METALLURGY 1.

General Metallurgy - Crystalline structure of metals and the allotropic states of iron - Metal Alloys - State Diagrams - Solidification Structures - Strain Hardening and Recrystallisation - Behaviour of Metals at High and Low Temperatures 2. Mechanical Properties of Metals - Strength - Ductility - Hardness - Toughness 3. Steel Metallurgy - Ferrous-Carbon State Diagram - Structural Transformations in Steel - TTT and CCT Curves 4. Manufacturing and Classification of Steels - Methods of Steel Production, Refining, Casting and Lamination - Classification of Steels 5. Heat Treatment for Steel - Annealing - Normalising - Quenching - Tempering - Stress Relieving WELDABILITY 1. Metallurgy of Welds in Steels - The Weld Zone - The Heat Affected Zone 2. Welding Defects - Hydrogen in welding and cold cracking - Hydrogen absorption in welding - Hydrogen problems in welding - Cracks in the HAZ (when cold) - Hot Cracks - Remedies for avoiding hot cracks - Laminar Tearing 3. Heat Phenomena in Welds (Shrinkage, Internal Tensile Forces) - Shrinkage in Welds - Origin of residual tensions in welds - Effects of shrinkage and residual tension - Practical methods for attenuating tension 4. Welding Processes - Electric Arc - Welding processes using covered electrodes - Submerged arc welding - MIG and MAG welding processes - TIG welding process 5. Weldability of materials - Mild steels - Low manganese alloy steels - High resistance quenched and tempered steel - Molybdenum-chromium steels - Nickel steels - Austenitic chromium-nickel stainless steels - Austeno-ferritic stainless steels (DUPLEX) Aluminium and aluminium alloys
1

METALLURGY 1. GENERAL METALLURGY Crystalline structure of metals and the allotropic states of iron

Crystalline structure In their solid state, pure metals are made up of an aggregate of atoms that are alike, arranged in a very specific order that is constant for each type of metal. Unlike amorphous substances in which the elementary particles (molecules or atoms) are randomly arranged in space, the spatial distribution of atoms in metals is governed by well-defined laws of crystallographic symmetry therefore metals have a crystalline structure. The atoms that provide this specific structure are located at individual points in a fundamental setting that is characteristic of a crystalline structure the elementary cell. In general, each cell can be considered as a polyhedron, the shape of which is determined by the metal atoms positioned at its vertices. Each elementary cell is surrounded by a certain number of identical, iso-oriented cells, with which it shares a certain number of atoms that make up the links in a three-dimensional crystalline lattice. Apart from a few exceptions, the lattices in pure industrial metals belong to the following three crystallographic systems: - cubic system with centred faces (Fig. 1) - cubic system with a centred body (Fig. 2) - compact hexagonal system (Fig. 3) The cubic lattice with centred faces has cubic cells with an atom at each of the 8 corners of the cube and an atom in the centre of each of the 6 faces. The cubic lattice with a centred body has an atom at each of the 8 corners of the cube and an atom in the centre of the cube. The compact hexagonal lattice has cells that have a hexagonal prism shape, with an atom at each of the 6 corners at the base of the prism, plus an atom in the centre of each base and three atoms midway up the height of the prism at the corners of an equilateral triangle inside the hexagonal prism.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2
2

Fig. 3

Allotropic states of iron Allotropy is the result of the existence of different crystalline structure for the same chemical species. Each of these exists in a stable state under specific pressure and temperature conditions. Iron is a chemical element that can present itself in its solid state, in three stable allotropic forms at different temperatures (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Alpha iron, which is stable from ordinary temperatures all the way up to 910C, crystallises with a centred body cubic system. Alpha iron is magnetic at ordinary temperatures, but at 770C it loses its magnetic properties. It is then referred to as beta iron, but this should not be considered as a new allotropic phase as it retains the same centred body cubic crystalline lattice as alpha Fe. Gamma iron is stable between 910C and 1440C and is a real allotropic form of Fe as it has a centred face cubic lattice. It is not magnetic and has a solvent power for C that is much higher than alpha iron.

Delta iron is obtained due to allotropic transformation of gamma Fe when it is heated beyond 1440C and is stable up to 1539C, which is the melting point for pure iron. It has a centred body cubic lattice, like that of alpha FE, but it is not magnetic. Allotropic transformations, which, as we will see later, form the basis of the study of metallurgy, come about due to the diffusion of Fe atoms and C atoms melted in the Fe. These atoms tend to migrate in the material and therefore to homogenise its final structure, and this process is enhanced by temperature. We will also see what dangerous effects failure of these C and Fe atoms to diffuse during solidification can have.

Metal Alloys In practice, it is unlikely that pure metals will be used in steel construction. In order to obtain specific mechanical, physical, and chemical properties, mixtures of two or metals are normally used, and these are known as metal alloys. Alloys can also include elements that are normally considered as metals, such as carbon, phosphorous, silicon, etc. There are two basic types of alloys: - solid solutions - juxtaposition alloys

Solid Solutions Solid solutions can be obtained in two ways: - by substitution - by insertion Substitution Solid Solutions (Fig. 5) Substitution solid solutions are the solid solutions most commonly found in metals, and occur if some of the atoms in the solvent metals crystalline lattice are replaced by the same number of atoms of the melted metal. In general the solubility range is greater for metals with atomic volumes that are very nearly the same, these tend to crystallise into identical crystallographic systems, and are reasonably close on the electro-chemical table of elements. It has been shown experimentally that for the same crystalline structure and vicinity on the electro-chemical table of elements, substitution alloys are formed with wide ranges of solubility where the metals have atomic diameters that do not differ by more than 15% from one another. Insertion Solid Solutions (Fig. 6) Insertion solid solutions are formed by inserting one or more atoms of the dissolved element into the links in the crystalline lattice of the solvent metal. In order for this to take place, the dissolved element must have an atomic diameter that is significantly smaller (60% smaller) than that of the solvent metal. The smaller the atom size of the element to be dissolved (the solute) is in relation to the interatomic spaces in the solvent, the easier it is for the solute to insert itself into the crystalline lattice of the metal that constitutes the basic matrix. Only a few elements are able to satisfy this requirement when dealing with iron the most important are hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and boron.
Soluted element

Fig. 5

Solvent element

Solvent element

Soluted element

Fig. 6

Experiments have also shown that central face cubic and compact hexagonal crystalline structures are the structures that are most favourable for forming insertion solutions. Juxtaposition Alloys Juxtaposition alloys are formed when the solubility between the metals in their solid state is very limited or non-existent. In such cases alloys are made up of a number of grains of the various metals or the possible partially solid solutions in juxtaposition to one another. These are known as juxtaposition alloys and include the vast majority of industrial alloys. One typical example is pearlite (Fe-C alloy, with 0,8% C by weight). This is a juxtaposition alloy made up of ferrite and cementite (Fig. 7). Finally, it is worth noting that certain metals may react with one another chemically to form intermetallic compounds. This is the case with Fe-C alloys, for example, that contain the Fe3C (cementite) intermetallic compound, with 6,67% of C by weight.

Fig. 7

State Diagrams When a pure metal is cooled or heated, the corresponding temperature time curve is not constant but has two singular points between which the temperature remains constant during cooling (Fig. 8). These singular points act as pointers to the changes that take place at certain temperatures (passage from the liquid to the solid state, from one allotropic state to another, that is, from one crystalline shape to another, etc). When looking at the cooling of a binary alloy (made up of two elements) we note that the temperature curve first changes slope and then settles at a constant value for a certain time, before beginning to descend regularly again. In this case we have three and not only two singular points (Fig. 9). In addition, when the composition of the alloy is varied we note a resulting variation in the position of these singular points. By drawing curves joining these points (Fig.10) on the basis of the percentage concentration of the components in the alloy, temperature concentration diagrams are obtained the lines in which separate the fields of existence of the various alloy states, and these are therefore referred to as STATE DIAGRAMS.

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

The state diagrams for binary alloys are drawn up by indicating the percentage concentration of the two components on the abscissa (x-axis) and the temperature on the ordinate (y-axis). The two pure metals will be at the two ends of the range and the characteristics for each intermediate alloy will be identified by the intersection of the ordinate in relation to the alloy being studied, with the diagram line. The state diagram changes substantially in relation to the greater or lesser mixability capacity of two components in the solid state. We will look at a case of binary alloys with total solubility in the solid state and a case of zero solubility.

Fig. 10

Total solubility in the solid state The diagram in Fig. 11 shows two singular points, one that marks the onset of solidification and one at the end of solidification. The curves passing through these points are known as LIQUIDUS and SOLIDUS, and they divide the diagram into fields of existence of the various phases. Looking at an alloy with an M1 composition for example, during cooling the composition of the liquid solution remains unchanged up to point P at temperature T1. When the solution reaches this temperature, the first solid crystal separates and the alloy with the highest melting point (Q first crystal) will have the highest proportion of the metal component. Following this separation the composition of the liquid solution changes and becomes richer in metal B. As the temperature drops, the compositions of the liquid and the solid follow the respective T curves so that, for example, at temperature T1 Q L P the solid will have a composition Q and the T1 P liquid a composition P. When the temperature T drops further and crosses the solidus line at Q R point S, the last drop of liquid, with composition liquidus T2 S R, solidifies and the composition of the solid will L+S be generally that relating to the M1 alloy considered. At this point nothing else takes solidus place before ambient temperature is reached.
S

M1

Fig. 11

Zero solubility in the solid state In this case the diagram looks as shown in Fig.12. Looking at an alloy M1 for example, involving two metals A and B, with a corresponding composition of 25% of metal B, during cooling the alloy maintains its percentage composition until it meets the liquidus line at point C and temperature T1. At this point the first grain of metal A will form. A reduction in temperature must result in a corresponding variation in the liquid solution. Since the A crystals are continually being separated, the liquid solution is enriched with B and its composition will follow the liquidus line, which means that, for example, at a temperature of T2 the composition of the liquid phase will be D. The composition of the liquid changes until point E is reached. At this point some B crystals will also separate from the liquid and there will be three phases (A crystals B crystals liquid). The temperature TE remains constant until the liquid phase disappears, after which the descent can restart normally. This means of solidification results in the alloy with zero solubility in its solid state, at ambient temperature, being made up of metal A crystals which were the first to form and a mixture of small juxtaposed A and B crystals, which were deposited while T was constant at point E. This fine mixture of crystals (A + B) is known as EUTECTIC and point E as the EUTECTIC POINT. If an alloy has a composition that is inferior to or superior to the eutectic point, it is referred to as being a HYPOEUTECTIC ALLOY or a HYPEREUTECTIC ALLOY, respectively. If it is considered as being a hypereutectic alloy, the phenomena that will take place during cooling would be as indicated before, except that at ambient T the alloy would be made up of metal B crystals and a mixture of small, juxtaposed B and A crystals.

T C L liquidus

T1

L+A T2 TE

D L+B solidus B+E

E A+E (A+B) S A M1

Fig. 12

Solidification Structures In their liquid state, metal atoms have a high energy level given to them by the heat absorbed during heating up from the solid state until the metal melts. They are fairly free to move around in the heart of the liquid mass as they are obliged to maintain a reciprocal distance but not their position, and they move at a speed that increases as the temperature of the liquid increases. When the liquid cools, the movement of the atoms decreases until, at a certain temperature and in a generic point in the liquid mass, the inter-atomic forces of attraction gain the upper hand and limit some atoms to a set position in relation to one another, thereby forming the first cell of the crystalline lattice. This is known as the first germ of solidification, and other cells form alongside it as the temperature drops. The growth of the crystalline structure does not take place casually but, as we have already seen, according to well-defined crystallographic laws. In fact, the cells share the atoms in adjoining faces and development takes place by branching out in the directions of the crystallographic axes (solidification process said to be arborescent or dendritic - Fig. 13). The result of the development of each germ of solidification is said to be crystal, grain, or dendrite. Each grain contains a large number of elementary cells that are all oriented in the same way in relation to the initial cell. This orientation varies from grain to grain.

Fig. 13

Oriented dendritic structures When the temperature drops in a liquid mass on the verge of solidifying, this does not take place at an equal rate in all directions as the specific external conditions result in directions with a greater rate of change in temperature. The dendrites that form starting from the points that cool first develop in the direction that has the steepest temperature gradient. The grains therefore take on an elongated shape in a direction perpendicular to the isothermal surfaces in the liquid in the process of solidifying. In this case, dendritic crystallisation is referred to as being columnar, whereas when there are no preferential directions of solidification it is referred to as being equiaxial. In an ingot in its molten state for example, solidification starts in the area in contact with the cold sides of the ingot mould. The perimeter grains are therefore elongated towards the centre, providing a decidedly columnar structure. In the centre, where cooling is practically unaffected by the cold sides, crystallisation is equiaxial. In welding, due to the limited dimensions involved, solidification is completely dominated by a columnar dendritic phenomenon and no space is available for equiaxial structures (Fig. 14).

Fig. 14

Dendritic segregation When a pure metal solidifies, the materials composition and structure remain identical for the entire solidification time. This means that once crystallisation has been completed it is not possible to distinguish which parts solidified first from those that solidified last in the crystalline structure; that is, there is no segregation. In practice however, perfectly pure metals are seldom used. The impurities and the alloying elements cause phenomena that make it possible to differentiate between the parts that solidified first and those that solidified last. It should be noted, however, that when alloys solidify at a theoretical limiting velocity of zero, even in the case of an impure metal or a metal alloy there are no phenomena of segregation. These phenomena only occur at real solidification speeds. In the case of an impure metal, the impurities generally dissolve in the liquid metal but not, or very little, in the solid metal. This means that the first crystals deposited are pure from the remaining liquid, which is enriched with impurities as solidification progresses. Less pure metal is therefore deposited in the areas around the first dendritic grains and some of these impurities will be segregated in the areas that solidify last that is, around the grains. Later we will see how this phenomenon can be of significant importance in welding as it is one of the causes of a serious metallurgical defect (hot cracks).

Strain Hardening and Recrystallisation Strain Hardening Before introducing the concept of strain hardening, we need to introduce the theory of dislocation. This theory is based on the supposition that a large number of elementary defects are to be found, distributed randomly in the mass of metal materials. A dislocation is an area in a lattice that is distorted locally where, over a radius of a few atomic sizes, there are a string of atoms that are not opposite another string on the adjacent semi-plane (Fig. 15 & 16).

Fig. 15: edge dislocation

Fig. 16: screw dislocation

If there were no dislocation, any external shear force required to cause the two adjacent planes to slide over one another would be greater, as all the atoms in the two planes would have to be distanced from their position of equilibrium simultaneously. Since dislocation does occur, this movement can take place gradually with the dislocation moving. This explains why a metals tensile strength in practice is found to be lower than its theoretical strength, which is specifically due to these dislocations. Bear in mind, however, that everything that obstructs the movement of the dislocations tends to increase the strength of the material. Strain hardening is a fundamental characteristic in the plastic deformation of metal materials and involves the continual increase in the force required to cause this sliding, as deformation increases. This phenomenon can be seen in the load elongation graph that is obtained in a mono-axial tensile test and shows an ever upward trend on the curve over the plastic deformation stage. Strain hardening is explained as the interaction between the dislocations and the increase in the number of these as plastic deformation proceeds, for which gradually increasing force is required to cause this movement. Strain hardening that is obtained by any cold plastic operation is very dangerous as, in addition to resulting in an increase in the ultimate tensile strength and yield point, it also causes hardness to increase and ductility and toughness to decrease (Fig. 17).

Fig. 17

10

Recrystallisation This is the process that sees the crystalline lattice of material that has undergone plastic deformation rebalanced as a function of time or temperature. The name is derived from the fact that the reordering of the lattice starts from the germs of crystallisation and their subsequent growth. Recrystallisation tends to be quicker as the cold deformation increases. The speed with which recrystallisation occurs is very slow at low temperatures. The minimum temperature at which this takes place within a sufficiently short period of time is called the recrystallisation temperature. Crystallisation tends to take place more quickly at higher temperatures. When plastic deformation of a metal piece is carried out at a temperature exceeding this recrystallisation temperature, recrystallisation takes place immediately after plastic working (hot working), whereas if the temperature is lower, plastic working causes strain hardening (cold working) and recrystallisation does not occur other than after subsequent heat treatment. Recrystallisation after cold plastic deformation therefore removes the effects of strain hardening, lowering the strength and hardness of the material and increasing its ductility and toughness. As a result of the new crystalline structure formed, this process also allows the grain of the metal to be made finer.

11

Behaviour of Metals at High and Low Temperatures

High Temperatures As temperature increases the material is able to relax and recrystallise, due to the greater speed of diffusion and mobility of the atoms caused by the thermal energy. As a result, the materials capacity to harden reduces and so deformation takes place continuously, with the only obstacle being the cohesion of the crystalline planes. At sufficiently high temperatures, under the effect of a load applied even below the materials yield point, plastic deformation may occur and continue, even without any further increase in the load. This phenomenon, which results in the material continuing to elongate until it breaks, without any increase in load, is known as hot creep. The creep phenomenon is greatly influenced by the test temperature, the degree of stress, and the time for which the load is applied. When the applied load is kept constant and the temperature is varied, the elongation time graph for a given material looks as shown in Fig. 18. The changing behaviour at the various temperatures is due to the ratio between the speed of strain hardening and the speed of recrystallisation. In fact, Fig. 18 shows three curves: - one curve (no. 1) in which the increase in strength due to strain hardening the material is dominant over the recrystallisation phenomenon - one curve (no. 2) which, after the initial stretch, takes on a constant incline on the time axis and shows a balance between the speed of strain hardening and that of recrystallisation - one curve (no. 3) in which the second section, i.e. the part with the constant incline, is limited, followed by a rapid upward turn in the curve, i.e. by a rapid increase in the speed of elongation, which is always followed by breaking. In this case creep is characterised by continual and almost complete recrystallisation. One metallurgical factor that has a great influence on hot creep is grain size. It has been found that a materials resistance to creep in large grain metals is higher than that for those with fine grains, when all other factors are equal, as the edges of the grains are involved in this process. In fact, at high temperatures the edges of the grains facilitate the creep phenomenon both due to their lower atomic density and because they constitute areas of attraction for dislocations that are pulled apart, and lose their function of acting as brakes on the sliding between the atomic planes. Thus large grain materials that have smaller edges provide greater resistance to creep. Cr-Mo steels are very often used for high temperature settings and we will deal with these in the section dealing with weldability.

T3>T2>T1

Breakdown

T3

T2 T1

t
Fig. 18

12

Low Temperatures With the onset of modern technology there is no lack of cases of metal structures such as equipment or pressure vessels working at very low temperatures, even at 253C (boiling point for hydrogen). The most noticeable changes occur in the mechanical characteristics of metals at low temperature. These generally take the form of an increase in strength and a reduction in ductility and toughness that varies in intensity (depending on the temperature), and appears to be due to a greater difficulty in obtaining plastic creep (Fig. 29). Whether or not a metal can be suitable for low working temperature applications is normally determined in terms of its toughness at that temperature. Experiments have shown that the factors that have the greatest influence on toughness are: - the crystalline structure metals with a centred body cubic system or compact hexagonal system behave badly, while those with a centred face cubic crystallisation system behave well (Fig. 31a/b). - the manufacturing conditions and heat treatment, and therefore the fineness of the grain; carbon-manganese steels with a fine grain can be used to temperatures of about 50C, steels with 3,5% Ni to about 90C, and steels with 9% Ni to about 196C.

13

2. Mechanical Properties of Metals The mechanical properties of metals are taken as indicating all the properties that solid substances (in this case metals) are found to have when a force is applied to them and that therefore indicate the possibility of using a metal for structural purposes. Metals are highly regarded in the construction industry as they are strong, hard, ductile and tough. The combination of these properties can also be varied within extensive limits by adding alloying elements, heat treatment, or mechanical action.

Strength In the case of metal materials the term strength is used to mean a wide range of things, as it is used in relation to the other characteristics of the materials (plasticity, hardness, toughness) and therefore indicates the combination of all that is known about the relationship between applied loads, internal forces (tension) and deformation. Of the mechanical tests used, the single-axis tensile test is one of the best defined, in terms of concept, to determine this relationship, as at least in theory it provides complete uniformity in the application of the load over a rather well-defined area of material, known as the gauge length L0 of the test piece (Fig. 19).

Fig. 19

In order for the load to be applied uniformly over the entire gauge length, this must have a constant section and the load must be applied at its ends in two areas known as heads, connected to the gauge length very gradually. The test piece subjected to a mono-axial load can have a circular, square or rectangular section, or it may be in the form of a length of pipe when carrying out tensile testing of tubular products. In general, tensile tests on a metal alloy include four stages or periods (Fig. 20): - ultimate tensile strength (1) - yield strength (2) - ultimate load (3) - period of elastic elongation - period of yielding - period of uniform plastic elongation (4) - period of non-uniform plastic elongation or necking down (5)

If the load on the test piece is removed during elastic elongation, no permanent deformation occurs. The yield period marks the transition from elastic to plastic behaviour. The yield load (indicated as Rs) is the load at which, for the first time, an increase in elongation occurs without a simultaneous increase in loading, or with a decrease in loading. The period of plastic deformation occurs
14

immediately after yielding and ends when the maximum load or ultimate tensile strength is reached. The elongation of the test piece is localised over a short length of the test piece, where transverse deformation (necking down) occurs and progresses until the test piece breaks (Fig. 21).

Fig. 20

Fig. 21: necking down in the test piece Errore. Il collegamento non valido.Errore. Il collegamento non valido. Ductility Ductility is normally defined as a materials capacity to deform plastically without breaking, and is indicated by the extent to which a test piece subjected to a tensile test deforms plastically until it breaks. Good ductility is very important in a metallic material as: - it is an indication of the materials capacity to withstand cold deformation - it gives an indication of the plasticity reserve that is available to withstand breaking due to sudden overloading - it means that you do not have to worry too much about the residual tension that is an inevitable consequence of stresses induced by welding - it gives an indication of the materials strength in relation to lamellar tearing. In order to test the ductility of the material, a test piece with a rectangular section is submitted to a bending test (Fig. 22). Good results from this test indicate that the material is sufficiently plastic as the outer layers of material have been elongated.
15

The size of the grain is very important in terms of ductility. As the grain size decreases, the materials ductility increases.

Fig. 22

Hardness Hardness can be defined as a metal materials capacity to withstand a body (indenter) seeking to penetrate the metal material by deforming it plastically (by compression). The hardness of a test piece is determined on the basis of the size of an indent left by the indenter to which a specific force is applied. There are various methods for measuring hardness that differ in terms of: - the shape of the indenter; - the extent of the force applied; - the method used to evaluate the hardness.

Fig. 23 - durometer

Brinell Hardness

16

A load F is applied to a ball made of hardened steel, and is kept in place for a certain time. Once this time has expired, the load is removed and the maximum diameter of the circular imprint the sphere has left in the material is measured. The Brinell number is given by the ratio F/S between the load and the area of the imprint, and is indicated by the symbol HB (Fig. 24). The Brinell Test is not reliable for materials with an HB value that exceeds 450.

Fig. 24

Vickers Hardness A load F is applied to a diamond indenter having a pyramidal shape with a square base and angle at the vertex of 136, with the load being applied for a certain amount of time. The load F is removed and an indentation is found that is considered as being a squarebased pyramid with the same vertex angle as the indenter. The area of this indentation is then calculated after having measured the diagonal of the base of the pyramid. The Vickers Hardness is the ratio F/S between the load and the area of the imprint, and is indicated by the symbol HV (Fig. 25). Rockwell B and C Hardness An initial load F0 is applied to an indenter and kept in place for a certain time t0 causing an imprint with a depth of e0. A load F1 is then added to F0 for a time t1 and the imprint reaches a depth of e1. Load F1 is then removed, leaving load F0. The imprint then has a depth e2, which is less than e1 but greater than e0 due to plastic deformation. The difference (e2 e0) indicates the hardness. This difference is lower in harder materials. The most important scales are the B and C scales, obtained by using spherical and conical indenters, respectively.

Fig. 25

Fig. 26 Microhardness Portable Durometers

17

Microhardness tests can be used to determine the hardness even of individual grains, and are carried out on smooth polished surfaces. Either a metallography microscope with very small indenters or special ultrasound instruments are used (Fig. 27 & 28). Portable durometers can be of the spring-loaded type (although these are seldom used as the spring loses its calibration) or of a POLDI type. With this latter type the load is applied by striking a punch with a spherical end with a hammer. Between the sphere and the part that is struck there is a metal bar of known hardness. The sphere therefore causes an indent in both the bar and the test piece and these are used to determine the hardness of the test piece, with the help of hardness conversion tables, without the intensity of the blow playing any part, as this may be arbitrary.

UCI_E.exe

dynapocket_rebound .exe

Fig. 27

Fig. 28

Toughness Toughness can be defined as a metals capacity to prevent breaking when it is subjected to dynamic loads and therefore in an unfavourable state for absorbing the energy of plastic deformation. In fact, experience has shown that a material considered as being ductile after normal tensile or bending tests may act in a fragile manner (that is, without toughness, breaking with very little deformation) when it is subjected to dynamic forces other than those used for the two tests referred to above. It has been found that under certain conditions a ductile material may not be tough, while generally material that is not very ductile is not very tough either. The toughness of a metal is influenced by three factors: - the speed with which the load is applied; - the type of force applied (monoaxial or multi-axial); - the temperature of the metal (Fig. 29).

Fig. 29 If a ductile metal is loaded quickly, applying a multi-axial force and at low temperature, it may react with limited toughness. Where possible, these conditions are simulated in a resilience test, which, in terms of simplicity and ease of execution is the test most commonly used for determining the toughness of materials. This test is based on the impact of a weight against a test piece with a notch acting as a stress raiser (the notch causes a localised increase in the stress and transforms mono-axial stress into multiaxial stress). This is done at a certain temperature that relates to the working temperature for the material being tested. During the test the weight made up of a pendulum hammer strikes a test piece (55 x 10 x 10 mm) resting on two supports 40 mm apart. The energy (in Joules) absorbed by the test piece to break it is measured (Fig. 30 & 31).

18

The test piece most commonly used for resilience tests is known as a Charpy V test piece, where the notch is V-shaped with an opening angle of 45, depth of 2 mm, and radius at the bottom of the notch of 0,25 mm. The size of the grain is very important for good resilience. The smaller the grain, the greater the toughness. Generally, it is not possible to predict how a material will behave at a temperature even slightly lower than the test temperature, due to the tenacity transition phenomenon that we will look at when dealing with brittle fracture in welded structures (Fig. 31a/b).

Fig. 30

Fig. 31

Errore. Il collegamento non valido.

19

Fig. 31a - Carbon steel

Fig. 31b austenitic stainless steel

20

3. Steel Metallurgy

Ferrous-Carbon State Diagram The Fe-C diagram is a graphic representation of the allotropic transformations that take place in relation to temperature (Fig. 32).

Fig. 32 It can therefore be used to identify the range over which the various steel structures that can be found in steel exist, bearing in mind the C content and the steel temperature. The indications that can be taken from this diagram only apply for very slow heating and cooling. The percentage C content is shown on the abscissa (x-axis) and the temperature on the ordinate (y-axis). The diagram clearly shows that when the C content is below 2% we are dealing with steels, while above this percentage we are dealing with cast irons. Steels with a C content below 0,8% are said to be hypoeutectoids and those between 0,8 and 2% are referred to as hypereutectoids. While pure Fe solidifies at a temperature of 1539C, Fe-C alloys solidify over a range that goes upwards as the C content increases. The liquid and solid lines indicate the start and finish temperatures for solidification for each alloy. We also find that, while allotropic transformation of pure Fe takes place at a constant temperature of 910C, in the Fe-C alloy this transformation takes place gradually over the interval between lines A3 and A1. A3 indicates the boundary between the austenitic and austenitic-ferritic fields and shows the temperature at which austenite and ferrite are balanced in the case of hypoeutectic steels, above which only austenite is stable and below which ferrite is found. A1 indicates the temperature at which pearlite forms during cooling for steel with a C content greater than or equal to 0,025% and this is constant where the C content varies.
21

To explain the meaning of the various lines and to comment on the phenomena they involve, lets look at what happens when an Fe-C alloy with a C content of < 0,80% (hypoeutectoid) cools, starting from a temperature above its melting temperature (Fig. 33).

Fig. 33 Starting from the top we come across the liquid line where solidification starts with the formation of the first austenite cells. Over the interval between the liquid curve and the solid curve, solidification continues with the gradual disappearance of the liquid. When curve I-E is reached, solidification is complete and nothing else occurs until we come to line A3 (curve G-S). At this point the transformation from austenite to ferrite in the solid state begins (gamma alpha transformation). Since ferrite dissolves only a limited amount of C, the residual austenite gradually becomes richer and richer in C, following line A3 until it reaches line A1 where ferrite grains (with C = 0,025%) and austenite grains (with C = 0,80%) are found together. On line A1 at a temperature of 723C (length P-S), the residual austenite is transformed into pearlite, which is a eutectoid compound made up of very thin alternate parallel laminations of ferrite and cementite. Upon further cooling and until ambient temperature is reached, nothing further occurs if we overlook the very small amounts of tertiary cementite deposited as a result of the decreasing solubility of C in alpha Fe. At ambient temperature the micrographic structure is made up of grains of primary ferrite, derived from the austenite over the A3 - A1 interval, and grains of pearlite that formed at the eutectic temperature, each made up of thin laminations of juxtaposed ferrite and cementite.

22

Fig. 34 shows the different structures of a eutectoid steel: starting from the top, the alloy follows the same structural transformations as the previous case until it reaches the eutectoid at 723C (point S). Here, the austenite will become unstable and will be transformed completely into grains of pearlite formed by alternate parallel laminations of ferrite and cementite. This structure remains stable until ambient temperature.

Fig. 34

Fig. 35 shows the different structures of a hypereutectoid steel: in this third case as well, the alloy follows the same structural transformations as the previous two until it meets curve ACM (curve S-E). Under this curve, the austenite becomes oversaturated with carbon, which leaks out of the lattice in the form of cementite. As the temperature drops, the percentage of cementite increases until it meets the straight line at 723C. At this point the residual austenite (with C=0,80) is trasformed completely into pearlite. After cooling, the steel will be characterised by a mixed cementite-pearlite structure.

Fig. 35

Structural Transformations in Steel A study of the transformations in steel in a state of equilibrium represented by the ferrous-carbon diagram does not provide any information on the actual transformations that take place upon cooling, which are closely linked to the rate of cooling and thus the time over which this takes place. During cooling below A3, austenite (Fig. 36) decomposes, giving rise to two processes: - transformation of the centred face lattice of austenite into the centred body cubic lattice of ferrite (Fig. 37) - separation of the carbon from the austenite, in the form of cementite (Fig. 38). This transformation of the lattice takes place easily as the two lattices relate to one another in simple geometric terms.

23

Fig. 36

Fig. 37

Fig. 38

As far as the separation of carbon is concerned, as the rate of cooling increases, an unstable equilibrium is produced in the material with a phenomenon of under-cooling. As this increases, the forces that tend to bring about a change in the lattice grow. The austenite lattice becomes more and more unstable and the carbon it contains is in an ever-increasing state of over-saturation. The delay in the transformation due to the fast cooling speed resulting in over-saturation of austenite leads to the formation of structures that are more and more fine. If this speed increases, bainite appears. It has an acicular structure with carbides that are finely dispersed in the mass. Superior bainite (Fig. 39) is formed due to transformation at higher temperatures. It is made up of ferrite and carbides in a rounded shape and of slabs that are rather coarse, with low hardness and toughness. At higher cooling speeds the structure is modified, the temperature at which it is formed drops, and the ferrite and carbides take on an acicular shape. The inferior bainite (Fig. 40) that results has a very fine structure with good toughness characteristics.

Fig. 39

Fig. 41 Fig. 40

24

If the rate of cooling is increased further, the carbon that does not find a place for itself in the centred body lattice that forms is unable to organise itself in order to bring about a second phase. It therefore remains in an over-saturated solution causing a distortion of the transformed cubic lattice, which becomes tetragonal (Fig. 42). This metastable phase is known as martensite (Fig. 41). It is extremely hard for two reasons: the tetragonal lattice does not have all the combinations of sliding planes (and therefore the relative ductility) that the cubic lattice has, and then the carbon that remains trapped in the interstices impedes sliding. The hardness and fragility of the martensite increase as the carbon content increases.

Fig. 42

TTT and CCT Curves The temperatures at which the transformations dealt with in the previous point occur and the speed of cooling, which is critical for these transformations, depend on the type of steel and especially its chemical composition. Numerous studies have been conducted into the structural transformation processes that take place during cooling and the TTT or CCT curves that have been drawn for the various types of steel can be used to predict the final structures in steel in relation to the heat cycle it has gone through. The TTT (temperature-time-transformation) curves can be used to predict the structures that will result from isothermal transformation, i.e. the transformation that takes place when steel is cooled quickly from a temperature above that at which austenite forms to a lower temperature, remaining at this temperature for a certain period of time. The CCT (continuous cooling transformation) curves indicate the structures that result from anisothermal transformation, i.e. the transformation that takes place when steel is cooled continuously, starting from a temperature above that at which austenite is formed. These curves are more commonly used, as they are more representative of real situations such as a welding heat cycle. A CCT diagram for continuous cooling of a hypoeutectoid steel is shown in a simplified form in Fig. 43. The green lines indicated on the diagram plot some curves that relate to a certain number of cooling speeds. In this diagram you can see that for slow cooling rates, and therefore bland heat cycles, the lines marking the start of transformation into ferrite and pearlite and the end of transformation are crossed. In this case the ferritic-pearlitic transformation has the time to be completed and the final structure will be of a normalised grain type. For more severe heat cycles, i.e. for cooling speeds with hardness value of 20 HRC, the end of transformation line is no longer crossed, and bainite and a certain amount of cementite start to form. For cooling speeds that are even higher, such as those shown by curves with hardness value of 50 HRC, the final structure is totally martensitic and the steel attains its maximum hardness. In this type of diagram the percentage of the structure that will form, which can be detected by a final macrographic examination, is indicated at the point at which each curve leaves the transformation field. The hardness of the final structure is normally indicated inside a circle at the end of the curve itself.

25

Fig. 43

26

4. Manufacturing and Classification of Steels Methods of Steel Production, Refining, Casting and Lamination

Production of Pig Iron: Pig iron is made by smelting iron ore with coke in a blast furnace. Together with the coke and iron ore, limestone is put in the furnace (Fig. 44 & 45). The blast furnace is used to produce pig iron (iron-carbon alloy) by reducing the metal oxides (for example Fe2O3) naturally present due to the oxidising atmosphere. The oxygen bonds with the carbon added to the material to be produced, forming carbon dioxide and leaving the pig iron. The limestone purifies the pig iron in the bath, bonding with the impurities present and forming a slag that floats on the surface and out of the iron. The pig iron that is extracted from the blast furnace can be further refined for steel-making. The heat for production of pig iron is generated by combustion of the coke mixed with the iron ore. The combustion air is preheated inside special towers which are built into the plant. The blast furnace is used for continuous production throughout its service life (several years), which normally depends on the durability of its inner lining.

Fig. 44

Fig. 45

27

Steel Production: It is possible to distinguish three manufacturing phases in steel production: - the first phase covers the actual production of molten steel (refining and processing) - the second phase covers the casting of the steel from the ladle in ingots or continuous castings - the third phase covers the lamination of the semi-finished goods (ingots, slabs, billets). Refining: In brief, refining is the oxidisation process used to eliminate excess components (carbon and silicon in the cast iron) and dangerous impurities from the initial bath to produce a product that is as pure as possible and that contains only the required quantity of carbon, manganese and silicon. This process involves an initial load of molten, solid or mixed items in converters (Fig. 46 & 47) or electric furnaces (Fig. 48). Converters use a load of molten cast iron produced in blast furnaces as their main constituent, whereas electric furnaces use a solid load of scrap recycled steel with cast iron and/or graphite added. The chemical reactions that occur during the refining process can be summarised as: Decarburisation: the injection of oxygen causes an initial oxidation reaction in the iron and silicon. The oxidation reaction in silicon is strongly exothermic, raises the temperature of the bath and initiates the conversion of the carbon to carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2), which are released as gases. Deoxidation: during the decarburisation reactions, manganese is also oxidised and reacts with the silicon and iron oxides to form silicates that pass into the slag and deoxidise the molten bath. Purification: the manganese and calcium and magnesium oxides or carbonates introduced into the bath react with sulphur and phosphorus compounds to form manganese sulphides and calcium phosphates that pass into the slag with consequent purification of the bath. The steel produced in this way in the converter or electric furnace still contains notable quantities of dissolved gases, particularly oxygen, which must be eliminated for deoxidation to be completed in the ladle with the addition of elements such as manganese, silicon and aluminium that react with the oxygen to form oxides that precipitate in the metallic matrix. Steels are divided into three categories on the basis of the degree of deoxidation, i.e. the level of oxygen remaining in solution in the molten product: Effervescent steels: these have a high oxygen content that causes notable development of gaseous carbon monoxide during casting and solidification due to the FeO + C = Fe + CO reaction which, in turn, causes the development of a continuous layer of blowholes in the peripheral zones, particularly the upper peripheral zones. The outer surface layer of the ingot is made up of purer, more compact metal with a low carbon content. Semi-killed steels: these do not undergo deoxidation to the extent of blocking the reaction between the carbon and oxygen. They therefore have a structure with less porosity and fewer blowholes than effervescent steels and a smaller central segregation. Killed steels: these undergo forced deoxidation by the injection of deoxidising elements such as silicon and aluminium to block the development of other decarbonising reactions and consequent effervescence during solidification. After solidification these steels have a compact structure without blowholes but with a shrinkage cone at the top of the ingot and that must be removed before lamination. The addition of aluminium or other elements such as vanadium, niobium or titanium causes further refining of the grain, producing fine-grained killed steels.

The LD Converter The LD process is the most commonly used in steel production and uses molten cast iron and a cold load of scrap and solid cast iron. The oxidising agent used in the process is pure oxygen. The LD process was introduced in the 1950s and takes its name from the Linz and Donawitz Steelworks in Austria, which first used it.
28

The converter consists of a cylindrical steel container with a convex base, over which a truncated cone-shaped part is fitted. The converter is lined with dolomite or magnesite fettling and a basic slag is formed by the introduction of fluxes such as lime and fluorine. The converter is loaded in an inclined position and then the oxygen injection nozzle is concentrically positioned above the opening for the injection of the oxygen (Fig. 46 & 47).

Fig. 46

Fig. 47

During the injection, which lasts about 20 min and is calculated on the basis of the oxygen volume necessary for the desired final carbon percentage, silicon is the first element to be oxidised, followed by manganese. These begin to form a slag with a certain basicity and decarburisation begins. When this phase is concluded, desulphurisation begins and the slag reaches its maximum basicity. When the required quantity of oxygen has been injected, the converter is inclined and a sample taken for analysis. If this shows the required analytical values for the principal chemical elements (carbon and manganese) and the impurities (sulphur and phosphorus), iron alloys are added for deoxidation and correction of the casting, which is finished in the ladle.

The Electric Furnace Electric furnaces are either indirect arc (the bath is heated by radiation from an arc that develops between electrodes above it) or direct arc (the arc is formed by electrodes and the bath and the electric circuit is enclosed in the bath). Depending on the type of steel required, the furnace (Fig. 48 & 49) is loaded with scrap as well as with carbon-bearing material (coke, graphite powder, cast iron) and lime, feldspar and iron mineral to form the slag. The electric current from the electrodes melts the load with the aid of the injected oxygen. The temperature of the bath and its surroundings is increased until the scrap is completely melted at temperatures strictly correlated with the carbon content of the molten bath. The refining of the bath begins with an oxidation phase, during which the injection of oxygen helps decarburisation and the metal-slag interchange, above all favouring dephosphorisation of the bath: the phosphorus that has accumulated in the slag is eliminated during the first scorification. The slag is renewed with the addition of lime, feldspar and reduction materials such as ferrosilicon, calcium silicide and aluminium. These deoxidisers reduce the iron oxide and the other metal oxides in the slag, and during this reduction phase desulphurisation of the bath takes place.

29

Fig. 48

Fig. 49

Iron alloys are added to obtain the required chemical balance and the casting is then poured into the ladle. By means of the electric furnace it is possible to produce a wider range of special steel products than by the LD process: from unalloyed steels to high alloy steels. The electric furnace is particularly irreplaceable in the production of alloyed and special steels as it is possible to obtain the necessary content of the alloying elements by controlling their oxidation process.

Steel Casting The casting systems used in steel manufacturing are: - casting in ingots that can be transformed into slabs and billets by cutting and laminating - continuous casting in slabs and billets.

Casting in lngots This is the oldest casting process and now almost completely superseded by continuous casting. However, it remains the only technique for casting non-deoxidated steels (rimmed and semi-killed steels). Furthermore, ingots are still used for the production of forged steels of particularly large dimensions. The steel is cast in cast iron moulds with walls of great thickness to enable a rapid solidification of the molten material. The moulds are generally in the form of truncated pyramids, with square or rectangular sections and with the largest side uppermost to make it possible to easily release the ingot by pulling it upwards. The most commonly used method is direct casting: the steel mould that emerges from the bottom of the ladle falls freely into the ingot (Fig. 50). Another casting method used when a large number of ingots of small dimensions is required is bottom casting: the steel is forced upwards into the mould from below, using a system of interlinked canals made of refractory brick (Fig. 51).

30

Fig. 50

Fig. 51

The solidification of the cast steel in moulds begins in the surface layers adjacent to the internal walls of the mould and proceeds in the opposite direction to the heat flow, i.e. perpendicular to the walls themselves. When solidification occurs, it is possible to distinguish three different zones in a cross-section of the ingot: the skin zone, which consists of very fine-grained steel due to the very rapid solidification of the metal in contact with the mould walls the intermediate zone of columnar crystallisation, which consists of dendritic crystals elongated towards the centre and perpendicular to the walls of the mould the central zone, which consists of globular crystals with equal axes. Due to the effects of the different rates of solidification, the steel components with the lowest solidification point (generally impurities) are concentrated in the central part of the ingot, which solidifies last, and cause the phenomenon of macro-segregation. Furthermore, due to the effect of contraction in volume that occurs in the course of cooling, and to a greater extent with solidification, a shrinkage cone is formed in the centre of the ingot with consequent problems for its subsequent use. To reduce the size of the cone and its harmful effects, a supplementary generally insulated part, called the head, is placed above the mould to thermally isolate the upper part and slow the cooling process, thereby producing a shallower shrinkage cone and collecting the bulk of the impurities and oxides in that zone, which can then be removed.

Continuous Casting The continuous casting system is actually the most commonly used due to its manufacturing and economic advantages (less material lost and elimination of the primary lamination phase in converting ingots into slabs and billets). The possibility of using continuous casting depends on the maximum dimensions of the slabs and billets that can be produced, and also on the final thickness required for the finished product. In fact, to obtain a good, homogenous finished product it is always necessary to have a reduction in the thickness of the rolling mill of at least 6 to 1. The continuous casting process can be summarised as follows (Fig. 52-53-54). The molten steel in the ladle is poured into an intermediate container called a tundish, which controls the steel flow into the machine and, if necessary, divides it between the different tubes that make up the machine. The steel is poured from the tundish into bottomless copper moulds with a vertical oscillation mechanism and is cooled by circulating water. A regulating device, called a false slab, is inserted into the mould to serve as the base before the casting.
31

The oscillating mould, whose length is calculated to permit the formation of a thin skin layer to enable the steel to support itself, accompanies the solidifying bar in its descent towards the bottom. Below the mould there are casting, extractor rollers that begin to pull the false bottom away just seconds after casting begins, permitting the semi-finished product to move inside the mould; the steel begins to solidify at its contact points with the mould walls, assuming the mould form and finishing the solidification process in an underlying zone where it is subjected to jets of water. Under the extractor rollers the half-product goes through an oxygen-acetylene station where it is cut into the required lengths.

Fig. 52

Fig. 53

Fig. 54

There are three types of continuous casting machines: - vertical machines - vertical machines with bending - curved machines The steel solidifies in the same way as that described for mould casting.

32

Due to the continuous feeding of the molten steel, shrinkage cones cannot form and less material is wasted. However, as there is less waste material with its concentration of impurities, it is necessary to pay particular attention to the phenomenon of macro-segregation, which tends to concentrate all the impurities in the centre of the bar and could cause delamination of the laminated product. To avoid this phenomenon, electromagnetic stirring in the mould has been introduced by placing an electric winding around the mould. In this way a better distribution of the crystallisation nuclei is obtained with a subsequent reduction in macro-segregation and the creation of a structure with more-or-less equal axes for most of the thickness. Furthermore, the steels used have a low level of carbon or impurities.

Rolling The rolling process aims to elongate the product by a reduction imposed on the transverse section using pressure rollers that form a lamination train (Fig. 55 & 56). The products obtained by rolling are the following: - plates: hot laminates with thickness 3 mm - sheets: hot or cold laminates with thickness < 3 mm - long products: section bars, rails, rods, etc - pipes In this article we will only deal with plates. A plant for the production of plates consists of: 1. heating furnaces 2. rolling mill 3. hot levellers 4. hot cropping shears to trim the ends of the plates 5. cooling beds and control 6. edging shears to trim the sides of the sheet 7. shears to cut the product to the required dimensions.

Fig. 55

Fig. 56

Lamination trains can differ according to the number and dimensions of the lamination cylinders: two, three, four.

33

The most commonly used rolling mill for the production of plates is the reversible four-roller one (Fig. 57). This consists of four cylinders vertically positioned one on top of the other. Only the two middle, work cylinders are operated by the motor and are smaller than the other two on which they rest. This arrangement is based on the principle that in lamination, the rate of elongation increases as the diameter of the cylinders decreases, which makes it possible to impose high pressure because the stress imposed on the working cylinders is absorbed by the robust support cylinders. It is called reversible because it can work in two directions.

Fig. 57

Rolling Methods There are three types of rolling processes (Fig. 58). Standard Rolling: used when high mechanical characteristics, especially resistance, are not required and it is desired to contain the costs of production. This process usually finishes at quite a high temperature to reduce the energy required in the hot plastic lamination deformation. As the process cannot be controlled there could be a certain variability in the characteristics of the product. Normalising Rolling (also called controlled rolling): the rolling process in which the final deformation occurs within the temperature interval for standard thermal normalisation treatment so that the structure of the material is generally the same as that obtained with normalisation. The required values for the mechanical characteristics are kept even after any subsequent normalisation treatment. Thermo-mechanical Rolling: the lamination process that provides strict control of the temperature of the plate and the degree of lamination. In general, most of the lamination is obtained around the temperature of Ar3, which means to say that it could cause the finishing of the lamination towards the lower part of the temperature interval of the inter-critical bi-phase zone. The properties conferred by thermo-mechanical rolling are not maintained in the event of a successive normalisation treatment or another thermal treatment.

34

Fig. 58

Recrystallisation The different structures and characteristics coming from the different rolling processes are determined, for the most part, by the recrystallisation processes. During the high-temperature rolling, austenite grains are strongly deformed, fractured and elongated by the lamination rollers. As already stated, due to the high temperature and energy of the stored deformation, the material tends to recover the state it had previously and to recrystallise. At a higher temperature and/or greater deformation, recrystallisation occurs during the deformation phase itself (dynamic recrystallisation): due to the very high temperature the austenitic grains grow back after recrystallisation, although they do not regain their original dimensions. At a lower temperature or a weaker deformation, recrystallisation only occurs at the end of the deformation phase (static recrystallisation) and the dimensions of the recrystallised grains are smaller. If rolling occurs at an even lower temperature, recrystallisation does not occur, or only partially, and the austenitic grains remain deformed. The temperature for dynamic or static recrystallisation, partial recrystallisation or nonrecrystallisation basically depends on the degree of deformation and the type of steel. Certain micro-alloying materials such as niobium slow recrystallisation: that is, they increase the temperature or the temperature time interval and so recrystallisation may occur. The dimension of the ferritic grain obtained after the transformation is conditioned by recrystallisation. In fact, the nucleation of ferrite begins at the edges of the recrystallised austenitic grains and proceeds towards the inside of the latter. Instead, in deformed austenitic grains the
35

nucleation of the ferrite not only takes place along the edge of the grain but also along the deformation band formed inside the grains, producing a finer ferrite grain. Continuing the rolling after the beginning of the austenitic transformation (gamma-alpha field) further deforms the residual austenitic grains and deforms and fractures the ferritic grains already formed, forming sub-grains and, consequently, a very fine final structure.

Standard Rolling As already said, standard rolling is carried out at a sufficiently high temperature to cause complete recrystallisation of the grains and their subsequent growth. As it is not controllable, it can cause a certain variability in the characteristics of the product in the same laminate and, more probably, between rolled products of the same casting and thickness. This process is used for steel plates of ordinary quality such as hull structural steel - A and steels for high-temperature uses.

Normalising Rolling Normalising rolling permits control of the temperature of the last rolling pass and the thickness reduction and lamination cycle methods immediately preceding the last pass. The final rolling pass is performed in a completely austenitic field but just above the gamma-alpha A3 transformation line so that only static recrystallisation of the structure occurs, without an increase in the grain or only a partial recrystallisation of the deformed grains. In this case it is important that the final rolling passes are sufficiently strong (high percentage of thickness reduction) to affect the entire thickness and avoid the formation of a mixed structure of large grains of undeformed austenite and small grains of deformed and partially recrystallised austenite.

Thermo-mechanical Rolling The rolling is carried out in two cycles: - a first (roughcast) cycle at high recrystallisation temperature and, after a suitable waiting period, - a second (finishing) cycle at a lower non-recrystallisation temperature that can also conclude in the gamma-alpha interval. This method is based on the following principles: to benefit from the formation and presence of carbonitriding materials, in particular Nb, but also other micro-alloying materials (V, Ti, B) that are so stable at high temperatures that they can block the growth of austenitic grains during the recrystallisation phase during the waiting period following the first cycle and during the second lamination cycle. to perform a part of the rolling at a temperature at which austenite does not recrystallise further and make the ferrite in the austenite grain nuclear at the deformation band with the consequent formation of a finer ferritic grain. The presence of Nb in the form of carbonitriding materials in the non-precipitated part at the edge of the grain and still dissolved in the austenite raises the non-recrystallisation temperature. lastly, to carry out a part of the lamination in the austenitic-ferritic zone in such a way as to crush the ferritic grains into sub-grains. Due to the high-temperature refining of the grain, which is not possible with the normalising process, this type of rolling makes it possible to obtain products with high resistance and toughness. However, as these characteristics are the consequence of thermo-mechanical treatment, which is the result of a delicate equilibrium between the crystalline structure obtained (extra-fine grain) and the carbonitriding materials precipitated and their state of dispersal in the structure, the product is very sensitive to actions that can alter or destroy that equilibrium, especially prolonged high temperatures for thermal treatments, hot moulding and high-temperature welding. In general, the characteristics of plates produced with thermo-mechanical procedures are guaranteed only for heat treatments at a temperature not exceeding 580C.

36

Classification of Steels

Steels can be classified as follows: - carbon and carbon-manganese steels; - low alloy steels, i.e. steels containing up to 5% of alloying elements; - high alloy steels, i.e. steels containing over 5% of alloying elements. Normally, high alloy steels are stainless steels or special steels, produced for specific purposes, whereas carbon steels and low alloy steels are employed as construction steels and for general uses.

Carbon and carbon-manganese steels These are the most commonly used and the least highly regarded; they are easily worked and readily weldable. However, they are subject to corrosion, above all at high temperatures, at which they also lose mechanical resistance, while at very low temperatures they become brittle. They are divided into mild steels, with carbon content less than 1%, and hard steels, with higher carbon content: mild steels are very ductile and malleable, they are easily worked and have excellent tensile and compressive strength; they are also very resilient. Ordinary and high strength steels for hulls belong to this family of steels. Hard steels are less resilient, that is they are more likely to fracture if subjected to violent impact, but they also have much greater surface hardness. Also, they are very good for hardening, unlike mild steels. On the other hand, they are obviously less easily worked.

Quenched and tempered high strength steels These are normally low alloy steels whose chemical composition is richer than ordinary C-Mn steels due to the addition of elements (Cr, Ni, Mo, V, Nb, B) favouring their hardening. The quenching and tempering to which they are subjected substantially increases their tensile strength and toughness.

Chromium-molybdenum steels These steels are suitable for the construction of boilers and pressure vessels operated at elevated temperatures. The chromium and molybdenum, which are present in the solid solution of the ferrite matrix or in the form of carbides, reduce the tendency of the structure of the steel to deteriorate at high temperatures and therefore increase creep resistance. Also, the chromium provides improved oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures.

Ferritic steels for low temperatures The following techniques are adopted to improve the performance at low temperatures of C-Mn steels: - complete deoxidation and denitrification of the steel and uniform distribution of the impurities so as to avoid local concentrations of segregations and improve the ductility and toughness of the steel - attainment of structures with a fine grain by means of heat treatments or thermo-mechanical treatments. For low temperature service less than 60C, nickel additions of increasing amounts (from 1 to 9%) are used as a function of the minimum operating temperature. The nickel shifts the ductile to brittle transition curve towards low temperatures without causing an excessive increase in hardness. These steels are characterised by bainitic/martensitic structures with levels of residual austenite up to 20% in the case of steel containing 9% Ni.
37

Stainless Steels Stainless steels are Fe-Cr or Fe-Cr-Ni type ferrous alloys with chromium content from 12% to 30% and up to 25% nickel. Chromium, which is a less noble metal than iron in terms of electrochemical potential, oxidises forming a tough continuous layer which is impervious to water and highly resistant to many corrosive agents, thereby protecting the metal beneath. The film self-repairs in the presence of oxygen if the steel is damaged. In the context of corrosion prevention, the spontaneous formation of this hard, non-reactive surface film is known as passivaton. Stainless steels can be divided into the following families: Austenitic and superaustenitic steels containing Cr-Ni or Cr-Mn-Ni Martensitic steels containing Cr (11-16%) and Ni (max 4%) Ferritic steels containing Cr (11-25%) Austenitic-ferritic (duplex) steels containing Cr (18-28%), Ni (4-9%) and Mo (1,5-3%) Precipitation-hardening steels.

38

5. Heat Treatment for Steel Heat treatments vary in terms of the temperatures reached and the way they are carried out, and are generally broken down into two categories: annealing - treatments at temperatures above A3: normalising quenching - treatments at temperatures below A1: tempering stress relieving

Annealing This heat treatment is carried out by heating the material to above A3. The initial micrographic structure is transformed into an austenitic structure; the less the temperature is pushed beyond A3, the finer this structure remains. Steps must be taken, however, to make sure that the austenitic transformation takes place throughout the entire metal mass. Slow cooling in the furnace can then take place so as to cross the A3 and A1 lines over a period of sufficient length to obtain complete separation of ferrite and pearlite (Fig. 59). A heat treatment of this kind can be used to obtain a final micrographic structure that is of a granular type with equal axes. In this way the coarse solidification structures are eliminated, these being more fragile, or less plastic, than the transformation structures. In addition, if the time spent in the austenitic range is sufficiently long, annealing can be used to retain the differences in composition, constitution and structure using diffusion processes, and to eliminate structural distortions due to plastic working for example.

Fig. 59

Normalising Normalising is a heat treatment that differs from annealing in terms of the greater cooling speed used. After the time spent in the austenitic field the piece is cooled in still air rather than in the furnace. The A3 A1 interval is passed through more quickly, giving rise to a ferrite + pearlite structure that is still granular but finer (Fig. 60-61a/b-62a/b). Grain fineness, which is typical of normalised structures, generally gives the metal better mechanical properties, as we have already seen.
39

Fig. 60 Normalising is also intended to transform a coarse and uneven structure into a homogeneous structure with fine grains: the figures below show examples of the effects of normalising a casting and a plate. If the C content is rather high (over 0,30), however, cooling in the air may give rise to initial hardening phenomena with a significant reduction in ductility. In this case annealing is preferable.

Fig. 61a coarse casting

Fig. 61b normalised casting

Fig. 62a plate in the as rolled condition

Fig. 62b normalised plate

Quenching Quenching is a heat treatment that is carried out by heating the material to a temperature exceeding A3 and then cooling it very quickly in water or oil (Fig. 63).

40

The quick cooling does not allow time for austenite to be transformed into ferrite and pearlite and, as already indicated in previous paragraphs, bainite type structures are formed or, in the case of very fast cooling, hard, fragile martensitic structures are formed.

Fig. 63 There are many factors that influence the hardening characteristics of a material, including: o cooling speed o percentage of carbon o presence of alloying elements o grain size o temperature at which austenitic transformation takes place o presence of unmelted elements o heating speed. As we have already said, the cooling speed is a basic factor and as this increases so does the probability of producing martensitic structures. Errore. Il collegamento non valido.Errore. Il collegamento non valido. Carbon and alloying elements move the TTT or CCT curves to the right, and so for the same cooling rate and other factors, they favour the formation of hardened structures. Grain size plays an important role. In fact, ferritic-pearlitic transformation comes about due to nucleation at the edge of the grain and, bearing in mind that everything that inhibits this transformation favours hardening, the larger the grain is the less space there is available around the grain, and the more easily hardening will occur. The higher the temperature at which austenitic transformation occurs, the more the grain is overheated and the larger its size, which makes the steel easier to harden. Elements that have not melted gather around the edges of the grains and set up a centre for germination for pearlitic transformation, thereby limiting the steels susceptibility to hardening. Very quick heating and a very short time in the austenitic-ferritic field (between A1 and A3), as occurs in welding, may lead to a low diffusion and homogenisation of the carbon released by the cementite, thereby creating zones that are rich in carbon. When these areas are then cooled, they may tend to harden even when the average composition of the steel would exclude this possibility.
41

Apart from the rate of cooling, C content and that of other alloying elements are also very important factors. There is a formula that includes the various elements and their influence on the hardening capacity of a material. This is the C equivalent formula: Ceq= C + Mn/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Ni+Cu)/15 Hardening brings about an increase in the hardness of the material and significant reduction in ductility and toughness. It is therefore very important to try to avoid hardening phenomena, especially following welding operations. In some cases hardening treatment is applied voluntarily. This is the case in hardening and tempering that is used to obtain materials that have notable mechanical characteristics, associated with good toughness characteristics. Quenching and tempering involves the combination of two heat treatments: hardening followed by tempering (Fig. 64).

Fig. 64

Tempering Lets look at the action of tempering treatment, which is carried out at temperatures of between 400 and 650C. At these temperatures the acicular structure of the martensite (Fig. 65 A) is transformed into a nonlaminar structure of ferrite and cementite (Fig. 65 B).

Fig. 65 Hardness is greatly reduced and, what is more, the higher the tempering temperature the more the steels ductility and toughness increase (Fig. 66 & 67).
42

Fig. 66

Fig. 67

This is caused by the carbon escaping from the distorted tetragonal structure of the martensite, while the grain size remains unchanged and is very small due to extremely quick cooling.

Stress Relieving Stress relieving treatment is essentially intended to eliminate or rather reduce as much as possible the residual tension that is an inevitable result of any welding operation. For steels commonly used in construction this treatment is carried out at 600 650C, with this temperature generally being maintained for two minutes for each millimetre of thickness, and a minimum of 30 minutes (Fig. 68). The efficacy of the treatment is due to the fact that at high temperature the yield strength of the material is reduced to values that are practically negligible. Thus, when the entire welded structure is heated to this temperature and kept there sufficiently long, the tension is released and reduced to the value of the yield strength at that temperature. This release of tension may result in plastic deformation and so, after heat treatment, the dimensions of the structure are changed to a greater or lesser extent. Naturally, since this heat treatment is carried out at the same temperature as tempering, the beneficial effects of the two are added to one another and thus things such as hardness points can be eliminated in specific cases.

Fig. 68

43

WELDABILITY 1. Metallurgy of Welds in Steels An autogenous weld, i.e. a weld involving the fusion of the basic material, produces a joint that has two distinct zones (Fig. 69): - the WELD ZONE (W.Z.), made up of the basic metal that has been melted and any filler metal, i.e. the solidified weld pool - the HEAT AFFECTED ZONE (H.A.Z.), made up of the basic material brought to a high temperature in the heat cycle in welding and subsequently cooled.

BASE METAL

HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE

WELD METAL

Fig. 69

The Weld Zone The structure of the weld zone is greatly influenced by the parameters and the way the joint is formed, and especially by the number of passes used. Lets have a look at these variables in relation to the number of passes.

Welding in a single pass Despite being quick, solidification of the fusion puddle is not instantaneous, and this influences the structure of the weld zone, which is strictly dependent on the way it solidifies. The quickest way of disposing of the heat is constituted mainly by the surface in contact with the weld zone and the surrounding basic material. This surface forms the basis for the germination of the grains that develop in the liquid zone. The orientation of the dendrites is aligned with the direction of cooling, and the austenitic grains develop by elongating towards the centre of the melted area, forming a columnar dendritic type of structure (Fig. 70 & 71).

Fig. 70

Fig. 71

The grains start off from those in the HAZ, linking up to these and keeping the same orientation as the lattice (epitaxy) and the same size. In fact, the larger the grains in the HAZ are, the larger the dendrites that form in the WZ tend to be. Later on we will see how grain size and shape affect the likelihood of cracking when hot.
44

Dendritic solidification of the weld zone is always accompanied by conspicuous phenomena of segregation, with impurities building up at the edges of the grains, in the areas that solidify last, that is, at the centre of the joint. The speed of solidification determines the size and thus the number of dendrites. Slow solidification produces large grains, while quick solidification gives rise to more slender and numerous dendrites. The speed of solidification basically depends on the following factors: - thickness of the pieces: the thicker they are, the quicker they cool. - welding procedure the higher the heat build-up, the slower solidification takes place. From this point of view the most common procedures have the following characteristics: - Submerged arc automatic welding is characterised by slow solidification and very coarse dendritic structures. Great power is involved and the heat build-up is rather high despite the speed with which the weld is formed. - Although oxygen-acetylene welding uses a heat source that is a lot less powerful than the arc, it heats the piece up a lot because it moves forward slowly. This results in relatively slow solidification with rather coarse dendritic structures being formed. - The heat build-up in arc welding by hand varies greatly in terms of the diameter of the electrode, the intensity of the current, and the speed at which the weld moves forward. The bigger the pass, the slower it cools. In general, the dendritic structure is finer than in the previous two cases. - The structure left by TIG welding is finer still, involving a low heat build-up and a cooling effect of the inert gas that is blown onto the welding puddle. Irrespective of the procedure used, after solidifying, the material in the weld zone undergoes transformations in the solid phase that depend on its carbon content and that of other alloying elements, as well as on the cooling speed. In general, for steels with low and medium carbon content and low alloy content, ferrite-pearlite structures are obtained of varying grain coarseness and with a composition that is more or less homogenous, depending on the extent of segregation. Hardening phenomena can only occur where there is a high carbon content and, more commonly, with high cooling speeds and coarse austenitic grains.

Welding in a number of passes When welding is done in a number of passes the heat of the successive passes has a beneficial heat treatment action on the passes already completed. In fact, each pass is partially melted and incorporated into the subsequent pass and, at a greater depth, it undergoes a heat cycle that is similar to that used for normalisation treatment that does away with the original dendritic structure to replace it with another that is finer. The phases described and the structures indicated are clearly visible in a buffed etched section (macrographic examination) (Fig. 72). The characteristic solidification structure with its course elongated grains is only found in the final pass. The other passes are more or less normalised depending on the heat levels used and the volume of each pass. After this process that makes the grains finer, the mechanical characteristics of the joint are notably improved and it is more ductile and tougher.

Fig. 72

45

Multiple pass welds therefore offer the following advantages: - finer dendritic structures are obtained due to the lower heat build-up for each pass; - subsequent passes cause a normalising effect; - phenomena of dilution, segregation and heat cracks are reduced.

Composition of the welded area In very general terms, autogenous welds are obtained by melting a certain part of the basic metal and completing the joint by adding a certain amount of filler metal material from outside. The two molten metals mix in the weld puddle and form a new alloy. The ratio between the volume of the basic metal and the total volume of the WZ in a welded joint is known as the dilution ratio. Accordingly, the dilution ratio d (%) is defined as the ratio between the volume of the molten basic metal and the total volume of the weld zone, multiplied by 100. Thus, if we call the contribution of the filler metal "Va" and that of the basic metal "Vb", in the case of a single pass we would have: Rd(%) = Vb/(Va+Vb) x 100 (Fig. 73). Va+Vb

Vb

Rd =

Vb 100 Va + Vb

Fig. 73 Dilution is especially favoured by the intensity of the current used and so changes significantly depending on the welding procedure used. At best, the following values can be obtained: - Rd%= 0 in brazing - Rd%= 20 in the first pass for manual arc welding - Rd%= 10 in subsequent manual arc welding passes - Rd%= 65 in high penetration submerged arc welding - Rd%= 100 in resistance welding. The part played by the basic material in the composition of the weld zone can have a significant influence on the characteristics of the joint. In fact, in high-penetration welds the alloying elements and impurities that the basic metal may introduce into the weld puddle take on particular importance, as they may form alloys that are not helpful in creating healthy joints.

The influence of alloying elements from the basic material Due to the limited amounts of special alloying elements in the composition of carbon steels, the chemical composition and metallurgical and mechanical characteristics of the WZ are mainly influenced by the percentage of carbon, silicon and impurities (sulphur and phosphorous) in the weld zone. Carbon As we have seen before, a high carbon content favours hardening and so should be avoided as much as possible in welds.

46

One should also bear in mind that in the WZ this phenomenon is also favoured by the fact that the austenitic grains are coarse and provide the locations for segregation phenomena that tend to concentrate the carbon in their marginal zones. To reduce the risk of martensitic structures, where possible welding is done using low carbon filler materials to keep the carbon content in the WZ low and below that of the basic metal. Carbon also tends to make the material less ductile at high temperatures and so, as we will see later, it favours the occurrence of heat cracks in the WZ. Finally, carbon can also react with gasses, especially oxygen, or with ferrous oxide, thereby contributing to the development of porosity where no deoxidising elements are present. Silicon Silicon is added to steel to act as a deoxidising agent and is therefore mainly found in killed steels. It is best to keep the content rather low (not above 0,30%) however, since, as with carbon, it may have a significant effect in making the WZ fragile. Sulphur Sulphur is an impurity that is always found in steels and melting part of the basic metal introduces it into the weld puddle. It forms a eutectic with the iron (FeS) that melts at 985C. Sulphur has a strong tendency to segregate when the WZ solidifies, accumulating at the edges of the dendritic grains, where the FeS eutectic remains liquid longer while the surrounding metal is already solid. This reduces the sections withstanding the shrinkage forces between grains and favours the phenomenon of cracking when hot. The sulphur content of the weld zone must therefore be kept to a minimum, and to this end steels are produced with a very low content that does not exceed 0,04 0,05%. In addition, the presence of sulphur can also cause blowholes due to a reaction with the H2 and O2 absorbed and dissolved in the molten metal. The action of the sulphur can be attenuated by adding Mn to the weld puddle, which tends to react with the FeS to form MnS that solidifies in a globular form spread throughout the metal mass. In addition, the basic coating on the electrodes have a purifying function and so by welding with electrodes of this type it is possible to fix the sulphur in the slag in the form of calcium sulphide. Phosphorous Like sulphur, phosphorous is also an impurity always found in steel. It has a strong tendency to segregate in the form of FeP, although to a lesser extent than sulphur, as phosphorous is soluble in iron to a certain extent, even at ordinary temperatures. It also further favours cracking when hot, although it does not seem to have a very great effect on this defect. Phosphorous segregation also causes fragility at low temperatures, which is therefore mainly felt in terms of resilience. The phosphorous content must therefore always be very low (never more than 0,05%). For welding operations it is generally advisable to use materials that can reduce the phosphorous content in the puddle (e.g. basic electrodes). Gas in the weld zone Some chemical changes and defects in the welded joint can be caused by the molten metal absorbing gas. The gasses most susceptible to absorption during welding are oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. Their action can be seen in phenomena that are at times not yet perfectly understood and that are generally harmful in welding. Oxygen As is well known, oxygen reacts with iron to form oxides that are partly soluble in the iron itself and, in the case of welding, can result in harmful inclusions.
47

The solubility of oxygen in pure iron at melting temperature is of the order of 0,21% and increases in molten iron as the temperature increases. In solid iron this solubility reduces rapidly, so much so that in gamma Fe it is of the order of 0,05%, and even lower than that in alpha Fe. Due to this difference in solubility between the liquid and the solid state, oxygen absorbed at high temperatures tends to leave the puddle as it solidifies, and therefore reacts with the carbon to form carbon monoxide (CO). This oxide is the main cause of blowholes, which together with oxide inclusions, impair the mechanical characteristics of the material. For these reasons it is important that the puddle be protected against the oxidising action of the air during welding. This can be done, for example, by the coating on the electrodes, the volatile nature of which creates an atmosphere that protects the metal as the arc passes and the weld puddle by means of the slag that floats on it. Since a certain amount of oxidation of the iron is inevitable, this action continues due to the deoxidising elements specifically included in the coating (manganese and silicon) that oxidise or that reduce the ferrous oxide, thereby avoiding a well oxidised weld puddle. Nitrogen As is the case with oxygen, the solubility of nitrogen in iron also decreases with temperature reductions until it becomes almost non-existent at ambient temperature. Over-saturated nitrogen therefore tends to form ferrous nitrides that precipitate (normally following plastic deformation) and cause ageing, resulting in increased fragility and impaired mechanical characteristics. In this regard as well, good protection of the weld puddle and of the filler metal during transfer is very important. This is normally done by the coating on the electrodes or by a protective gas in a continuous wire procedure for example. Hydrogen Due to hydrogens particular importance in welding and the complexity of the phenomena connected with it, see the comments in this regard in the paragraph provided. We merely wish to state that, as in the previous cases, the solubility of hydrogen is high in molten steel, low in austenite, and lower still in ferrite, and so during cooling it tends to leave the solution causing cracks, flakes and porosity in the weld zone and, in the case of steels susceptible to hardening, the formation of cracks under the bead (cracks when cold).

The Heat Affected Zone The metallographic structure formed in the heat affected zone of welds clearly depends on the heat cycle each point in the weld has been through, the type of material, and the initial structure. For the same material and welding technique the major variations encountered relate to the distance from the weld zone as the heat cycles are reproduced in the same way for points the same distance from the weld bead. Experiments have, however, shown that generally the metal undergoes structural transformations up to a distance from the weld line that does not normally exceed 3 mm. The HAZ can extend to 7 8 mm in particular cases, such as when high heat procedures are used. In the case of carbon steels and low alloy steels the most problematic phenomenon found in both macro and micrographic analysis is the change in the size of the grains in relation to the distance from the weld line. Bearing in mind therefore that the width of the HAZ depends on the welding procedure and parameters, lets look at what happens in a C-Mn steel, with a minimum breaking strength of 490 N/mm2. Lets imagine that the transition zone is broken down into 3 layers, each about 1 mm thick (Fig. 74).

48

Fusion line Fusion zone

Coarse grain zone Partially austenitised zone

Fine grain recrystallised zone Fig. 74 The first layer, adjacent to the weld zone is said to be overheated. In fact all its points are taken to very high temperature cycles resulting in the austenitic grain becoming larger (Fig. 75). T max during thermal cycle T( C) Liquidus

Coarse grain zone

Liquidus +

+ + Fe3C
The extension of the coarse grain zone dipends on the holding time between 1100C and 1500 C. C(%)

+ Fe3C

HAZ Fig. 75

As one moves away from the weld zone, this overheating decreases as does the coarseness of the grain. In this area the mechanical characteristics are inferior to those in the basic material. The second or middle layer is said to be normalised (Fig. 76). Its points are taken to temperatures that exceed the A3 line, but not by much. This means that the heat cycles more or less reproduce those found in the various phases of normalisation heat treatment. The final structure of this second layer is fine and granular, with mechanical characteristics that are better than the previous layer, and in some cases even better than those of the basic metal.

49

T max during thermal cycle

T( C) Liquidus

Liquidus +

Fine recrystallized zone

+ + Fe3C

+ Fe3C

The extension of the fine grain recrystallised zone depends on the holding time between 850 and 1100 C. C HAZ Fig. 76 The third or outermost layer is said to be partially austenitised (Fig. 77). The points in this layer reach temperatures that fall between lines A1 and A3. T max during thermal cycle T( C) Liquidus C(%)

Liquidus +

+
Partially austenitised zone

+ Fe3C

+ Fe3C

The extension of the partially austenitised zone dipends on the holding time between Ac1 and Ac3. HAZ Fig. 77 In this zone, globular pearlite is formed and the mechanical characteristics are generally superior to those of the unaltered basic material that contains laminar pearlite. Further away from the weld zone, no structural alteration is found in the basic material. C(%)

50

In the case of steels with a high content of carbon or alloying elements, with minimum breaking strengths exceeding 490 N/mm2, the corresponding TTT curves are moved to the right compared to those for mild steels so it is more probable that hardened or fragile structures will be found in the HAZ once cooling has finished. Briefly, the parameters that determine the structure of the HAZ are: - heating speed: as the heating speed increases, the tendency of the grain to be smaller increases since the time spent at higher temperatures is shorter. At the same time, the time available for impurities to be dissolved is reduced and as these constitute the starting point for pearlite transformation, this transformation is favoured and the hardening capacity is reduced. - maximum temperature reached and time spent at high temperatures: both these factors act as elements that tend to favour the grain being more coarse, therefore acting favourably in terms of the hardening capacity of the structure. - carbon content: hardness intervenes more easily in direct proportion to the carbon content. In addition, if the heating speed is high during alpha and gamma transformation the carbon does not have the time to distribute itself evenly in the austenite and the areas that are richer in carbon favour hardening. - speed of cooling: as is known, this acts in the same way as the carbon content. The simplest way to estimate the heat changes experimentally consists of taking hardness readings on items welded using the same procedure as that adopted for structural joints. Excessive hardening (Vickers hardness of more than 300) is cause for alarm, and indicates that less severe welding methods and conditions must be sought.

51

2. Welding Defects

Hydrogen in welding and cold cracking As indicated in previous paragraphs in relation to oxygen and nitrogen, the solubility of hydrogen in steel varies in relation to temperature and crystallographic shapes. Its solubility will therefore be high in liquid steel, low in delta ferrite, greater in austenite, and almost zero in alpha ferrite at ambient temperature (Fig. 78). If the steel absorbs a significant quantity of hydrogen in its liquid state and then, as happens in welding, it solidifies and cools very quickly, part of the hydrogen absorbed does not leave the solution quickly enough and is trapped in an over-saturated state in the solidified steel. The hydrogen in the over-saturated solution causes a distortion in the steels crystalline lattice. This distortion does not cause any problems in austenite as it is ductile and has space in its lattice that can accommodate the hydrogen atoms without excessive distortion. In ferrite however, and even more so in martensite that is already fragile and distorted, hydrogen causes a significant increase in fragility of the structure, which may result in flaws forming as we will see later on. We also know that hydrogen atoms are very small and it is therefore possible for them to spread through the metal matrix, moving towards the surface of the weld or to micro or macro cavities in the weld itself. The diffusion of hydrogen also depends on the temperature and the structure of the steel. This phenomenon increases as temperature rises and, at the same temperature, is much more widespread in ferrite than in austenite, where it is reduced to almost zero already at 400C. In ferrite, hydrogen is able to spread even at ambient temperature (Fig. 79).

24

20

CCC
16

CFC
12

0 1000 1200 200 400 600 -200 800 0

Fig. 78

Fig. 79

It is therefore clear that, if austenite and ferrite are both present at a given temperature, the hydrogen will tend to spread out from the ferrite into the austenite, both due to its greater capacity for spreading in the ferrite and its greater solubility in austenite. If one wishes to eliminate over-saturated hydrogen from a weld without waiting for it to slowly diffuse to the outside naturally at ambient temperature, the temperature need simply be increased, which is exactly what is done in heat treatment that eliminates the so-called diffusible hydrogen. This treatment involves maintaining a temperature of 250C for a long time, the period varying between 6 and 16 hours.

52

Diffusible hydrogen is the hydrogen that spontaneously escapes from the weld over a long time at ambient temperature. Hydrogen is responsible for the weld defects that we will be looking at next. The sum of the diffusible hydrogen and the residual hydrogen is referred to as total hydrogen. Residual hydrogen is the hydrogen that leaves the solid material after treatment at 650C, which may be carried out after all the diffusible hydrogen has escaped. Residual hydrogen is the hydrogen that remains in the cavities and inclusions in the weld at ambient temperature. Total hydrogen does not include a certain quantity of fixed hydrogen, which could only be removed by melting steel in a vacuum.

Hydrogen absorption in welding a) Oxygen-acetylene Welding In this welding procedure the acetylene (C2H2) reacts with the oxygen (O2) and produces carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which is easily absorbed by the welding puddle. Due to the slow cooling speed and the high diffusivity of hydrogen at high temperatures, the hydrogen has sufficient time available to escape from the molten puddle and so hydrogen rarely creates any problems in oxygen-acetylene welding. b) Welding with coated electrodes In this case hydrogen is released by dampness in the coating that may contain mineral crystallisation water, or ambient dampness in the place in which the electrodes are kept. The speed of solidification is rather high and so only a small amount of the hydrogen is able to escape to the outside while the weld is cooling. The only low hydrogen electrodes are those with basic coatings, while all the others contain high quantities of hydrogen. In the case of basic electrodes it is essential that the coating be properly dry and, as they are highly hydroscopic, they must be kept in a dry place and dried before use if necessary (Fig. 80).

Fig. 80 c) Submerged arc welding As is the case for electrodes, in this case the hydrogen also comes from dampness in the flow. In the case of both electrodes and flows for a submerged arc there is a procedure that is used to determine the amount of dampness in the flow itself, known as a total water test. The dampness values allowed for coated electrodes vary between 0,15% and 0,2%, and from 0,07% and 0,15% for the flows. As the reader will have noticed, lower values are prescribed for submerged arc welds and this is because the part of the flow that melts in this procedure is higher in percentage terms than the part that melts when using coated electrodes. d) Welding under a gas barrier In this case the hydrogen may be drawn from the humidity in the gas or, when welding with a fluxcored wire, by the humidity in the flow.
53

Cooling takes place quickly and the comments made for coated electrodes apply here as well. It is therefore essential to use protective atmospheres with low humidity percentages, and in practice gasses are used with a dew point of less than 40C at least. Once welding has been completed and using various procedures, the hydrogen content left in solidified alpha iron, expressed in cubic centimetres per 100 grams of metal deposited, can be determined using conventional harmonised tests. In terms of the values found, welding materials are classified as follows: - < 5 - very low hydrogen - 5 to 15 - low hydrogen - > 15 - high hydrogen

Hydrogen problems in welding Blowholes Blowholes are not a type of defect that is peculiar to hydrogen insofar as they can also be caused by carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide for example. In the case of hydrogen the gaseous inclusions originate from hydrogen sulphide (H2S) or methane (CH4) and may cause elongated blowholes commonly known as worm holes (Fig. 81). Flakes We have seen how over-saturation hydrogen in welding tends to diffuse during cooling. This diffusion not only moves towards the outside but also passes through the metal matrix towards the cavities, micro cavities, or micro inclusions that are always to be found in welds. The atomic hydrogen that gets into these cavities changes to a stable molecular state at low temperatures and tends to increase pressure to the extent that even very high pressures may be reached. This strong pressure acts spherically in all directions, creating a loading that acts on three axes, making the steel more fragile and prone to local failure due to de-cohesion. When plastic deformation takes place, such as in a bending or tensile test (Fig. 82), the areas around the cavity may therefore break prematurely in a very fragile manner. After such a break, a trace of the micro cavity that housed the hydrogen can be seen on the broken section of the test piece, in the form of one or more light coloured spots with a diameter of 1-2 mm and a black dot in the centre. This defect is known as a flake. The light coloured part of the flake is nothing other than the appearance of a localised fragile break without deformation that stands out against the break section around it that broke with plastic deformation and appears darker and more fibrous. Fig. 82 The presence of flakes does not significantly alter yield strength or tensile strength, but it does cause a reduction in elongation and necking down, which is very understandable when one considers that some areas broke due to de-cohesion and therefore played no part in plastic deformation. It should be pointed out that flakes are only formed during plastic deformation and so they are not a great defect in welded structures.
54

Fig. 81

In fact, a structure is rarely put into use before the diffusible hydrogen has had the time to escape from the weld (remember the heat treatment for releasing diffusible hydrogen) and operating stresses almost never cause plastic deformation. Clearly it is only in exceptional cases that flakes pose any danger. However, this defect represents a circumstance that points to the presence of hydrogen with all the problems this may create, and so it must be taken into account when carrying out welding procedure approval tests. Micro cracks in the weld zone When significant quantities of diffusible hydrogen are involved, such as for example in the deposit made when using electrodes with a rutile or cellulose coating, if cooling takes place quickly the hydrogen that is rapidly accumulated in the spaces and around these spaces in the ferrite matrix can cause the formation of small discontinuities when subjected to longitudinal shrinkage forces. This phenomenon is more marked when the atmosphere is less protected against nitrogen. In fact, the presence of nitrogen in the weld zone promotes this phenomenon. These defects are known as hydrogen micro cracks and are found in the centre of each pass and laid out transversely to the weld (Fig. 83). Due to their orientation and small size, they have a limited influence on the ductility determined in tensile or bending tests carried out transversely to the weld. In longitudinal tensile and bending tests, however, the micro cracks link up causing macroscopic breaks. In addition, they reduce the steels resistance to fatigue as they provide multiple starting points for breakage and also reduce resilience, when found in large numbers. In general, the influence of micro cracks is very limited to the point that no breaks are found in practice that can be attributed to Fig. 83 this defect.

Cracks in the HAZ (cold cracks) Cracks in the HAZ when either cold or hot, which we will look at next, are defects of a metallurgical nature and, as such, independent of the operator. These are two-dimensional defects and so, since they represent a reduction in the resistance section and provide a starting point for breaking, they are always unacceptable. When a material with a carbon or alloying element content is such that, with a rather severe welding heat cycle, it forms a hardened, fragile structure in the HAZ, cracks may form in the HAZ itself in the immediate proximity of the weld zone. These cracks are more likely to form the harder the HAZ is and the higher its martensite content and hydrogen content are; they are known either as hydrogen cracks, due to their location under the bead or, more frequently, cold cracks due to the low temperature at which they form. Materials that manifest phenomena of hardening are particularly prone to these cracks, and so this includes materials that undergo allotropic transformations in the solid state. To explain the mechanism behind the cold cracks, it must be borne in mind first of all that hydrogen is more soluble in austenite structures than in ferrite structures, although its diffusion capacity is greater in the latter. In addition, for the same structure, the diffusion capability of hydrogen increases as temperature increases. In the paragraph dealing with martensitic structures we dealt with hardening factors and especially carbon content, which contribute to moving the TTT curves to the right, for continuous cooling of a certain material. Normally the filler material has a lower carbon content than the basic material and so the TTT curves for the WZ shift to the left (that is, towards shorter times) and upwards (towards higher temperatures) compared to the curves for the basic material (Fig. 84).
55

Given their proximity, the temperatures at a given moment in the WZ and the adjacent HAZ are assumed to be equal, in the immediate proximity of the line separating the two zones, and therefore the cooling curves will also be identical. The weld zone for which the TTT curves have been moved to the left undergoes transformation from austenite to ferrite before the HAZ, and if the cooling speed is sufficiently high the entire weld zone undergoes ferrite pearlite transformation while the heat affected zone becomes completely martensitic.

FZ HAZ

log(t)
Fig. 84

Lets see what happens following these transformations (Fig. 85). The weld zone that was initially rich in hydrogen is transformed from austenite to ferrite first and tends to expel the hydrogen due to its reduced solubility and the simultaneous increase in diffusion capability. The HAZ is mainly austenite and initially poor in hydrogen and so readily absorbs that coming from the WZ. Due to the high solubility in austenite and therefore low diffusion capacity, the hydrogen tends to remain concentrated in the immediate vicinity of the weld zone. When the austenite becomes martensitic, which occurs instantaneously along with an increase in volume, the hydrogen is trapped in the lattice in an over-saturated solution and tends to escape very slowly. This escape occurs more slowly where the martensite is formed at lower temperatures as its diffusion capacity decreases with temperature. The HAZ is therefore mainly made up of martensite with a hard and fragile structure that is made even more fragile by the presence of hydrogen in an over-saturated solution, subject to both the residual tensions of welding and those related to the increase in volume.

Fig. 85

Under these conditions breaks may well develop that arise precisely where the highest concentration of hydrogen is to be found, namely under the bead (Fig. 86 & 87).

56

Fig. 86

Fig. 87

Cold cracks may also be found in the weld zone and this may occur when the weld is done using filler material that is identical to the basic material. In this case the TTT curves coincide and the weld zone is transformed at the same time as the HAZ or even after, not allowing the hydrogen to spread into the basic material. If martensitic transformation occurs, cold cracks arise wherever the hydrogen is located, i.e. in the weld zone. From the above it is clear that three factors are required for cracks to form in the heat affected zone: tension, hydrogen, and hardness. Tension No efficacious remedies are available for tensile forces, as it has been shown experimentally that the tensile forces involved in the binding in the weld and those related to the increase in volume in the changeover from austenite to martensite are sufficient to cause cold cracks. Any precautions when welding for free contraction do not suffice to avoid the danger of breaks occurring. Hyrogen The hydrogen that migrates from the weld zone to the heat affected zone is nothing other than hydrogen in the filler material that can be diffused. Therefore, to obtain a low presence of hydrogen, steps must be taken as indicated beforehand, namely fully dry basic flows and electrodes, protective gasses with a low dew point, etc. It is also good practice to use preheating, which, as we already know, facilitates the diffusion of hydrogen to the outside. Fig. 88 Hardness The harder the martensitic structure is, the more likely it is that cracks will occur, and it has been shown that this hardness is directly related to the carbon content but is independent of the content of other alloying elements. The martensite content depends on hardening factors that have been dealt with before. We said that the action of these factors takes the form of moving the TTT curves to the right and lowering the interval in which the hardness structures are formed (Ms Mf). This interval is very important as it demarcates the temperature range over which martensite forms in the sense that all the martensite that we find after a weld has formed for example, has formed below a certain temperature (Ms) and above another temperature (Mf). Reducing the Ms Mf temperature difference and the Mf temperature in particular results in the formation of martensite at a very low temperature and therefore when the diffusivity of hydrogen is
57

almost non-existent; the hydrogen is concentrated in the last remaining austenite areas where it is trapped in a highly over-saturated solution in the last martensite parts formed due to transformation of the austenite areas referred to above. Bearing in mind that the element that has the greatest effect in lowering the range over which martensite is formed is carbon, one realises how much this has a negative influence. It moves the TTT curves to the right, moves the temperature interval Ms Mf down, and increases the hardness of the martensite. Naturally, the rate of cooling plays a very important role in the transformation of martensite, along with all the comments we covered when dealing with heat cycles. It should be noted that the cooling speed between A3 and Ms determines the amount of martensite that forms in the HAZ, while the rate of cooling in the transformation interval determines the speed with which this transformation takes place. This is an important factor because at a high cooling speed the amount of hydrogen trapped in the hardened structure is greater. In this case one should not lose sight of the beneficial effect of preheating, which not only slows cooling at high temperatures, but does the same at low temperatures as well, including the transformation range (Fig. 89).

Fig. 89

Hot Cracks As with cold cracks, hot cracks are also of a metallurgical nature, two-dimensional and unacceptable. Unlike cold cracks they can affect all materials and they form, as indicated by the name, during the initial phases of cooling. The ever-present residual stresses from welding and the solidification interval for the material cause these cracks. In fact, we know from studying state diagrams that while a pure material solidifies at an exact temperature, an alloy solidifies over a temperature interval that varies depending on the percentage content of the alloy components. This interval is extended when the alloy includes impurities which, as we have seen previously, cause dendritic segregation phenomena. The increase in the solidification interval is therefore made up of a liquid veil of impurities that one finds at the edges of the grain when solidification has been completed which, in the case of sulphur, only occurs at 988C. The liquid veil obviously reduces the resistant section of the joint, reducing cohesion between grains. If shrinkage is prevented, as always happens to a greater or lesser extent in welds, the residual tensile forces act in the gaps between the grains already in contact making up solid bridges (Fig. 90). Fig. 90

58

If their section is similar and remains so for too long (that is, if the residual liquid does not solidify until a significantly lower temperature is reached, when the tensile forces due to shrinkage are high) or if these solid bridges do not provide the ductility necessary to compensate for the gradual increase in the tensile forces by means of plastic deformation, the material may not be able to withstand these forces and the grains may become detached, forming a crack (Fig. 91 & 92).

Fig. 91

Fig. 92 examples of hot cracks

We have referred before to compounds that melt at low temperatures formed by sulphur; in general these elements are eutectic, namely ferrous monosulphide (FeS) that segregates preferably in a film shape around the grains being formed. The higher the sulphur content of the weld puddle, the greater the extent of this liquid film and, consequently, the more slender the solid bridges will be. Phosphorous has a lesser influence over this phenomenon than sulphur as the low-melting compounds it forms with iron (FeP) have a higher solidification temperature. Carbon also has a harmful effect as at high temperatures it causes an increase in strength and a reduction in ductility. This results in a reduction in the capacity to assist with the shrinkage by means of plastic elongation of the solid bridges between the grains. Thus the simultaneous presence of relatively high percentages of sulphur and carbon is particularly harmful. Another compound that has a similar effect to carbon is silicon as it significantly increases fragility. The grain size also plays an important role in hot cracks. In fact, the larger the grain the smaller the contact surface and thus the lower the cohesion between grains, since in finer structures the solid bridges would be more numerous and better distributed.
59

This means that, in the case of large grains, the shrinkage forces act on a smaller number of solid bridges that are more poorly distributed, with a clearly greater danger of flaws. Another parameter that must be taken into account is the section of the joint, which is defined as the shape factor, i.e. the ratio between the width of the bead and its height W/D (Fig. 93). If the joint is too narrow, cracks may occur on the contact surface of the columnar dendrites that are solidifying due to the different position the dendrites are forced to take up. The shape factor begins to be critical for hot cracks when it has a value of less than 1. The shape factor is influenced not only by the preparation of the caulker but also by the welding speed (Fig. 94).

Fig. 93

Fig. 94 As to the position of hot cracks, it should be noted that while cold cracks are typical of the HAZ, hot cracks are almost always found in the WZ. Depending on their position in relation to the weld axis, these may be: - longitudinal in relation to the root of the weld: these are typically found in T-joints in which angular shrinkage is very low, and in butt-joints, especially if the first pass is too thin (Fig. 91 & 92). - longitudinal along the axis in the direction of the weld: these are found in T- and butt-joints and indicate low ductility in the area that solidifies last and that, being at high temperature when the surrounding areas have already become rigid, are subject to the greatest plastic deformation (Fig. 91-92, 95). - inter-dendritic (also known as liquation cracks): these are the smallest and form between the dendrites, generally not breaking the surface of the weld. These are the most frequent and most insidious as they are difficult to detect. In fact they can only be found in destructive tests since, due to their small size, they cannot be picked up in x-ray tests and ultrasound tests only sometimes manage to detect their presence (Fig. 96). - transverse: these generally develop in high tensile steels due to the longitudinal shrinkage tensile forces. They often break the surface and generally only affect one surface layer (Fig. 91). - crater: craters form in the ends of welds and normally these radiate out from the centre of the crater, i.e. the area that solidifies last, thereby containing the greatest concentration of impurities and subject to the greatest plastic deformation. In arc welding using coated electrodes they may be due to the failure to protect the puddle and the concave shape it takes up due to the electric arc being detached too quickly (Fig. 97). All these cracks come in various sizes in the sense that you can have a microscopic crack like a splinter that goes right through the entire joint. In particular cases hot cracks may also occur in the heat affected area. This happens most often when welding hardened and tempered stainless steel with a high carbon content, but are rare in mild steels. These are known as liquation cracks and consist, during welding, of the fusion of low-melting impurities in the HAZ. This results in liquid films that cause a lack of solid continuity between the grains in the HAZ and favour the formation of cracks due to residual tensile stress (Fig. 96).

60

Fig. 95

Fig. 96

Fig. 97

Remedies for avoiding hot cracks The welding technique used can be of assistance in avoiding bonds that are too rigid and using a welding sequence that allows welding with free shrinkage as far as possible. Stress relieving treatment does not solve this problem as the cracks form at temperatures above those used for this type of treatment. With regard to low-melting impurities, as far as possible killed steels must be used as these have a low S and P content, and effervescent steels must be avoided. It is always advisable to use basic electrodes and flows that are slag forming and draw the impurities into the slag, removing them from the weld puddle. The specific heat build-up is also important as this determines the dilution and the final grain size. We know that, when welding, a filler material that is purer than the basic material must be used and so dilution must stay at low levels to avoid the impurities getting into the weld puddle as far as possible. The higher the heat build-up the slower solidification occurs, the larger the grain size ends up being once cooling has been completed, the smaller the extent of the joints between the grains along which the impurities segregate, and thus the higher the concentration of these and the probability of hot cracks occurring. The choice of the caulker is also important for hot cracks. For example, in the case of a very thick steel plate in which the impurities are concentrated at the centre of the thickness due to the segregation phenomena that occurred when the ingot or slab
61

from which it is made was solidifying, if the caulker used is prepared with X symmetrical, the first pass brings with it the greatest heat build-up and thus greatest expansion and will be found right in the centre of the band of impurities, creating a very impure weld puddle that has to withstand the residual tensile stresses on its own. If the piece is prepared with X dissymmetric, obviously the first pass will be in a purer zone, reducing the risk of hot cracks forming (Fig. 98).

Fig. 98

Laminar Tearing Laminar tearing are cracks normally found in laminated products, which occur in restricted joints when the material is subjected to tensile forces perpendicular to the lamination plane, i.e. across the thickness of the plate (commonly referred to as the short transverse) (Fig. 99). This defect is typical of basic materials and occurs in the HAZ or in the nearby basic material. The characteristic layout of the grains, more or less parallel to the rolling surfaces, distinguishes this defect from cold cracks under the bead (Fig. 100).

Fig. 99

Fig. 100

The principal factors that tend to lead this defect arising are: - the geometry of the joint, where the area around the weld zone is practically parallel to the laminates surface, which means that the shrinkage tensile forces act in the direction of the short transverse. - material with great anisotropy in relation to its deformation characteristics. In this case the materials ductility in relation to its thickness may be insufficient to support the concentration of tensile forces and deformations. - localised tensile forces of significant size, developed by strongly bound welded joints following shrinkage while cooling down. These take on greater importance when the structural member is highly rigid and the weld zone has an extensive volume. The tear normally begins in the plate near the well in the area around the inclusions laid out in the plate parallel to the external surface. In general the non-metallic inclusions that are most susceptible are manganese silicates and aluminium, due to the deoxidisation process used on the steel and elongation during the subsequent rolling.

62

In some cases laminar tearing starts in the heat affected zone due to the effect hydrogen has of making the area more fragile and/or the formation of cold cracks. These defects significantly reduce ductility in the short transverse direction, and when the material is stressed in this direction the first breaks occur due to de-cohesion right on the inclusions which, being closer to the weld, have to support the greater shrinkage tensile forces. Subsequently, plastic deformation bands are concentrated in the areas stressed along three axes at the apex of each micro cavity, producing a coalescence of the first breaks that are substantially perpendicular to the inclusions (cutting action). The three joints most often affected by this phenomenon, in descending order of criticality, are: - full-penetration cross-joints and T-joints with 1/2V or K preparation - full-penetration L-joints - T-joints or cross-joints with fillet welds The main steps that can be taken to reduce the danger of laminar tearing are: - the use of steel with improved characteristics across the thickness (low sulphur content, globular inclusions, necking down in tensile test pieces over the thickness exceeding 25 35%) - the use of pieces with a special geometry suitably shaped for critical joints (Fig. 101) - reducing the size of the weld zone (Fig. 101) - the use of filler materials with greater ductility and lower yield points than the basic material - the use of a suitable order of execution of the passes in order to reduce the local stresses that are applied to layers of the weld zone that are more ductile than the basic material (Fig. 102) - reducing shrinkage tensile forces by using the buttering technique, which involves depositing a layer of filler material with a low yield point and high ductility on the surface of the piece before the actual weld is formed (Fig. 103).

Fig. 102

Fig. 101

Fig. 103

63

3. Heat Phenomena in Welds (Shrinkage, Internal Tensile Forces) Shrinkage in Welds As is well known, the increase in temperature in a body is accompanied by an increase in its size, while for any reduction in temperature the body contracts until it returns to its original size. In welding, shrinkage is the change in size that a material undergoes as it goes from melting temperature to ambient temperature. The increase in the temperature of a piece of metal causes it to expand, and this may take place uniformly only when the piece is heated up uniformly and there is nothing to stop its free expansion. Where this is not the case, other phenomena come into play, which we will look at later. Lets look at a bar of steel that is unhindered and subject to uniform heating up. It increases in length but when it cools down again it returns to its original size (Fig. 104 a). A second piece secured at its two ends is put into a state of compression due to its expansion being prevented. This compressive force increases as the temperature increases until the yield point is reached. Starting from this point, the bar undergoes irreversible plastic deformation when subjected to any further increase in temperature, that is, it is upset (Fig. 104 b). When the bar cools down it shrinks but its length ends up shorter than it was originally while the diameter is greater. Once the bar has cooled down, it is free of any stress. Finally, lets look at a bar that is fixed at its ends in such a way that contraction is also prevented. It is upset as before during heating, and when it is then cooled since it cannot shorten it is put into tension, which is known as residual tension or internal tension (Fig. 104 c).

No residual deformation No residual tension

Expansion at T max.

Contraction residual deformation No residual tension

Final contraction

Blocked residual deformation Traction residual tension

Fig. 104

C
traction

0 T
compression

64

When a piece of metal is heated up in a non-uniform manner its expansion is always restricted. In fact, the heated part tends to expand more quickly than the surrounding cool parts, but it cannot do so freely as it is connected to the rest of the piece. At this point, if the temperature is raised enough the hotter part is upset and once it cools down its fibres are tensioned, often at values that are very near its cold yield point. Similar phenomena occur in welds since in this case too the heat build-up is localised and thus heating up of the piece is highly non-uniform (Fig. 105).

Welding bead

Joint axis

1500 C HAZ 50 C Fig. 105 700 C

To simplify the study of heat phenomena that occur in welds and the effect they have on shrinkage in welded joints, the shrinkage is broken down into three directions identified as follows: - transverse shrinkage that acts across the welded joint on the plane of the plate - longitudinal shrinkage that acts in the direction of the axis of the weld - perpendicular shrinkage that acts in the direction of the thickness of the plate. Only the first two are important in terms of the extent to which they occur and thus for the consequences they cause. Lets describe them properly (Fig. 106-107).

Fig. 106

Fig. 107

Transverse shrinkage Two aspects can be looked at in studying this: a) Transverse shrinkage per se Lets look at the phenomenon of transverse shrinkage resulting from a butt weld joining two plates with straight edges. The movement of the heat source takes place longitudinally and at a constant
65

speed. The joint is formed in a single pass and the plates are not restricted in any way from the outside or by tack welding (Fig. 108).

Fig. 108 During the welding process two zones can be identified on the plates in relation to the isotherm ellipses bounded by the end of the minor axes. One (ABCE) is cooling and the other (AECF) is heating up due to the heat source moving forward. In the first zone there is a portion of the joint with t > 600C (DE), with a yield point that is very low. Looking at a strip of material in the DE area, by analogy with the restricted bar one can say that in this area hot upsetting will take place due to the restriction caused by the surrounding material (outside the 600C isotherm), which will impede expansion and act as an anchor for the upsetting due to further elongation of the side pieces that are being heated up. When T decreases as the heat sources advances, the elastic limit of the strip tends to return to normality, resulting in the strip contracting. This contraction is strongest in the DE stretch on the source side, where the material at high T is easily upset, while zone B, which is already cooling further, acts as a fulcrum, causing the plates that are still free to move towards one another (scissor effect). Transverse shrinkage is directly proportional to the width of the weld and the quantity of heat built up, and is inversely proportional to the thickness of the weld. b) Angular shrinkage When looking at a single pass weld in section, one notes how the width of the bead varies along the thickness of the joint, reaching its maximum width at the surface (Fig. 109). By considering dividing the plate into parallel strata, due to the fact that transverse shrinkage is proportional to the width of the bead one sees that the upper layers shrink more than the lower layers, causing angular shrinkage.

Fig. 109 In fillet welds shrinkage takes the form of angular shrinkage (Fig. 110).

66

Fig. 110 The rotation of the plates (tendency to close) increases as the cross-section of the bead increases and as the number of passes increases, since on the faces of the two pieces there are two zones resulting from the heat cycles in relation to the thickness, one near the weld that will undergo hot upsetting and the other further away that will simply deform in the elastic field. Transverse shrinkage increases as the section of the weld increases, but much less quickly as the thickness to be welded increases. Longitudinal shrinkage This always takes place under self-restricting conditions and is therefore generally the smallest of the lot. In fact, while in the case of transverse shrinkage the contraction of the material takes place to a greater extent the less it is subject to outside restrictions (such as spot welds), in the case of longitudinal shrinkage there is always a restriction imposed by the joint itself. In this case the bead and the surrounding hot part tend to deform as shown in Fig. 111, but this contraction is restricted by the surrounding cold part. Shrinkage is minimal in this case and simultaneous and so very high residual tension results. For a given section of weld bead, the extent of shrinkage decreases as the section of the plate increases and, for the same cross-sectional area of plate, it increases as the area of the weld section increases.

Fig. 111

Origin of residual tensions in welds The restriction in a weld caused by un-uniform heating and cooling and the impossibility of shrinkage developing unhindered generate tensions of a greater or lesser entity in the joint itself that are known as residual tension or shrinkage forces. Shrinkage of metal objects should take place in all directions but this is impeded to a greater or lesser extent by external and internal restrictions, which gives rise to a complex state of stress in a direction that is longitudinal, transverse, and perpendicular to the thickness.

67

Longitudinal tension Longitudinal tension is the highest due to the severe self-restriction effect. These are tensile forces in the welded joint and immediate vicinity and, due to logic of seeking equilibrium, are in compression in the outermost areas (Fig. 112). This type of tension remains constant for all sections parallel to the joint and drops to 0 at the ends. For the same section of the weld zone, as the plate thickness increases and for the same plate thickness, this tension decreases as the weld zone gets bigger.

Fig. 112 Transverse tension Transverse tension is made up of tensile forces in the centre of the joint, becoming compression in the external areas (Fig. 113). Transverse tension is generally lower than longitudinal tension and largely depends on the degree of external restriction. In the case of unrestricted plates the tension decreases as the weld zone increases in size, and therefore the specific heat build-up increases. In the case of restricted plates the opposite occurs.

Fig. 113

68

Effects of shrinkage and residual tension When the outside loads imposed by the working conditions act on a welded structure they are superimposed on the welding tension already in the joints. If the working loads counteract the welding tension the latter is reduced and may even be nullified. This is the most favourable case and makes use of the existing pre-tensioning. In the case where the working loads are tensile like the welding tension, these tensile forces are added to one another and may exceed the materials yield point, causing plastic deformation. For a better understanding of the influence of internal tension on strength of welded structures lets look at the following comparison (Fig. 114).

Fig. 114 Lets consider the longitudinal tension in a butt-joint which, as we have said before, is highest and in tension at the centre of the bead and in compression at the edges. This can be likened to a frame with two rigid beams A - B and three equal columns C X C1, of which the central column X passes through the beams and can be tensioned using a nut up to its yield point. In this case the side columns C and C1 will be in compression. By applying a load to beam A the central column X begins to elongate and yields plastically but does not play any part, having already yielded, in supporting the load. One notes, however, that the side columns are subject to greater compression to make up for the central column not making any contribution. The following example is provided to further clarify the ideas involved: - section of each column = 100 mm2 - yield point Rs = 240 N/mm2 The applied load will be 100 x 3 x 240 = 72000 N. If the central column is strained to its yield point a pre-compression of -120 N/mm2 will be applied to each of the side columns; this means that each side column may undergo an elastic change in size equivalent to -120 to +240 N/mm2 and the load that can be supported by columns C and C1 will be 100 x 2 x 360 = 72000 N. This shows that the strength of the frame remains unaltered. In some cases residual tension must be taken into account as it may pose a danger, and this is normally done for structures: - subject to fatigue - subject to fragile breaking - subject to stress corrosion - subject to machining with precision machines In these cases particular precautions must be taken or procedures adopted in order to obtain welded joints with significantly low residual tension.

69

Practical methods for attenuating tension Any remedies to avoid the consequences of residual tension must be broken down into three operating phases: Precautions before welding The precautions a technician can take before welding a joint must meet the basic requirement of providing for shrinkage, that is, they must create conditions that allow shrinkage to take place as freely as possible, with the welded piece ending up in the exact position required. Lets take a quick look at the precautions most commonly used: a) Prior deformation to allow unrestricted shrinkage The pieces to be welded are given an equal and opposite set-up or deformation to that caused by the pieces shrinking after welding. This simple arrangement makes it possible to eliminate the effects of angular shrinkage in butt-joints and fillet welds, and some examples are shown in Fig. 115. The deviation angle is normally just a few degrees and is determined in each case depending on operating procedures and conditions. In general this is based on experience gained in previous cases. Fig. 115

b) Creating an elastic zone near the joint In this case, in order to allow for shrinkage an elastic zone can be created in the element that deforms more easily thereby absorbing the shrinkage tensile forces. Examples of this procedure are shown in Fig. 116 a, (where a slight undulation has been created in the thinner plate), in Fig. 116 b/c (where a lipped joint is formed rather than a T-joint, or with upturns at the ends of the plates rather than straight edges meeting in a butt-joint, guaranteeing significant elasticity), in Fig. 117 (where, when welding pipes to piping plates a groove is formed to allow for shrinkage), and finally in Fig. 31 (where, when connecting a circular element to a large plate it is slightly domed so that the weld around the periphery tends to flatten it out).

Fig. 116

Fig. 117

70

Fig. 118 c) Useful arrangement of the weld bead A typical example of how positioning the weld bead differently can overcome the problems associated with shrinkage is shown in Fig. 119. In this case moving the bead from position A to position B allows angular shrinkage to be avoided and, if the connection diameter is enlarged slightly on both pipes, throttling due to longitudinal shrinkage is avoided.

Fig. 119 d) Breaking down into panels In large complex welded structures such as shipbuilding, more simple parts are welded in which deformation can be limited more easily. This involves forming panels or finished blocks. Once these panels have been formed, it is easier to control and allow for all the shrinkage that occurs, in the overall structure. Precautions during welding a) Choosing the procedure Angular shrinkage largely depends on the welding procedure and operating method used. Where possible it is best to use welds that are symmetrical about the axis and on the plane that you do not want to deform. For example, X-shaped preparations are recommended for butt-joints, especially when dealing with thick plates. In the case of angled joints, angular shrinkage can be compensated for by welding the two opposite corners simultaneously, thereby restricting the angular deformation of the plate. In the case of cross-joints one need simply weld the two opposite corners across the vertex alternately or simultaneously. The welding procedure also has a great influence on the extent of shrinkage as we already know that when caulking is thinner there is less transverse shrinkage directly related to the external restriction on the joint. While little can be done in terms of the setting up of a joint in a restricted situation, in terms of procedure something can be done when the pieces are free to move and therefore only longitudinal tensile forces come into play due to self-restriction by the cool parts. In this case some benefit can be gained by starting the weld from the centre and working outwards to the ends rather than going from one end to the other. In any event, the important thing in any weld is that it must be made up of both basic material and filler material that allow a certain degree of plastic deformation that is able to absorb the shrinkage forces that are created, which are increased where the pieces are restricted. High plasticity of the weld must in all cases be found not only when the work has been completed but also during the welding itself as, for example, the tendency for flaws to be created is greater in the first pass than in later passes (see the section on hot cracks). b) Preparation of the joint and working sequence The sequence in which work is done on the joint is important as it allow the maximum provision possible to be made for shrinkage in a predetermined preferential direction. For example, when working on a large flat panel as shown in Fig. 120, you can see how you should not start working on welding the long edges without first having welded the transverse joint that finishes on these edges, in order to allow for as much free shrinkage movement as possible on the transverse joint along its axis. Another example is when welding an I beam (Fig. 121). When welding fragile materials,
71

localised preheating can also be used in order to reduce the welding tension by allowing for shrinkage. This heating must not be terminated when the joint has reached the required temperature, but must be kept up for the entire duration of the welding process. When repairing cast iron pieces, for example, heating must be applied in order to increase the gap between the edges to be welded. Once welding is completed and heating is terminated, the piece can shrink uniformly and without any residual tension (Fig. 122).

Fig. 120

Fig. 121

Zone to be preheated

To be welded

Fig. 122

Precautions after welding a) Shrinkage heat Shrinkage heat involves localised heating that is used to shorten the fibres in the heated material when it has cooled down, by means of hot upsetting. One typical example is the T-joint shown in Fig. 123; the curvature taken up by the joint following shrinkage of the weld can be significantly reduced to the point of straightening the piece altogether, by applying shrinkage heat along the most elongated surface. At the points at which the material is heated the temperature reaches as

72

high as 800C, which allows expansion and therefore upsetting of the material, and reducing the length during cooling (Fig. 124).

Fig. 123

Fig. 124

b) Expansion treatment in a furnace at 600-650C The principle behind expansion in a furnace is based on the fact that, as we already know, the yield point for materials depends on temperature and decreases as temperature increases. In the range of temperatures at which this heat treatment takes place the yield point is very low, of the order of 40-50 N/mm2. By putting the entire piece into the furnace (Fig. 125) and heating it to the temperatures indicated above and keeping it at that temperature for a certain period of time (Fig. 126 & 127), the tension is released and reduced to at least the yield point for the material at the temperature reached. The fact that this tension can be released indicates that once expansion has been completed the item can show plastic deformation, which means that the dimensions of the item can change to a greater or lesser extent. One should also remember that during expansion heat treatment, the benefits of tempering also occur, thereby eliminating the areas of hardness and improving the materials mechanical characteristics. The speed of heating up, the time the expansion temperature is maintained, and the rate of cooling are all very important in terms of the success of this treatment and are generally related to the thickness of the item.

Fig. 126 source: RINA Rules

73

Fig. 125

Fig. 127 source: RINA Rules

c) Treating local expansion in pipes Localised expansion treatment is used when the entire piece cannot be given expansion treatment in a furnace. It is a very particular method and is only used when it can be of real benefit to the item. As one can imagine, if a plate is heated up locally to temperatures of 600 650C, the hot material expands and, if it is restricted from doing so by the colder parts, it is upset. When the piece subsequently cools down, the tension will not be limited to that already existing but will be added to by the tension resulting from shrinkage of the upset material opposed by the cold mass around it. In practice therefore, the only case in which localised expansion treatment is used is for circumferential joints in pipes or for cylindrical structures that are free to expand longitudinally (Fig. 128). Clearly, localised treatment is not applied to longitudinal joints in pipes as the points made relating to plates would apply in this case as well. Fig. 128 d) Flame stretching for longitudinal tension only This principle is based on the fact that applying a tensile load acting along the axis of the bead causes plastic sliding of the stretched area which, once the load is released, results in the longitudinal tension being redistributed, with higher tension being reduced. In the case of this treatment the joint is stretched by heating the two strips on either side of the weld bead. This causes them to expand due to the heat, resulting in plastic sliding in the central stretched area. The heat is therefore only used to cause a mechanical pulling effect on the welded joint. Naturally, given the problems that can arise in the case of localised heating it is best to keep these temperatures below 200 - 250C in order to avoid problems related to upsetting the material. This treatment reduces longitudinal tension, while transverse tension remains unaltered. e) Overloading or over-compression (mechanical stretching) In this case the item is loaded or put into compression in order to reach loads that exceed the working loads and to exceed the elastic limit at the points at which the greatest tension is concentrated. At these critical points, since the tension due to overloading is added to the residual weld tension, local plastic deformation occurs that may either significantly reduce the residual tension involved or leave residual compression forces at the vertex of any notch that
74

reduces the danger posed by the same. Naturally this particular type of treatment must be carried out on the basis of carefully designed procedures that also include the use of suitable checks (e.g. ultrasound) in order to avoid problems due to existing defects in the structure. f) Hammering the bead Hammering can provide a double effect it can straighten deformed pieces and reduce residual tension, causing localised plastic deformation. This treatment must be carried out for each pass and by skilled artisans to avoid problems related to creating tension in adjacent areas, strain hardening, and ageing of the material. Due to the risks involved, hammering treatment is generally not recommended (Fig. 129).

Fig. 129

75

4. Welding Processes

Electric Arc Before going on to deal with various welding processes we must introduce the concept of the electric arc, which is the physical phenomenon on which most welding processes in use today are based. The electric arc is the visible manifestation of the passage of an electric current through an ionised gas medium. Lets consider two refractory electrodes, for example made of carbon or tungsten, placed at a certain distance one from the other and connected to a source of direct or alternating current. When the circuit is open there is no current flow unless the applied tension reaches extremely high values (thousands of volts/mm) high enough to rip electrons from their orbits around the nuclei of the atoms making up the electrode. If we heat the electrodes up, however, the force of attraction between nuclei and electrons is reduced and once a certain temperature is reached, spontaneous emission of electrons is achieved through the thermo-ionic effect. Under these conditions it is enough to apply very low tension (in the order of tens of volts) to accelerate free electrons away from the negative pole towards the positive one and obtain a flow of current. The air or gas molecules, struck by the fast electrons, become ionised giving rise to new electrons and positive ions, that is fresh charged particles that will migrate towards the electrode of opposite polarity. The collision between particles develops heat and an intense emission of light. The large quantity of heat released confers continuity on the phenomenon, called electric arc (Fig. 130). Starting the electric arc is achieved by briefly short-circuiting the two electrodes. Through the Joule effect the extremities in contact with one another generate fierce heat and by distancing the electrodes the arc is triggered and remains active with a current flow of a few dozen volts (Fig. 131). Starting the arc and keeping it alive means overcoming the dielectric rigidity of the air or the resistance that the air itself opposes to the current flow. Hence the ionising potential of gases or the thermo-ionic potential of certain materials is exploited.

Fig. 130

Fig. 131

76

The stability of the arc from a physical point of view is in fact influenced by two factors: - Ionising energy of the gas This is the energy that the gas requires to become ionised, i.e. the energy it takes to split the molecules of the gas itself, and is related to the shielding gas typical of the welding process. Clearly a gas with a lower ionising energy will make it easier to stabilise the electric arc. In processes where a shielding gas is not used, such as when covered electrodes are being used, the ability of the elements of the coating to become ionised is important. Elements such as Na and K are employed because these have a high thermo-ionic potential and are easily ionised and contribute to igniting the arc and keeping it stable. - Temperature of the arc If the temperature of the arc is high, then it will be more stable because the thermo-ionic potential, or the ability of metals to emit electrons, is greater. The temperature of the arc depends to a great extent on the thermal conductivity of the gas and in fact less conductive gases correspond to higher temperatures. To keep things simple we have illustrated the electric arc making reference to two identical refractory electrodes whereas in manual and automatic arc welding we would find a fusible electrode on one side and a base metal on the other. Electric supply may be direct or alternating current; when direct current is used the polarity can be direct (electrode connected to the negative pole) or inverse (electrode connected to the positive pole). The atmosphere of an arc with a temperature of at least 5538C is called plasma; more properly said, plasma is the charge-carrying particles. During experiments it was found that in an electric arc the plasma flow is anodic, that is it flows from the anode (positive pole) to the cathode (negative pole) (Fig. 132). Additionally, the cathode spot is always smaller than the anode one.

DCEP catode anode

DCEN

+
anode catode

Fig. 132

These two factors tied to the geometry and physical state of the arc influence two of the electric arcs operative aspects: transfer of weld metal and penetration. Transfer of the weld metal, following the flow of plasma, is for the most part anodic so in the case of a fusible electrode it works better with inverse polarity. Penetration is also greater in the case of inverse polarity because the cathode spot is smaller and the energy is therefore more concentrated. The Volt-Ampere characteristic of the arc is shown in Fig. 133 and represents the two values, tension and current, that give rise to the arc. Here we will explain the phenomenon.

77

Voltage

Uo

Icc Icc Icc Icc

Current Fig. 133 Fig. 134

We know that the resistance R of any conductor is expressed through the formula: R = L/S where: r = the specific resistance of the conductor L = length S = transversal section In the case of the electric arc, as the current increases the transversal section S of the arc progressively expands while, at the same rate, the temperature increases as does the percentage of ionised particles with a consequential diminution of . The arcs resistance R is therefore a diminishing function of the current and the diminution of R is so important that even the product V = RI decreases as I increases. The transversal expansion of the arc mentioned above tends however towards a limit that we can define as saturation in correspondence with which complete ionisation of the gas takes place. Beyond saturation the tension of the arc starts to increase in perfect agreement with the Law of Ohm: V = RI. The arc is said to be in free regime prior to saturation, after which the regime is throttled. The position of this characteristic in the V-I diagram depends on the length of the arc, the resistance of which increases as the length grows moving the characteristic point higher up in the diagram. With equal current, the tension is higher the longer the arc is. Welding processes work on the ascending curve side of the diagram and therefore beyond saturation point. As we have seen, the characteristic of an arc with a given length is a curve on the V-I diagram the points of which represent all and only the voltage and current values at which the arc can work. In an identical manner the V-I diagram curve that sets out the voltages and current output of a generator is the generators external characteristic. As a consequence, operating an arc off a given generator will be possible only in those points where both the requirements of the arc and the generators performance are satisfied at the same time, so only where the two curves intersect. The static external characteristic of the generator is a negatively inclined line that joins the point representing no-load voltage Uo to the one representing the short-circuit voltage Icc (Fig. 134). Drawing the characteristic curves of both the generator and the arc on the same diagram, these will intersect at two points of which only one (P2) is stable Fig. 135). In fact if we suppose a positive increase is applied to the current so that P2 migrates to A on the arcs characteristic, the generators operative point migrates to B: the machines voltage is less than that required by the arc so there is a diminution of the current sufficient to bring the operative point back to P2. If, on the other hand, a negative increase is applied to the current, the operative point D of the arc corresponds to the operative point C of the machine, associated with greater voltage than necessary, so that the current is increased and the operative point is brought back to P2 once more.

78

If vice versa we analyse the functioning conditions of point P1, we find that the machines characteristic, once the equilibrium is upset, moves the operating point ever farther away. P1 is therefore an unstable operative point.
V D U0 P1 C B

A C

P2 A D B

Icc

Fig. 135

From the above it can be seen that the arcs operation is stable only when the external characteristic of the machine is lower than that of the arc around the operative point.

79

Welding processes using covered electrodes The earliest electric arc welding applications date back to the end of the 19th century when the covered electrode had not yet been invented. The principle of electric arc welding was in fact discovered in 1892 whereas covered electrodes appeared in 1908. Bare wire welding has some considerable disadvantages among which: - considerably difficult to start - considerably difficult to keep going - irregular weld metal deposition - impossible to work in anything except flat positions - loss of alloying elements that oxidise and volatise through the weld pool - oxidization and nitrification of iron by the air present and therefore very poor mechanical properties of the weld metal - impossible to correct the weld pool analysis. The list is long enough to exclude any interest in bare wire welding. The coating on electrodes (Fig. 136) serves to eliminate these problems altogether or in part as well as to supply the following functions: electrical functioning, shielding function, metallurgical function and operative function.

Metal stick Coating Slag

Weld pool Solid weld deposit Base metal

Fig. 136

ELECTRICAL FUNCTION Sodium and potassium silicates are always incorporated into electrode coatings because these are highly emissive and facilitate ignition of the arc affording it good stability and making it possible to use alternating current. SHIELDING FUNCTION The shielding function of the electrode coating is applied as a solid, a gas and a liquid. Solid shielding is applied to the extremity of the electrodes coating and as this melts after the core does, it takes on a chalice shape and shields the material from contact with the air as it melts. The elements contained in the electrodes coating evaporate during welding creating a nonoxidising atmosphere that is freed as much as possible of nitrogen. This atmosphere performs the shielding function. Liquid shielding is supplied by the slag that first wraps partially around the droplets of molten metal and then, having a melting temperature lower than that of the core, coats the solidifying material and shields it from contact with the surrounding air. One element added to electrode coatings with the aim of reducing the fusion point is fluoride, which however is de-ionising and therefore contributes to making the arc unstable.

80

METALLURGICAL FUNCTION The metallurgical function of the coating consists in the action of the liquid slag on the weld pool: this can be summed up as: de-oxidising purifying inclusion of alloying elements. De-oxidisation takes place through the ferroalloys (iron silicate and iron manganese) that reduce the ferrous oxide that forms by bringing it to the surface in the form of silica and manganese oxides. The purifying effect, typical of basic electrodes, is performed by calcium and manganese carbonates that form composite elements with sulphur and phosphor; these composite elements are brought to the surface of the weld pool as slag. The inclusion of alloying elements usually takes place through the coating; it is in fact possible to transfer elements from the coating to the slag and then to the weld pool with the aim of correcting, where necessary, the analysis of the weld material deposited. There are empirical tables from which the transfer percentages of various elements from the electrode to the weld pool can be worked out. These tables show, for example, that titanium cannot be transferred, so to weld a Ti stabilised type 321 steel requires using a niobium stabilised type 347 steel. The alloying elements are included in the electrode covering in the form of powdered ferroalloys. Electrode cores are always very pure and an analysis of the core will not give a valid indication of the analysis of the material deposited during welding. However, studies have been carried out recently on what are commonly called synthetic electrodes, which supply the alloying elements mainly from their core and therefore have a neutral coating; the advantages in producing electrodes such as these are considerable because the same type of coating is used whatever the composition of the electrode. Synthetic electrodes are generally those used in welding stainless steels. OPERATIVE FUNCTION The components of the coating have considerable influence on the characteristics of use of the electrodes. Among these are working position (Fig. 137-138), electrical supply conditions, penetration, shape and appearance of the bead, manageability of the electrode and the ease with which the slag can be removed. This latter characteristic, for example, depends on the content percentage of fluoride and titanium dioxide.

Fig. 137

Fig. 138

The higher the fluoride content, the more difficult it is to remove hardened slag: the edge of the bead appears rough and uneven and the slag penetrates the irregularities more easily leading thus to a mechanical anchorage that impedes its removal. Titanium oxides make the slag dense and able to affect the conditions of solidification of the weld pool through its surface tension leading to a bead with a good surface appearance. Titanium oxides will also give the slag a shrinkage coefficient different to that of steel, thereby facilitating separation of the bead during cooling. Electrodes are marked with various symbols according to the classification standards involved. The table given hereunder provides an example taken from UNI EN 499 standards that govern covered electrodes for manual arc welding of non-alloy steel and fine grain steel.

81

Classification includes the properties ascertained using samples of solid weld metal and is based on the use of 4 mm diameter electrodes. Classification is split into eight parts indicated by symbols: 1. the first symbol identifies the type of product 2. the second identifies the class of resistance and elongation of the all-weld metal 3. the third identifies the toughness (impact properties) of the all-weld metal 4. the fourth symbol identifies the chemical composition of the all-weld metal 5. the fifth identifies the type of coating 6. symbol number six identifies the weld productivity rate and current type 7. the seventh symbol identifies the welding position 8. the eighth identifies the hydrogen content in the all-weld metal.

Classification is divided into two sections: mandatory symbols (1 to 5) and optional symbols (6 to 8). We will now go on to see the eight elements making up the classification designation in detail. 1. Identification of the product: the letter E for covered electrode 2. Class of resistance and elongation
Symbol 35 38 42 46 50 Minimum yield strength N/mm2 355 380 420 460 500 Tensile strength N/mm2 440570 470600 500640 530680 560720 Minimum Elongation % 22 20 20 20 18

3. Impact
Symbol Z A 0 2 3 4 5 6 Test temperature for average minimum energy 47J C Not required +20 0 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60

4. Chemical composition
Chemical composition % Mn Mo Ni No symbol 2,0 0,30,6 Mo 1,4 >1,42,0 0,30,6 MnMo 0,61,2 1Ni 1,4 1,82,6 2Ni 1,4 >2,63,8 3Ni 1,4 >1,42,0 0,61,2 Mn1Ni 0,30,6 0,61,2 1NiMo 1,4 Z Different composition according to application Note: unless otherwise stated, values should be considered maximum. Symbol

82

5. Type of coating
Symbol A C R RR RC RA RB B Type of coating Acid Cellulosic Rutile Thick Rutile coating Rutile-cellulose Rutile-acid Rutile-basic Basic

6. Efficiency and current type

Symbol 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Yield % <105 <105 >105<125 >105<125 >125<160 >125<160 >160 >160 Current type CA + CC CC CA+CC CC CA+CC CC CA+CC CC

7. Welding positions
Symbol 1 2 3 4 5 Welding positions All positions All positions except vertical in downward direction Flat butt weld and for fillet weld flat and horizontal Flat butt and fillet weld All positions as under 3 + vertical down

8. Hydrogen content
Symbol H5 H10 H15 Maximum hydrogen content ml/100 gr. of deposit 5 10 15

EXAMPLE OF CLASSIFICATION: EN 499 E 42 4 B 4 2 H5.

We will now take a look at the American Welding Society (AWS)s classification. AWS 5.1 deals with the classification of covered non-alloy steel electrodes; the coded symbols include the letter E followed generally by four figures (additional optional symbols refer to resilience characteristics and hydrogen content). The first two figures refer to the solid weld metals resistance to traction, expressed in kPsi (Kilo pounds per square inch) where 1 kPsi = 7 N/mm2 . e.g.: E60XX - E70XX. The second pair of digits conventionally indicates the type of coating/type of current; the main ones are: 10 = cellulose ccpi 13 = rutile for dc and ac 15 = basic for ccpi 16 = basic for ac 18 = high yield basic The RINA approval classes are given in Part D of the Rules.

83

Types of coating Electrode coatings consist of a mixture of finely ground powders (oxides, minerals, carbonates, ferroalloys, cellulose etc.) contained in a paste that is applied by extrusion to the electrodes cores. With reference to UNI EN 499 standards, the principal types of coating are the following. ACID COATING These electrodes are easily handled and work well in any position, using both direct polarity DC and AC; the weld pool is very hot and penetration significant. Because of the presence of ferroalloys, the weld pool is also well deoxidised and has good mechanical characteristics, although these deteriorate considerably at low temperature. The hot weld pool and good penetration make the acid electrode particularly sensitive to the formation of hot cracks when welding steels with high C (>0,25%) and impurity (>0,05%) content. The coating is not particularly affected by damp, although the hydrogen content may sometimes be rather high with the risk of micro-cracks forming when welding pieces of medium thick sections. The use of these electrodes is therefore not advisable on thicknesses of more than 20-25 mm without preheating. This sort of electrode is widely used in constructions of light loaded steel structures. CELLULOSE COATING The fundamental characteristic of cellulose coating is its high content of organic substances (cellulose). The coating also contains limited amounts of deoxidisers and titanium oxide. The purpose of this coating is to provide the weld pool with a mainly gaseous shield where there is a reduced quantity of slag. The shield is very efficient so the weld pool is well deoxidised and has good mechanical characteristics. Cellulose coated electrodes have a hot and fluid weld pool and high penetration; limited production of slag makes them particularly suitable for welding in the vertical position. Due to their high penetration these electrodes are in general used for the butt welds of pipes, especially in the first pass when there is no support at the root; they are suitable both for vertical down and vertical up welding techniques. The hot weld pool and high penetration may cause the formation of hot cracks when the base material has a high rate of impurity. The weld metal deposited with these electrodes contains a very high percentage of hydrogen so adequate preheating is necessary when welding thicker pieces of about 15-20 mm to avoid the formation of cold cracks. RUTILE COATING It is similar to acid coating and differs only due to the considerable amount of titanium oxide minerals. The weld pool is well deoxidised and the mechanical characteristics are only slightly lower than those of acid electrodes. These electrodes too have a hot and fluid weld pool and the slag, dense and viscous, is easily removed. They can be used with direct or alternating current and ease of ignition and stability of the arc are their main characteristics; it follows that they are highly manageable and are suited to welding in all positions. Tendency towards hot cracking is more severe than with acid electrodes so particular attention needs to be paid to the composition of the base material. The higher hydrogen content can also lead to problems of micro-cracks in the welded zone. These electrodes are therefore generally employed on thin sheets, finishing layers and in all cases where the appearance of the final passes is of particular importance. RUTILE COATING THICK COATING As those above but with a covering to core ratio of 1,6; the appearance of finishing passes and ignition of the arc are improved.

84

RUTILE CELLULOSIC COATING This consists of titanium oxide minerals and organic material it has characteristics between those of rutile coating and cellulose coatings and is easier to manage than the latter. It is generally used for welding pipes and thin sheeting in situ. RUTILE ACID COATING The operative characteristics of these electrodes are similar to those of acid covered electrodes. A large proportion of the ferrous oxide content has, however, been replaced by rutile. These electrodes, then, generally with a thicker covering, are suitable for welding in all positions except the vertical down position. RUTILE BASIC COATING It consists mainly of calcium carbonate and oxide minerals with varying amounts of rutile. It has characteristics similar to those of the basic coating. BASIC COATING The fundamental characteristic of the basic covering is a content of considerable quantity of calcium carbonate together sometimes with magnesium carbonate and fluoride. Moderate quantities of deoxidisers are also present and sometimes limited amounts of ferrous oxide and titanium dioxide as well. Fluoride is added to improve the melting process. The weld pool is well deoxidised, has a low rate of impurity and very good mechanical characteristics, often even at low temperature. As stated, the calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate form composite elements with sulphur and phosphor, which are brought to the surface of the weld pool as slag. Basic electrodes have a cool and therefore not-so fluid and moderate penetration weld pool; the slag is hard to remove and the electrodes present certain difficulties in their handling which can easily lead to porosity and are therefore not advised for thinner sections; they are generally used in large scale boiler works and heavy duty steel structures. During the manufacturing process these electrodes are dried at high temperature (around 450C) so their hydrogen content is very low, making them suitable for welding tempered steels with a reduced risk of cold cracks forming. The covering is, however, very hygroscopic so these electrodes must be stored in airtight packaging and partial pre-drying must be carried out at 400C for an adequate length of time after which they need to be kept at about 100C until they are used.

Edge preparation Before welding it is necessary to prepare the edges to be joined in order to ensure good penetration and ease of welding needed to obtain a healthy joint. Preparation work varies according to the type of connection, the thickness of the pieces, whether or not both sides can be reached, the welding position, and the project requirements. In general for butt-joints reference may be made to the UNI EN ISO 9692-1 standards. Butt-joints a. Straight edge preparation: this is used on thickness < 5 mm; when a backing on the root side is not used, adequate gouging must always precede the second pass (Fig. 139).

13 Fig. 139

85

b. V preparation: can always be used for thickness > 2-3 mm; for thickness > 15 mm where both sides can be reached, the X preparation might be preferable. Where possible it is preferable in any event to do the second pass on the root side, after adequate gouging. A backing on the root side (d> 4 mm) can also be used in this type of preparation. 6070

Fig. 140

24

02

c. X preparation: may be symmetrical or asymmetrical. Root gouging must always be done (Fig. 141). 60 60

1/2 1/2 23

2/3 1/3 23 60

Fig. 141

60

Other types of preparation work can be performed (Fig. 142); among these, mention should be made of the V (horizontal welding position) and the U preparation (very thick sections).

Fig. 142

"T" joints They can be made with partial and full penetration (Fig. 143).

86

Fig. 143

Welding defects related to the weld execution Defects can be external or internal. Among the external defects that can be detected during visual inspection or non-destructive surface tests (LP-MT) we have: Undercuts that appear as indentations on one or both sides of the weld bead. Too high a current or too long an arc (poor welder skill) usually leads to these defects (Fig. 144).

Fig. 144 Incorrect profile, which is generally caused by an irregular or unsuitable welding speed, a wrong movement of the electrode or the use of incorrect current (Fig. 145). In butt-joints that do not have a second pass on the root, the defect might also be present on the root.

87

Fig. 145

Crater defects can take place each time a pass is finished, especially if thick electrodes with a high penetration characteristic are used (Fig. 146). These can also cause cracking. The remedy is to distance the electrode from the piece only after dwelling on the last weld pool a little longer.

Fig. 146

Among the internal defects that can be detected with non-destructive tests such as RX, UT and in some cases MT we have: Incomplete penetration, which is characterised by a lack of fusion on one of the edges (Fig. 147) or at the root of the bevel (Fig. 148) or at the corner of a fillet joint (Fig. 149). This is a very serious defect because not only does it reduce the resistant section of the joint but it also allows a notch to form in the same place, which can lead to cracks and fracture and in some cases to corrosion. The causes of this defect are many: incorrect welding parameters, excessive diameter of the electrode, insufficient gouging on the root side and a lack of welders skill.

Fig. 147

Fig. 148 Fig. 149

88

Internal cavities: generally irregularly shaped cavities that may also contain slag in which case they are identified as slag inclusions (Fig. 150 & 151). The cause of these can be: an incorrect pass sequence, in which case the cavities are usually hairline, or an irregular profile left by previous passes, or a wrong movement of the electrode, in which cases the cavities can have a variety of shapes.

Fig. 150

Fig. 151

Lack of fusion between the base metal and the weld metal (Fig. 152 & 153). Although in electric arc welding the fusion always takes place in the electrodes and in the base metal, lack of fusion can happen when the arc is too long or the intensity is too low, such that the first droplets of weld metal, at the start of the pass, reach the base metal (which has a greater thermal capacity) not yet molten but extremely hot and therefore oxidised; or when the arc deviates in the bevelled area due to the magnetic blow effect or the irregular fusion of the coating. This defect is hard to detect with X-ray tests.

Fig. 152

Fig. 153

Pores are the inclusion of gas still under pressure within the material; they can have a spheroid or elongated shape and may be joined together in clusters or be isolated (Fig. 154 & 155); sometimes they appear at the surface of the bead, and when they are very small they are identified as general porosity.

89

Fig. 154

Fig. 155

Cracks are a very serious defect but depend on the metallurgical characteristics of the base and weld materials rather than on the technique employed (Fig. 156 to 159). It is useful to bear in mind in any case that the welding technique used can favour the formation of cracks. We have already spoken about cracks that propagate from a crater. Using high currents or even too thin a first pass, incisions and indentations can lead to the formation of cracks. The presence of other defects such as blowing, slag inclusion or a lack of penetration can also contribute to cracking.

Fig. 156

Fig. 157

Fig. 158

Fig. 159

90

Submerged arc welding This process originated in America and offers a much higher working speed than manual arc welding (Fig. 160).

Fig. 160 A coil of continuous bare wire substitutes the short covered electrode so that down time connected with changing electrodes is eliminated. The arc spans between the wire and the base material and is shielded by a layer of powdered granulated flux which is gravity fed from a hopper to the weld area; as the arc is completely covered by the layer of flux, it is hidden from view (submerged arc) (Fig. 161) and the operator does not need to shield his eyes. The submerged arc can be used in flat welding, flathorizontal welding and with appropriate caution in horizontal welding; the process can be automatic or semiautomatic (the latter has been almost entirely abandoned nowadays). Fig. 161 The high current intensity allows a considerable amount of weld metal and parent metal to be melted with high dilution ratio and the possibility of welding very thick sections (Fig. 162).

Fig. 162

91

The welding device is composed of: a wire feed mechanism; a rocket on which the wire is coiled; the current brushes in proximity to the arc with the purpose of reducing voltage droplets and the Joule effect; the current, voltage and pass speed control and monitoring commands; a hopper containing the flux and safety devices (Fig. 163 & 164).

Fig. 163

Fig. 164

The welding speed can be obtained either by the movement of welding head or in some cases of the piece being welded and it has to be adjusted each time depending on thickness and other welding parameters used. The current generator can be dc (dynamo and transformer plus rectifier) or ac (transformers). Using dc the arc is more stable and the load is evenly distributed on the line. Using ac we have lower transformer cost, lower no-load consumption, less maintenance and a weaker influence on magnetic blowing. Direct current is normally used for intensities of less that 700 A whilst alternating current is used for intensities in excess of 1200 A; in the interval between 700 and 1200 A it makes no difference whether ac or dc is used. The factors that mostly influence the shape and quality of the weld bead are, in approximate order of importance: welding current welding voltage welding speed. Of lesser importance: diameter of the electrode, length of stick-out, type of flux and wire. - an increase in the current leads to higher penetration and higher weld reinforcement while the width of the bead remains more or less constant - an increase in the voltage leads to the bead widening while penetration stays remarkably constant. As the voltage increases, so does the consumption of flux. - an increase in speed leads to a diminution of the weld reinforcement and of the width: tripling the speed, weld reinforcement and width are halved. - an increase in the diameter of the wire reduces penetration. That is, with the same current, voltage and speed, a smaller wire will give greater penetration. The width of the bead is not influenced by the diameter of the wire. - stick-out length, defined as being the distance between the electrical adduction contact of the welding current and the tip of the wire being fused, takes on particular importance with moderately high current densities ( 102 A/mm2); through the Joule effect the deposition rate increases (even by as much as 50%) but penetration decreases. The effect on the weld bead of increasing stick-out is the same as reducing the voltage. This parameter is to be controlled carefully because it can lead to morphological characteristics differing from those expected and desired. - the type of flux and wire can also influence the operative conditions: for example under identical conditions a stainless steel wire, having a greater resistance, is fused quicker. Wires and flux have various chemical compositions just as covered electrodes have and in the same way the flux has identical functions in the weld pool and the fusion area. Therefore, the first
92

flux began to be made by grinding the coverings of electrodes. This, however, posed one problem in that the gas released from the flux during fusion often got trapped in the powder, which was impermeable to it, so that porosity was formed in great proportions. Weld flux (Fig. 165) requires specific manufacturing processes; it is produced in two main types: Pre-fused or neutral flux: the components making up the flux are mixed and then fused and ground. Fusion leads to reactions between the various components and in particular to the liberation of gas. Clearly, by suppressing all reactions during the welding process, the flux behaves as a neutral flux providing a shield to the weld pool mainly through mechanical cover. This flux has no chemical-metallurgical function so there is a need for additional active wires, i.e. wires that contain alloyed deoxidising elements, such as manganese usually. Pre-fused flux is not particularly hygroscopic, that is it does not absorb humidity.

Fig. 165 Agglomerated or active flux: obtained by mixing the required components in a finely ground powder which is then agglomerated by oven treatment using appropriate binders. The agglomerate is then ground down and sieved according to a granulometer rough enough to ensure gas permeability. Compared to pre-fused flux, agglomerated flux keeps all its reactions for the welding process and is therefore referred to as being active. This flux has a chemical function that is an active participation in the analysis of the weld pool. Therefore, pure wires rather than alloy wires can be used, leaving it to the flux to work on the composition of the weld metal deposited. The elements to be found most frequently in flux are: SiO2 - Al2O3 - CaO - MgO - CaF2 and, in the case of agglomerated flux, ferroalloys as well. The proportions between the different ingredients vary according to the type of flux. As regards wires (Fig. 166), there are commercially available C and C-Mn wires for welding steel that are characterised by their manganese content. With regards to the flux, the wire must be chosen in relation to the activity of the flux. The choice involves the most appropriate combination of flux and wire. The alloying elements whose effects are to be monitored with the greatest attention are Si and Mn. During experiments it was found that the analysis of the weld pool with a ratio of Mn/Si greater than 2,5 is necessary. This reduces the risks of cracking. As for covered electrodes, there are various classification standards for wire and flux combinations. Given the complexity of the classification standards we will limit ourselves to considering the classes approved by RINA, for which reference should be made to Part D of the Rules.

Fig. 166

The characteristics of submerged arc welding that are of particular importance, especially when high current intensity is used, are: - the high percentage of base metal in the deposited weld metal (dilution ration); it is important that the more harmful impurities contained in the base metal (sulphur, phosphor) are low in content - the considerable quantity of slag and the high risk of exchange with the weld pool means that the flux humidity is to be considered in particular; the lower the temperature at which it was manufactured the poorer the state of preservation will be and the greater the steels susceptibility to cold cracking

93

the large amount of heat input influences the crystalline structure in the fuse area and the heat affected zone. In particular, welding using high current and low welding speed leads to a dangerous drop of the mechanical properties, especially of the impact properties, in the heat affected zone area and the fusion area. The following short list details some aspects and techniques of submerged arc welding. Techniques Submerged arc welding was invented as a high-speed process capable of producing considerable quantities of deposited metal per pass on moderate and thick sections; as already seen, this can happen to the detriment of the final mechanical properties of the welded joint. Generally speaking it can be said that a technique called high penetration (Fig. 167 & 168) is used for steelwork that does not require high metallurgical quality welding. This exploits the productive capacity of the process but the metallurgical results are in general moderate. In boiler work on the other hand, where considerable metallurgical quality is needed, welding is done using multiple passes (Fig. 169). The evolution of base materials and weld metals contributes to an ever-higher exploitation rate of the processs high productivity characteristic.

Fig. 168: single pass on 10 mm plate

Fig. 167 Fig. 169 Fig. 170 shows the tandem technique: the two weld heads ensure an even greater deposition rate. Fig. 171 shows the technique with the strip electrode, used for electroplating. Fig. 172 & 173 show a type of panel line widely used in shipyards to weld deck and bulkhead plating.

94

Fig. 170

Fig. 171

Fig. 172

Fig. 173

Preparation of joints and methods of execution Butt-joints a. Preparation of straight edges. This is employed particularly with the high penetration technique to obtain joints with full penetration after just two passes on the opposite sides of the joint. Contrary to the technique employed in manual metal arc welding, gouging is rarely done before the second pass in this technique. The thickness that can be welded using this preparation job can, in certain exceptional cases, exceed 15 mm. b. Preparation with bevel. The preparation can be X or Y (dimensions of the face 6-7 mm), which for thicknesses up to 16-18 mm can be done using the two-run technique (single pass per side); for greater thicknesses the bevel is usually filled with multiple passes or a better preparation can be the X bevel (symmetrical or asymmetrical). With these latter preparations the multiple pass technique is generally used. Other types of bevel can be used in the one side welding, using a support that might be a series of base runs done using a different welding process, support plates made of strips of steel compatible with the metal to be welded, copper supports, which must not be brought into the fusion, with
95

appropriate side channels, and flux beds that are adequately pressed against the reverse side of the joint by pneumatic devices. T-joints The same considerations given for the manual process apply; devices using two weld heads to weld both sides of the vertical beam at the same time may be employed. Submerged arc welding can sometimes employ devices with two or more wires having single or multiple head with the evident purpose of increasing productivity.

Welding defects related to the execution In general the same considerations given for the manual process apply; particular attention should be paid to the possibility of lack of penetration in the two-run technique, a defect that is not easy to detect from an X-ray test; the cause of the defect can be found in the inadequate welding parameters, the diameter of the wire used, edge preparation and, especially where straight edges are used, an incorrect alignment between the two passes.

96

MIG and MAG welding processes In this type of process the electrode is made up of the weld wire which, being fusible, has to be fed with continuity. The welding devices are therefore analogous to those we have already looked at in the submerged arc welding process, except that a shielding gas replaces the flux (Fig. 174-175176-177-180).

Fig. 174

Fig. 175

Fig. 176

97

The speed with which the wire is fed directly controls the welding current. The electrode welding process, when it was first used, employed almost exclusively argon as a shielding gas and its practical application was limited to welding stainless steels, nickel, copper, aluminium and aluminium alloys. The applications for carbon steel welding would be too expensive given the high cost of the gas.

Fig. 177: tandem torch The welding process that uses consumable electrodes and argon shielding (or other inert gas) is conventionally referred to as MIG (Metal-arc Inert Gas). In relatively recent times a process has been invented in which the shielding gas is carbon dioxide; the cost of this gas, considerably lower than that of inert gases, has allowed the process to be extended also to welding carbon steels; carbon dioxide is, however, chemically active at the temperatures met in correspondence with the arc so it was necessary to design wires with particular chemical compositions suited to performing an adequate deoxidising role. Conventionally, the process using CO2 as a shielding gas or other gases that are active (UNI EN 429 standards define as active any mixture that contains even a minimal percentage of active gas, usually CO2 or O2; see Fig. 178) is referred to as MAG (Metal-arc Active Gas). Compared to the manual welding with covered electrodes, the continuous wire process presents the following advantages: - continuous feed of the weld metal and therefore increased productivity - practical absence of slag (when solid wires are used) - visibility of the weld pool (when slag is absent) with a consequential better control of the weld - a higher current density that allows high deposition rates - lower risks, when using solid wires, of cold cracking (hydrogen cracking) in materials that are susceptible to this; the humidity content of the shielding gas can be very low Again compared to welding with covered electrodes, the continuous wire process can, however, present some limitations or at least disadvantages: - the device is more complex and therefore more costly and difficult to move in tight spaces - the weld gun is bulky and makes the process less suitable for joints in spaces that cannot easily be reached - when solid wires are being used there is no possibility of purifying the weld pool, something typical of basic electrodes, so it is possible that hot cracks will form even if steels with only moderately high rates of impurities are being welded - a certain amount of caution is required to avoid draughts of air reaching the work area so as not to compromise the gas shielding Compared to the submerged arc process, of which this is a natural development, it offers a considerably lower productive rate but allows direct control over the weld pool and has the main advantage of being suitable for use in all positions.

Main shielding gases Argon is a single atom gas that cannot therefore be split or react with any other element; it has a high atomic weight, which makes it particularly active in removing rust film when welding light alloys and manganese. As it is almost insoluble in the weld pool, the risks of this gas ending up in the bead are very low. As mentioned earlier, it is used for welding aluminium alloys, nickel, copper and stainless steels; for the latter it can be used in a mixture with small percentages (generally 2,5%) of CO2 or O2.

98

Carbon dioxide is an inert gas at ambient temperature but at the temperature of the arc it splits into carbon monoxide and oxygen; for this reason it has an oxidising effect on the weld pool. Carbon dioxide also has a carburising effect on the weld pool: CO2 + C 2CO. If the C content of the weld pool is low and the CO provided by the chemical reaction in the weld pool is high, the reaction takes place from right to left, so there is an enrichment of carbon in the weld pool: this practically always happens when the C content in the weld pool is lower than 0,07%; in any case (even when the C content is considerably higher), the C content of the weld pool shielded with CO2 is set as a percentage of between 0,07 and 1.

Fig. 178 The use of CO2 is consequently not advisable when welding materials where critical alloying elements (C-AI-Ti-Si-V-Mn-Nb) have to be controlled; carbon dioxide is therefore not suitable for welding high alloy steels or steels with a controlled C content (e.g. quenched and tempered) to avoid risks of oxidising and carburising the weld pool. Other problems that might arise when using CO2, in particular if the welding equipment is not properly controlled: - formation of porosity in the weld metal (FeO + C Fe + CO); the carbon oxide that forms from this is trapped in the weld pool, leading to internal porosity. To avoid this reaction it is necessary to add some deoxidising and killing elements such as Si and Mn to the weld pool. - metallic splatter along the edge of the bead. This is caused by the way the weld metal is transferred in the weld pool; this problem can be avoided by using high current densities however, because of the large weld pool the process cannot be applied to welding thin plates. Adopting particular electrical parameter values the way the droplets are transferred can be modified while keeping the current density at a value allowing thin plates to be welded. - limitation on position welding. This is a result of what was mentioned above: the large weld pool makes it possible to use it in flat welding only. This problem has also been resolved by modifying the way the metal is transferred along the length of the arc. To get over these difficulties various gas mixtures have been proposed: those used normally in the field of welding C and C-Mn steels are those composed of Ar + CO2. Mixtures with percentages of CO2 variable from between 15 and 25 are generally used. Fig. 179 illustrates the effect of different shielding gases/gas mixtures on the shape of the weld bead.

99

Fig. 179

Wires The importance of the wire in gas shielded welding is quite remarkable: the chemical composition, the manufacturing method, the presence of flux (flux-cored wires), the surface state and the spooling are very important factors that affect the welding. Surface state: must be excellent, with no traces of grease or humidity in order to avoid the possibility of porosity, wormholes, cracks, reduced electrical contact. Spooling: because the speed with which the wire is fed regulates the intensity of the current, if spooling is not done properly it can lead to serious fluctuations of the current with consequential risks of irregularities in the bead, sometimes unacceptable.

Fig. 180

SOLID WIRES Solid wires for MAG welding (C and low alloy steels), i.e. with a gas or mixture with a more or less oxidising effect, are characterised by a fairly high Si content which is energetic and deoxidising. Si is generally present in percentages of from 0,3% up to 1,2%. Higher values could lead to a brittle structure and increase the tendency to hot cracking. Mn works as a deoxidiser, as a desulphuriser and as an alloying element. In these applications it is usually present in values of between 0,8% and 2%. Careful preliminary tests have shown that the loss resulting from the deoxidising effect is on average 50% for Mn and 60% for Si. Solid wires for welding medium alloy steels may contain elements that are integrally transferred to the weld metal if the shielding gas is inert or partially active. Solid wires for welding alloy steels (stainless steels) generally have the same chemical composition as the base material, possibly with a low C content. The most commonly used diameters of solid wires are 0,8, 1, 1,2 and 1,6 mm. Fig. 181 gives shows the chemical compositions of solid wires for welding carbon and carbonmanganese steels provided for in the RINA Rules.

100

Fig. 181

FLUX-CORED ELECTRODES These have a hollow centre that is filled with flux that can have the same purpose as the covering of electrodes (Fig. 182). Certain wires of this type can be used without shielding gas. The external metallic surface is almost always made of soft iron and the active and alloying elements are contained within the flux inside. The characteristics of the flux may be basic, rutile, rutile-basic and less often acid or neutral. There are various types of wire produced by bending metallic strips or drawing small metallic tubes. Compared to solid wires, flux-cored wire allows a faster rate of deposition, higher penetration and the possibility of welding materials with traces of oxide on their surface or alloy steels (sometimes even stainless steels) using CO2 protection. Fig. 182 On the down side there is a greater consumption of gas, the problem of the slag that has to be removed and the generally higher cost.

Transfer of the weld metal during welding The way the droplets of metal are transferred along the length of the arc depends on the diameter of the wire, the type of generator and shielding gas used as well as the electric welding parameters (A, V). On the basis of these parameters transfer may take place by: - spray-arc - dip-transfer or short-arc - pulsed-arc Experimental tests have shown that the minimum deposition rate must be about 50 droplets/second to obtain a bead with satisfactory characteristics. With low intensity current, the droplets grow at the tip of the wire until they reach a volume such that they fall off the wire under their own weight with a minimal frequency. On reaching critical current intensity levels, which depend on the diameter of the wire and the type of shielding gas, the dripping frequency increases and transfer takes place not through gravity but by virtue of particular electrodynamic forces (magnetic contraction effect, plasma flow etc). In any case, only by using inert shielding gases will the flow of free droplets be axial and therefore properly governable (with positive effects on the quality of the bead and with little weld splatter); with active gases or mixtures, while drip frequencies higher than 50 droplets/minute can be reached, the free flow transfer is never regular.
101

In any case, in this scenario with a drip frequency greater than 50 d/m the transfer is said to be spray or high intensity type (Fig. 183). With spray-arc transfer we have a quieter arc, penetration increases, the bead appearance is better and spatters almost disappear. As we have seen, the electric welding parameters that influence the type of transfer depend on various factors, but as a guide we can say that with C steel and a 1,2 mm diameter solid wire with CO2 shielding gas, transfer will be by spray-arc where the current is above 200 A and the voltage above 22V.

Fig. 183 If, starting from the spray-arc function, we lower the current to what is referred to as the transition current level, the function becomes globular and the working conditions become prohibitive. If we reduce the voltage too, however, the arc becomes shorter and the droplets forming create a continuous liquid bridge between the tip of the wire being fused and the weld pool. The current tends rapidly towards the short-circuit value and cuts the droplets by the neck through the neck down effect. The arc is re-started, another drop forms, a new short-circuit is established and so on (Fig. 184).

40 spray 30 globular 20 short 10

100

200

300

400

Fig. 184 In order for the short-arc to work properly, without sticking or excessive spattering, the following conditions must be met: - current intensity between 70 and 180 A - voltage between 16 and 25 V according to the diameter of the wire, the type of generator and shielding gas. A correct short-arc regime requires not less than 100 short-circuits a second. A practical comparison between spray-arc and short-arc (Fig. 185) leads us to the following considerations: the spray-arc regime can always support very powerful arcs with high current density suitable for flat welding moderate and thick sections. For lesser thicknesses, the sheet would burn through and, working on moderate thicknesses in the vertical position, the weight of the weld pool would bring it down. The short-arc regime is cooler because the current and voltage are considerably lower. This makes it possible to weld in the vertical position and to work on thin plates. The low amount of heat supplied in the short-arc regime leads to two serious worries: sticking through the non-fusion of the base material and the formation of blowholes through an overly fast solidification of the weld pool. In between the excessive power of the spray-arc regime and the often insufficient power of the short-arc regime, there is a gap that precludes MIG MAG processes from many applications.

102

Fig. 185 A third transfer method, called pulsed-arc, has been put forward as a way of filling this gap. This consists in feeding the wire with a current that is lower than the transition current and applying a current pulse on top of it in order to rise periodically above the transition threshold (Fig. 186). Two generators running in parallel supply the arc: one dc generator maintains the background current and a pulse generator creates the current peaks. The intensity of the pulses, their duration and frequency, their shape and the level of the background current are variables that influence the length of the arc, the speed of fusion, the section of the bead and the spatter phenomenon. The possibility of working with a current that is on average below the transition current level whilst still maintaining a spray-arc transfer means it is possible not only to weld thin plates but also to weld greater thicknesses in positions different to the flat one. With respect to the traditional spray arc, pulsed-arc transfer allows aluminium to be welded reducing the rate of wire fusion by about a half.

Fig. 186 Errore. Il collegamento non valido. Preparation of joints and methods of execution In general the same preparations are used as for the process with covered electrodes; sometimes, given the good workability of the electrode wire in the bevel itself, the caulking angle may be reduced to 45-50. In welding with a flux-cored wire, substantial use has recently been made of ceramic supports enabling welding from one side only with evident economic advantages (Fig. 187 & 188); in this case, in any event, special attention needs to be paid to the preparation of the joint, so that the distance to the root is from 4 to 6 mm. With MIG and MAG processes, welding in all positions involves relatively easily methods of execution; however, using fully basic flux-cored wires, generally welding in other than flat and sometimes horizontal position is not possible.

103

Fig. 187 Welding defects related to the weld execution

Fig. 188

The defects are largely those already described for the process with covered electrodes. Blowholes are generally caused not only by an arc of excessive length, but also by inadequate protection of the weld puddle; accordingly, special attention must be paid to the flow of gas (generally 10 times the diameter of the wire, in litres per minute, but in the presence of particularly long sheaths account needs to be taken of a possible drop in flow). It is also necessary to exercise care so as to prevent air currents from hitting the zone of the arc and impairing the effectiveness of the gas protection. We have already mentioned the possibility of lack of fusion of the base metal (at the edges of the bevel) or also of the weld metal already deposited (lack of fusion between passes) caused by use of particularly low currents obviously combined with the welders lack of skill. This defect is very dangerous and hard to identify using X-ray tests but it can be detected by means of UT tests. In the event of use of flux-cored wires, lack of fusion is less common insofar as the operation is carried out with lower welding parameters than solid wires; in any case this defect is often accompanied by slag inclusions, which make it easer to detect using X-ray tests.

104

TIG welding process The abbreviation TIG stands for Tungsten Inert Gas welding, or the use of tungsten electrodes in an inert gas atmosphere. The arc is started between a refractory tungsten electrode and the edges to be welded while a flow of inert gas (usually argon) comes from the electrode torch enveloping the tip of the electrode, the arc column, the tip of the welding wire and the weld pool (Fig. 189 & 190). The tool referred to as the electrode torch is a refractory tipped pipe at the centre of which the expendable tungsten electrode is inserted, and a grip that is connected to the flexible supply sheath (Fig. 193 & 194). The flexible sheath carries current, the shielding gas and, where used, cooling water to the torch. The inert gas is taken from a cylinder with a reduction valve and a flow meter. It is therefore possible to keep the consumption of gas to within the limits needed to obtain a shield. As a guide we could say on average 10 l/minute. The technique of execution is relatively simple and is in appearance like the oxyacetylene method. The torch serves solely to support the arc while the weld metal is fed in separately in the form of stick wires. Consumption of the tungsten electrode is almost zero (Fig. 191 & 192).

Fig. 189

Fig. 190

Fig. 191

Fig. 192

105

Fig. 193 Electrical supply

Fig. 194

The choice of current to supply the arc is strictly related to the nature of the material to be welded and more precisely we must distinguish between two groups of metals as follows: A) - Common and alloy steels - Copper and copper alloys - Nickel and nickel alloys - Titanium B) - Aluminium and aluminium alloys - Manganese and manganese alloys - Aluminium-bronzes (Cu-Al alloys)

For the materials belonging to group A, direct current with direct polarity (negative pole to the electrode) must be used. With direct current in fact, the arc is more stable and, with direct polarity, the flow of electrons from the electrode to the weld pool increases penetration and accelerates execution. With direct current and reverse polarity the tip of the electrode would be bombarded with electrons leading to extreme heating and fusion of the electrode despite it being refractory. Fusion of the electrode, apart from the waste involved, would also lead to unwanted inclusion of tungsten in the weld pool. The materials belonging to group B have in common that they are easy to oxidise so that their surfaces are always coated with a thin layer of oxidisation. Before going on to weld, the bevel surfaces must be chemically or mechanically deoxidised: despite this and while benefiting from the gas shield, during welding oxides shows up on the surface of the weld pool. Both Al and Mg oxides are refractory (they melt at above 2000C) and their density is higher than that of the metal. From a practical point of view the film of oxide that remains solid on the fused metal prevents the welder from seeing the fusion and there is therefore a risk of burn through. In addition, the solid film wraps around the droplets preventing their union and leaving inclusions. Removing these oxides is possible electrically, using direct current with reverse polarity; the phenomenon is due to the flow towards the weld pool (cathode) of positive ions of inert gas that have far greater mass than electrons and therefore more kinetic energy. This action is called ionic sandblasting because it reproduces, on a reduced scale, the operation of sandblasting performed to remove layers of certain metal surfaces. The problem would be solved were it not for the inconvenience of having the electrode bombarded with electrons, which as we said earlier leads to the tungsten wearing down rapidly. Using alternating current for each semi-period of the voltage wave, the electrode is positive and that allows the film of oxide to be removed whilst in the other semi-period the electrode is negative and that serves to limit heating of the tip. It is in this way possible to exploit the advantages while reducing the disadvantages of the two types of ac electrical supply (Fig. 195).

106

Fig. 195 The weld metal use with TIG welding is very often similar, though not necessarily identical to, the parent metal; the material of which the stick wire is made is in fact often provided with limited quantities of deoxidisers. The choice of weld material, for every application, depends on the metallurgical compatibility and takes into account of course the mechanical properties, resistance to corrosion, electrical and thermal conductivity etc that are required from the welded joint. Attention should be given to the fact that the stick wire, the welders gloves and of course the bevel must be scrupulously clean before starting to weld. Joint preparation and methods of execution The TIG process can be used in every welding position; the arc is quiet and weld pool and fusion of the edges are easy to control, the first passes have a particularly good appearance, and therefore there is no need for a second run on the reverse side. The method is therefore used for first passes on pipes, even of small diameter, and for welding particularly thin joints. Its low productivity and high cost make it ill-advised in filling and finishing passes. It is practically impossible to substitute and still obtain equal results in welding stainless steels, titanium, aluminium alloys, copper and nickel. With regard to preparation of the edges, this has to be done with particular care and attention. Due to the size of the torch, when performing first passes on rather thick sections, bevel angles must be more open than those used in processes already discussed ( 70). In some cases where welding thin sections, an appropriate set-up of the edges (generally zero root gap) allows the process to be used without adding weld metal, bringing the base metal itself to fusion.

Welding defects that depend on the execution Gas shielding and the use of solid electrodes can lead to inclusion of slag; when referring to blowholes and porosity, the same considerations given for MIG/MAG welding are valid here as well. We have already mentioned the possibility of tungsten inclusions in the weld metal; because these are sharp fragments of a hard metal inside a weld joint, tungsten inclusions are generally considered serious defects. In an X-ray test they show up as very clear spots.

107

5. Weldability of materials

Weldability is any given materials attitude in lending itself to a welded union that provides predicted properties. The definition of weldability established by the International Welders Institute is as follows: A metallic material is considered weldable at a certain degree by means of a given process and a certain type of application when, after setting up the precautions necessary, it lends itself to the realisation of constructions made up of elements for which it is possible to guarantee metallic continuity through welded joints which, through their local properties and global consequences of their presence, satisfy the quality criteria set out as the basis of the judgement. Certain elements of this definition need looking at. Weldability is not an element that can be defined in an absolute way but only by degrees (degree of weldability) and these degrees are valid for any type of material, according to the welding conditions set up. For example, each type of steel will have its own degree of weldability in each process used, and this will impose precautions that are all the more important the lower the degree of weldability is. For the most part when one talks of weldability reference must also be made to the aims established in the construction of the welded work, so weldability is a property conditioned by the properties of the welded joint that is designated as the basis for the judgement, considering them necessary to reaching the goal of the welded work performing correctly. The definition also considers local properties and global consequences of the welded joints because: - each welded joint has a fused zone and a heat affected zone so the material must be weldable in such a way as to create within it metallurgical structures providing the properties required of them; in particular, there must be no serious defects like hot cracking, cold cracking or lamellar tearing - the welded joints must be such that the properties of the construction overall are not impaired, i.e. to guarantee global safety of the construction; in this respect it is the properties of resilience of steels that play a major role.

108

Mild steels Mild constructions steels are steels with a carbon content of not more than 0,23% and in which the percentage of other alloying elements is very low and consequential mainly to manufacturing needs. FE 360 and Fe 340 type steels fall into this category (in shipbuilding, standard hull steel with Rm 400 N/mm2, normalised or fine grain normalised Fig. 196). The easiest to weld with all processes, mild steels do not pose excessive problems of hardening in the heat affected zone and the metallurgical problems to keep an eye on are therefore hot cracking, lamellar tearing and ruptures of brittle metal. Lamellar tearing can happen when thick sections are being welded. The phenomenon is normally tackled through precautions during the design and execution stages. Hot cracking is to be feared in particular when there may be a high level of impurities; also, in the case of effervescent steel, there may be considerable concentrations of impurities in the areas of segregation: the Mn/Si and Mn/S ratios present in the weld puddle are indicative of a greater or lesser susceptibility to hot cracking. The deoxidising and desulphurising properties of manganese are in fact known, as is the brittleness caused by a high level of silica. When these values reach differences of Mn/Si > 3 and Mn/S > 20, safe conditions can be considered as being achieved. In manual stick welding, the use of good basic electrodes is generally precaution enough to avoid the formation of hot cracking when high levels of impurity are to be feared. Therefore, considering the negligible tendency to hardening in the heat affected zone, cold cracking is generally not something to worry about. Where the phenomenon of brittle ruptures is the problem (low operating temperatures, large constructions, considerably thick sections), the steels to be chosen must guarantee an adequate level of resilience (> 27J) at the minimum operative temperature. All the welding processes can be employed without particular precautions; moderate pre-heating might be suggested where there are very thick sections to weld or where the ambient temperature is very low. Heat treatment is only employed for even higher thicknesses and in relation to the type of steel, the need for it being more evident the higher the steels resistance to traction.

Fig. 196

109

Low manganese alloy steels This designation is given to low alloys steels which, as well as carbon, contain 1 to 1,5% addition of manganese with the purpose of improving the resistance; breaking loads of around 500 N/mm2 are thus achieved (high resistance steels with Mn 0,901,60% - Fig. 197).

Fig. 197 Manganese, like carbon, favours hardening of the steel; however, its action in this direction is very bland. Additionally, these steels have a carbon content in the order of 0,2% so their hardening ability is, all told, only slightly greater than that of mild steels. High resistance steels are followed closer during manufacturing so they are always normalised or, at worst, semi-normalised. When one wishes to increase the resistance further still, without making welding too difficult, it is possible to add small quantities of alloying elements such as vanadium, titanium and chrome, making micro-alloyed steels. The latter have little hardening ability; however, welding of the most resistant steels should be done with a certain amount of caution. Although the content in carbon and impurities is generally limited to sufficiently low values, the danger of hot cracking might still exist. It is therefore generally wise to use processes and weld metals that are able to purify the weld pool, especially in the case of welding of large thicknesses. With regard to hardness and brittleness of the heat affected zone, and therefore the danger of cold cracking, the most significant indications can be taken from the TTT curves of the CCT diagram where available. These might also show whether or not it would be necessary to do some pre-heating, depending on the thickness to be welded, the welding parameters used and possibly the type of process employed. Useful indications must be submitted when the process is being qualified, particularly with reference to the values of hardness obtained in the heat affected zone. There is a slightly higher tendency to suffer lamellar tearing than with mild steels because the ductility of steel in the shorter cross-section (in the direction of the thickness) is more negatively influenced by small defects as its resistance grows. From the point of view of brittleness ruptures, as these steels are always normalised and manufactured with care, they can generally speaking be considered safe so long as the right type has been chosen (from the various grades of toughness) in accordance with the service conditions, bearing in mind residual voltages that are of higher values. From this panorama on the weldability of low manganese alloy steels one can deduce that they can be used in all processes applicable for mild steel, provided weld metal with a low hydrogen content is used and pre-heating is at a higher temperature. Welding with covered electrodes is almost always done using basic electrodes because of their low hydrogen content (if well-kept): cellulose electrodes are used almost exclusively in welding methane and oil pipelines, for the known technological reasons. After welding, particularly in the case of constructions more subject to stress and for thicknesses in excess of 25 mm, it is generally necessary to employ a stress relieving heat treatment.

110

High resistance quenched and tempered steels Quenched and tempered steels are low alloy steels that reach extremely high yield point values (from 500 to 900 N/mm2 Fig. 198). These steels owe their name to the fact that they are hardened during manufacture (generally through high pressure water jets) and then brought back to a temperature of between 550 and 700C depending on their chemical composition and the final mechanical properties required. The composition is characterised by a low carbon content and the presence of other alloying elements such as Cr, Ni, Mo, Cu as well as of course Mn and Si in amounts that vary according to the type; small quantities of other elements like Nb, V, Ti and B might also be present in certain types.

Fig. 198 These steels are designed to achieve considerable resistance, thanks to their particular chemical composition and heat treatment, and at the same time offer a satisfactory weldability naturally on condition that the appropriate precautions have been taken. They have a good grade of toughness for various reasons: the grain is very fine not just through the effects of normalising with Al, but also through the rapid cooling from austenitic temperature to ambient temperature undergone during hardening thanks to the low carbon content, the martensitic steel thus obtained is relatively tough the contents of elements that prejudice the toughness (like S, P, Si, N) and alloying elements that can influence it (such as V) must be controlled very carefully indeed, particularly for steels with higher resistance.

111

Considering their resistance, quenched and tempered steels are relatively easy to weld with the majority of welding processes, because toughness comparable to that of the base material can be achieved without heat treatment. Two fundamental rules have to be observed, however: 1. the cooling speed of the heat affected zone must be fast enough to allow the base material, which exceeds the austenitic temperature during the welding process, to form a new martensitic or bainite structure (otherwise resistance and toughness are compromised) 2. the quantity of hydrogen absorbed by the weld pool must be drastically limited (to avoid the formation of hydrogen cracks in the fusion area and the heat affected zone). If the first of the two rules is not observed, ferrite is produced in the heat affected zone (extremely poor in carbon of course and therefore offering poor resistance) together with martensitic and bainsitic areas (in which the carbon is concentrated and which are therefore not very tough), with a consequential diminution of toughness and resistance. The minimum cooling speed needed to achieve hardening varies according to the chemical composition of the steel and depends mainly on the specific heat provided Hi (J/cm) = (V x I x 60)/v where: V = tension in volts; I = current intensity in A; v = productivity speed in cm/min on the thickness of the edges and on the pre-heating temperature. When welding these steels then, Hi must be lower than the maximum value established as a function of the other two parameters to ensure a sufficiently severe thermal welding cycle. Too severe a cycle can be dangerous however (to avoid excessively high points of hardness) and moderate pre-heating is therefore advised for considerable thicknesses (above 15 30 mm according to the type of steel). With regard to the second of the two rules set out above, this appears obvious if we consider the structure of the heat affected zone on one side and the hardness of the fused area which must be adequate to guarantee the considerable resistance of the base material on the other. In effect, not being able to avoid hard structures in the heat affected zone and the fusion area, for these steels it is necessary to limit the quantity of hydrogen that might be absorbed by the weld pool and adopt a light pre-heating so as to dry the edges and ward off the possible influence of ambient humidity during the welding process. Furthermore, pre-heating is generally very useful to facilitate evacuation of hydrogen that gets into the weld pool. We can observe, however, that more than the pre-heating it is important to eliminate the in situ sources of hydrogen in certain processes. For example in this regard we can mention the coverings of electrodes for manual welding and flux in submerged arc welding that always introduce a certain quantity of hydrogen to the weld puddle. In addition to the two fundamental rules set out above, it is useful to employ a multiple pass technique to benefit from the tempering effect of subsequent passes on the previous one and on their heat affected zones (Fig. 199). Generally speaking this leads to the use in welding of rectifying heat treatment on the heat affected zone similar to that of steelworks, in practice confining the alterations mentioned above to limited areas, or even eliminating them altogether if this can be done through a precise and accurate Fig. 199 sequence of passes. At this point we can sum up the properties of weldability of these steels, noting that the greatest danger comes from cold cracking, as we are normally dealing with hardened structures.

112

Hot cracking does not represent a big problem because these steels have low carbon and impurity contents. The same thing goes for lamellar tearing (very low content of sulphurs) although the poor ductility could, under certain project conditions, lead to this risk. There might be a certain risk of brittle ruptures in correspondence with service conditions characterised by low temperatures and the presence of severe indentations, because the internal stresses are very high for high resistance steel. It might be necessary to join elements made of quenched and tempered steels to elements made of carbon manganese steel. In this case the weld metal to be used can be one suitable for welding quenched and tempered steel but preferably it should be more suitable to the least resistant of the two metals being welded; obviously, in such cases the rules and precautions set out above are to be followed scrupulously.

Molybdenum-chromium steels If mild steel is stressed beyond a certain limit at high temperature above 350 C it progressively lengthens or hot creeping takes place and is more rapid and intense as the temperature and torsion increase. This is due to the fact that the work hardening effect owing to the deformation, i.e. the increased resistance deriving from distortion of the crystalline lattice, is gradually wiped out because, thanks to atomic mobility that increases with temperature, a continual re-adjustment of the crystals takes place as the atoms move. Adding molybdenum (0,5 1%) to the steel, the atoms in the molybdenum take the place of the smaller iron atoms in the lattice, distorting the latter: this means that even at high temperature the atoms find it harder to move around and the resistance to hot creep therefore increases. The formation of extremely fine molybdenum carbides that are dispersed in the crystals contributes to this by slowing down deformation, locking the creep planes in the crystalline lattice. In a purely molybdenum steel, and above all in the heat affected zones of the weld, it may happen that, as in carbon steel, the phenomenon of graphitisation may appear after prolonged service at high temperature. Graphitisation is decomposition of the carbides with separation of the graphite that makes the steel extremely fragile. The addition of chromium to the steel (0,5 5%) eliminates this problem (Fig. 200). As the percentage of chromium increases, the steels chemical resistance to the oxidising gas and sulphurs at high temperature increases too. However, when the temperature is extremely high, the chemical resistance and resistance to hot creep in Cr-Mo steel becomes insufficient and it is therefore necessary to use chromium or chrome-nickel stainless steel.

Fig. 200 If a carbon steel works at high temperature in the presence of high pressure hydrogen, the hydrogen having smaller atoms will tend to spread to the steel and here react with the carbon to form methane (CH4). Given the greater dimensions of the methane molecule, this cannot spread and it therefore collects on the edges of the grains and on certain crystallographic surfaces generating strong stresses, leading even to inter-crystalline fissures that make the steel extremely fragile. To avoid this problem, chromium is added to the steel in quantity sufficient to enable stable carbides to form, on which hydrogen cannot act. The particular importance that chrome-molybdenum steels have assumed in producing boilers, reactors, refinery piping, petrochemical and chemical plants etc derives from these overall properties.
113

An exam of the TTT curves for Cr-Mo steels can show us how a completely ferrite-pearlite structure (and therefore free of particularly hard or fragile formations) can be obtained only with very low cooling speeds such as those that can be achieved in heat treatment but certainly not during welding. Welding without pre-heating, and therefore with high cooling speeds, one will obtain in the fusion zone and the heat affected zone a martensite structure, with a percentage of martensite that increases as the cooling speed rises and the percentage of alloying elements increases. Welding after proper pre-heating, one can obtain a prevalently bainite structure that has considerably lower hardness and fragility, and therefore with lower risks of cracking. It should also be remembered that the hardness of martensite obtained depends essentially on the percentage of carbon: it is therefore necessary that the base metal, or better still the weld metal, has a low carbon content. The minimum pre-heating temperatures are 100 150C for steels with 0,5% Mo if the thickness is greater than 15 mm and, according to the thicknesses, 100 200C for steels with 0,5% Cr 0,5% Mo, 150 250C for carbon content of between 0,8 and 1,25% and 200 250C for 2,25% Cr 1% Mo up to 9% Cr 1% Mo steels. These minimum temperatures must of course be maintained throughout the weld. It is also wise to heat the entire joint uniformly to a temperature higher than that of pre-heating once welding has been completed, leaving it then to cool down slowly or proceed with heat treatment immediately after welding has finished. Because excessive hardness grades are obtained despite welding with pre-heating, it is necessary to proceed with tempering and normalising heat treatment after welding at a temperature slightly lower than the Ac1 temperature or annealing at a temperature slightly higher than Ac3; in the latter case, cooling must necessarily be slower so as not to obtain hardened structures once again. From the transformation diagrams one can see how the formation of chromium carbides takes place only with very low cooling speeds: this observation assumes particular importance for Cr-Mo steels that have to resist hydrogen attacks, given that the formation of chromium carbides is essential to that end. With a tempering heat treatment a tempering structure will be obtained in which the chromium carbides will have precipitated while, with an annealing heat treatment and very slow cooling, a structure with ferrite, pearlite and carbides will be obtained. Tempering and normalising heat treatment will be carried out at 620 670C for 0,5% Mo steel (for this steel and thicknesses of less than 20 mm the heat treatment can be omitted), at 630 680C for 0,5% Cr 0,5% Mo steel, at 660 710C for 0,8% Cr 0,5% Mo and 1,25% Cr 0,5% Mo, at 730 780C for 2,25% Cr 1% Mo and at 700 750C for 5% Cr 0,5% Mo. Heat treatment times are generally set as 1 hour for each inch of thickness with a minimum of 30 minutes. We have seen how these steels tend to develop cold cracking and the possible remedies; hot cracking is generally not a problem because we are dealing here with high quality steels with extremely low rates of impurity; given the general use of limited thicknesses and the low percentages of impurities, lamellar tearing is not one of Cr Mo steels typical defects either. The welding processes generally used are: TIG (first passes) and manual basic covered electrode welding; at times, but not very often, MIG/MAG processes can be used. The automatic submerged arc process employing a combination of suitable fluxes and wires can be used if the heat conveyance is contained.

Nickel steels The first and most economical metallurgical practice for improving the toughness of the most common C-Mn construction steels is that of a final deoxidisation through the addition of small quantities of aluminium, which brings about the following advantages for semi-worked pieces generally supplied in the normalised state: complete stress relief: the consequential excellent deoxidisation and the uniform distribution of the residual impurities throughout the mass is the preferred situation in which to start welding, avoiding local concentrations caused by segregation and improving the steels ductility and toughness a fine grain structure that is always very favourable both in terms of mechanical resistance and above all toughness locking of residual nitrogen in hardly soluble elements; the steel becomes anti-ageing.

114

With this practice, common C-Mn constructions steels can safely be used at service temperatures of -30 and even -40C (Fig. 201). But the perfect deoxidisation and the ferrite-pearlite fine grain structure do not allow much more. This is where the addition of an alloying element nickel comes into play and special steels are produced that are suitable also for welding. The metallurgical properties of these steels are due mainly to the nickel and the resulting mechanical properties depend on the heat treatment that the semi-manufactured parts undergo after being hot-worked. The metallurgical function of nickel added to iron manifests itself through remarkable austenitising properties. Nickel is easily soluble in iron and iron and reinforces the crystalline lattice of the iron, increasing in practice the resistance of the steel without increasing its hardness too much. But the most interesting effect consists in a large and general lowering of the allotropic transformation temperatures of the iron (A3, A1, Ms, Mf) and a large decrease in the critical tempering speed. For these reasons, adding appropriate amounts of nickel will make the steel all the more sensitive to heat treatment, a very fine grain will be obtained, and hardening will penetrate in depth allowing the manufacture of semi-worked products with a good structural homogeneity throughout the thickness, both on the surface and at the heart of the piece. Basically, the presence of nickel in the steel has a strong influence on the structures that can be obtained by heat treatment and, by adding the appropriate amount of this element, the desired structures pearlite, martensite, austenite can be achieved. Our welding notes below will deal with two of the various types of nickel steels: 3,5% Ni and 9% Ni; 2,5% Ni differs from 3,5% Ni in welding only in that, with the former, lower alloy weld metals are used in relation to the service temperature, generally between -50 60C for 2,5% Ni base metal. From a welding point of view, the 5% Ni base metal does not present any real construction advantages with respect to 9% Ni, which is more costly but certainly more reliable in its resilience at temperatures in the order of -150C or lower.

Fig. 201 3,5% Ni steel has minimum guaranteed mechanical resistance only slightly lower than that of C-Mn type Fe 510 steel. It can be supplied at various heat treated stages: normalised, normalised and tempered, or quenched and tempered, and the metallographic structure that is presented can vary in relation to the content in carbon and the heat treatment undergone, from ferrite/pearlite to very fine grain to partially or totally bainite. The micro structure and the resulting toughness of the steel are particularly sensitive to tempering temperatures: although they have a theoretical Ac1 transformation point of 670C, it can sometimes happen that the original toughness of the material is negatively altered even tempering
115

at 620C through a probable separation of richer austenite into carbon and nickel that can be transformed yet again in the next cooling, leading to more fragile structures. We are dealing with a steel that can suffer brittleness during tempering and in such cases the need to control the welding and heat treatment temperatures with more care than would normally be suggested for handling common C-Mn steels is well known. Then again, because this steel has a greater tendency to harden than C-Mn steels, and because it is in any case better to reduce the residual welding stresses as much as possible for low temperature service, it is common practice to weld after a light pre-heat (100 120C) at least where the thickness is greater than 10 mm, then performing the tempering and normalising heat treatment at a temperature of 550-610C. Generally speaking it is a good rule not to perform heat treatment at temperatures greater than that undergone by the base metal during manufacturing of the semi-worked piece. In particular cases it can be preferable to leave out heat treatment after welding, taking into account the effective service conditions of the welded construction. With or without heat treatment, the practice of controlling the weld heat limiting the temperature between passes is enough to keep toughness in the heat affected zone to within acceptable limits, even though at the same time it may drop slightly with respect to the original base material. Less predictable results might be found in the fusion zone of the weld when the service temperatures are at the limits of those for which the base material was designed (currently down to about -90C, liquid ethylene). Designing good weld materials with composition similar to the base metal has been a very delicate matter because of the hot cracking phenomenon that is more accentuated than for C-Mn steels; the analysis elements C, Mn, Si must be controlled to within much tighter limits than for the base material and the harmful influence of the impurities (S, P) is more marked. However, with modern weld metals, taking care to ensure utmost cleanliness and by limiting the specific welding heat (moderate pre-heating, controlling the temperature in between passes, not too high a current), the phenomenon of hot cracking in the fused zone is generally limited, when it does exist, to the craters at the end of the pass, so it is a good rule to eliminate these with a grinder in between each weld pass. The weld zones sensitivity to tempering temperature and time is a phenomenon not yet controlled properly. In practice, a scattering of results is found due to the toughness in the weld zone varying from case to case, and it is widely held that understanding the chemical analysis of the weld puddle is not sufficient to guarantee the results beforehand, at least when the service temperature is going to be low. If possible, welding positions other than flat are avoided, both because of the known drop in resilience that vertical welding leads to and because of the importance given to the absence of internal defects and even external welding defects (surface irregularities, cuts) for low temperature service. Compared to 3,5% Ni, 9% Ni with regard to its weldability in a broader sense must take into account some further factors: - this is a very high resistance steel because 9% Ni has a tempered martensite structure. There is therefore the problem of achieving similar mechanical resistance in the joints. - due to the accentuated phenomenon of cracking and poor toughness in the weld zone, no weld metals with a composition similar to that of the base material have yet been invented. Current solutions include using austenitic alloys as the weld material. These are costly and can hardly offer the same toughness in the weld area as the base metal while they do afford good performance from the point of view of the toughness at low temperature. The calculus of the joints resistance is therefore done on the properties of the fused area, which is weaker, and from this point of view the current situation can be considered a way around the problem however refined and consolidated the technique may be. 9% Ni steel is supplied in two states of heat treatment: with double normalising and tempering (normalising at 900C + normalising at 790C + tempering at 565 605C and cooling at a rate of >165C/hour) or rectifying (hardening at 800C in water + tempering at 565 605C at a speed of >165C/hour). The metallurgical structure of the steel is tempered martensite with a residual percentage of austenite around 520% (according to the cycle of heat treatment). Because of the high content of nickel, this steel presents a characteristic viscosity at structural transformations and is very sensitive to the heat history it undergoes in the interval between 300700C; this thermal history obviously refers to the heat affected zone the structure of which cannot avoid being disturbed by the thermal cycle of welding. The considerations we have put
116

forward concerning the heat affected zone in quenched and tempered steels are also very valid here for 9% Ni steel too, as this is also a high resistance treated steel. Welding of this steel requires controlled heat conveyance during the weld passes to limit damage caused by this heat in the heat affected zone. Being a more or less tempered martensite, the hardness met with in the heat affected zone will be higher than that found in a high resistance C-Mn steel and the construction specifications in fact allow maximum values of around 400 HV10. Then again, it should be remembered that the hardness of the base material unaltered by welding is already around 230260 HV10. The use of austenitic weld metal allows post-welding heat treatment to be avoided (something this material is very delicate in relation to) and the known risks connected with hydrogens effect on the heat affected zone also diminish. The weld metals used with these steels must therefore deposit an austenitic type structure even after dilution in the steel base metal. To this end alloys with high nickel content (such as INCONEL) are used or even 309 or 316 stainless steels with the addition of other austenitising elements and elements that reinforce the matrix like manganese, tungsten or cobalt, each in percentages that go from 3 8%. The purpose of these additions of reinforcing elements is to increase the mechanical resistance in the weld zone to match that of the base metal. Defects that might be picked up in the weld zone are hot cracks, pertinent to the austenitic structure: the risk of this defect usually involves the first pass done quickly and with considerable dilution of the base material using an automatic process (MIG or submerged arc). However, precautions such as cleanliness, observance of the temperature limits between subsequent passes, not too large a weld puddle, suitably limited electrode diameter and current intensity, and removal of craters at the end of each pass allow this aspect to the minimised even for 9% Ni steels.

Austenitic chromium-nickel stainless steels Compared to pure chromium stainless steels, Cr-Ni alloy steels present some substantial improvements with regard to the mechanical resistance at high temperature (hot creep) and their workability in general, with particular emphasis on the weldability, while having anti-corrosion properties that are generally equal to those of chromium steel, except in a reductant or sulphur contaminated ambient as this attacks the nickel. The chemical composition of the main types used in welded constructions is characterised by the contents of chromium (18 25%) and nickel (8 20%), which are the two basic constituents of this range of steels and proportioned in such as way as to obtain a final structure that is totally or mainly austenite (Fig. 202).

Fig. 202
117

The austenitic structure confers excellent anti-corrosion and mechanical properties on the alloy as well as excellent workability, which might suggest using it in place of chromium ferrite steels, despite the higher cost due to the presence of nickel. The first austenitic stainless steel to be made was the 18-8 type, which represents the lowest content in the principal alloying elements chromium and nickel needed to achieve the austenitic structure at ambient temperature. Other elements in addition to chromium and nickel, added in smaller proportions, improve determined properties of these alloys: molybdenum confers greater resistance to corrosion in a reductant ambient and, above all, it improves the mechanical resistance at high temperature; generators of carbides such as titanium and niobium, apart from contributing to improving the hot mechanical resistance, are added to avoid a drop in the anticorrosion properties. Compared to chromium ferrite steels, it should also be noted that austenitic chromium-nickel steels do not present a rapid drop in their ductility related properties (transition) even at the lowest of temperatures required, for example, in the liquid gas industry, for which they are therefore well suited despite their higher cost. Nickel is a metal that melts at 1445C and crystallises in a central faced cubic lattice, as ferrogamma. It does not present any allotropic transformations. Added to iron, it has an austenitising effect widening the field in which the austenitic phase takes place. Added to carbon steel or to chromium and nickel, it is considered a hardening element because it lowers the critical hardening speed. 18% Cr ferrite steel with the addition of 2% Ni becomes susceptible to martensitic hardening as 13% Cr steel. Increasing the nickel content will widen the zone in which the austenitic phase takes place and progressively reduce the ferrite + carbide zone. The addition of 4% Ni will result in a hardenable steel starting at 900C but already austenitic through hardening at 1100C; the austenite thus obtained at ambient temperature is unstable, however, and might be transformed following tempering. With 8% Ni the critical hyper-temper speed becomes low enough to achieve austenite at ambient temperature without the gamma-alpha transformation and precipitation of the carbides taking place; the carbon remains in a supersaturated state in the austenitic matrix and the steel presents a homogeneous structure with maximum resistance to corrosion. Austenitic Cr-Ni steels are therefore used, in normal conditions, at the hyper-temper state that is reached through heat treatment that makes the carbides in the austenitic soluble (generally T=1050C, i.e. to be within the stable gamma field) and subsequent rapid cooling. The proportion between the contents of chromium and nickel and the other austenitising elements (such as carbon and manganese) and ferritising elements (such as molybdenum, silica, niobium) that might be present or added on purpose is usually chosen so as to achieve a structure that is still austenitic but with increasing chromium content that confers the basic inoxidisable property on the alloy. In addition to stabilising the austenitic phase and improving corrosion resistance, nickel acts favourably also as a refining element of the structure which, in theory, not having a gamma-alpha transformation line, should always present the problem of a visible swelling of the grain through dwelling at high temperature. The swelling takes place in the heat affected zone of austenitic welds but does not reach the proportion and level of danger that one has in chromium ferrite stainless steel welded joints. For chromium-nickel steels there are two known structural modifications caused by dwelling at temperatures of around 500800C, which are particularly serious for two reasons: they deteriorate the most characteristic properties of austenitic steels (high toughness and corrosion resistance) and this happens in a field of temperatures for which those properties stand out most of all with respect to lower alloy steels.

Precipitation of chromium carbides As we have said, to keep the carbon in the austenite in a supersaturated solution, stainless steels are supplied in the hyper-temper state. Obviously a subsequent re-heating at 450750C will favour a return to equilibrium with a precipitation of the chromium carbides, The carbides arrange themselves around the austenitic grains and compromise the corrosion resistance; to feed the carbides, the grains surroundings are poor in chrome and reduced corrosion resistance is
118

attributed to this fact (Fig. 203 Precipitation of chromium carbides at the edge of the grain 204 consequent inter-granular corrosion SEM images).

Fig. 203

Fig. 204

The phenomenon is influenced by the content in carbon, the temperature and the dwell time; the lower the level of carbon, the slower corrosion will be after precipitation; the lower the precipitation temperature, the slower the precipitation: with C=0,08% 20 seconds at 700C is enough, with C=0,03% 10 hours at 600C is needed. Bringing the material back to above the precipitation interval, the carbides return to the solution. The weld zone does not fear the precipitation because it exceeds the critical interval to re-cross that line very quickly again during cooling. The main remedies against carbide precipitation are: - solubilisation heat treatment (heating at T > 1000C and rapid cooling), which as we saw puts the carbides back into the solution. This treatment is not used much on finished constructions because of its high cost and the deformations it causes. - decarburisation or the production of very low carbon content steels; experimentally it has been found that the effects of precipitation are not a cause for concern when the carbon content is lower than 0,03% (maximum limit for L type steels). The low carbon content leads to a certain reduction in the resistance to traction. - stabilisation, that is the addition of alloying elements, referred to also as stabilisers, capable of forming their own carbides quicker than chromium does. These elements are titanium, niobium and tantalum. The carbides of these elements remain uniformly distributed in the austenitic matrix (Fig. 208) and, differently to chromium carbides, they do not form continuous chains around the grains. The chromium remains undisturbed and the steel conserves its corrosion resistance in full. When the stabilising agent is tantalum the steel must contain at least five times the amount of carbon whereas when niobium and titanium are used their sum must add up to at least 10 times the quantity of carbon. The most well-known stabilised steels are AISI 321 and AISI 347. When welding stabilised steels the right choice of weld metal is one that deposits pure stabilised weld pools; in this regard it should be remembered that stabilised type covered electrodes all use niobium and tantalum because titanium evaporates in the arc and therefore cannot be transferred. Stabilised steels can risk the following scenario: the Ti, Nb and Ta carbides form rather slowly in the interval between 900 and 1200C; they return to the solution very quickly above 1200C. In preparing stabilised sheets the steelworks will arrive at 1100C, dwelling for the time it takes for carbides to form, and then it is cooled rapidly. During welding, the temperature of the thermal cycles exceeds 1200C and the stabilised carbides are destroyed, returning to the solution in a thin layer of base material adjacent to the bead. During cooling, the precipitation interval (1200900C) is crossed very quickly, the carbides do not reform and the carbon remains in a supersaturated solution up until ambient temperature. If the construction is taken to a service temperature of between 500 and 800C, the thin strip of metal adjacent to the weld bead becomes the place where carbides collect in precipitation. The phenomenon may manifest itself immediately after welding when, to avoid corrosion under stress, the piece is taken through
119

normalising heat treatment at 700C. It is thus shown that, despite stabilisation, precipitation of chromium carbides can take place with consequential corrosion (called knife blade). The phenomenon is extremely rare and manifests itself only in the presence of energetic aggressive chemicals such as nitric acid. The sigma phase Intermetallic Fe-Cr-Ni compost susceptible to form between 550 and 900C is called sigma phase. This compost is hard and brittle and precipitates in needle shapes inside the grains (Fig. 205 & 206), influencing the mechanical properties and the corrosion resistance. Both carbides and the sigma phase can be observed on a microscope with a x1000 magnification. To destroy the sigma phase it can be put back into the solution heating the metal to beyond 950C followed by cooling at a rate greater than 100C/hour. Because precipitation takes place in slow cooling, heat cycles of welding are too rapid to form the sigma phase, which is therefore something to be concerned about only as a consequence of heat treatment or prolonged service at high temperature.

Fig. 205

Fig. 206

Thanks to their austenitic structure, stainless steels do not fear cold cracking; on the contrary, hot cracking might take place during the initial solidifying and cooling stages. As for common steels, austenitic stainless steels may suffer from hot cracking caused by segregation of the sulphur and phosphor which, forming a liquid veil over the edges of the grains, weakens the section of the weld zone called upon to face the internal stresses; niobium segregation can also take place, which is why niobium stabilised steels crack more easily. Silica can also segregate. We would also mention carbon, noting that low carbon steels are less likely to crack. Stainless steels have a higher expansion coefficient and lower thermal conductivity than common steels. The heat cycles of welding therefore lead to expansion that is more pronounced in the less extended regions, reinforcing the internal stresses that are always a determining factor in hot cracking. Another unfavourable circumstance lies in the fact that the dimensions of the austenitic grains are on average larger than those of carbon steel so they are more sensitive to segregation. The presence of ferrite in the austenitic matrix (Fig. 207 & 208) of the weld zone provokes both negative and positive consequences. First of all we should remember the favourable effect ferrite has against chromium carbides. When there is ferrite present, the carbides prefer to deposit inside the ferrite grains rather than around the austenitic grains; because the chromium content is higher in the ferrite than it is in the austenitic grains, the consequential loss of chromium worries us less than it would in mono-phase steels. Ferrite is also a precious antidote against hot cracks because it slows down swelling of the austenitic grains, increasing considerably the total surface area surrounding the grains. Ferrite is not convenient in the sigma phase because it accelerates precipitation. Ferrite can compromise the corrosion resistance of austenitic stainless steel if other chemical agents are present, such as might happen in plants for the production of urea for example. The phenomenon is attributed to the difference in the compositions of the ferrite and the austenite as
120

well as to the diminution of chromium around the edges of the austenitic grains caused by the formation of bands of ferrite that are richer in chromium.

Fig. 207

Fig. 208

To estimate the percentage of ferrite on the basis of the composition of the weld puddle, we can make use of Schaefflers diagram (Fig. 209).

Fig. 209 Both Schaefflers diagram and the formula serve only to give a rough approximation seeing that, with identical compositions, the ferrite content can vary with the cooling speed and might be modified by heat treatment. There are several instruments available in commerce for measuring the ferrite in weld beads. They are based on the fact that, differently to austenite, ferrite is magnetic; certain instruments measure the permeability, others the magnetic saturation. Some orders of size for ferrite: 8% ferrite is enough to form a continuous grid around the austenitic grains, 4% ferrite is the lowest recommended content to limit crack tendency in stabilised steels; 3% ferrite is the maximum content allowed nowadays in urea plants. Particular points that need bearing in mind when welding are: - quick and thin passes to accelerate setting and cooling time - inter-pass temperature limited to 100-150C - particular attention to be paid to craters at the end of the bead

121

in submerged arc welding, characterised by high levels of heating, it should be taken into account that there are more voluminous passes which, while cooling slowly, maintain the weld zone inside the interval of hot brittleness for longer.

In cases of welding dissimilar steels (carbon steels to austenitic stainless steels) the aspect that has to be evaluated most carefully is that of dilution of the austenitic weld material in the ferrite base metal; in particular cases of dilution the formation of hard fragile (martensite or similar) structures may happen in the weld area (generally around the fusion line on the carbon steel side) with an obvious risk of cracking. Predicting the structure with good approximation can be done using Schaefflers diagram; during the process qualification stage, a careful check on the hardness and ductility values and those of the bending test can be very significant. Generally, this type of joint is done using highly austenitic weld metal type 309 or 310, preferably with the addition of molybdenum.

Austeno-ferritic stainless steels (DUPLEX) Duplex stainless steels with a twin structure, austenite and ferrite, and with a high carbon content have been known for some time: compared to austenitic steels, these have better corrosion resistance in a chlorinated environment. From a welding point of view, as already mentioned for austenitic stainless steels with small percentages of ferrite, these are sensitive to inter-granular corrosion and through their tendency to form rough structures they result as being rather fragile in their heat affected zone. These problems led to the development of austeno-ferritic steels with low carbon levels that have excellent resistance to tension-corrosion and inter-granular corrosion and good mechanical properties. These steels also offer resistance to pitting in seawater or a chlorinated environment. Duplex steels contain chromium in amounts of between 18,5 and 27%, they have between 4 and 8% nickel and between 2 and 4% molybdenum (Fig. 202); their carbon content is lower than 0,03%; they are characterised by a microstructure that contains both austenite and ferrite. The most widely used type contains 22% chromium and 5% nickel (type 2205) and has a structure that is approximately 50% ferrite and 50% austenite (Fig. 210-211). The favourable properties of these steels can be attributed to the optimal ratio between ferrite and austenite, achieved from a correct equilibrium between the ferritising elements (Cr-Mo) and the austenitising elements (Ni-MnN).

Fig. 210: rolled duplex

Fig. 211: cast duplex

The weldability of duplex steels is controlled by the structural transformations that take place in the heat affected zone and the fusion zone. In the heat affected zone, in which the temperature exceeds 1200C, the austenite is re-transformed into ferrite-delta and, after the subsequent cooling, ferrite might be present in percentages higher than the initial levels. In the heat affected area though, where the temperature does not exceed 1000C, a part of the ferrite is transformed into
122

austenite during the heating stage; with the successive rapid cooling, the gamma phase remains stable: there is therefore a diminution in the final count of ferrite-delta content. With regard to the weld pool, the equilibrium between ferritising and austenitising elements contained in the weld metal is important; in practice, the resulting quantity of ferrite in the weld pool must be calculated so as to get as close as possible to that of the unaltered base metal. One must also bear in mind that heat cycles that are too bland could lead to an excessive swelling of the grain and precipitation of chromium nitrides with a reduction in the corrosion resistance, while overly severe heat cycles could excessively increase the percentage of ferrite delta with a consequential deterioration, in particular, of the ductility and toughness properties. An important effect in these steels is produced by the presence of nitrogen (Fig. 212): in an N=0,05% steel there may be ferrite values in excess of 80%; the addition of 0,15% N induces ferrite reduction: the start of the transformation from austenite to ferrite is higher at higher temperatures: it follows that there is a greater quantity of austenite than there is of ferrite. The greatest effect is that found in steel with high nitrogen and nickel content. One other favourable effect of nitrogen derives from the fact that in the weld pool, as in the heat affected zone close to the line of fusion, the formation of rough ferritic grains is stopped by the presence of nitrogen itself. The weld metals used generally have a chemical analysis similar to that of the base metal; for the already-mentioned 2205 the average analysis of the deposition weld metal used is 22% Cr + 9% Ni (2209). Fig. 212

Aluminium and aluminium alloys The mechanical properties of pure aluminium are insufficient for many applications (Rm around 7080 N/mm2 in the annealed condition). Hence the creation of many aluminium alloys, known as light alloys on account of their low density (approximately 3 g/cm3). The temperatures, or rather the ranges of fusion, are between 500 and 660C, depending on the composition. The most commonly used alloying elements are: Mg, Si, Mn, Cu, Zn, Fe, Cr, either separately or in combination (Fig. 213). The great majority of aluminium alloys are highly suited to plastic working, namely the production of plates, pipes, section bars and wires. The alloying elements are soluble up to certain levels of concentration beyond which they form intermetallic compounds. It follows that many alloys can be heat treated; in this respect we can distinguish between: - alloys that can be quenched and tempered or strain hardened (5000 series alloys) - alloys that can be quenched and tempered (6000 and 7000 series alloys) Obviously the welding heat cycles will have the effect of upsetting every strain hardened or quenched and tempered structure in the heat affected zone.

123

Fig. 213 Mention has already been made, with reference to the TIG welding process, of the problems caused by the film of oxide that forms on the surfaces of these alloys; Al2O3, also known as alumina, has the following properties: - it melts at over 2500C and therefore has excellent refractory characteristics - it has greater specific weight than metal - it is very stable and only strong bases (sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate) are able to attack it. It is evident that alumina presents many welding problems and in fact the metal reaches fusion while the surface film of oxide is still in the solid state. Therefore, the welder runs the risk of burn through before noticing that fusion of the metal has occurred. The situation is made even more critical by the fact that aluminium does not change colour when it heats. The oxide wraps around the droplets of hot metal, preventing their union; if, for example, we take two aluminium rods and we try to weld their ends together using an oxyacetylene torch we find that we are unable to do so. The surface film of oxide remains in the solid state and the droplets do not join. The oxide also tends to form inclusions in the weld pool because it has greater density than metal. The oxide inclusions seriously impair all the mechanical properties insofar as they disrupt metallic continuity. Welding is only possible if the oxide is completely removed. We have already seen how this is possible using the TIG process, with electric supply from a source of alternating current. With the MIG process, using a pulsed-arc, the results are excellent with significantly higher productivity than the TIG process. The other welding processes are not used for aluminium and aluminium alloys. Another very important factor is cleaning, both of the joint and of the filler material (stick wire or wire), largely so as to avoid the problem of blowholes. In welding alloys that can be strain hardened (types H111/H112/H116/H321), the effect of strain hardening disappears entirely so during the design stage (and as regards the reference values for the tensile tests at the time of qualification of the welding process), irrespective of the supply condition of the alloy, the mechanical characteristics of the metal that are to be taken into consideration are those in the annealed condition; the filler material will accordingly need to be chosen so as to satisfy these characteristics. In alloys that can be quenched and tempered (types T5/T6), the effect of such treatment will last for varying lengths of time depending on the composition of the alloy and the speed of the heat cycles.

124