States and Nations in the Nineteenth Century, 1830-1870

The Spread of Liberal Government The Revolutions of 1848 The Politics of Nationalism Nineteenth-Century Culture
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The Spread of Liberal Government

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The great age of liberalism began in 1830 The representative monarchies of the West contrasted sharply with central and eastern European states Liberal constitutional regimes were committed to civil rights, rule of law, and the idea of social progress
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Great Britain
Pressure for Reform Acute pressure for reform emerged out of the turmoil of the postwar years Collapse of wartime markets and economic distress led to reform of the political system The government at rst responded with repression
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A mass meeting for reform at St. Peters Field Peterloo Massacre Parliament reacted by passing the Six Acts of 1819 which restricted public meetings, prosecuted radicals, and imposed a stamp tax Sir Robert Peel and the repeal
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Religious freedom, the legitimacy of unions, tariffs, freedom of the press led to agitation that focused increasingly on the need to reform Parliament itself Disenfranchised laborers set haystacks are by night

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The Reform Bill of 1832

Parliament turned to other reforms. It abolished slavery in Britains colonies in 1833 The Factory Act, limiting the hours children children worked Poor Law of 1834, a law granting all resident taxpayers the right to vote an expansion of the rights of the popular class
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Chartism and the Corn Laws

*Chartism was a huge, amorphous workers movement to extend political democracy They presented tens of thousands of signatures It failed to dene a program that could mobilize workers
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The Anti-Corn Law League grew out of urban resentment over the high cost of bread resulting from grain tariffsthe Corn Laws that beneted the landowning classes Free-trade Robert Peel moved to repeal the Coen Laws outright
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The Revolutions of 1830 Uprising across Europe

The cause of reform in Britain had beneted from fear of violent revolt, following a wave of revolutions on the Continent in 1830

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Belgium
Catholics and Liberals rose against Dutch rule in the Netherlands, creating Belgium The Belgian monarchy created in 1830 marked a triumph of liberal constitutionalism Politics revolved around a coalition of Catholics and liberals, aristocrats and members of the upper-middle class
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Frances July Monarchy Louis-Philippe took the throne in France, a combined symbol of revolution and liberal moderation The citizen-king *July Monarchya constitution as contract the king swore to keep Controversy eruptedthe right, supported by the church campaigned against LouisPhilippe The left saw him as not radical enough
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Limited Liberalism in France

In both Britain and France, liberal governments led by able men sought through compromise, the rule of law, and parliamentary politics to unify their nations

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The Revolutions of 1848

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The Opening Phrase France

Under Louis-Philippe, liberal reforms took hold throughout France Universal male suffrage Right to employment New taxes and maintained its traditional tricolor ag
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Revolution Spreads

Similar revolutions and shifts toward liberal governments and proto-socialism Hungary, Rhineland, Vienna, Milan, Venice Conservative governments without constitutions often resisted, leading to violence In Paris, revolutionaries carried corpses around on a cart to inspire crowds Many new nations adopted tricolor ags

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Movements in Hungary inspired students in Vienna to demand representative government for Austria Universal male suffrage was granted From Hungary, movements emerged among the Czechs in Bohemia, Croatians in Croatia, and Romanians in Transylvania The Old Habsburg Empire seemed to be collapsing
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Central Europe

Revolution seemed to have triumphed in Prussia, too In May, 830 delegates elected in the various German states convened the *Frankfurt Parliament to write a constitution for all of Germany
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The Fatal Dissensions Social Class

Everywhere, however, the new freedom exposed divisions among the revolutionaries Middle classes vs. workers Social programs called the national workshops projects xing roads and walls around Paris
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When rescinded due to cost, three day riots erupted in Paris fought the Republics troops *June Days the uprising remained the very essence of class conict for socialists and radicals

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National Ambitions

In Germany and Austria, too, revolution uncovered latent conicts between workers and the middle class and among artisans, peasants, and nobles Frankfurt Parliament felt little sympathy for uprisings by other nationalities against German rule The Prussian and Habsburg armies that soon moved on Frankfurt and Vienna confronted revolutionaries

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Rome also erupted against the pope who resisted Italian nationalism though economic conditions worsened, driving open rebellion leading to the restoration of the Roman Republica great symbol for liberals throughout Europe Venice and France were also republics
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The Final Phase New Leaders Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon, won the election of 184870% of the votes Austria also found a strong new leader in Prince Felix von Schwarzenberg

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Military Force
The Frankfurt Assemblys constitution for a unied Germany was completed and chose the Prussian king, Frederick William as emperor of Germany The Frankfurt constitution, included universal male suffrage and civil rights, would never be implemented
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In Italy, too, military force was decisive. Austria defeated Piedmont (allies of the Italian republics) With them this support removed, the Roman Republic collapsed after a three-month battle with French armies sent by Louis Napoleon to defend the papacy
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The Results

G. M. Trevelyan called 1848 the turning-point at which modern history failed to turn (1) liberal constitutions and increased civil rights failed to pull strong and lasting support from artisans, peasants, and workers (2) the revolutions of February and March were made primarily by the middle classes, strengthened for the moment by popular discontent

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(3) the leaders of the revolutions often mistook parliaments for power and left intact the established royal bureaucracies and armies that would soon turn on them (4) nationalism motivated some revolutionaries but divided others and prevented the transnational cooperation essential for durable success (5) no major nation was ready to intervene in behalf of change
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Widespread revolution reected the failures of restoration and exposed the effects of a generation of profound social change Some gains of 1848 endured, the most important of which is the emancipation of peasants of eastern Prussia and the Austrian Empire from serfdom and the creation of limited constitutional governments
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The Politics of Nationalism

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*Nationalism was a modern phenomenon and often seemed to require persistent propaganda Nationalism came to be embraced and used by both the left and the right
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The Elements of Nationalism

Nationalism A shared sense of regional and cultural identity, custom, language, and religion The Experience of the French Revolution that established nationalism as a political force capable of mobilizing popular enthusiasm, of reforming society, of creating seemingly irresistible political movements, and ultimately of greatly adding to the power of the state
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Liberation and Modernization

In Germany the ght against Napoleon was called a national war of liberation The association of liberation and nationalism had been particularly marked in the New World, an example to liberals in Europe Increased communication, literacy, and mobility further stimulated the sense of belonging to a larger but denable community

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National Identity
Nationalism was international phenomenon, everywhere emphasizing the importance of culture, and often inspired by Romanticism, with its rejection of Enlightenment universalism Ethnic origins, philology (*Gaelic), folk culture and national history (Italians claimed Roman and Christian history)
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Political Goals In places subject to foreign rule, the political goal of nationalist movements was independence Germany, Italy, Hungary

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A New Regime: The Second Empire in France

From Republic to Empire Louis Napoleon, president of the Second Republicchamber of Deputies lled with monarchists who did not want a republic Rejection of amendment for 2nd termcoup 1851 Restored universal male suffrage, restricted by the conservative Chamber Second Republic became the Second EmpireEmperor Napoleon III

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90% approval rating supported by all segments Napoleon III was inuenced by liberal nationalism Under his rule, the French State sponsored programs for social welfare and economic growthtax incentives French economy boomed in the 1850s; patron of educational and social reform
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The Liberal Empire

Napoleon III gradually liberalized France, enlarging the role of the legislature in 1860; freedom of the press and assembly was granted in 1868; A full parliamentary system was in place by 1870 The Second Empire pioneered a new kind of regimeauthoritarian but played to public opinion, imposed order but fostered social programs and economic growth
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Nationalism and International Relations

1848 had revealed the political potential of nationalismthe politics of patriotism

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The Crimean War The pursuit of international inuence led France and Great Britain to war against Russia in 1854 over competing claims by Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox monks to be the guardians of Jerusalems holy places
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Russia had expanded into the Ottoman region, trying to gain power The British was worried about general Russian expansion, threatening the British colonial investments After Russian defeat of the Ottoman eet in Crimea, Britain and France went to war with Russia directly After long fought war, Russia sued for peace
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Congress of Paris
Russia ceded to the demand of the Congress that it surrender claims to any Christian lands in the Ottoman Empire and a ban on warships in the Black Sea Almost 500,000 soldiers died the highest death toll between the Napoleonic wars and WWI Following the conict, the Ottoman Empire and Russia underwent fundamental modernization
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A New Nation: The Unication of Germany

German cultural identity had grown throughout the rst half of the 19th century, from the battles against Napoleon to the vision of the Frankfurt Parliament The Prussian and Austrian monarchies continued to vie for primacy among the German states, but it was Prussia that created modern Germany
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The Dominance of Prussia

Prussia was the largest German state, with a powerful army and an efcient administration, and Prussian politics began a new era in 1858 with the rule of William I

He named *Otto von Bismarck

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Bismarcks Leadership

Bismarck surprised conservatives with his appeal to nationalism, shrewdly used power wherever he found it, and made success in foreign policy his justication Bismarck dissolved the parliament and used heavy government pressure in the subsequent elections but with little effect He ignored parliament and encouraged divisions within the legislatureHe closed opposing newspapers

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The AustroPrussian War, 1866

Austria and Prussia were a;ready mobilizing when Prussian troops found an excuse to march into Holstein in June 1866 The Austro-Prussian War lasted just seven weeks Prussia, well-equipped and ready, applied the lessons of the American Civil War, using railroads and the telegraph to move with a speed for which Austria was unprepared

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The Franco-Prussian War, 1870

In vying for dominance, France and Prussia went to war Bismarck wanted the war but France rst declared it The normal cause of the war derived from competition over inuence in Spain France hoped for support from Italy and Austria but had failed to establish formal agreements, and these states remained neutral

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The brief war had profound effects. A German national state was created in its wake. In France, the Second Empire fell and succeeded by the Third Republic France was required to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs (1 billion dollars) and lost Alsace and Lorraine, embittering France
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