IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.

1 CATHODE RAYS

3.1 CATHODE RAYS

3.1.1 Explain that cathode ray tubes allowed the manipulation of a stream of charged particles. DEFINITTIONS:  Cathode Ray Tube: is an evacuated tube which allows the unobstructed movement of cathode rays from a cathode to an anode.  Cathode Ray: Are negatively charged particles and can therefore be deflected. o This can be shown by 3 facts:  They leave ve charge on the surfaces they strike  They are deflected by magnetic fields as predicted by the right hand rule. Force experienced is . The path of deflection is circular  They are deflected by electrically charged plates (capacitor) when it is placed on the inside of the cathode ray tube. Force experienced is . The path followed is parabolic MANIPULATIONS: Cathode rays can be manipulated in a number of ways: 1) SPEED a. The speed the rays travel can be changed by changing the voltage between the anode and cathode. The voltage change changes the potential energy of the electrons. As it travels between the anode and the cathode, this energy is transformed into kinetic energy, therefore changing the speed of the particles. 2) NUMBER OF RAYS a. The number of cathode rays can be further manipulated by the introduction of a triode grid between the cathode and anode. Changing the voltage to this grid changes the current flowing through the tube . 3) COLLIMATOR a. This manipulates the cathode rays by only letting a single, tight beam of cathode rays through from the cathode to the anode. 4) MAGNETIC FIELDS a. Since the cathode rays are charged particles, they experience a force. b. c. The path of deflection is circular 5) ELECTRIC FIELDS a. Since the cathode rays are charged particles, they experience a force. b. c. The path of deflection is parabolic

By Phillip Smith

IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.1 CATHODE RAYS 3.1.2 Explain why the apparent inconsistent behaviour of Cathode rays cause debate as to whether they were charged particles or electromagnetic waves. Many experiments were performed by scientists in the late 19th century. These experiments had results which indicated cathode rays were either charged particles or electromagnetic waves. The debate was influenced by nationalism. German scientists generally held that Cathode rays were electromagnetic waves whilst English scientists argues that they were charged particles. A number of experiments were used by both groups as evidence and support of the conflicting arguments. Their interpretation was ambiguous. Three examples are: 1) Cathode rays cause glass to fluoresce a. The wave theorists compared this to ultraviolet effects on materials b. The Particle theorists felt the light was released due to a sudden deceleration of charged particles 2) Cathode rays caused an increase in temperature a. Wave theorists compared this to sunlight warming the surfaces on which it was incident b. The particle theorist believe particles transfer kinetic energy on impact and therefore cause heating 3) Paddle wheel rotated when hit by cathode rays a. Wave theorists describe the rotation as caused by heating of gas particles adjacent to the surface of the wheel b. Particle theorists believe conservation of momentum is causing the wheel to rotate. ENGLISH: The English believed that cathode rays were particles and presented the following evidence:  Deflection by magnetic fields  Carried energy and momentum  Deflected by electric fields (Eventually, once executed properly)  Cast shadows of metal objects  Caused some salts to fluoresce GERMANS: The German s however believed them to be electromagnetic waves from the following evidence:  Could pass through some thin materials, suggesting they were smaller than atoms.  They were not deflected by electric fields (initially, as it was mis-conducted)  Cast shadows similar to light, hence travelling in straight lines

By Phillip Smith

IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.1 CATHODE RAYS 3.1.3 Perform an investigation to demonstrate and identify properties of cathode rays using discharge tubes contain a Maltese cross, electric plates, a fluorescent screen, a glass wheel, and analyse the information gathered to determine the sign of the charge of cathode rays. MALTESE CROSS:  The anode was situated on the base of the tube, underneath a Maltese cross which was situated at the end of the cathode ray tube.  When voltage was applied, the cathode ray, travelling straight and being obstructed by the Maltese cross, it cast a proportional shadow, showing the cathode rays had been blocked relatively easily and that they travel in straight lines.  The shadow had a very sharp edge, suggesting that diffraction was not occuring and therefore cathode rays could be particles. ELECTRIC PLATES:  When electric plates were set up inside the tube and a potential difference was placed across them, the cathode ray beam was deflected.  To perform this experiment, the tube had a curved screen set up inside it soe that the horizontal path of the beam was visible.  Bending the beam with an electrical field, it showed the beam was electrically charged.  The beam was deflected towards the positive plate, so we concluded that cathode rays were negatively charged. FLUORESCENT SCREEN:  A fluorescent screen in the path of the cathode ray caused it to light up as it was struck.  This suggested that the cathode ray carried enough energy to produce the reaction in the screen necessary to produce light, a property exploited in many TV s and computer monitors. PADDLE WHEEL  A glass paddle wheel was mounted on the inside of a cathode ray tube and allowed to spin  When the cathode ray struck the paddle wheel, it caused it to spin and rotate along the tube.  Through conservation of momentum, the fact that the cathode ray could move the wheel by colliding with it strongly suggested that they had madd, and were therefore particles. 3.1.4 Perform an investigation and gather first-hand information to observe the occurrence of different striation patterns for different pressures in discharge tubes. Striation patterns refer to light and dark areas inside a discharge tube. Electrons colliding with air particles release light dependant on the energy of the electrons, but also on the amount of gas inside the tube. As the pressure of gasses change, so too do the striation patterns. In this experiment, we had 4 discharge tubes each with different pressures: 5%, 2%, 0.5% and 0.01% (measured as a percentage of standard atmospheric pressure).  5% Air Glowing purple/pink streamers formed, extending all the way down the cathode to the anode  2% Air the pattern changed to a serried of alternating light and dark bands running perpendicular to the length  0.5% Air the dark gaps between the lines widened (there were fewer lines), with the pink/purple glow concentrated around the anode, and a blue glow forming at the cathode.  0.01% Air There were no striations. Instead, the glass around the whole anode glowed yellow-green. The exact nature of the striation patterns varies depending on what gas is used. E.g. Normal Air, hydrogen etc.

By Phillip Smith

IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.1 CATHODE RAYS 3.1.5 Identify that moving charged particle in a magnetic field experience force. When a moving charged particle travels through a magnetic field, it experiences a force related to its velocity, charge, direction and the strength of the magnetic field. If the particle is travelling parallel to the field lines, there is no force experienced. Maximum force is experiences when travelling at 90 degrees to the field lines. 3.1.6/3.1.8 Discuss qualitatively the electric field strength due to a point charge, positive and negative charges and oppositely charged parallel plates. POINT CHARGE:  The electric field strength depends entirely on the magnitude of charge of the object has.  The field extends outward in all directions and so obeys the inverse square law, rapidly diminishing as distance from the charge increases. POSITIVE CHARGE:  The field lines radiate outwards, indicative of the direction in which a positive test charge would experience a force. NEGATIVE CHARGE:  The field is identical to a positive charge, except the field lines run in the opposite direction, pointing inwards to the point charge, indicative that a positive test charge would be attracted inwards to the negative charge. CAPACITOR (OPPOSITELY CHARGED PLATES)  Have a uniform field (in both direction and strength) running between them from the positive plate to the negative plate.  The field is always running in the same direction.  The electric field only exists in between the plates.  The spacing of the field lines indicates the field strength.

* Force acting on a moving charge

+ +

- -

3.1.7 Identify that charged plates produce an electric field. Charge plates that is, plates with a potential different between them, produce an electric field running between them. The field lines run from the positive plate to the negative plate, are parallel and the field strength is equal at all points between the plates. The field does not exist outside the space between the plates.

By Phillip Smith

IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.1 CATHODE RAYS 3.1.9 Describe quantitatively the force acting on a charge moving through a magnetic field, using (including Describe quantitatively the electric field due to oppositely charged parallel plates ) MOVING CHARGE: (MAGNETIC FIELD)

  

When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field, it experiences a force. This equation shows that the force depends on its velocity, its charge, magnetic field strength and the angle its path makes with the field. The right hand palm rule is used to calculate the direction of the force, acting towards the centre of the circle the motion of the moving charge will make.

ELECTRIC FIELD IN A CAPACITOR: (CHARGED PLATES)

* Force acting on a moving charge

 

The field between two charged plates depends on only two things: the potential difference between the plates and the distance between the plates. The field is at right angles to the plates in all direction and is uniform in strength.

3.1.11 Outline the role of electrodes in the electron gun, the deflection plates or coils and the fluorescent screen in the cathode ray tubes of conventional TV displays and oscilloscopes. CATHODE RAY TUBE:  Electron Gun used to produce fast-moving streams of electrons. o The electrodes have two roles: 1) emit electrons to form a stream 2) accelerate the electrons (accomplished by a very large potential difference between the cathode and anode) o The anode has a hole in it to allow the stream of electrons to leave the electron gun.  Deflection system used to change the direction of the electron stream o For the electron beam to create an image on the screen, the beam must sweep over the screen rapidly.  This is accomplished by the deflection plates that guide the electron bean to particular parts of the screen.  Fluorescent Screen coated in phosphorus that emits light when struck by the electrons. o This makes the position of the electron beam visible. OSCILLOSCOPE:  Used to view electrical signals, that is waveforms  It graphs the relationship between two or more variables o Horizontal axis is generally TIME o Vertical axis is generally VOLTAGE  Horizontal deflection o A Time-based circuit in the CRO causes the spot to be swept horizontally across the screen. o This is achieved by using a saw-tooth voltage TELEVISION:  Colour three electron guns are used that each produce separate electron beams o The Phosphor coating consists of trios of dots in red, green and blue (RGB)  Combinations of theses colours are used to create all the other colours o Each electron gun is able to activate one dot colour and a shadow mask prevents them hitting others  Black and White brightness of each pixel varies (the brighter the whiter it appears) made up of thousands By Phillip Smith 5

IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.1 CATHODE RAYS 3.1.10 Outline Thompson s experiment to measure the charge/mass ratio of an electron. AIM: To measure the charge to mass ratio of an electron (using cathode rays) APPARATUS:

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METHOD: The tube fired cathode rays at the end of the tube where their deflections could be measured. The tube also had an internal electric field and an external magnetic field to control the deflection of cathode rays passing through it. 1) When charged particles travel through a magnetic field, it experiences a force:

Thomson also knew that the force on a charged particle creates a circular motion:

2) Solving these two conditions simultaneously we find:

The magnetic field can easily be measured as can the radium of deflection. So if the velocity of the cathode can be determined, the charge to mass ratio can easily be found. 3) To find the velocity of the cathode rays, Thomson simultaneously exposed them to an electric field and a magnetic field. Balancing the two forces so they were equal and opposite he knew:

+
4) Hence:

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.1 CATHODE RAYS RESULTS: When Thomson calculated the value of the charge to mass ratio he found a value 1/2000 times smaller than the charge to mass ratio of a hydrogen ion (This values had been determined by Faraday using electrolysis nearly 100 years before). CONCLUSION: This result had tremendous significance. It implied that a particle smaller than an atom existed although this was not confirmed until Milikan measured the charge of an electron. Thomson took it to mean that the Atom was divisible into a finer structure and proposed a new model of the atom (The plum pudding model).

By Phillip Smith

IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS

3.2 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND QUANTISED RADIATION

3.2.1 Outline qualitatively Hertz s experiments in measuring the speed of radio waves and how they relate to light waves. DISCOVERING RADIO WAVES: Maxwell had proposed a link between electricity and light in the form of four mathematical equations. His solutions suggested the existence of transverse waves with a range of frequencies that would all travel at

  

His experiment consisted of a source of waves and a detector. As sparks jumped across the gap of the induction coil circuit, sparks also jumped across the detecting loop Hertz hypothesised that the sparks set up a changing electric and magnetic fields that propagate as an electromagnetic wave, as postulated by Maxwell. These waves, falling on the spark gap, set up electric and magnetic fields including a spark gap.

Hertz was able to conclude that the radiation he was dealing with was part of the electromagnetic spectrum by analysing its properties in comparison to light. The similar properties to light included:  Reflection off metal plates  Refracted by pitch or asphalt blocks  Diffracted around obstructions  Polarisation when he rotated the receiving coil he found that the sparks were stronger at certain angles  Interference MEASURING THE VELOCITY:  In order for him to calculate the velocity of the radio waves he was creating he needed to calculate the wavelength and the frequency since  He knew the frequency as he was creating it from the inductor-capacitor circuit o Calculated  In order to measure wavelength, Hertz used the wave properties of interference, reflecting one wave off a metal plate and directing the other directly at the detector. o From the interference pattern he could see positions of constructive and deconstructive interference o For constructive interference: 

(Calculating = 3m) hence

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS 3.2.2 Describe Hertz s Observation of the effect of a radio wave on a receiver and the photoelectric effect produced but failed to investigate. Hertz discovered that radio waves were capable of inducing currents in a receiver. Using a spark gap with a parabolic mirror connected to an induction coil that was producing a high AC voltage, a spark jumped from one side of the gap to the other. Using a sing ring of wire with a similar sized gap as on the induction circuit, when a spark jumped across the induction circuit gap, an identical spark jumped across the receiver gap. This was clear proof that transmission and reception were occurring because there was no other source of electricity. So Hertz observed that radio waves could induce currents in a receiver. When he tried to enclose the receiver in a dark box to observe the spark more clearly, the spark was greatly diminished in size. Hertz concluded that EMR was affecting the size of the induced spark, and by irradiating the receiver with different frequencies of EMR he found that UV light maximised the effect of the spark. This was because the photoelectric effect was knocking electrons from the surface of the wire making it easier for them to jump the gap. Hertz however did not investigate the observation of the photoelectric effect. 3.2.4 Indentify Plank s hypothesis that radiation emitted and absorbed by the walls of a black body cavity is quantised. Classical theory predicted that the radiation emitted by a black body should continuously increase in intensity as the wavelength gets shorter, forming a continuous spectrum with intensities effectively corresponding to an exponential curve. Classical predictions did not agree on the observations of experiments. Experimental observation showed that the amount of energy radiated reaches a maximum ata wavelength that depends on the temperature of the black body, and the drops sharply for shorter wavelengths. Also an exponential curve woul violate conservation of energy since the total energy (area under the graph) would be infinite. This was called the Black Body Problem . Plank solved this problem by his hypothesis: y Radiation emitted and absorbed by the walls of a black body is quantised o This explained the conflict of experimental observation and classical theory o It stated that radiation could only occur in small packets which he called quanta .

y y

Energy contained within a single quanta is dependant only on frequency of the radiation (according to eqn) The vibration states of atoms in the black body cavity were also quantised, meaning they could only have discrete frequency values.

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS 3.2.5 Identify Einstein s contribution to quantum theory and its relation to black body radiation. Einstein s contribution was twofold: 1) QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT a. Using Planck s formula to create a more detailed quantum theory of light b. This was that light was concentrated in packets called photons hence not being evenly spread c. The energy of each photon obeyed Planck s law: d. This provided a concrete explanation for the particle model of light, explaining intensity and frequency in terms of energy of and quantity of photons, solving problems between theory and experiments. 2) PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT a. The emission of electrons from substances, when they are bombarded with light (usually high frequeny i.e. UV light) b. Einstein used Plank s work to fully explain the unusual results of the photoelectric effect. c. This led him to explain it in terms of the work function and threshold frequency, also providing an explanation for photoelectron kinetic energy that matched Lenard s puzzling results. Characteristic Intensity Emission Time Frequency Energy Classical Prediction As the intensity of the light increases the photocurrent will increase For low intensities, emission time should be very long Emission is independent of frequency As light intensity increases, the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons will increase Experimental Results Above the threshold frequency as intensity increases, so did photocurrent If emission occurred, it was instantaneous Emission is frequency dependant, below the threshold frequency, no electrons are emitted Ek remains constant with increased intensity but varies with the type of surface and the frequency

3.2.6 Identify data sources, gather, and process and analyse information and use available evidence to assess Einstein s contribution to quantum theory and its relation to black body radiation. In 1905 Einstein published a startling paper which explained the long mysterious phenomenon of The photoelectric effect . In doing so, Einstein conceived a new area of science known today as quantum mechanics . The core idea of quanta as Einstein conceived it was drawn from the problem of black body radiation which had theoretically been solved by Max Plank 30 years previously. Black Body Problem:  Definition: A black body is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. The intensity vs. wavelength (or frequency) curve for radiation produced experimentally could not be explained using classical theory.  The solution was proposed by Plank who found that he could only derive the results observed by changing the laws of physics and assuming that the energy emitted could only take certain values, being emitted in small packets called quanta. o Quanta: A packet of energy ( ) The photoelectric effect:  The emission of electrons from substances, when they are bombarded with light (usually high frequeny i.e. UV light)  LENARD: Observed that a current could be made to flow against a potential difference (through an evacuated region) if light of high enough frequency was shone on the positive surface. (Red light)  The maximum Ek of the photoelectrons could be found from the relationship between work done in stopping the electrons and the energy.
       

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS 3.2.7 Explain the particle model of light in terms of photons with particular energy and frequency. The particle morel of light considers light to be transmitted by small particles. These particles have mass that depends on their energy, with more energetic photons having greater mass (although their rest mass is 0). To increase the energy of a photon, the frequency, not amplitude of the light is increased. Since . To increase the amplitude the number of photons is increased. Photon energies can only occur in multiples of Plank s constant. 3.2.8 Identify the relationships between photon energy, frequency, speed of light and wavelength. According to and , the relationship between the variable can be deduced.  Since the speed of light (c) is constant, if frequency increases, the wavelength of light must decrease and vice versa.  With photon energy, h is a constant, so when f is increased, photon energy increases.

This means E is directly proportional to f and inversely proportional to wavelength

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS 3.2.10 Identify data sources, gather, process and present information to summarise the use of the photoelectric effect in photocells. The photo electric effect has an important application in photocells (or photoelectric cells).  Photocells are cells in which the electrons initiating an electric current are produced by the photoelectric effect.

Essentially, photocells consist of:  A cathode o Coated with a photosensitive material (silver dioxide or Caesium) that emits electrons when light falls on it.  An Anode o Photoelectrons are then accelerated to the anode by a potential difference between them. Resulting in a photo current.  Some sort of light source o The light falls on the photosensitive material coating the cathode which is what gives electrons enough Kinetic Energy to escape the material and be accelerated to the anode which is its application of the photoelectric effect. o Current (I) light intensity The photocurrent that is produced by the light and the photoelectric effect is proportional to the intensity of the light falling on the cathode. Some uses of photocells include:  Electric eyes  Radiation detectors  Light Meters  Old Film Projectors for producing the sound track Photons of light give electrons energy which then escape from atoms of the cathodes coating material and are then attracted to the neutrally charged anode. As current is the flow of electrons, this movement (flow) of electrons known as the photoelectric effect creates and electric current (DC)

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS 3.2.11 Process information to discuss Einstein s and Plank s differing view about whether science research is removed from social and political forces. Modern Science is often influenced by commercial forces:  Allocation of funding resources are limited to what sponsors, companies and research institutes approve As proper research.  Governments have political agendas which often determine what money is and isn t spent on.  Funding to Uni s has declined, leading to private companies increasing their funding. This results in them demanding to right to any new developments or technologies as an outcome of the research. o Private companies will not allow the free sharing of ideas and research. Often the ideas are patented and their use will be heavily restricted. o This differs greatly from historical discoveries which were often shared and researched more extensively. During Einstein s and Plank s time, political forces also influenced the activity of science. Some major influences included:  Nationalistic Science o Errnst Mach, a leading German physicist believed all science should serve the state o Plank did not believe this and struggles to keep his institute free from political pressure through much of the 1930 s.  Funding by the Emperor o Plank s institute was funded by Kaiser and leading industrialists. o Often being subject to pressure to accommodate views he found personally offensive. Plank s Personal Views  Being a loyal German, he often found himself conflicted in his responses. o He was an aristocrat and was totally loyal to Germany, but also believed that science was an activity to uplift all people. o He felt his responsibility was to create a better world.  Science being a crucial role in this.  Although his activities didn t often leave the confinements of science, his leadership role as a scientist often associated him with public exposure. o This made him a public figure in the political arena.  His political views and self image was rooted in Wilhelmian times and the German Kaiserreich. o These views were considered to be conservative, patriotic and highly nave to the understanding of current politics. o This attitude was behind Plank s glorification of the World War in the summer of 1914.  He was amongst the signers of the infamous Appeal to the Civilised World  This was when the intellectually elite of Germany legitimised German militarism as a safeguard for German culture.  Plank became more discriminatory in his opinions and advocated that the war and political intolerance did not inflict harm on international relations between scientists.  Plank stood by Hitler as he grabbed the reins of power in 1933, accepting the policy of dismissals and other arbitrary measures taken by the National Socialists. o However he took pains to find individual solutions for his expulsed colleagues. o Acting behind the scene to preserve the freedom of the action of science.

By Phillip Smith

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS Einstein s General Views  Similar to Plank, Einstein believed the act of science should be independent of national interests. However he did agitate for an end to nuclear weapons tests in his later life.  The outbreak of the First World War brought Einstein s pacifist sympathies to the surface. o Ninety-three leading German intellectuals, including Plank signed a manifesto defending Germany s war conduct.  Einstein and three others signed and anti-war counter manifesto.  He helped form a non-partisan coalition that fought for a just peace and for a supranational organisation to prevent future wars.  As a Swiss citizen, Einstein could feel free to spend his time on theoretical physics, but he kept looking for ways to reconcile opposing sides. o Describing his own pacifism as an instinctive feeling, he said that his attitude is not derived from any intellectual theory but is based on my deepest antipathy to every kind of cruelty and hatred. Political Views  Einstein considered himself a pacifist, humanitarian and in later years a committed democratic socialist.  Einstein opposed tyrannical forms of Government and for this reason (including his Jewish background) opposed the Nazi regime and fled Germany shortly after it came into power. o He initially favoured the construction of the atom bomb.  In order to ensure that Hitler did not do so first.  He encouraged Roosevelt to initiate a program to create nuclear weapons.  After the war, Einstein lobbied for nuclear disarmament and a world government.  Einstein was a supporter of Zionism. It is clear that although both Einstein and Plank believed that science should be free of both social and political influence, somewhere along in their careers they were subject to heavy political influences which would direct their research and science activity. However the one thing that remained at the forefront was their passion for science and physics. The main difference between Plank and Einstein was that Plank was a patriot for native Germany, a man of the state. Whereas Einstein escaped Germany, taking up Swiss citizenship and believed that science should be used for the good of humanity and not manipulated for the good of the state. In modern science, political influence is very strong due to the expensive nature of modern research. Institutes and companies that fund science research often direct where research heads and claims ownership of any discoveries.

By Phillip Smith

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS

3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS

3.3.1 Indentify that some electrons in solids are shared between atoms and more freely. In solids, electron shells are replaced by electron band structures (because the energy levels of neighbouring atoms shift according to Pauli s exclusion principle, with the energy levels clustering into broad band structures). BAND STRUCTURES:  Consist of a conduction band and a valence band o The valence band:  Can be thought of as the normal outer shell of an atom where electrons are chained to that particular atom.  Electrons in the valence band are not shared and remain immobile. o The conduction band:  Can be thought of as a level where electrons are free to move between other atoms in the solid structure.  Only electrons in the conduction band are shared  Conductivity relates to the ease at which an atom s electrons are able to more. 3.3.2 Describe the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors in terms of band structures and relative electrical resistance. BAND STRUCTURE OF MATTER: In an isolated atom, the electrons occupy a series of energy states (levels) around the positive nucleus.  Electrons fill up the lowest energy state first (ground state)  The highest level may not be filled depending on the element. CRYSTAL:  Atoms come together, valence electrons feel the attraction of surrounding nuclei.  Two atoms brought close enough together interact and form a two-atom system. This has two closely space energy levels. (valence and conduction) ENERGY BANDS: Individual energy levels combine to form energy bands within the crystal. Conduction of electricity refers to the movement of electrons between atoms in the crystal formation. The relative position and proximity of the valence and conduction band influences the number of electrons in the conduction band and hence the conductivity.  Valence Band o Occupied by electrons in the valence band and is partly or fully filled  Conduction Band o Upper energy band and corresponds to the highest energy levels in the isolated atom o If the electrons are in the conduction band there are able to move freely though the material.  Energy Gap: o CONDUCTORS:  Conduction and valence bands overlap, which means electrons in their normal valence positions can, without gaining any energy move into the conduction band and move freely between atoms.  The ease of movement of the electrons results in a low resistance associated with conductors. o INSULATORS:  There is a very large gap between the valence and conduction band, known as the forbidden energy gap.  In order to conduct electricity, electrons in an insulator must gain enough energy to jump over the forbidden energy gap and into the conduction band.  Since this process requires a great deal of energy (causing breakdown of the material), it is difficult to cause insulators to become conductive, and so they have high electrical resistance.

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS o SEMICONDUCTORS  Intrinsic semiconductors y Are pure semiconductor crystals consisting of only one element y Have band gaps smaller than that of insulators but greater than conductors y Less (and achievable) energy is require to make electrons jump to the conduction band. y Heat and other moderate energy input will result in conduction  Extrinsic semiconductors y Are semiconductor crystals with deliberate impurities consisting of small quantities of group 3 or group 5 elements. (A process called doping) y Contain an extra energy level hidden inside the forbidden energy gap for electrons to exist, reducing the energy required to get an electron into the conduction band.

3.3.3 Identify absences of electrons in a nearly full band as holes, and recognise that both electrons and holes help carry current. In a crystal lattice of a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor, all the outer shells are (theoretically) filled and there is no electrons available conduct electricity (since extra energy is required for electrons to jump from the valence band into the conduction band where fee electrons are required to conduct electricity). y When a Group 3 element exists, there is an impurity with one less electron that a group 4 semiconductor such silicon or germanium. This results in a hole in the crystal lattice structure where there should have been a bond electron. o The hole forms a positive region of space, and because it s charged it is capable of moving charge. To move the hole, bonds with the lattice switch around and change so that the positive hole in the lattice changes. The movement of holes constitutes a current. y When a group 4 element exists, there is an impurity with one more electron than a group 4 element. This results in an extra electron ready to conduct electricity. o The extra electron acts as an additional electron that can easily be moved into the conduction band for conduction. Hence, movement of electrons constitutes current conduction also.

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS 3.3.4 Compare qualitatively the number of free electrons that can drift from atom to atom in conductors, semiconductors and insulators. CONDUCTORS: Under normal conditions have many free electrons that can drift from atom to atom (on the order of the number of atom in the lattice). This movement of electrons in the conduction band is what constitutes conduction of electricity. SEMICONDUCTORS: Relatively very low amount, if any free electrons that can move from atom to atom in the conduction band. However, if energy is applied to semiconductors in the form of heat or a strong electrical field, the number of free electrons increases greatly cause it to conduct (although not to the same extent as normal conductors). INSULATORS: Comparatively very low if any free electrons that can move from atom to atom. Due to the large energy gap, large amounts of energy is required to make electrons free to move to the conduction band and hence they are not good conductors of electricity.

3.3.5 Perform an investigation to model the behaviour of semiconductors, including the creation of a hole or positive charge on the atom that has lost the electron and the movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions when an electric field is applied across the semiconductor. We modelled a semiconductor using marbles in a Petri dish, with each electron representing an electron. Removing a marble from the dish represented the creation of a hole. As the dish was disturbed by moving it, simulating the application of an electric field, the position of the hole changed as marbles moved in to fill it, moving the hole to elsewhere in the dish. The gap and the marble moved in opposite directions, as a new gap was created when a marble moved to fill the old gap. Then we modelled semiconductors using marbles as atoms and a metal bearing as an extra free electron that was capable of moving around the dish as the dish was moved. When we moved the dish, the ball bearing moved from marble to marble, showing the movement of free electrons.

3.3.6 Identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is related to lack of ability to produce other materials of sufficient purity. During early research with transistors and semiconductors, germanium was the semiconductor of choice. The main reason germanium was used was because of its purification in order to operate with predictable properties, the semiconductor crystal needed to be very pure. The only two semiconductors suitable for transistor use were germanium and silicon, being group 4 elements and somewhat easily available. Silicon was in fact later the favoured material, being more abundant and therefore cheaper, easier to dope, and having superior thermal properties (germanium became too conductive with only moderate heating making germanium chip performance highly dependant on temp.). However in the 1940 s at the start of semiconductor research, scientists were only able to purify germanium. The techniques that they used to purify germanium crystals could not be applied to silicon crystals. This meant that although silicon was the superior material, it could not be used because their current techniques could not purify silicon to make reliable chips. Germanium was therefore used until they developed a sufficient technique to purify silicon.

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS 3.3.7 Describe how doping a semiconductor can change its electrical properties. PURE SEMICONDUCTORS: (GROUP 4)  Group 4 element have a structure that is tetrahedral with each atom sharing one valence electron with each of its four neighbour atoms.  Electron-hole pairs o As temperature rises, some electrons gain sufficient energy to escape their bond and exist as free electrons.  In doing so they leave a hole behind.  Electrons more into these holes, hence moving the holes also (under a potential difference).  Conduction takes place via holes and electrons and is termed intrinsic conduction.

DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS: (GROUP 3 & 5)  Doping occurs when atoms from group 3 or 5 replace some of the atoms of the group 4 semiconductor element being doped. P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS:  When a group 3 element atom replaces one of the group 4 atoms, hence only thee electrons are available to complete the covalent bonds.  If the remaining unfilled covalent bond is filled be a valence electron from a neighbouring atom, a mobile hole is created which is available for conduction.

 

Impurity atoms have an energy level at the bottom of the energy gap called the acceptor level as it accepts electrons from the valence band. Called P-TYPE because conduction occurs via positive holes in the valence band.

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS:  When a group 4 atom replaces one of the group 5 atoms, only four of the five available electrons are used for the covalent bonds, the other is free for conduction.

   

Impurity atoms have an energy level at the top of the energy gap called the donor level At room temperature, electrons can move freely from the donor level to the conduction band. Under an electric field, these electrons will move, constituting a current. Called N-TYPE because conduction occurs via negative electrons.

3.3.8 Identify differences in p-type and n-type semiconductors in terms of the relative number of negative charge carriers and positive holes. Semiconductor: P-TYPE Properties:  Doped with Group 3 elements  Capable of carrying charge  Positive holes move charge  Holes move in the opposite direction to electrons  Doped with Group 5 elements  Capable of carrying charge  Negative electrons move charge  Electrons more in the opposite direction to holes

N-TYPE

3.3.9 Describe differences between solid state and thermionic devices and discuss why solid state devices replaced thermionic devices. Although thermionic devices and solid state transistors perform exactly the same function (amplification of a signal or electrical switching), solid state devices almost completely replaces thermionic devices because of their vastly superior properties in terms of operation. Attribute: Thermionic Device: Solid State device: Cost Expensive Cheap Dimensions Bulky and heavy Small, lightweight Durability Fragile, easily broken Durable and reliable Lifespan Short life span Long lifespan Warm-up time Significant None Energy efficiency Large power requirements Very low power Although some audio enthusiasts claim valves are still better devices for amplification, it is generally accepted that transistors are superior to valves in almost every way. This led to their replacement by solid state devices.

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS 3.3.10 Gather, process and present secondary information to discuss how shortcomings in available communication technology lead to an increased knowledge of the properties of materials with particular reference to the invention of the transistor. The biggest problem with communication technology in the early days of the radio was amplification the received signal was extremely weak and could not produce a lout sound without being amplified. This mean researchers were always trying to improve amplification technology to address the shortcomings with valve technology such as their high failure rate, high power consumption, their weight and their warm-up time. When they first determined some of the properties of semiconductors this need for better amplifier fuelled heavy research into the properties of semiconductors and the ways in which they could be used as amplifiers in the form of transistors. So the short comings in available communications technology led to the rapid development of the transistor which would have otherwise take many years longer. Semiconductor devices such as amplifiers rely on the properties of p-n junctions. OPERATION OF P-N JUCNTIONS:  Pure or dopes semiconductors allow current to flow equally well in both directions.  A piece of n-type next to a region of p-type however, has unidirectional properties. Meaning that current flows easily in only one direction.  P-N junctions act as diodes (rectifiers) o In the n-type there are many electrons o In the p-type there are relatively few electrons  Consequently when two pieces are joined, electrons in the n-type diffuse into the p-type leaving positive ions behind.  Similarly, holes from the p-type diffuse into the n-type leaving negative ions behind.

 

The silicon is now electrically charges o The p-type is negative and the n-type is positive The electric field set up creates a potential barrier opposing further diffusion. o Under the effect of this field, minority carriers drift across the boundary. o At equilibrium, the drift of the minority carriers in the opposite direction opposes/balances the diffusion of majority carriers across the boundary.  This barrier will act to move any electrons created in the silicon into the n-type and any holes into the p-type.

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS FORWARD BIAS:  When an electric field is applied as below, the depletion zone is reduced. o Positive holes are replaced by the positive battery terminal.  Injected into the p-type material and recombine with electrons in the n-type.

  

For each electrons-hole recombination, and electrons is liberated and enters the positive terminal. The new hole moves right to the p-n junction. Electrons enter the n-type material from the negative terminal to replace lost electrons due to recombination with holes near the junction. New holes and electrons continually move towards the n-p junction and re-combine. This causes a relatively large current flow and is called FORWARD BIAS.

REVERSE BIAS:  If the battery polarity is reversed (from above), the depletion zone becomes larger. o Holes in the p-type are attracted to the negative battery terminal. o Electrons in the n-type are attracted to the positive battery terminal.

As a result, the depletion zone increases and current flow is reduced to almost zero, this is called REVERSE BIAS

TRANSISTORS:  A transistor consists of two p-n junctions in close proximity.  Consists of three regions. 1) EMITTER 2) BASE 3) COLLECTOR (Base is much thinner)

FOR AMPLIFICATION: o The base-emitter junction is forward bias and the base-collector is reverse biased. 21

By Phillip Smith

IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS o Almost all the electrons then drift towards the collector at a steady velocity (and recombine with a hole) 3.3.11 Identify data sources, gather, process, analyse information and evidence to assess the impact of the invention of transistors on society with particular reference to their use in microchips and microprocessors. The discovery of the transistor led to the development of integrated circuits. Many thousands of transistors could be constructed on a tiny microchip. On such microchips, complex circuits could be miniaturised allowing faster transfer, storage and processing of information in electronic devices. Hence the computer was born. The initial impact of transistors came in the form of portable electronics. During the mid 1950 s, they began to be used extensively in hearing aids and transistor radios . For society, this meant that living standards of the elderly and deaf were raised as hearing aids became accessible and the explosion of transistor radios liberated music, contributing to greater accessibility of music to the masses providing a source of entertainment. It wasn t until the invention of the microchip in 1958 by Jack Kilby & Robert Noyce that the full potential of transistors was realised, having revolutionary effects on the future developments of electronic devices and modern life. Computers had been built using transistors since the mid 1950 s, but this feat still involved soldering thousands of discrete components. After the development of the microchip, this could be done on a single silicon chip using what was essentially a printing process. Initially, microchips found their use in the Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missile and the Apollo guidance system. Over time, computers have changed from rooms filled with hundreds of faulty vacuum tubes to strudy, reliable units on desktops and in briefcases. For society, the development of the transistor and microchips has had the following effects:  The mechanisation of many processes once done manually, such as calculation and word processing. Resulting in saved time and labour.  Movement away from blue collar work to white collar work in more sophisticated areas of employment.  Large populations of people have become increasingly dependent on computers as a way of life, becoming lazy, inactive and having adverse effects in the event of malfunction.  The world has become an increasingly more intimate place as people are able to come together from all over the globe through the initial technology of transistors  1950 60 s o Transistor radio  News from the Vietnam war  Communication  Small and Cheap increased accessibility of news and entertainment  Wide spread of music rock and roll revolution owing to transistors o TV  News Vietnam war  Entertainment o Integrated Circuits  Computers

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.3 SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSISTORS 3.3.12 Identify data sources, gather, process and present information to summarise the effect of light on semiconductors in solar cells. A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light directly into electricity by the photoelectric effect. In a solar cell: 1) Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel (containing solar cells) and are absorbed by semiconducting materials (i.e. silicon). 2) Electrons are knocked loose from their atoms, thus creating holes (complementary positive charges) and free electrons. a. This can be viewed in two ways: i. CREATES AND INTENSE ELECTRIC FIELD AT THE BOUNDARY (n-p junction) 1. Electrons are driven to the n-type and holes to the p-type a. Light must have energy greater than 1.1 eV (ie. ) The energy is dependent upon frequency; hence in the evening and morning, light reaching earth with lower frequency will not produce energy sufficient. 2. The flow of electrons represents current

ii. BAND THEORY 1. A photon of light hits an electron out of the valence band (giving it extra energy) so that it is raised into the conduction band. 2. The electron knocked up into the conduction band is free to move and conduct electricity, constituting a flow of current.

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.4 SUPERCONDUCTORS

3.4 SUPERCONDUCTORS
3.4.1 Outline the method used by Braggs to determine crystal structure. X-RAY DIFFRACTION:  Diffraction is a wave characteristic o Diffraction occurs when waves bend around obstructions, and interference patters result when waves interfere. o Diffraction can often result in interference patterns when the bent wave (acting as a point source) interferes with the original wave. o Only obvious when the wavelength is comparable to the spacing of the lines making up the grating.  A diffraction grating uses small obstructions with separations similar to the wavelength of the wave in question placed side by side to produce a predictable interference pattern that is directly linked to the spacing within the diffraction grating. German physicist Von Laue hypothesised that if the atoms in a crystal were arranged in a regular fashion, they might act as 3D diffraction grating for x-rays. Two of his assistants conducted an experiment and found such diffraction patterns from the crystal, therefore proving the wave nature of x-rays and the regular arrangement of atoms. BRAGG DIFFRACTION:  Sir William and Lawrence Bragg realised that the spacing between layers in a crystal lattice were similar to the wavelength of x-rays and would therefore act as diffraction grating.  They proposed short wavelength x-rays could penetrate and reflect from the atomic planes of the lattice. METHOD: 1) They used an x-ray tube as their x-ray source , and the x-rays travelled through a hole in a shield which acted as a collimator to produce a tightly focussed beam of x-rays. 2) The waves then reflected through a crystal target which acted as a diffraction grating, and then the x-rays travelled to a sensor to analyse the interference pattern.

  

  

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.4 SUPERCONDUCTORS 3.4.2 Identify that metals posses a crystal lattice structure. Metals, like many other molecules, have a crystal lattice structure in their solid state. This means that they exist as a 3D grid of atoms arranged into layers. It is a repeating structure where each atom occupied a well-defined equilibrium distance from its neighbours. In the case of metals, free electrons exist in between lattice layers and conduct electricity.

3.4.3 Describe conduction in metals as a free movement of electrons unimpeded by the lattice. ELECTRON SEA MODEL:  The electron sea model of a metal can be pictured as consisting of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by a sea of electrons that are free to move under the influence of an electric field.  This means that they exist in a more-or-less empty space containing no lattice ions, leaving them free to travel without being impeded by the lattice. o This free movement of electrons through the lattice is what constitutes conduction.

DRIFT VELOCITY:  When a electric field is set up in the wire (conductor/metal), the field exerts a force on the electrons ( ) that results in a net drift velocity of electrons towards the positive terminal.  However collisions between the electrons and the lattice do still occur, as do collisions between electrons and other electrons.  Drift velocity is proportional to the electric field applied o Drift velocity is small compared with the velocity of electrons o Although drift velocity is small, the influence of current moves close to the speed of light.

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.4 SUPERCONDUCTORS 3.4.4 Identify that resistance in metals is increased by the presence of impurities and the scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations. In order to conduct electricity, electrons must travel through the space between lattice layers. RESISTANCE:  Resistance is low when electrons are free to move unimpeded through the lattice  Resistance is high when the passage of electron movement is obstructed, resulting in collisions.  Resistance results from collisions of electrons with impurities or imperfections within a metal, and also collisions of electrons with other electrons.  Temperature: o Increases in temperature (of metals) will result in increased lattice vibrations, increasing the likelihood of electrons collisions with the lattice, hence increasing resistance. o METALS: Increases in temp = increases in resistance. o SEMICONDUCTORS: Increases in temp = reductions in resistance.

3.4.5 Describe the occurrence in superconductors below their critical temperature of a population of electrons unaffected by electrical resistance. SUPERCONDUCTORS:  Superconductivity is the phenomenon exhibited by certain conductors where they have no resistance to current.  This only occurs at extremely low temperatures because at higher temperatures electron pairs (cooper pairs) are not capable of forming. o Critical Temperature = No resistance o Such low temperatures eliminate lattice vibrations  Below critical temperature, electrons form cooper pairs where the first electron distorts the lattice, losing energy and resulting in the second being attracted, hence gaining back the lost energy. o This movement of electrons occurs with no net energy loss, hence no resistance. o In superconductors, this is a population of electron pairs that are able to move under the influence of an electrical field with no net energy loss, hence not being affected by electrical resistance.  Superconductivity is dependent on both the temperature and the intensity of E.

3.4.6 Process information to identify some of the metals, metal alloys, and compounds that have been identified as exhibiting the property of superconductivity and their critical temperatures. Material Zinc Aluminium Mercury Lead Tin AuBa2Ca3Cu4o11 Ba2Ca2Cu308.33 Critical Temperature (K) 0.85 1.175 4.15 7.196 7.72 99 138

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.4 SUPERCONDUCTORS 3.4.7 Discuss the BCS theory.   BCS theory is a quantum mechanical phenomenon In a superconductor, the electrons behave differently to a conductor. o Electrons form cooper pairs and pass through the lattice unimpeded o Since they do not interact directly with the lattice, they do not lose energy and hence travel with no electrical resistance.

HOW COOPER PAIRS WORK: 1) The first electron deforms the lattice (as above), hence losing energy to the lattice. 2) This distortion creates a phonon which is like a particle, referring to the distortion of the lattice and hence the energy doesn t spread through the lattice (staying within the phonon). a. The distortion also creates a dense positively charged area directly behind the distortion. 3) This positive area then attracts the second electron and absorbs the phonon. *Hence cooper pairs are able to move with no net energy loss to the lattice which represents no electrical resistance. PROPERTIES OF COOPER PAIRS:  Continually forming and being broken  The phonon is transferred through the lattice before being absorbed, hence they can be between 50 and 2000 armstrongs apart.  All cooper pairs must be formed between spin up and spin down electrons.  Cannot change velocity on one cooper pair without changing all their velocities. LIMITATIONS:  This theory is extremely successful at explaining superconductivity in Type 1 superconductors (substances that have a critical temperature below 30K) as it is almost 50 years old and is still used today. o It provided a concrete framework on which to model superconductivity that was vital to understanding how it works.  However, it was unable to explain the superconductivity in Type 2 superconductors the ceramic variety that can be superconductors at far higher temperatures. o This was because the model predicts 30K as being the maximum temperature at which cooper pairs are able to form.

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.4 SUPERCONDUCTORS 3.4.8 Discuss the advantages of using superconductors and identify limitations to their use. ADVANTAGES:  Ability to minimise energy loss due to minimal/no resistive heating  Generate no waste heat because they are perfect conductors  Are capable of generating very strong magnetic fields per unit of weight o Useful for MRI scanners and could be used to make very efficient motors, generators and batteries. LIMITATIONS:  Early superconductors operate at temperatures only a few degress above absolute zero. o This was extremely expensive to produce and achieve o Required liquid helium to produce  Even today, high temperature superconductors are difficult to maintain superconductivity as a constant supply of liquid nitrogen is required. o Although liquid nitrogen is much cheaper to produce ceramic superconductors are:  Brittle  Difficult to manufacture  Not ductile difficult to form into wires and cable  Chemically unstable for some environments * These properties make the possible applications and advantages of these applications extremely impractical to achieve.

3.4.9 Analyse information to explain why a magnet is able to hover above a superconducting material that has reached the temperature at which it is superconducting. In 1933, Meissner and Ochsenfeld discovered that a magnet is able to hover over a superconductor. This phenomenon occurs for two reasons: 1) MEISSNER EFFECT (MAGNETIC LEVITATION) a. Superconductors do not allow magnetic fields to penetrate its interior. b. This occurs due to the following process: i. A magnet is places above a superconductor, producing a change in flux. ii. This change in flux induces eddy currents on the surface of the superconductor. iii. Obeying Lenz s law, the magnetic field produced by these induced currents opposes the initial magnetic field of the magnet, creating an opposing force, causing it to levitate above the superconductor. iv. Below the superconducting temperature the sample cancelled all magnetic fields inside, which means they became perfectly diamagnetic. 2) Quantum Pinning a. This phenomenon stops the magnet from moving horizontally off the superconductor. * The meissner effect occurs for relatively small values of magnetic fields. If the magnetic field is above a critical value, it does penetrate the metal and as a result, superconductivity is lost.

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.4 SUPERCONDUCTORS 3.4.10 Perform an investigation to demonstrate magnetic levitation. AIM: To demonstrate magnetic levitation due to the meissner effect. MATERITALS:  A superconducting disk in a Petri dish  A small magnetic cube  Liquid Nitrogen  Insulated plastic tongs  Goggles etc. (protective clothing) METHOD: 1) First method: a. We poured liquid nitrogen onto the superconducting disk (and into the dish) to lower it below its critical temperature, making it superconductive. b. Using insulated plastic tongs, we placed the small magnetic cube above the superconducting disk and observed that it levitated above it. 2) Second method: a. Initially we placed the cube on the disk b. Pouring liquid nitrogen over the disk, as the disk cooled below its critical temperature the magnet suddenly floated upwards off the disk. RESULTS:  The second method showed that the meissner effect is due to the exclusion of magnetic fields from superconductors, rather than the formation of perfect eddy currents due to changes in flux.

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.4 SUPERCONDUCTORS 3.4.11 Gather and process information to describe how superconductors and the effect of magnetic fields have been applied to develop a maglev train. In ordinary electromagnets, a great deal of power is required to produce only a relatively weak magnetic field. (about 2 teslas). Whereas using superconducting electromagnets, once current is established, no additional power is required as there is no energy loss due to electrical resistance (as superconductors operating below their critical temperature experience zero electrical resistance). This allows these electromagnets to produce much stronger magnetic fields (up to 10 teslas). There are two ways in which magnetic levitation can be achieved: 1) Attraction forces are used between superconducting electromagnets on a a steel guide way and the superconducting electromagnet beneath it (connected to the train). a. The extremely strong magnetic fields achieved by superconducting electromagnets achieve high attractive forces able to lift the weight of the train.

2) Repulsion forces a. Superconducting electromagnets inside the train produce extremely strong magnetic fields that are repelled by the extremely strong magnetic fields produced by the superconducting electromagnets situated in the guiderail. b. Eddy currents induced in the guiderail due to the changing magnetic flux of the magnets on the train act as additional repulsive forces that helps to keep the train in the middle of the guide-way.  Additional superconducting electromagnets situated along the track serve to propel the train from the back and attract the train from the front. By constantly changing the polarity of the track magnets, the train is attracted and repelled in the same direction constantly, causing the train to move rapidly. Superconductors are vital in developing maglev trains as normal permanent would be too heavy to generate the same field strength and normal electromagnets would lose too much energy due to resistance. According to Physics Contexts 2 , the current world record velocity of maglev trains is: 513.6 km.h

 

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IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION 3.4 SUPERCONDUCTORS 3.4.12 Process information to discuss the possible applications of superconductivity and the effects of those applications on computers, generators and motors and transmission of electricity through power grids. OBSTACLES OF APPLICATIONS:  Maintaining critical temperature: o Superconductors must be extremely cold, necessitating liquid nitrogen cooling. In some cases this is merely inconvenient, such as maglev trains and computers.  Properties of type-2 Superconductors: o The only realistic option for applications of superconductivity is through the use of type-2 superconductors since they only require liquid nitrogen as a coolant where as type-1 superconductors have much lower critical temperatures. o Such ceramic superconductors are not ductile  This makes them very difficult to use in electrical circuits that rely on ductility to produce long wire to transfer electricity.  Also this is a barrier to their use in computer processors. Some applications of superconductors include:  Superconducting magnets o Which are able to produce magnetic fields much stronger than iron-core magnets (around 10 teslas rather than only about 2 teslas). o Once current is established, no additional power is required due to no resistance, whereas in iron-core magnets, the presence of resistance requires additional power to maintain a magnetic field.  Superconducting magnets have been used in applications such as particle accelerators which require large magnetic fields.  They are also found in the medical diagnostic tool called an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging).  Superconducting magnets are also found in NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectrometers used to identify chemicals.  Maglev Trains o Experimental trains that use magnetic levitation in order to reduce friction and accelerate trains which allows efficient transport with minimal energy loss. o This is achieved through the use of superconducting electromagnets that are able to produce high strength magnetic fields capable of repelling the weight of a train.  Transmission Lines o A great deal of energy is wasted in the transmission of electricity through conversion of current to heat due to the resistance of transmission wires. o By using superconducting wires, energy losses through the electricity grid will be eliminated, resulting in greater efficiency, with possible impacts of reduced cost of power or reduce need for additional electricity generation capacity. o The brittle and non ductile nature of ceramic superconductors makes this application difficult to achieve.  Computers o A great deal of energy is lost in the form of heating. o Further heating makes it difficult for processors to operate properly, as it changes to properties of silicon which is presently used. o Using superconducting materials to construct connecting wires and transistors (quantum switches). o This would increase speeds of processors and reduce energy loss within computers.  Motors and Generators o Using superconducting materials in the wiring and in the construction of low-friction bearings in order to reduce the energy loss as heat due to resistance and friction. o Motors and generators could be used to operate at high currents with no losses and no heat production, resulting in high efficiency. o According to  , current output will be maximised when there is low resistance, showing that superconductors will improve current output of generators. By Phillip Smith 31