Unit 3 - Plate Tectonics

This project was completed by Earth Systems 3209 students at Clarenville High Students original research was carried out using Knowledge Forum.

Explain early ideas about crustal movements. In geologic terms, a plate is a large, rigid slab of solid rock. The word tectonics comes from the Greek root "to build." Putting these two words together, we get the term plate tectonics, which refers to how the Earth's surface is built of plates. The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth's outermost layer is fragmented into a dozen or more large and small plates that are moving relative to one another as they ride atop hotter, more mobile material. Before the advent of plate tectonics, however, some people already believed that the present-day continents were the fragmented pieces of preexisting larger landmasses. The diagrams below show the break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea which figured prominently in the theory of continental drift -- the forerunner to the theory of plate tectonics. According to the continental drift theory, the supercontinent Pangaea began to break up about 225-200 million years ago, eventually fragmenting into the continents as we know them today.

Plate tectonics is a relatively new scientific concept, introduced some 30 years ago, but it has revolutionized our understanding of the dynamic planet upon which we live. The theory has unified the study of the Earth by drawing together many branches of the earth sciences, from paleontology (the study of fossils) to seismology (the study of earthquakes). It has provided explanations to questions that scientists had speculated upon for centuries -- such as why earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in very specific areas around the world, and how and why great mountain ranges like the Alps and Himalayas formed.

Why is the Earth so restless? What causes the ground to shake violently, volcanoes to erupt with explosive force, and great mountain ranges to rise to incredible heights? Scientists, philosophers, and theologians have wrestled with questions such as these for centuries. Until the 1700s, most Europeans thought that a Biblical Flood played a major role in shaping the Earth's surface. This way of thinking was known as "catastrophism," and geology (the study of the Earth) was based on the belief that all earthly changes were sudden and caused by a series of catastrophes. However, by the mid-19th century, catastrophism gave way to "uniformitarianism," a new way of thinking centered around the "Uniformitarian Principle" proposed in 1785 by James Hutton, a Scottish geologist. This principle is commonly stated as follows: The present is the key to the past. Those holding this viewpoint assume that the geologic forces and processes -- gradual as well as catastrophic -- acting on the Earth today are the same as those that have acted in the geologic past.

The belief that continents have not always been fixed in their present positions was suspected long before the 20th century; this notion was first suggested as early as 1596 by the Dutch map maker Abraham Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geographicus. Ortelius suggested that the Americas were "torn away from Europe and Africa . . . by earthquakes and floods" and went on to say: "The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves, if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts of the three [continents]." Ortelius' idea surfaced again in the 19th century. However, it was not until 1912 that the idea of moving continents was seriously considered as a full-blown scientific theory -- called Continental Drift -- introduced in two articles published by a 32-year-old German meteorologist named Alfred Lothar Wegener.

He contended that, around 200 million years ago, the supercontinent Pangaea began to split apart. Alexander Du Toit, Professor of Geology at Johannesburg University and one of Wegener's staunchest supporters, proposed that Pangaea first broke into two large continental landmasses, Laurasia in the northern hemisphere and Gondwanaland in the southern hemisphere. Laurasia and Gondwanaland then continued to break apart into the various smaller continents that exist today.

In 1858, geographer Antonio Snider-Pellegrini made these two maps showing his version of how the American and African continents may once have fit together, then later separated. Left: The formerly joined continents before their separation. Right: The continents after the separation. Wegener's theory was based in part on what appeared to him to be the remarkable fit of the South American and African continents, first noted by Abraham Ortelius three centuries earlier. Wegener was also intrigued by the occurrences of unusual geologic structures and of plant and animal fossils found on the matching coastlines of South America and Africa, which are now widely separated by the Atlantic Ocean. He reasoned that it was physically impossible for most of these organisms to have swum or have been transported across the vast oceans. To him, the presence of identical fossil species along the coastal parts of Africa and South America was the most compelling evidence that the two continents were once joined.

In Wegener's mind, the drifting of continents after the break-up of Pangaea explained not only the matching fossil occurrences but also the evidence of dramatic climate changes on some continents. For example, the discovery of fossils of tropical plants in Antarctica led to the conclusion that this frozen land previously must have been situated closer to the equator, in a more temperate climate where lush, swampy vegetation could grow. Other mismatches of geology and climate included distinctive fossil ferns discovered in now-polar regions, and the occurrence of glacial deposits in present-day arid Africa, such as the Vaal River valley of South Africa.

The theory of continental drift would become the spark that ignited a new way of viewing the Earth. But at the time Wegener introduced his theory, the scientific community firmly believed the continents and oceans to be permanent features on the Earth's surface. Not surprisingly, his proposal was not well received, even though it seemed to agree with the scientific information available at the time. A fatal weakness in Wegener's theory was that it could not satisfactorily answer the most fundamental question raised by his critics: What kind of forces could be strong enough to move such large masses of solid rock over such great distances? Wegener suggested that the continents simply plowed through the ocean floor, but Harold Jeffreys, a noted English geophysicist, argued correctly that it was physically impossible for a large mass of solid rock to plow through the ocean floor without breaking up.

Undaunted by rejection, Wegener devoted the rest of his life to doggedly pursuing additional evidence to defend his theory. He froze to death in 1930 during an expedition crossing the Greenland ice cap, but the controversy he spawned raged on. However, after his death, new evidence from ocean floor exploration and other studies rekindled interest in Wegener's theory, ultimately leading to the development of the theory of plate tectonics. Plate tectonics has proven to be as important to the earth sciences as the discovery of the structure of the atom was to physics and chemistry and the theory of evolution was to the life sciences. Even though the theory of plate tectonics is now widely accepted by the scientific community, aspects of the theory are still being debated today. Ironically, one of the chief outstanding questions is the one Wegener failed to resolve: What is the nature of the forces propelling the plates? Scientists also debate how plate tectonics may have operated (if at all) earlier in the Earth's history and whether similar processes operate, or have ever operated, on other planets in our solar system. y For more information follow this link.

Explain the Plate Tectonics Theory. The plate-tectonics theory is made up of four scientific developments: 1. demonstration of the ruggedness and youth of the ocean floor; 2. confirmation of repeated reversals fo the Earth magnetic field in the geologic past; 3. emergence of the seafloor-spreading hypothesis and associated recycling of oceanic crust; and 4. precise documentation that the world's earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated along oceanic trenches and submarine mountian ranges. Some pieces of evidence used to support the theory of Plate Tectonics are as follows: 1. The folded mountains of south Africa apparently are continuations of the range north of Buenos Aires, Argentina. 2. Glacial deposits in Africa also matched rocks in Brazil. 3. It did seem possible to connect Paleozoic mountains in North America to similar ranges in western Europe. 4. There are great faults that run through Nova Scotia and Scotland. They seem to be continuous. 5. Moraines are piles of glaciers till built up at the edges of glaciers. A nice fit of the moraines from the ice sheets of North America and Europe was made by presuming the continents were connected during the Ice Age. 6. The fossil record indicated that they would have sunk below sea level in Cretaceous time. In particular, he mentioned a small fossil reptile know only from rocks in south Africa and Brazil. 7. He also mentioned a plant that grew only on the southern continents during Paleozoic times. 8. Several living animals could also be used. One of the more interesting is a certain earthworm species. It would seem quite difficult for an earthworm to make an ocean crossing. 9. Geologic evidence of ancient climates became available, indicating that glaciers had once grown in areas that are now tropical or arid. 10. The best evidence came from beds of a rock called tillite, which is a solidified glacial till. 11. More evidence came from the distribution of coal deposits in the eastern United States, Europe, and China. y For more information follow this link. y For more information follow this link.

Diagram or model the interior of the earth, labelling all principal parts and showing the approximate thickness of each layer.

Differentiate the layers of the earth based on characteristics. y For more information follow this link.

Relate convection theory to plate movement. Convection theory refers to the idea that the central part of the Earth is fluid due to heat generated by radioactive decay processes. The crust of the earth floats on this fluid lawer like sheets of ice floating on water. Currents of the fluid magma, move the plates over the Earth's surface.

Describe and give examples of convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries.

Artist's cross section illustrating the main types of plate boundaries (see text); East African Rift Zone is a good example of a continental rift zone. (Cross section by Jos F. Vigil from This Dynamic Planet -- a wall map produced jointly by the U.S. Geological Survey, the Smithsonian Institution, and the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory.) Diverging boundaries are where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other. Converging boundaries are where crust is destroyed as one plate dives under another. Transform boundaries are where crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other. Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centers where plates are moving apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from the mantle. Picture two giant conveyor belts, facing each other but slowly moving in opposite directions as they transport newly formed oceanic crust away from the ridge crest.

Relate the formation of rocks and minerals to the movement at plate boundaries. Artist's cross section illustrating the main types of plate boundaries (see text); East African Rift Zone is a good example of a continental rift zone. (Cross section by Jos F. Vigil from This Dynamic Planet -- a wall map produced jointly by the U.S. Geological Survey, the Smithsonian Institution, and the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory.) Diverging boundaries are where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other. Converging boundaries are where crust is destroyed as one plate dives under another. Transform boundaries are where crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other. Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centers where plates are moving apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from the mantle. Picture two giant conveyor belts, facing each other but slowly moving in opposite directions as they transport newly formed oceanic crust away from the ridge crest.

Distinguish between dip-slip, strike-slip, and transform faults.

Dip-Slip Fault: The movement along this fault is vertical; one side moves up and the other side moves down. Strike- Slip Fault: The movement along this fault is horizontal. Transform Faults: Found when two plates slide laterally against each other. y For more information follow this link. y For more information follow this link.

Relate compressional, tensional, and shear forces to the various types of faults and folds. Fault motion assists the geologist in determining the direction of forces at work within Earth. Normal faults indicate tensional stresses that pull the crust apart. This pulling apart can be accomplished either by uplifting that causes the surface to stretch and break, or by horizontal forces that actually rip the crust apart. Normal faulting is known to occur at spreading centers, where plates are diverging. Here a central block called a graben, bounded by normal faults, drops as the plates separate. These grabens produce an elongated valley bounded by upfaulted structures called horsts. In reverse and trust faulting, the sections of crust are displaced towards one another so geologists conclude that compressional forces are at work. The primary regions of such activity are convergent zones where plates are colliding. Compressional forces generally produce folds as well as faults and result in a general thickening and shortening of the crust. Accordingly most orogenesis occurs in compressional situations.

Faults: Faults are fractures in the crust along which displacement has occurred, on a scale from
centimeters to kilometers. Large faults consist of multiple interconnecting fault zones that can be several kilometers wide. Often they are easier to identify from high altitudes than from ground level. Movement along a fault can be horizontal, vertical or a combination. Faults in which the movement is primarily vertical are called dip-slip faults, because the displacement is along the inclination (dip) of the fault plane. Movement along dip-slip faults can be either up or down the fault plane-that is, rocks on one side of the fault can be either pushed up or dropped down with respect to the other side. Therefore two types of dip-slip faults are recognized. To distinguish between the two, we call the rock that is higher than the fault surface the hanging wall, and the rock below the fault surface the footwall. Dip-slip faults are classified as normal faults when the hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall. Conversely, reverse faults occur when the hanging wall moves upward relative to

the footwall. Reverse faults having a very low angle are called thrust faults. Thrust faults usually result from strong compressional stresses. Faults in which the dominant displacement is along the strike, or trend, of the fault are called strike- slip faults. Many large strike-slip faults are associated with plate boundaries and are called transform faults. Transform faults have nearly vertical displacement and connect large structures, such as segments of an ocean ridge. The San Andreas fault in California is a well known transform fault in which the displacement is several hundred kilometers. When faults have both vertical and horizontal movement, they are called oblique-slip faults.

Relate faulting and folding to mountain building. Mountain building is when two plates collide, and portions of the earth's crust are uplifted and folded, causing great compression and thrusting of rocks. Mountain building is related to faulting and folding where faulting is caused by the earth's crust moving vertically upward with pressure caused by the colliding of plates. It's also related through folding which is the process in which the earth's plates are pushed together in a roller coaster like series of high and low points. The folding also bends layers of rock without breaking them. Mountain ranges can be classified according to their structural characteristics. Using this approach, four main categories result:
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fault-block mountains upwraped mountains folded mountains volcanic mountains

Mountain ranges of the same structural type commonly occur in close proximity, forming a mountain system. Most orogenesis occurs in compressional environments. Evidence for this is the predominance of large thrust faults and folded strata in mountainous areas. However some mountain building is associated with tensional stresses. The mountains that form under such circumstances, termed fault-block mountains, are bounded on at least one side by normal faults of high to moderate angle. The largest and most complex mountain systems are folded mountains although folding is often more conspicuous, faulting, metamorphism, and igneous activity are always present in varying degrees.

Upwarped mountains are caused by a broad arching of the crust or in some instances, because of great vertical displacement along a high angle fault. Mountain building refers to the processes that uplift the mountains. These mountain building processes occur at several different types of plate boundaries.
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Mountain building along continental margins involves the convergence of an oceanic plate and a plate whose leading edge contains continental crust. o Mountain building also occurs where continents converge. Because continental lithosphere is too buoyant to undergo any appreciable subduction, a collision between continental fragments eventually results

Note: Plate tectonics theory originally suggested two mechanisims for mountain building:
continental collisions were proposed to explain the formation of such mountains as the Appalachians, Himalayas, and Urals. o subduction of oceanic lithosphere was thought to be the underlying tectonic process for many circum-Pacific mountain chains such as the Andes.
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Recently investigations however indicate a third mechanism of mountain building: Smaller crustal fragments collide and accrete to continental margins. Through this process of collision and accretion, many of the mountainous regions rimming the Pacific have been generated.

Relate the rock cycle to plate tectonics. The rock cycle is a theoretical concept relating tectonism, erosion, and various rockforming processes to the common rock types. The rock cycle is made up of three different rock types. Metamorphic, Igneous, and Sedimentary. The rock cycle is related to Plate Tectonics by the movement of sediment into the metamorphic activity and melting into Magma. The Magma is what keeps the plates in motion.

Relate plate tectonics to the geology of the local area. The geology of the local area does not suggest that there has been any significant tectonic activity in the region. The area is marked by low hills which have been sculptured by glaciation. However when you examine a geological map of the area you will find that

the underlying material is predominantly volcanic ash and cinder which suggests that there was some significant volcanic activity in the region. For example it is suggested that Center Hill near Sunnyside in Trinity Bay is an ancient volcanic cone.

Analyse Canadian contributions in the field of Plate Tectonics. To ensure compliance in all enviroments - underground, underwater, and in the atmosphere, an International Monitoring System of sensor platforms incorporating four different technologies is being developed and deployed. These technologies comprise seismic {measuring acoustic vibrations in the earth}, hydroacoustic {vibrations in the oceans}, infrasound {pressure waves in the atmosphere}, and radionuclide {radioactive particles in the air}. Canada supports all four tecnologies. Staff of the Pacific Geoscience Centre conduct investigatons into the geophysical character and geological architecture of the Canadian Cordillera and adjacent offshore continental margin. They contribute to and manage national programs on earthquake seismology and geodynamics, including the evalution of earthquake hazards. J.Tuzo Wilson was pivotal in advancing the plate tectonics theory. In 1963 he suggested that the Hawaiian and other volcanic island chains may have formed due to the movement of a plate over a stationary "hotspot" in the mantle. This hypothesis eliminated an apparent contradiction to the plate tectonics theory --- the occurance of active volcanoes located many thousands of kilometers from the nearest plate boundary. J. Tuzo Wilson was proven right many times but in the early 1960's, his idea was considered so racial that his "hotspot" manuscript was rejected by all the major international scientific journals. This manuscript was published in 1963 in a relatively obscure publication, the Canadian Journal of Physics, and became a milestone in plate tectonics. Another contribution that J. Tuzo Wilson had to the theory of plate tectonics was published two years later. He proposed that there must be a third type of plate boundary to connect the oceanic ridges and trenches, which he noted can end abruptly and "transform" into major faults that slip horizontally. In Canada, Natural Resources Canada is responsible for the operation, installation, and maintenance of IMS facilities related to seismological, infrasound, and hydroacoustic monitoring. To ensure compliance in all enviroments - underground, underwater, and in the atmosphere, an International Monitoring System of sensor platforms incorporating four different technologies is being developed and deployed. These technologies comprise

seismic {measuring acoustic vibrations in the earth}, hydroacoustic {vibrations in the oceans}, infrasound {pressure waves in the atmosphere}, and radionuclide {radioactive particles in the air}. Canada supports all four tecnologies.
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For more information follow this link. For more information follow this link.

Describe the sequence of plate tectonic events from Rodinia to the present day continental arrangements. During the middle and late Paleozoic, about a third of the Rodinian mass was torn apart and moved to equatorial regions. Most of these blocks were asswmbled by a seris of plate collisions into the super continents of Laurussia by the Devonian and Laurasia by the Pennsylvanian. Meanwhile, the remains of Rodinia, Gondwana, rotated clockwise and moved northward to collide with Laurasia -- the result was the super continent Pangaea.
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For more information follow this link! Grenville rocks are named after the Grenville orogeny {mountain building episode}, which took place approximately 1 billion years ago, and represents a continent to continent collision. At this time, configuration of continents on the planet formed Rodinia, or proto-Pangea, a composite of Laurentia {North America} and Gondwanaland {the southern Continents}.

For more information follow this link.

Explain the formation of Newfoundland using plate tectonic theory.

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Taken from http://www.chs.k12.nf.ca/science/es3209/units/unit1-01.htm