek overdone

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self sub un driver

self-help subnormal untie arrange way winter excited

self-contained subway undo button wrap charge morning control screw done service fold marry

Afternoon standard

2. Using negative prefixes Look at these examples and fill each gap with more examples, using the root words below with one of the negative prefixes in this list. un in il ir im dis mis unkind indirect illegal untidy indecent illegible illiterate

irregular irrelevant immature impossible immoral disagree dissatisfied misunderstand misbehave

accurate approve comfortable convenient expected familiar known like lucky obey patient personal popular probable pronounce spell tolerant visible 3. Using suffixes: Adjectives Look at these examples and fill the gaps with more examples, using the root words -al regional below + one of the suffixes in this list. national

-------------------------------------------------------------ical biological geographical -------------------------------------------------------able acceptablereliable fearful thoughtless whitish -------------------------------------------------------------ful careful -less painless -ish childish --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CopyrightAbusin 2011 Page 25 of 36

-y

hairy

woolly

-------------------------------------------------------------alphabet break bump care colour comfort draught enjoy fear fool grammar grey hope mathematics music noise obtain old pain profession rain rest sleep small smell success sun tall thought tradition use wash young. * Remember that these words end in -IBLE not able: (in) credible (in) edible (in) flexible (im) possible responsible (in) visible terrible 4. Using suffixes: Actions and people Look at these examples of verbs. Add more of your own, using the root words below with one of the suffixes in this list.
1 -ise / -ize modernise

(ir)

eligible

horrible

indelible

negligible

sterilise summarise soften tighten

centralise symbolize lessen

individualise loosen sharpen

1 -ify classify clarify.

1 -en widen strengthen harden lengthen flatern

Central simple 1

flat soft

individual summary

less symbol

loose tight

pure

sharp

Notice that these verbs dont have a suffix: lower drop cool chill freeze warm melt heal

raise lift heat cure

These are examples of personal nouns: Employer, employee, etc. add more examples, using the root words below. -er -ee -or -ant employer (= someone who employs) employee (= someone who is employed) inventor conductor participant immigrant servant

-ist chemist biologist motorist

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art type

assist visit

broadcast manage

clean

cycle

direct sing ski

inhabit teach

inspect

instruct

science

* Notice that these words all end in ent: absent patient 5.A ancient efficient student violent correspondent confident resident convenient evident independent 5. Using suffixes: Abstract nouns Nouns from verbs Add more examples, using the root words below with these suffixes: -ation* ---------ion ----------ment ----------al -ance ----------accept object translate 5.B Nouns from adjectives and nouns one of these suffixes. Use a dictionary to Look at these examples and add more of your own, using the root words below with -ness -ity* -y -ship check your spelling, if necessary. kindness friendliness -------- --------- --------- --------ability possibility --------- --------- --------- ---------honesty frequency --------- --------- --------- ---------friendship relationship --------- --------- --------- ---------available fluent blind careless leader cheerful member confident mother approve propose assist reflect associate remove astonish encourage connect improve demonstrate disappear embarrass arrival refusal -------- ----------------- --------performance appearance ---------- ----------arrangement replacement ------- -------- --------prediction description depression -------- --------pronunciation qualification ------- -------------frequent

starve survive

-hood childhood fatherhood --------- --------- --------- ---------accurate efficient intelligent

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owner selfish

parent shy

patient silent

photograph probable suitable

real

sad

sportsman

Notice the following associated adjectives and nouns: Anxious anxiety strong strength delighted delight wise wisdom bored boredom proud pride hungry hunger thirsty thirst

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The Missing Pages to complete Your Notes

Scientific report or investigation Compon ent Title Purpose Description

Indicates the Concise and informative; using key topic or subject of words relating to content. the investigation. A short paragraph describing what was done, how it was done and what the main findings were. Explains why the investigation was undertaken and places it in the context of previous work. For a report of a scientific investigation, the main body would generally comprise 3 sections. Describes how the study was conducted. The Materials and Methods section contains experimental details

Gives a brief Abstract summary of the investigation. Outlines the purpose of the Introduc investigation or tion scope of the report.

Main Body

The Results section should detail the results of the experiments performed. Gives the results A commentary leads the reader of the study. through the data (presented in an appropriate form, e.g. graphs, tables, Interprets or images, diagrams). evaluates the results. The Discussion section should contain a critical interpretation of the results and discuss them in the context of other researchers observations.

Summarises (in This may not always be a necessary Conclusi one or two part of a report. However it can ons sentences) the usefully include suggestions for further main conclusions. research.

Logic and writing

Logic is clear and orderly thought. In writing, logic is necessary: 4. To support an argument. 5. To answer an essay question.
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6. To support an opinion by supply evidence. Bertrand Russell is supposed to have said People would rather die than think and most do. We are not sure whether his generalizations are true, but we agree with the cautionary note implicit in his remark. Each one of us uses logic daily, sometimes in trivial and sometimes in momentous matters. Logicians ask what would be true if we were to assume a certain set of facts or beliefs. They ask what follows from a given set of views or beliefs. Whereas we ask these things about the particular facts and beliefs that are the circumstances of our own lives, they ask these questions more abstractly. As we learn what logic is all about, the relevance of logic to the concerns of our own lives will grow clearer. It will become more and more obvious that the ability to think logically and to analyse arguments logically is of tremendous practical importance.

Key Words:
What is that to be a really logical person? Is that different from being a reasonable person? How about being sharp? How do all these differ from being an emotional person or, again, from being persuasive? There are answers to these questions. They may not be hard and fast, definite answers, but they are good answers. There are answers because each of the key terms: logical, sharp, reasonable, emotional, persuasive, has a slightly different meaning in our language.

The Differences:

Being logical focuses on following the consequences of an idea. It is logical to ask: If we accept your assumption, what would then be true? When we want to test a hypothesis, we must first be logical enough to see what the hypothesis implies. A logical person recognizes which ideas contradict

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certain others, which are consistent with others, and which guarantee the implication that the others are true.

Being sharp relates to being discerning, discovering solutions, and creating strategies to accomplish goals. Being reasonable relates to knowledge and preliminary assessment of the overall wisdom of certain beliefs or courses of action. It also relates to knowing ones options and being able to tell the absurd ones from the more or less plausible ones. Being emotional relates to using ones own emotions or eliciting the emotions of other people in order to accomplish goals. It also relates to situations, especially stressful ones, with emotion. Being persuasive is being able to get others to believe you. Emotion and logic are both tools used by persuasive people.

Being logical can be contrasted with each of the characteristics we have been discussing. Being logical means being able to infer the consequences of various views, beliefs, ideas and assumptions. A logical person is one who uses his or her intellectual powers to think through situations, to try to predict the likely outcome of various alternative courses of actions, to anticipate the necessary and probable consequences of believing certain things or acting certain ways. A person can have any of the characteristics we discussed, or a person can fail to have any one of them. Since they are different, a person can have any combination of them. So, for example, one person can be logical, sharp and emotional while another is persuasive and reasonable and still another is logical, unemotional and unreasonable.

Exercise
In the Space to the left of each question, identify the concern raised by that question? Select your answer from:
E.

The concern is with being logical

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F. G. H.

The concern is with being reasonable or sharp The concern is with persuasion through appeals to emotion The concern is none of the above

_____ 1. Yes, Senator, but I ask you, what do you take to be the consequence of this mass of evidence? _____ 2. Doctor, please tell me what you do in my situation? _____ 3. Im very sorry but I just havent finished the job. As considerate as you are, Im sure youll give me an extension. _____ 4. When do we eat?

Categorical Syllogisms The Structure of Syllogism

A categorical syllogism (i.e. deductive logic) is an argument consisting of three categorical propositions (two premises and a conclusion) in which there appear a total of three categorical terms, each of which is used exactly twice. One of those terms must be used as the subject term of the conclusion of the syllogism, and we call it the minor term of the syllogism as a whole. The major term of the syllogism is whatever is employed as the predicate term of its conclusion. The third term in the syllogism doesn't occur in the conclusion at all, but must be employed in somewhere in each of its premises; hence, we call it the middle term. Since one of the premises of the syllogism must be a categorical proposition that affirms some relation between its middle and major terms, we call that the major premise of the syllogism. The other premise, which links the middle and minor terms, we call the minor premise. Consider, for example, the categorical syllogism: No geese are felines. Some birds are geese Therefore, Some birds are not felines. Clearly, "Some birds are not felines" is the conclusion of this syllogism. The major term of the syllogism is "felines" (the predicate term of its conclusion), so "No geese are felines" (the premise in which "felines" appears) is its major premise. Similarly, the minor term of the syllogism is "birds," and "Some birds are geese" is its minor premise. "geese" is the middle term of the syllogism. Standard Form A categorical syllogism in standard form always begins with the premises, major first and then minor, and then finishes with the conclusion. Thus, the example above is already in standard form. Although arguments in ordinary language may be offered in a different
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arrangement, it is never difficult to restate them in standard form. Once we've identified the conclusion which is to be placed in the final position, whichever premise contains its predicate term must be the major premise that should be stated first. Form and Validity This method of differentiating syllogisms is significant because the validity of a categorical syllogism depends solely upon its logical form. Remember our earlier definition: an argument is valid when, if its premises were true, then its conclusion would also have to be true. The application of this definition in no way depends upon the content of a specific categorical syllogism; it makes no difference whether the categorical terms it employs are "mammals," "terriers," and "dogs" or "sheep," "commuters," and "sandwiches." If a syllogism is valid, it is impossible for its premises to be true while its conclusion is false, and that can be the case only if there is something faulty in its general form. This suggests a fairly straightforward method of demonstrating the invalidity of any syllogism by "logical analogy." If we can think of another syllogism which has the same mood and figure but whose terms obviously make both premises true and the conclusion false, then it is evident that all syllogisms of this form, including the one with which we began, must be invalid. Diagramming Syllogisms The modern interpretation offers a more efficient method of evaluating the validity of categorical syllogisms. By combining the drawings of individual propositions, we can use Venn diagrams to assess the validity of categorical syllogisms by following a simple three-step procedure: 4. First draw three overlapping circles and label them to represent the major, minor, and middle terms of the syllogism. 5. Next, on this framework, draw the diagrams of both of the syllogism's premises.
o

Always begin with a universal proposition, no matter whether it is the major or the minor premise. Remember that in each case you will be using only two of the circles in each case; ignore the third circle by making sure that your drawing (shading or ) straddles it.

6. Finally, without drawing anything else, look for the drawing of the conclusion. If the syllogism is valid, then that drawing will already be done. Consider now how this could be applied, step by step, to an evaluation of a the following syllogism: No M are P. Some M are S. Therefore, Some S are not P.

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First: we draw and label the three overlapping circles needed to represent all three terms included in the categorical syllogism:

Second: we diagram each of the premises:

Since the major premise is a universal proposition, we may begin with it. The diagram for "No M are P" must shade in the entire area in which the M and P circles overlap. (Notice that we ignore the S circle by shading on both sides of it.) Now we add the minor premise to our drawing. The diagram for " Some M are S" puts an inside the area where the M and S circles overlap. But part of that area (the portion also inside the P circle) has already been shaded, so our must be placed in the remaining portion.

Third: we stop drawing and merely look at our result. Ignoring the M circle entirely, we need only ask whether the drawing of the conclusion "Some S are not P" has already been drawn. Remember, that drawing would be like the one below, in which there is an in the area inside the S circle but outside the P circle. Does that
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already appear in the diagram above? Yes, if the premises have been drawn, then the conclusion is already drawn.

Now consider the following statements and conclusion: (1) Statement 1: All men are animals Statement 2: Some animals are aggressive Conclusion: Some men are aggressive This seems to be a reasonable conclusion, but then consider the following: (2) Statement 1: All men are animals Statement 2: Some animals are female Conclusion: Some men are female Now the conclusion appears to be ridiculous and false - yet the reasoning is exactly the same as in the first example. The first example thus has a false conclusion. The animals who are aggressive are not necessarily men. What is happening here is that we are using what we know to be true as a substitute for the logic of the statement. In less certain situations, we use the same unspoken assumptions and beliefs to less acceptable ends. Using Venn diagrams The diagram below is a valid drawing that explains the first two statements in the example.

The conclusion of the example falls into the traps of making the assumption that the 'aggressive animals' and 'men' subsets necessarily overlap, whereas there is no necessity for this in statements one and two. Although the conclusion could be true it does not have to be true.

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So what?
Beware of making linked assertions that seem reasonable but in fact are logically incorrect. You can, of course, make such assertions deliberately, using logic that seems valid to persuade. If you do this, of course, you run the risk of the other person exposing your false logic.

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