FEED FORMULATION PROGRAM

VERSION 2.98

SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd.

P.O. Box 48 RIVONIA 2128 Tel: (011) 803 2050 Fax: (011) 803 8210 www.spesfeed.co.za

July 2010

CONDITIONS OF SALE
COPYRIGHT 1989,1999 and 2010 by F.J. Kleyn, SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd and Martial Computing cc. The information in this document is subject to change without notice and should not be construed as a commitment by either SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd or Martial Computing cc. SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd grants a non-exclusive and non-transferable licence for the use of the SPESFEED EXPRESS package to the person or company who has purchased that right. SPESFEED EXPRESS is never sold. SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd retains all rights, ownership of and all the title to the software recorded on the original disk or copies thereof. It is not permissible to make or supply any copy of the package to any other person whatsoever as this would be an infringement of copyright. All rights reserved. No part of this manual may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system without prior written permission of SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd. All software is licensed for use on an annual basis. This licence fee will fall due on the anniversary your previous installation. The cost of this licence will be increased at a rate equivalent to the annual inflation rate. On receipt of the licence fee by SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd., the user will be issued with a unique code number which will enable the system to continue to be used. Licence holders are entitled to free off site support during working hours. This support includes telephonic, email or facsimile assistance. All standard software enhancements will be made available free of charge. Custom designed enhancements will be charged for at a negotiated rate. i

Should on site training or support be required, travelling costs, a consultancy fee and local living costs are for the customers account. A free utility to convert data from SPESFEED Ver8 to SPESFEED EXPRESS is provided. SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd is prepared to help with this task but it is not covered by the licence fee. This function will only be performed at an agreed upon consulting fee. Neither F.J. Kleyn, L.G. Kleyn, SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd or Martial Computing cc. shall be liable for any loss or damage sustained by the users of the SPESFEED EXPRESS Feed Formulation Program arising out of any cause whatsoever. Sample data is supplied with the SPESFEED EXPRESS package. It is not intended that this data be used for feed formulation purposes, rather it serves only for demonstration purposes. SPESFEED (Pty) Ltd can take no responsibility for the data used together with SPESFEED EXPRESS. The user is responsible for data integrity, backup and security. Installation of SPESFEED EXPRESS software on a computer implies the users acceptance of this licence agreement.

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LIST OF CONTENTS
PAGE INTRODUCTION CONVENTIONS and CONCEPTS SETTING UP THE PROGRAM System Requirements Installing the program Licensing the software Making Backups Conversion of Version 8 data A QUICK START TO USING THE PROGRAM Getting around the program Using the Help Function Windows Functionality Selecting a Database User Settings and Options An Overall View PROGRAM DETAILS Files The Library The Nutrients Feed Ingredients Feed Specifications
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1 4 8 8 8 9 10 10 12 12 13 13 13 14 15 18 18 19 21 24 25

Client Files

Feed Specifications Bounds

25 27 29 30 31 32 33 34 36 37 37 38 40 40 41 41 42 42 48 50

Formulate Feed The Information Bar The Feed Specification Window The Ingredient Window The Formulation Process Saving the Solution The Solution Screen

Reports Solution Compare Stock

Batch Mix

Export Solution
MODEL DETAILS SPESFEED Dairy Model Beef Model Horse Model APPENDIX
Effective Feed Formulation for Feed Millers and Farmers

Hoards Rules of Thumb for Dairy Feeding

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INTRODUCTION
This document was written as a user guide for the SPESFEED EXPRESS Feed Formulation Package. It will guide the user through the installation of the software, conversion of any exiting data and as at quick start guide to the use of the program. The SPESFEED EXPRESS Feed Formulation package has been written to replace the SPESFEED Ver 8 Feed Formulation program, the old DOS based SPESFEED package. SPESFEED EXPRESS was written in VB.NET , on SQL Server 2008 . These are development tools written by Microsoft Corp, expressly for use on computers that use the Windows XP (Service Pack 3) or newer operating system. This means that the package will not run on earlier versions of Windows. Due some changes brought about by Microsoft, SQL will not run on Home Basic versions of either Windows Vista or Windows &. Those making the transition from Version 8 of the SPESFEED Feed Formulation system will find that basic logic of the program has not been changed. However, the functionality provided by the new operating system makes the program quicker and easier to use than ever. A conversion utility has been written to convert all library and client file data from SPESFEED Version 8 for use with SPESFEED EXPRESS. It is assumed that the user has sufficient knowledge of nutrition and the principles of feed formulation to use the program, and these will not be covered in this document. SPESFEED EXPRESS provides a means of formulating diets, using available ingredients, to meet predetermined nutritional requirements at the least possible monetary cost. 1

Before a detailed discussion on program use is entered into, an overall view of the objectives of the program is given. Broadly speaking, the program has been developed to formulate "least-cost" diets for any type of food or feed. The concept of "least-cost" feed formulation is widely accepted in animal agriculture and it is used extensively in the production of "balanced" feed and to produce balanced diets on farm. The program has four basic components: Firstly, it stores data in one of two formats. Data may be stored in the form of libraries" of technical information which can be built up by the user. The program is sold with a limited but fully valid library. Alternatively, the user may build up subsets of data in client files for any number of production units. This is useful for the agricultural advisor or veterinarian who formulates feeds for a number of different clients. Secondly, it incorporates a mathematical component called linear programming (LP) which is used for the optimisation or "least cost" process. Thirdly, the program is capable of storing and retrieving information about the feeds or diets to be manufactured. This recipe management functionality allows the user to determine the ingredients to be used (bill of materials), to work out costs and margins and to create batch report. Lastly, the program incorporates mathematical models that can estimate the nutrient requirements of various classes of animal.

In order to get the most out of the program the following basic principles must be adhered to at all times:

All data to be used when running the program must be prepared accurately. Minimise guesswork. Enter data into the computer correctly. In order to accurately balance any diet, information about the available ingredients and the required feed specifications needs to be built up. Do not take the results of the program at face value. Oldfashioned "gut feel" and practicality still play an important role in feed formulation and you may find it necessary to make modifications to the recommended diets. As far as is possible ensure that the recommendations given by the program are correctly applied. A good formulation is only the starting point of successful feeding and nutrition.

A certain degree of familiarity with the LP concept will have to be developed in order to get the most out of the SPESFEED program. It is important to understand why a particular solution has been derived if you are to fine-tune your diets. To this end, it is important to understand the concepts of sensitivity and ranging (see below). SPESFEED are a company that provide a nutritional consultancy service in addition to supplying software. We may well be able to help our clients in this regard. However, this it will be appreciated that nutritional consultancy is separate from purchasing and using SPESFEED EXPERESS.

CONVENTIONS AND CONCEPTS

A number of conventions and/or concepts were used in the development of SPESFEED EXPRESS: The program makes use of an SQL relational data base. It is not expected that a user would ever use more than a single data base, but there may be occasions where a user may wish to use data generated by another user. Provided that the database used has a unique name it is possible to access multiple data bases. It is also possible to export and import data between different data bases. Nutrient is the term used to describe the nutrient make up of any diet. This would normally included aspects such as protein or calcium, but it is also possible to assign non-nutrient constraints. For example, it could be used to set an ingredient constrain, such as the percentage of fish meal in the diet. The nutrients viewed or printed for any type of animal or purpose may be specified in the mask. The SPESFEED EXPRESS program is somewhat unique in that only the data with values are shown. By default, all 0s (zeros) are shown as a blank space. It is possible to Show All nutrients. Once in the show all mode, it is possible to revert to a reduced list by using the Filter button The term "ingredient" is used to for all raw materials. Each ingredient has an analysis of its nutrient content. The term "feed specification" is used to describe the details pertaining to each product (feed) that is to be formulated. For each specification a set of ingredient bounds or limits are stored. 4

Models are a series of mathematical programs that model different animals nutrient requirements. In this instance they are used to generate feed specifications. Daily Diet is the term used to describe an animals daily intake of both ingredients and nutrients A library or master file may be built up. Any number of subsets of this library may be created and these are known as client files. Any number of different libraries may be used. All data in the program, be it a nutrient, an ingredient or a feed specification may be added to a group. A group would normally form a logical entity such as Cereals for all cereal grains. In order for the program to function effectively, each ingredient requires a cost as the program generates a "least-cost" solution. Some discussion as to costing and feed formulation is appropriate. The determination of the cost of each ingredient is important. In order to optimise a diet, the landed cost of each ingredient should be used. This would need to include the cost of transport or milling loss. Farm produced ingredients can be more difficult. If costs are too low, they will mask an uneconomical production system. All ingredients can be set to round to the nearest kilogram or part there off. It is also possible to allocate a pack size to an ingredient for use when mixing sheets are to be generated. It is possible to scale a diet to a particular size, be this to meet the requirements for a daily diet of for a change in mixer size. Any ingredient may be available for use in a specific client file. Ingredients that are not available will not be considered for any formulation carried out in a particular client file. It is also 5

possible to choose to use an ingredient in a specific feed specification. An ingredient may well be available but unless it is marked to be used, it will not be included it in the solution. The program will formulate what are known as least-cost diets using LP. Models are small pieces of computer code, written either by SPESFEED or by a third party, which generate nutrient requirements for any feed specification. When using models, it is possible to carry out post formulation Evaluations, these calculate data for non-linear and other relationships. The program will formulate on either an As is basis or a Dry Matter basis, with conversion between the two being simply achieved. It is also possible to formulate a Daily Diet for an individual or group of animals. Once a feed has been formulated and the results of that formulation have been saved, a solution comes into existence. These solutions are then used to generate any reports that are required. The program will automatically save any number of solutions of a single product, by date and time of formulation. Any new solution that is saved automatically becomes the live solution, which is the solution that is currently being used. It is possible to select which solution is live. Once a formulation has been initiated the program normally returns a feasible solution. Be aware that this describes the mathematically feasibility of the solution and not necessarily the nutritional adequacy. 6

Should there be an error in the data used, or should the constraints set are too high, the program will return an infeasible or invalid solution. The "Reduced Cost" is generated as a part of LP. In the case of ingredients these reduced cost indicate the cost effectiveness of the various ingredients on offer and they serve a very useful function as they indicates how much you can pay for a particular ingredient. The range is an extension of this concept. It indicates the upper and lower cost range for an ingredient before the formulation will change. By using minimum and maximum bounds it is possible to determine an "acceptance" price for any particular ingredient. That is, the price that you can afford to pay for an ingredient without making your diets any more expensive. The acceptance price of any particular ingredient is very variable, and is determined by a complex interaction of factors. These include the specification of the feed, the restrictions put on its use in the feed and the cost, nutrient specifications and availability of the other available ingredients. Therefore, before you purchase any ingredient, determine if it is cost effective to do so. Nutrient constraints havesensitivity values. By definition, these are the cost per unit of a particular nutrient. Once formulation is complete it is possible to round formulation off, either manually or by automatically rounding to the nearest amount set by the user. When making use of some of the mathematical models (the dairy model in particular), it is possible to evaluate the diet that you have just formulated, or indeed to look at any particular mixture of ingredients in terms of animal performance.

A further aspect of feed formulation is that of parametric evaluation. This entails the repeated solution of a problem in which a single parameter has been modified.

SETTING UP THE PROGRAM

System Requirements
SPESFEED EXPRESS has been written using Microsoft .Net 3.51 Framework and SQL Server Express 2008. These programs will only run under the Windows XP, Windows Vista or Windows 7 environments. All of these programs require a reasonable amount computer resource and the more powerful your machine the faster the system will run. In addition, in order to make full use of the SPESFEED EXPRESS reporting facility, it is required Microsoft Excel be loaded on you machine.

Installing the program

1. Insert disc into drive D: (CD-ROM)

2. Auto Start should run the setup program automatically. If not, use Windows Explorer or My Computer to browse the files on the disk. Double Click on setup. The setup program will run. 3. If .Net 3.5 Framework, SQL Server Express 2008 or Windows Installer 3.1 are not installed on your machine by other programs, Install Spesfeed Express will install these now from the CD supplied. However, you may well find that it is best to download a versions of these programs from Microsoft (www.microsoft.com) as this automatically loads the correct version for your machine. This may take some time. You will need to follow the instructions and Accept the Licence Terms of each program. 4. Once these pre-requisite programs have been loaded or confirmed present on your machine, a Spesfeed Express window will open on the screen. Click on the option Install Spesfeed 9

Express and the program files and data will be copied to your machine onto the drive you select under the folder Spesfeed Express. 5. If it has not already been created, create a shortcut onto your desktop from the C:\Spesfeed Express\Program\Spesfeed Express application file with the Spesfeed Logo. 6. Run the program. Note, that when the program is run for the first time the SQL database is configured and this may be slow. You may need to restart the program. 7. Click on the Register Spesfeed Express Program. Choose a Registration Name (at least 4 letters, without any spaces or full stops) and note the code. Contact Spesfeed at +27 11 803 2050 or sales@spesfeed.co.za to obtain the License Number.

Licensing the software

The final step required to run SPESFEED EXPRESS is to legitimise your user licence. In order to register your software you are required to choose a registered user name. This, together with the unique code returned by the computer on which you wish to load the program needs to be sent to the SPESFEED Office. Once we have this information, we will be able to calculate a code that will let you proceed and use the system. You will be required to enter this code into the space. Your program will now be licensed for the next colander year. Demonstration software is licensed for 90 days. Should you change data bases, you can Recall your licence number.

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Making Backups
Maintaining data integrity is not SPESFEEDs responsibility. However, we have provided you with a tool for backing up your data files each time you exit the program. This is to be found on the INSTALL SPESFEED EXPRESS utility which is can be found on the original CD on which the program was supplied as well as on your computer itself (look under All Programs). As discussed above, all of you data will be stored in a single relational database. This file may be copied to another sub-directory on your machine or onto another device (which is what we recommend). The data files from the program are to be found at C:\Spesfeed Express\Data. Simply copy the contents of this file to another device using Explorer. You may want to use the Export facility to create backups of your data in CSV format. This is the standard way of creating text files.

Conversion from Version 8

It is possible to convert data from Version 8 of the SPESFEED Feed Formulation Program. A small stand alone utility has been provided on your installation disk, called dumpdos.exe. 11

The DUMPDOS needs to be saved into your SPESFEED Ver 8 working directory (usually called c:\form\) and then run from the Windows XP run utility as follows: Run c:\form\dumpdos.exe The DUMPDOS utility automatically defaults to the data paths that you are using in the user options section of the SPESFEED program. You then need to choose whether you want to dump either <L>ibrary files or <C>lient files. You must select the name of the file you wish to dump. The program then creates a file that can be read by SPESFEED EXPRESS. These files can then be read and loaded directly into SPESFEED EXPRESS. The user must be aware that any group information that you add to a library will not be applied to imported files. However, when you create new files this information will be contained.

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QUICK START
Having installed and licensed the program you are now ready to use it. On clicking on the SPESFEED EXPRESS icon on your Windows desktop you will enter the program at the main screen, which is shown below. This screen serves as the control centre for SPESFEED EXPRESS and allows you to choose the task/function you wish to use by simply choosing the correct menu item or icon. Should you not have registered the program now is the time to do so.

Getting Around the Program

There are a number of basic functions that form an integral part of the software. Mouse functionality is the same as all other Windows XP packages. Move the cursor onto your area of choice and click on the left mouse key to make a selection. The first three lines that appear on the screen are all important.

In the header bar the Version of the software and the licence holder are shown. In the second row a simple menu appears. This menu enables the user to move around the software the program and between program modules. Lastly a line of icons appear. The first of these allows the user to edit and update the central database or library of the program. The remaining icons allow the user to select a particular client and work with that clients information.

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Using the Help Function

Help is provided in the form of a PDF document which can easily be printed.

Windows Functionality
SPESFEED EXPRESS was developed in the Microsoft Windows XP environment. This means that most of the windows functionality that users are familiar with, is available in the program. Some of the key points to remember are: Reports may be printed out of SPESFEED EXPRESS itself, or alternatively they may be exported to Excel, from where they which can be read by most other applications. It is possible to select multiple products or nutrients using the standard Windows procedures (Control + Click & Shift = Cursor). Data can mostly be sorted by simply clicking in the Column Head button of choice. Throughout the program the use of the Right Click on the mouse will bring up the list of commands available at that particular part of the program.

Selecting a Database
Under normal circumstances it is not anticipated that a user should ever use more than a single database. Where it becomes useful is when you want to share data with a colleague. Each person can use a different database (different name), which maintains data integrity. You can rename your data files in c:\spesfeed express\data using Explorer.

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User options and settings

The user stores and retains information about the user under the Files/User Options menu. Here it is possible to enter the data which will appear on each report. It is also possible to enter a message that will appear at the bottom of each report. The licensing details are also included on this screen. You are also able to select the preferences that you wish to use when running the program. At this stage there are only a few of these, but as the system develops it will be possible to add more of these options.

The other information that the user can/should enter are to be found in the Client Maintenance section of the program The program will always return you to the same place that you last worked in. In other words the same client and feed as the last session. 15

It is also possible to tell the program how you would like to view your data. Under the Files option you can set the Sort Order as follows:

In essence, this allows all screens and reports to appear in the manner in which is selected. The final option in the file menu are the Export Data and Import Data options. It is possible to export and import data from another SPESFEED Express data base or to do the same from Format Internationals Single Mix system. Lastly, it is possible to dump the ingredient matrix into an Excel spreadsheet.

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An overall view
Before using the program it is important that the user gain an overall understanding of the data/program flow used by the SPESFEED EXPRESS program. There are a number of steps that need to be taken in order to formulate a diet. A diagram of the process flow appears on the next page. Step 1: Before you start using the program for the first time it is important that you set up both the user options (Under the Files/User Options on the main menu) and the client options. Step 2: Select the library you are to work with. This is the central repository for all of your nutrient, feed ingredient and feed specification data. Use the Library Maintenance button. Step 3: Ensure that the nutrients that you wish to use for your formulations are correctly entered. Make sure that the units that you use are correct. You may use any unit that you like, so long as the data is consistent throughout the program. In other words the units must stay the same in both the ingredient analysis and the feed specifications. It would be advisable to group your data into some form of logical grouping order. Step 4: You will need to create or open a client file. Here you may either enter client specific data, or import data from the library and then modify it or not. Step 5: Ensure that the ingredients to be used are made available, that they have a cost and that they have nutrient values. It is especially important to ensure that each ingredient has Volume. Feed specifications and their associated bounds also need to be added for each formulation that you wish to carry out. Feed

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specifications may either be stored on an As Is basis, which is the default, a Dry Matter basis or on a daily diet basis. Step 6: You now able to optimise your diets, change the inputs live on the formulations screen, round them and or scale them. When using model generated specifications, it is possible to run the post formulation evaluation calculations. These will tell you more about the formulation that you are contemplating using, which standard linear programming cannot do. Step 7: The changes that were made under step 6 need to be saved. It is possible to save the ingredient and feed specification details. You may also create a new specification, solution or feed ingredient. Step 8: Using the solutions that were created in step 6, you are able view the formulation history, compare different solutions or generate reports of single or multiple formulations. These may be printed or exported to other Microsoft applications. Step 9: You may download solution to process control computers at this stage.

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1. 2.

User Information Client Options

Options
Nutrients Client Detail Specifications Ingredients Ingredients

The Library

Client File/s
Specifications Bounds 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Formulation Area
Optimise Make Changes Round Evaluate. Save

Output
1. 2. 3. 4. Printer Excel Batch sheets Process control

Solution
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Create History Compare Solutions Round by hand. Reports Create Output

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PROGRAM DETAILS
The remainder of this document is devoted to how to use each component of the program in more detail.

Files
The first area of the program that needs to be set up occurs under the files option. As these options do not form part of the normal workflow of the system they have not been included on the toolbar, however it is important that they be set up correctly. The setting up of the user options and preferences has already been discussed. Other options that are available at this point have to do with the importation and export of nutrients (NE), ingredients (RM) and specification (LP) files out of and into Format Internationals Single-Mix program. In order to create the correct files in SingleMix, you need to use the correct convention, as set out below: 1. Nutrients should be exported in a file called NE.EXP. To create the file, go into the Single-Mix Nutrient Editor/External/Export an ASCII file. Select All nutrient data and create the correct file name. 2. Raw Materials (ingredients in SPESFEED EXPRESS) are exported into a file called RM.EXP. To do this go to SingleMix RM/External/Export an ASCII file. Select the ingredients you wish to export, select Nutrient Analysis and create the correct file name. 3. Specifications are exported into a file called LP.EXP. To do this go to Single-Mix LP/External/Export an ASCII file. Select the specifications you wish to export, select Nutrient Limits and Raw Material Limits and create the correct file name. 20

4. SPESFEED EXPRESS now has a utility for exporting data from one database into another. It is important that the nutrient names in the two databases are the same.

When exporting files out of SPESFEED EXPRESS for use in SingleMix the three file mentioned above are created and these can then be imported into a plant in Format. It is also possible to import delimited profiles from Single-Mix. Should you wish to use this feature, you will need to get the details from us. In addition, it is possible to export library out of one SPESFEED EXPRESS library and then copy it into another library. It is important that all of the nutrient names used are the same otherwise the program will not recognise the library contents.

The Library
The first component of the program that needs to be attended to is the library. Clicking on the library maintenance icon takes you into the library maintenance screen. SPESFEED EXPRESS is distributed with a demonstration library called the SPESFEED DEMO library. It is however possible for the user to create as many different libraries as required. It is also possible to import an existing SPESFEED Ver8 library into SPESFEED EXPRESS. Each library allows you to build up a data base of up to 250 different ingredients and feed specifications. It is possible to create a New Library, Edit Library, Copy Library or Delete Library.

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There are a number of important conventions that have to do with the use of library files in the SPESFEED EXPRESS program. These are: All client files are associated with a library and may not be used with a different library. It is possible to copy data from a library into a client file, or from a client file to a library. Once you have copied and ingredient or feed specification from a library it creates a new record. Any future changes to the data in either the library or the client file will not lead to a change in the data used in the other. Under normal circumstances a user will use a single library, so once this has been set up, it will not need to be changed.

There are three areas that need to be maintained in each library. These are the Nutrients, the Ingredients and the Feed Specifications. The layout and functionality of each of the three areas is similar.

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All of the library data can be allocated to a group and you will note that in each area you can Add Group, Edit Group or Delete Group. Importantly, you can change the display order using the UP and DOWN arrow keys on the screen. There is nothing to prevent you from creating a group for each nutrient or ingredient and specifying its display order. When data is imported from SPESFEED Ver8, all information is included in a group called Other. It is possible to continue to formulate in this manner, but we feel that it would be best to allocate your information to some groups. Unlike the previous version of SPESFEED, the SPESFEED EXPRESS package works using the full name of each nutrient, ingredient or feed for reference purposes, rather than a code number. It is however possible to enter a code for each ingredient or feed for management purposes. This code may be alphanumeric. All items within the library may have an alternative name. Hence it is possible to use a second language if so desired. Any changes that have been made in a work session will either be automatically saved when you exit the window that you are working on, or cancelled by using the Undo button. There are some specific information/conventions that you need to be aware of in each of the three data areas.

The Nutrients: The manner in which nutrients are entered into the
program is fundamental to how each nutritionist does his or her job. In each library allowance has been made for 60 different nutrients. These may be applied to all of the ingredients or specifications in that library. The library allows the user to define both the nutrients and the nutrient groups that are to be used when that library is being used. 23

There are a few simple conventions that are used in the creation of the nutrient file. Nutrient number 1 is designated as VOLUME. In essence every ingredient has "volume" and the total volume of a diet may not exceed 100%. Put another way, there must always be a ton of feed in a ton. There are occasions when you may wish not to use volume for an ingredient. For example, some medications are designed to be added to a ton of feed. They are therefore not a part of that ton, but are merely added on top of the specification. Nutrients number 2 and 3 must be Dry Matter and Moisture contents respectively. This is used when formulating diets on a dry matter basis for calculation purposes. Nutrient masks may be built up for each feed specification group in this area. These are the nutrients that will be displayed on the screen by default when you formulate a diet. Remember that the groups need to be created first.

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From the screen dump above it will be seen that nutrients can either be displayed by Group or by the default which is Show All. You will note that for each group it is possible to Add, Edit, Copy, Delete nutrients. It is also possible to move them using the Change Group command. The manner in which items are moved from group to group is standard throughout the program. The two groups to be considered need to be chosen using the drop down boxes. The object to be moved is then selected with a click of the mouse and the appropriate arrow key is then used. Remember that it is possible to make multiple selections.

You are able to use alternative names when you use the program. This is useful should you wish to use a second language for example. A third set of names that has been defined we have 25

called the Model Variable. These are the names used in the development of the simulation models used in the program. Should you wish to use the models that are supplied with the SPESFEED EXPRESS program, these should not be changed. If you do, the models will simply not work. Should you wish to develop your own models, it is possible to define these nutrient names. We will be able to help you in this regard.

Feed Ingredients: Each library may contain up to 250 feed

ingredients. The manner in which data is manipulated in this screen is used throughout the program and is described in some detail here. In broad terms three windows are involved: The first (left hand side) window indicates the group with which you are working. Remember that it is possible to choose to Show All information. This window is not shown here but is self explanatory. The second window occurs in the centre of the screen. In this window the ingredients in the selected group are shown and the actual feed ingredient being worked on is highlighted. The third window (right hand side) is where the actual data pertaining to each ingredient is displayed. It may be changed by highlighting the item to be changed and then typing in the new value. You may use the cursor keys to move up and down the record. Importantly, if you use the Left and Right cursor keys you jump to the next or previous ingredient. The selected ingredient in the centre window will change accordingly. Note that when you move from one ingredient to 26

another any changes that you have made will automatically be saved. At any time before an ingredient is saved (or before you move to another ingredient) it is possible to Undo any changes that you have made. The SPESFEED EXPRESS program is somewhat unique in that only those nutrients with values are shown. By default, all 0s (zeros) are shown only as a blank space. It is possible to Show All nutrients. Once in the show all mode, it is possible to revert to a reduced list by using the Filter button. This method of working with data, is standard throughout the program. It is possible to change the manner in which ingredients are stored using the Dry Matter/As Is button.

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Feed Specifications:

Up to 250 feed specifications may be entered into the library. Bounds are not stored because there is no logical way of linking the ingredients in a client file to a library. These may be allocated to groups. The manner in which theses are edited is consistent with the way in which the feed specification details are edited above Most people find it easiest to assign specifications to group by species type.

Client Files
In order for the program to work, it is essential that a client file be selected. This selection may be made in a number of places, the first of which is in the right hand window of the main screen. In addition, there is a client selection drop down box at the top of each data screen.

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For each client selected you may specify a number of details. If you click on the Client Maintenance icon you enter this area of the program. It is possible to include address detail as well as the language used (English or Alternative language) for reports as well as other information. In addition, it is possible to Add new clients, Delete redundant client files or Copy a client file in its entirety.

Each "client" file contains of up to 60 ingredients for use in a particular circumstance. These ingredients may either be copied from the ingredients stored in the Ingredient library, or they can be entered manually using you own data. The reason why SPESFEED EXPRESS was developed using the client file concept, is so that each client can use ingredients, ingredient costs and feed specifications that are unique. In addition, each client file allows the reports generated under the solution component of the program to be tailor made for a specific feed milling operation.

Feed Specifications
For each client the user is required to maintain the ingredient data and the feed specification data. Ingredient data is maintained in exactly the same manner as the ingredient library, which was previously explained. The feed specification data for each client has been split into two screens. The fist of these is the Feed Specification screen, which is again identical in function to the library screen. You will note that there is a Formulate All option at the top of the feed specification screen. What this button does is to formulate each feed, starting at the top of the list, in a client file. Each feed is formulated, rounded and then saved in the solution file. Beware this option can make your database very full in a very short space of time. 29

It is at this stage that the user needs to decide if the feeds that are to be formulated will be carried out on an As Is basis, a Dry Matter basis or if the feed is to be formulated as a Daily Diet. If you are formulating feeds to be manufactured in a feed mill you will probably only ever formulate on an As Is basis. If on the other hand you are formulating diets for dairy cows or beef animals, using ingredients such as silage or wet brewers grains it would probably suit you best to formulate on a Dry Matter basis. Dry Matter formulation is SPESFEED EXPRESS is somewhat different to other programs. Ingredients can be entered into the program on an As Is basis. Once formulation is initiated, all ingredients are converted to a Dry Matter basis. Reports then show the results as both As Is or Dry Matter. Formula manipulation, such as rounding or scaling, is always carried out on an As Is basis. Importantly, it is possible to Formulate a diet directly from this screen by simply double clicking on an individual specification. If your formulation is to be carried out on a Dry Matter basis, you must indicate this to the program by clicking on the DM tag. If you wish to formulate Daily Diets making use of one of the mathematical 30

models supplied with the program, you first need to select the model to be used under the Models option.

Here it is possible to enter the model parameters to be used. These parameters are specification specific. Once the parameters that you wish to use have been entered, you will need to Run Model. The program will then estimate the nutrient requirement of the animals in question. We use the word estimate advisedly. It is simply not possible to produce a model that takes all of the parameters that occur on a farm into consideration. This requires nutritional skill and experience. For this reason the user is able to edit the model generated values on screen. Once you are satisfied that the requirements are correct, you can Save the Model feed as a specification. Some of the models allow for economic analysis of the feeding program. These will be ignored if no prices are used, but

31

should they run, the results appear in a popup window, from where they may be printed.

Bounds
The Bounds used for each feed specification are dealt with separately under the Bounds screen. Here the minimum and maximum inclusion rates are entered for each feed. The convention here is to make the ingredient available for use and then to enter either a minimum or maximum value if you wish to constrain its inclusion. If an ingredient is to be freely available, simple click on the Use flag to indicate to the program that it can be used. A blank space (null value) always indicates that no limit has been set on ingredient use. Importantly, if you will be formulating Daily Diets, bounds need to 32

be entered on a kg per animal per day basis, and not as a percentage of the diet.

Formulate Feed
The heart of any feed formulation system is the feed formulation screen. We believe that the SPESFEED EXPRESS program differs from most of the other programs on the market in that the entire formulation process, both the inputs and the solution are available on a single screen. The formulation screen replaces 8 different screens in the SPESFEED Ver 8 package. The whole idea of creating a single screen formulation module is so that the user go see exactly what is happening to the formulation at all times, make any of the required changes and then save not only the optimal solution but also any other changes, such as rounding, that were made. The Feed Formulation screen comprises 3 major areas. These are the Information Bar, which runs along the top of the screen and is coloured grey; a window (on the left hand side) containing feed specification information which is coloured orange; a window (the right hand side) containing all of the ingredient information for the specification which is coloured yellow. As a lot of information is contained on this screen, a fairly detailed description of each area follows:

The Information Bar: In effect the information bar controls the

formulation process. Information is required before formulation can begin. On formulation, the answers are returned and further processed in this area. For practical reasons the information bar is described in two sections below. 33

Before any diet can be formulated, there is certain information that needs to be selected (on the left hand side) of the information bar. The first area that needs to be addressed in the information bar is that the client file, which must be selected. Each client file is of necessity related to a library, the name of which appears to the right of the list of client file names. The second important piece of information that the program requires is that the feed to be formulated be selected. By default, all live or current feeds are shown in the drop down box. It is also possible to select feed from the different groups that have been set up. When formulating a list of diets it is possible to select the Next or Previous diet as well. The actual formulation may be initiated by using the Formulate button, although this is not the only manner in which this can be done (see below).

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The Feed Specification Window: Once you have selected a feed

that is to be formulated you will note that the feed specification window has become populated. To this end, those nutrients contained in the mask for the species group being used will be displayed, together with any other nutrient that have had limits set for them. It is possible to use the Show All button to display all of the data, or to return to the restricted view using the Show Mask button. Each specification will be formulated either on an As Is basis, a Dry Matter basis or as a Daily Diet. This is indicated. The order in which the nutrients appear and may be view may also be changed. The standard format is that nutrients will be shown in Group Sort format, in the order that was selected in the library setup. If you click on the Column Head button called Nutrient the nutrients will be displayed in alphabetical order. Most of the other column heads will result in a reordering of data in ascending or descending order. Clicking on the Group Sort button will return the nutrient to group order. Once you have formulated your selected diet, the answer (actual solution) is returned to the Feed Specification window in blue. One of the most powerful features of the SPESFEED EXPRESS program is that the user is able to change nutrient values, either minima or maximums, and then reformulate by simply hitting the enter key. It is also possible to include nutrients that were not included (not shown) in any previous runs by simply using the Show All function and then adding the nutrient required. An explanation of how to use the sensitivity data is required. By definition, the sensitivity is the amount the cost of a solution will change if the value were to be changed by 1 unit. A negative value always indicates that a minimum specification (ME Poultry for example) is constraining, while a positive value (Calcium in this example) means that a maximum is constraining. Any constraint that 35

has a sensitivity value is adding cost to the solution. In the example below, if energy was to be reduced from 11.5 MJ/kg to 10.5 MJ/kg the price of the solution would drop by R 70.50/ton. In a similar vein, if the energy of the diet were to be dropped from 11.5 MJ/kg to 11.4 MJ/kg then the saving would be R 7.05. What is perhaps more useful for formulators is that the magnitude of the values gives us an immediate idea of what is costing money in the formulation or even what is causing and the solution to be infeasible. In this example, energy is the most costly nutrient, followed by Isoleucine. Although the maximum Calcium constraint is costing money, it has the least impact on the overall cost of the solution.

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The Ingredient Window: The ingredient window will be populated

with data once a feed has been selected. By default the ingredients will be displayed in group order that you have chosen from a particular client. If you have imported client information from SPESFEED Ver8 you will need to set this information up for the client that you are working in. If you create new clients, and draw the information from the library, the current library grouping will automatically be used. The ingredients that will appear are filtered by the availability at the plant and/or if they have been selected for use in a particular formulation. Alternatively all ingredients on a particular client file may be viewed. You may toggle between the two views by using the Show All and Filter buttons. If you click on Column Head button marked Ingredient or As Is, then the solution will be displayed in alphabetical order or in descending or ascending order by weight. It is possible to use the Copy Library button to import new ingredients directly from the library into the formulation.

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The Formulation Process: Once you are satisfied that all of

your data is correct, it is possible to initiate formulation by clicking on the large blue Formulate button. Formulation may also be initiated by using the Right Click on the mouse and selecting the correct option. In addition, when you make changes to any of the data fields, it is possible to hit the Enter key to initiate formulation. When formulating, one of two events may occur. The solution (result) may be either feasible or infeasible. In the case of an infeasible solution, a red box will flash up indicating this status. Those constraints that are violated will be displayed in RED. Problems may occur in two forms. Firstly, if there is a constraint (bound) which has been exceeded or not been met you will be informed about it and, secondly, if a specific nutrient requirement has not been achieved. Often, a combination of these messages will appear. To complicate matters, the constraint that is causing the problem will sometimes solve. For example, too high an energy specification in a broiler diet may well result in an infeasible solution. The problem is, the energy limit will be met, but not the calcium. If the solution is feasible then the cost is displayed in the cost box in red. Should you make a change to any of the inputs and reformulate, the new solutions\ cost is displayed in this position, but the previous cost and the difference between the two is also displayed (see below). The other data that you may wish to change at this stage are the batch size and the tons to be manufactured. The specification window (right hand column) of the window holds the sensitivity data. This value represents the cost per unit of a particular nutrient. If a constraint has a negative value next to it, it means that a reduction of the constraint would result in a saving. A positive sensitivity value indicates that a maximum constraint is limiting and costing money. 38

The reduced cost and minimum and maximum ranges are displayed in the three right hand columns of the ingredient window. A positive reduced cost appears when an ingredient is forced into the formulation by means of a minimum bound. The value would indicate how much the cost of that ingredient would have to be reduced by if the total cost of the diet were to remain the same. A negative cost on the other hand, appears when an upper limit is placed on the inclusion of a certain ingredient. This value indicates how much more you can pay for a particular ingredient without the formulated diet changing in composition. The range indicates the upper and lower cost range for an ingredient before the formulation will change. Having successfully formulated a diet, the user has the option of rounding the formulation manual. By simply moving to the As Is column, it is possible to type in your own value in the column. The impact that this has on the cost of the formulation as well as the change in the nutrient profile of the feed is immediately calculated and displayed. This is a very easy way to evaluate or cost a diet supplied by a third party. As mentioned above, it is also possible to Round the formulation to the nearest number as set by the user in the ingredient section. It is possible to define the manner in which the program rounds a solution in the User Options, to balance on the Largest Ingredient. This will always result in a solution that is exactly 100% (or one ton). The Scale button allows the user to change the size of the mix. Here, the batch size needs to be set correctly, and then the formulation needs to be scaled. This is a useful function if for example you wish to remove the maize from a formulation to make a concentrate. Some mode functionality exists in the solution screen. If you have already selected a model to use and you then use the Calc option, it is possible to run the model, make changes and update your specifications from within the feed formulation area of the program. If you are formulating a diet using the SPESFEED Dairy Feeding 39

model, it is possible to Evaluate a formulation to determine how well balance the diet is, how much moisture and roughage it contains, and what the economic implications of the feeding system are. By right clicking on either an ingredient or a specification it is possible to invoke the parametric option. Here the user may set up stepwise formulations for specification level, ingredient cost or ingredient inclusion. After each step the solutions are saved to the solution file where they may be viewed. It may be useful to graph the results using Excel.

Just a reminder you may formulate all diets in a client file by using the Formulate All option in the specification screen.

Saving the Solution: Once you are satisfied that your formulation
is correct, it is possible to do a number of things with it: Using the Save Solution button, to immediately save the new solution to the solutions file (where it becomes the new live formulation). Alternatively, you may use the Save As button. This option allows the user to save any or all of the data that 40

was changed, to create a feed specification and solution or to create a new ingredient to be used in other formulations. One of the user defined functions (User Options), is that it is possible to set an option that always rounds the solution before saving it.

The last option in this regard is to use the Save All button. This option save all the changes as set out in the figure, without having to do any selections. It is also possible to Compare the current formulation to either the previous version (default) or to any formulation in the solution file. If you have made changes that you do not wish to keep, it is possible to revert to the original formulation using the Reset button. It is possible to Print a report directly from this screen, but note that the solution will always be saved first. determine how well balance the diet is, how much moisture and roughage it contains, and what the economic implications of the feeding system are. 41

The Solution Screen

The solution screen also has three windows. These are the list of feeds stored in the solution file, the physical formulation and the nutrient analysis of that formulation. SPESFEED EXPRESS is fairly unique in that it retains all versions of a formulation that have been formulated in date and time order. By default, only the live formulations are always shown. By toggling on the Show All and Show Live buttons it is possible to view all versions of all formulations particular formulation. It is possible to manually select which formulations are to be considered as live. In addition, it is possible to Group Sort formulations or sort them by formulation date, alpha-numeric code or cost. The program sorts on an alphanumeric basis. This also applies if a number code is used. This creates a problem in that the sort order will look like this, 1,11,12,2,21,3.... There is an easy way to overcome this. Simply make 1 01 and so on. The sort will then look like this, 01,02,03,11,12,21....

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Reports: The second half of the solution screen (right hand window)
displays the actual formulation for the ingredient that has been selected. By selecting different solutions (using the standard Windows XP methods) it is possible to generate reports. Importantly, it is possible to edit the solution at this stage without reformulating it. The nutrient analysis will be recalculated. It is possible to print a single Solution or multiple solutions. These can either be printed directly to your Windows printer or they can be exported to Excel and then be modified, saved or printed.

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44

The order in which ingredients are to be printed can be selected. The program will remember your last selection Having selected the solutions required, a Summary report which shows the current cost of the formulations (using current ingredient prices). It also shows the tonnage and value of each ingredient used. This report may also be exported to other Microsoft applications. If selling prices are added to the Ingredient file, the program will calculate the margin and will print a gross margin report. It is possible to compare a number of different solutions side by side. Simply select the solutions that you wish to compare, be they different versions of the same feed or different feeds and hit the Compare Button. The formulations are place side by side in a table, which can either be printed or exported to Microsoft Excel.

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A new Stock report has been included. In the Ingredient file it is possible to add an opening stock, the quantities of ingredient received and to then calculate a theoretical stock holding. The Update Stock button moves the stock on hand into the opening stock column, All solutions may also be exported to other software and process controller packages from this area using either the Batch Mix command or the Export Solution commands. As the requirements for this type of report differ greatly from mill to mill SPESFEED will gladly write the code required to do this for a specific application. This is usually not a complicated process and requires minimal programming. Other functionality available is the ability to Select Live feeds. This highlights all the feeds currently being manufacture. It is possible to Delete or Multiple Delete any redundant solutions at this stage.

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MODEL DETAILS
The SPESFEED EXPRESS program makes use of mathematical models to generate the nutrient requirements of animals. This short section of the manual gives a more detailed description of the models, and more importantly, the input that is required to run them. In broad terms, all of the SPESFEED models calculate the daily nutrient requirement for an animal so that a daily diet can be formulated. Before any of the models in SPESFEED EXPRESS are used, it is important to point out that the models (as do all computer programs for that matter) use specific variable names in order to carry out their calculations. In this instance, the variable names (the nutrients in particular) used are those that were supplied with the demo data for this program. If you change the variable names, it is incumbent upon you the user to indicate to the program which name you have used (see page 23 of this manual). In addition, the SPESFEED models using the nutrient units supplied with the demo data. For example, all protein requirements are expressed in grams. This requires that your data be entered into the program in g/kg otherwise the models will not ever work.

SPESFEED Dairy Model

The lactating cow model of the SPESFEED program caters for all cows in milk. Specific detail is required for a number of items, which appear below. Animal Number: This is number that is required if you wish to calculate the total feed usage of a group or herd. Cow Mass: Has a direct influence on the animals nutrient requirements and her dry matter intake. Problems will arise 47

if mass is either under or over estimated. Overestimation results in an expected dry matter intake which is higher than the cows are able to consume, while underestimating mass makes formulation with poor quality ingredients difficult and will result in unnecessarily expensive diets. Milk Production: All calculations are based on milk production. In the case of a large group use the mean milk output and an appropriate lead factor. For small groups and individual animals the highest production level should be used. A lead factor, in litres of milk, may be entered. The value used will depend on the group size and the level of milk production. A lead factor may be used as a "safety margin" for all groups. If you wish to carry out any economic modelling for a group, ensue that the milk production figure is as accurate as possible. Use the lead factor to change this for formulation purposes. Butter Fat: Milk content has a direct bearing on the nutrient requirement of the cow. Individual values may vary considerably, and it is best to use the average for the group or herd. The other important milk component used is the protein content (MP) of the milk. From this figure the Solids Non Fat (SNF) can be estimated. It is of interest that the NRC (1988) does not make any allowance for SNF. Past experience has shown that if this aspect is not considered in Jersey cows, it is easy to under estimate the animals requirements for protein and energy. Lactation Number: First and second lactation cows require additional nutrients for growth and this facility ensures that these nutrients are allocated. Lactation: First and second lactation cows require additional nutrients for growth and this facility ensures that these 48

nutrients are allocated. Do not use this option as a means of increasing the condition score of the animals. Body condition scoring: This is a subjective practice, but this facility has been included in the SPESFEED program despite this. Fat and thin cows have different nutrient requirements and will consume differing amounts of feed, and the use of condition scoring allows one to overcome the anomaly of a small framed, over weight cow which weighs the same as a thin large framed animal. In general a value of 2.5 is taken as the ideal. A value of 2 can be used for slightly thin animals, while 1 should be used for badly under conditioned animals. On the other hand, use 3 for cows that are slightly over conditioned and 4 or more for fat animals. Desirable suggested score are dry off - 3.25 to 3.5; calving 3.25 to 3.75; peak milk 2.5 to 3.0; mid lactation 2.0 to 3.0. The way in which the program handles BCS is perhaps of relevance. Body mass is adjusted according to the following formula: adjusted mass = mass/(.75 + BCS/10) Additional daily gain or loss (.18 kg/day) is added per .5 units of BCS. Temperature: The operating temperature is taken as 2/3 of the maximum and 1/3 of the minimum temperature. If a value of "zero" is used, no adjustment is made for temperature. In the case of low temperature, additional energy is made available to the animal, while under warm conditions dry matter intake is adjusted downwards. Under warm conditions it is of particular importance to feed high quality roughage as poor quality ingredient depresses feed intake further. 49

Exercise: Cows use considerable amounts of energy through normal daily exercise. Some allowance has been made for this in the program, but this is not adequate if the cow has to walk more than 1.5 km per day or if she has to climb steep hills. TMR: It is possible to adjust the DMI by a certain percentage when TMR diets are being fed. This is obviously useful for adjusting feed intake for other environmental considerations as well. It is important to note that you may use negative figures to reduce the calculated feed intake figure. Pregnancy: When a cow has been pregnant for more than 210 days, additional nutrients are model available to sustain the foetus. Moisture: The moisture level of a cows diet is important. If it is too low it inhibits intake, while on the other hand, if too high it prevents sufficient quantities of dry matter from being consumed. It is important to note that the Dry Matter and Moisture values in the feed ingredients must be entered correctly. If an ingredient is being offered on an as is basis, for example silage with a35% dry matter content, then the moisture content will be 650 g/kg. If an ingredient is being offered on a dry matter basis, for example rye grass at 100% DM, the amount of moisture consumed per kg of dry matter consumed will be determined by the amount of moisture in the ingredient. If the real moisture content is 25%, then for every kg of rye consumed on a DM basis 3kg of moisture (3000 g/kg) is also consumed. From a mathematical perspective it is difficult to take this into consideration. The user will need to make use of the Evaluate button (see below) to determine the moisture content of the diet. He/she will then need to either add moisture to dry diets, or restrict the 50

intake of high moisture ingredient such as wet brewers grains if the moisture content of the diet is too high. The estimation of feed intake is the most difficult part of working out a diet for dairy cows. The user is required to input the ingredients available to each group. These guidelines may help: Always supply the lactating cows with the best quality roughage available. In general, intake is lower in early lactation than one would expect, and increased intake often lags behind production. Estimating the dry matter intake of cows on pasture is perhaps the most difficult aspect of all. Cedara have published the following figures: HOURS GRAZING 2 3 5 8 DAY AND NIGHT Kg DM ONSUMED 3 to 4 5 to 6 7 to 8 10 12,5

These are daytime figures. Animals will consume 2/3 of their intake during the day. Always try to establish the exact moisture content of roughage as very moist ingredient may result in a depressed intake.

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Bearing the above details in mind a decision has to be made as to how much of each roughage is available to each cow. The maximum expected intake would be derived from a realistic assessment of how much of each roughage is available to each animal. If minimum values are to be used, these should be at least the amount that an animal will assuredly eat. In some cases it may be necessary to ensure that an animal consumes a minimum amount of an ingredient such as hay.

This version of the model will automatically set both a minimum roughage usage (25%), and a maximum concentrate usage (65%), based on the expected maximum dry matter intake of the cow. Roughage and concentrate values need to be entered into the ingredient analysis on a kg per kg of DM basis. An ingredient could contain both components. For example, if Wet Brewers Grain (30% DM) was considered to contain 25% roughage and 75% concentrate, then the matrix value for roughage would need to be .075 kg/kg DM and the concentrate value would be 0.225 kg/kg DM. A word of warning! These constraints can make it difficult to formulate diets for high producing cows and may well need to be relaxed (this is a nutritional problem, rather than a problem with the model or program). The problem is, that the infeasible nutrient is unlikely to be concentrate, rather one of the other nutrients (most probably energy), will not meet the desired levels. Evaluation Button: The SPESFEED Dairy model includes a component of post formulation evaluation. This would include a calculation of the expected sustainable milk production on any specific feeding program. Remember that if you have formulated according to model generated figures these figures should be in balance, but if an own mix is used, deficiencies and/or excess in the diet will be highlighted. In addition, the amount of moisture contained in the diet will be displayed, as will the percentage of roughage. In short, this function 52

serves as a expert system for the evaluation of a formulation. In addition, it will carry out an economic evaluation of the feeding system. In order to run the economic evaluation, the prices and other economic data need to be entered before the model is run.

Beef Model
The beef model has three major functions. Firstly, it calculates the nutrient requirements for a given situation. Secondly, it will predict animal performance of a specific diet and lastly it will do a complete economic evaluation of a feeding system. In order to make full use of the model, the following information is required: Animal Number: This is number is required if you wish to calculate the total feed usage of a group or herd. Animal Mass: The program allows the user to enter the actual animal mass. In addition, it will estimate the animal mass from the induction mass and the end mass should no value be entered. Average Daily Gain: The daily gain is crucial for determining the nutrient requirements of a feedlot animal. If you know what the expected ADG is use this. If you do not enter a value, the model will estimate and ADG using the Feed ME (in mega joules). Should neither of these values be enetered, it is assumed that the ADG is 1 kg per day. Condition Score: The body weight is adjusted for condition score in precisely the same way as is done in the Dairy Model, with a value of 2.5 being construed to be Normal.

Breed: It is possible to specify the of breedn animal (<1> = Angus : <2> = Afrikaner : <3> = Brahman : <4> = Charolais : <5> = Hereford : <6> = Simmentaler : <7> = Devon : <8> = Friesland : 53

<9>= Friesland Cross). It is known that different breeds have different nutrient requirements. Implant: It is possible to indicate whether an anabolic stimulant (ear implant) is being used <0> = none <1> = is used. Ionophore: The model will adjust nutrient requirements depending on which ionophore is being used (<1> = Monensin @ 33 g/ton : <2> = Monensin @ 22 g/ton : <3> = Lasalocid). Temperature: The model will adjust the expected feed intake according to the ambient temperature. If you use a value of Zero, this function will be ignored. Mud Depth: The mud depth in the feedlot has a direct effect on energy requirements and this figure may also be indicated. Sex: The sex of the animal is also required <1> = Male, <2> = Heifer and <3> = Steer. The concept of frame size is not well established in South Africa. However, by adapting American standards it has been possible to draw up a table of frame codes to be used. Code 5 is assumed to be average and if you do not wish to use this feature use this as a default. Economic Detail: In order to calculate the cost effectiveness of the feeding operation, certain economic detail need to be entered before the model is run.

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WEIGHT AT SUPER GRADE FRAME CODE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 STEERS 300 318 337 356 375 394 413 431 450 HEIFERS 265 280 297 313 330 347 363 380 396

Horse Model
A horse model has been developed based on the 2007 edition of the NRC. A new edition of the NRC has just been published and it includes the code for a computer program to calculate the nutrient requirement of the various classes of horse. It is strongly recommended that this model be run in conjunction with the NRC publication itself. Some of the features of the earlier horse model (1987), have been left out of the newest publication. It is our belief that this is an error, and we have included some of the functionality of the older model. Most notable of the features left out of the new NRC, is that the model no longer specifies a minimum roughage level in the diet. To 55

this end we have included one simple equation to calculate the minimum allowance of roughage. In essence, the roughage requirement is a minimum of 1% of the horses body weight. As with the dairy model, and feedstuff may contain a combination of roughage and concentrate. Roughage values need to be entered into the ingredient analysis on a kg per kg of DM basis as described above. The second deviation from the NRC model is that we have made an allowance for the condition score of the animal (explained below). In essence, this means that a fat animal will be treated as a smaller animal while a thin animal will be treated as a larger animal in terms of nutrients requirements. Lastly, the NRC model expects the user to enter the expected feed intake of the animal, where previously this value was calculated. We have taken the liberty of adding the default values used in Table 16 of the NRC. Another deviation that has been made from the NRC 2007, is that in SPESFEED EXPRESS we express energy in Mega Joules (MJ) and not Mega Calories (MCal). A simple conversion is used: MCal* 4,185 = MJ The exact inputs required, the conventions used and the defaults that have been applied for the model are explained below: Animal Number: This figure may be used if the total feed requirement of a stable is required. Animal Mass: The program allows the user to enter the actual horse mass as well as the expected mature mass. The NRC model requires that the expected mature mass and the horses age be entered, and it then calculates and an actual mass which is used to determine the nutrient requirement. In our experience, this is 56

perhaps not the best way to do this, and for this reason, if the user enters an actual horse mass, the program will use this figure to calculate the nutrient requirements, rather than the estimated mass as described above. Stallion: Stallions have different nutrient requirements than mares. The program allows for three options. A zero <0> indicates to the program that the animal in question is not a stallion at all. A value of <1> is used for a non-working animal where a <2> indicates to the program that a working animal is indeed being fed. Condition Score: As mentioned above, condition score is something that is not taken into account by the NRC 2007 model. However, Table 1-7 in the NRC publication displays A Condition Scoring System for Horses, with a score of 1 being a very poorly conditioned animal, a score of 5 being moderate (or normal) and a score of 9 being extremely fat. Using the same type of equation as used in the dairy model (above), we have adjusted the body weight of the animal according to its condition score. Thus, a poor (score 1) animal weighing 350 kg, would in all likelihood weigh 438 kg under normal conditions (score 5). On the other hand, a very fat animal (score 9) weighing 525 kg, would also be expected to have a normal weight of 438 kg. By adjusting the body weight back to Normal, the model will automatically determine a higher nutrient requirement for thin animals, and a lower requirement for fat animals. If you do not enter a body condition score value (use a 0) or you use a Normal value of 5, the model will not make this adjustment. Age: The age in months is required to calculate both the expected weight at any age, and the nutrient requirements for an animal of a certain age. If you are feeding a growing animal, it is essential that you enter the age as this is the only way in which the model can determine that you are feeding a growing animal. 57

Expected Gain: The model will calculate the expected gain of the animal, along with the expected weight. If you enter and actual value is will over-write the model generated value. Expected Intake: As mentioned above, the program will use default values if no value is entered. Maintenance Level: Animals that are not pregnant, lactating, growing of performing work are often considered to be in a physiological state of maintenance. The amount of dietary energy needed to prevent a change in the total energy contained in the body of an animal (determined by its weight and condition score), can be considered to be the maintenance requirement. Many factors impact on the maintenance requirement of a horse, including breed, size, age, body composition (condition score) and environmental conditions. The NRC suggest that minimum <1>, average <2>, and elevated <3> be used as guides in formulating diets for maintenance horses and that adjustments be made to meet individual situations. This is where the nutritionists skill and experience comes in to play, but it is suggested that for normal circumstances the average be used. This is the programs default value. Work Load: The work load of a horse is determined on an individual basis by its oxygen demand. This is impacted on by its body weight, the weight of the rider and the individual work program. For practicality, the NRC suggests that four categories of work (shown in Table 1-10) be used. These are <1> light, <2> moderate, <3> heavy and <4> very heavy workloads.

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Table: Weekly Workloads of Horses (NRC, 2007)

Exercise Category Light Heart Rate (beats/min) 80 Description 1-3 hours/week. trot, 10% canter. 50% Types of Events Recreational riding Beginning of training Show horse (occasional) School horses Recreational riding Breaking Polo Ranch work Polo Show horse (frequent) Evening Race training (middle stage) Racing Elite 3-day event

Moderate

90

3-5 hours/week. 30% walk, 55% trot, 10% canter, 5% low jumping 4-5 hours/week. 20% walk, 50% trot, 15% canter, 15% gallop and skill work 1 hours speed work to 6 12 hours slow work.

Heavy

110

Very Heavy

110-150

Pregnancy and Lactation: Breeding mares require additional nutrients for both the conceptus and for lactation. The model requires the stage of both of these important physiological activities in order to calculate the correct nutrient requirement. Table 16 of the NRC publication is a little confusing, in that the weight of the conceptus is added to the weight of the mature horse in the table. This means that it is difficult to compare the model generated figures with those published in the table. Rest assured that we have checked the model calculations under these conditions and that they are indeed correct.

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Appendix I EFFECTIVE FEED FORMULATION FOR FEED MILLERS AND FARMERS

Feed formulation is the means by which commercial nutritionists apply both their technical and commercial skills in practice. Although formulation is a science rather than an art form, more experienced formulators who have developed gut feel tend to be more effective. By employing the correct formulation skills and techniques the nutritionist can bring about cost savings and/or improvements in animal performance. These two aspects can make huge differences to the overall profitability of both milling companies and integrators. Although the objectives of feed formulation for feed millers and integrators may differ, with the former being more concerned about maintaining product quality at as low a cost as possible and the latter being concerned with maximizing profit in the animal production enterprise, the same basic principles apply. The nutritionist needs to carefully consider what she/he is currently doing with regards formulation techniques, the ingredients used, matrix values and feed specifications. This article will consider some general thoughts on feed formulation and will then deal with some formulation techniques. It covers some of the more commercial aspects of ingredient usage and will highlight some of the nutritional aspects that should be considered. The complete formulator needs to have competences in each of these areas.

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General Aspects:

New perspectives: Firman (2003), points out that many nutritionists

are relatively speaking, self-taught with regards feed formulation. It is simply not possible for Universities and Colleges to provide the kind of experience that a commercial formulator requires. Experience usually takes a number of years and many hundreds of formulations to achieve. However, it is possible to have 5 years experience, (one year 5 times over) and never be exposed to other ideas. As a result it is easy for a formulator to get in a rut and not look at other ways of doing things. A new perspective is always valuable. Concerns about the sensitivity of a companys data (secrecy) often prevent any meaningful exchange of ideas from taking place. In reality there are few secrets in our industry, only different perspectives on similar problems. Interaction is essential.

Administration: In an age where the paper trial and traceability

have become all important, it is essential that the formulator has the correct tools, both electronic or otherwise, to maintain full traceability of all that she/he does.

Keep it simple: It is true that modern feed formulation systems

allow the nutritionist to use an almost limitless number of nutrient constraints. It is also possible to constrain nutrients in terms of ratios, use them to constrain groups of ingredients or in some cases to use them as a non-nutritional (dummy) variable. However, all of these additional constraints can and do cost money. Not only is it sometimes difficult to understand exactly how much money ratios cost for example, but if large numbers of constraints are used it is almost impossible to check them meaningfully.

Regular revision: When things are going well we tend to forget to

reevaluate our formulations. They may not need to be changed, but a regular evaluation of ingredient costs, ingredient quality and ultimate animal performance is always a good idea. Always use your most experienced nutritionists to check the work of the formulator. 61

Feed formulation is an interactive process, and I do not believe that it is possible to re-evaluate your formulations simply by making use of a printed report. It is essential that the more experienced individuals get their hands dirty and actually spend time on the formulation system.

Check all formulations:

It is tempting to assume that computer generated formulations are correct. Nothing could be further from the truth. A formulation may well meet its nutritional constraints, but may be completely wrong from a cost perspective. More dangerously, it may well exceed a set constraint by several fold. All formulations should be checked, either by some form of intelligent software, such as Format Internationals Biosecurity module, and/or by hand. Make sure that each formulation conforms in the following manner: Compare the current cost with that of the previous formulation. A huge variation often indicates a problem with the formulation. Ensure that all nutrients fall within with normal nutrient tolerances. Often a nutrient that has been over included indicates a problem elsewhere. Ensure that no harmful ingredients have been included, such as urea in a pig or poultry diet. Ensure that premix and medication inclusion is correct.

Feed Formulation Technique:

Use a limited number of constraints:

Nutrient and ingredient constraints are part of the formulation process. Each limiting constraint leads to an increase in the cost of the diet. Constraints can always be added back after we have seen the effects that they have on cost.

Examine sensitivity data:

Those nutrient constraints that are costing a lot in a formulation will always have a high reduced cost 62

or sensitivity. In most cases the nutritionist would not want to change these as any change would be construed as stealing out of the bag. However, there are instances when a redundant maximum constraint - for example, crude fibre in a broiler diet, can result in a significant increase in cost. Bearing in mind the high variability in fibre determination, we need to make sure that using a fibre maximum is really justified.

Remove redundant constraints: The nutritionist should always be

sure to remove any redundant constraints. For example, if you are formulating diets on a digestible amino acid basis, be sure to remove any total amino acid constraints these will only cost you money without improving animal performance.

Safety margins: Safety margins are a commonly used method of

ensuring that all nutrient requirements are being met. They are ways of overcoming the variation in nutrient levels through a variety of mostly uncontrolled factors. By reducing the variability of ingredients (buying from a single source for example) or accurately monitoring incoming ingredient quality, they can be reduced or eliminated. Variability can be further reduced by accurate weighing and batching and complete mixing.

Look for pressure points: When an ingredient or nutrient bumps up

against a constraint there is often a reason. This may well have to do with the specification of the diet itself, but equally could be caused by an error in the matrix. Check your matrix for those nutrients that are limiting and make sure that the values used are within normal tolerances. Ingredients:

that we supply our animals with nutrients, rather than on an ingredients basis. Ingredients should be viewed as a means of providing digestible nutrients at the correct levels. Always start 63

Use all Ingredients: The most important concept of formulation is

the formulation process with as many ingredient choices as possible. This would include unusual bi-products, purified ingredients such as amino acids and any other alternatives available. Remember though that additional ingredients complicate mill management and have a way of increasing the working capital requirements. Dealing with unusual ingredients does present challenges in that the exact nutrient composition of the ingredient is often unknown. If this is the case, it is perhaps better not to use it.

Ingredients must conform: A diet is only as good as the ingredients

used in its manufacture. All of our ingredients must conform to the quality parameters we set in short, know your ingredients. These would include nutrient content and variability, the physical form of the ingredient and its biological quality. Know the origin of your ingredients! You need to know not just the country, but the factory of origin as well. Poor quality ingredients are probably the single biggest cause of feed related losses.

Use the correct prices when formulating: Although open to debate,

it is always good practice to formulate your diets using the replacement costs of different ingredients. There is a simple reason for doing this. If, for example, if the price of an ingredient suddenly increases, it is a) likely that the ingredient is in short supply and b) the value of any stock that you are carrying is worth significantly more than it was previously. If you formulate at a lower price, you run the danger of over using what is in effect a scarce and expensive resource. Obviously, exactly the opposite will apply when the price of an ingredient softens dramatically.

Use the correct ingredients in the correct diets: Under commercial

conditions, ingredients may be in short supply, or very expensive which is much the same thing. The nutritionist therefore needs to decide where best to use restricted ingredients. For example, if Full Fat Soybean supplies are limited, it makes little sense to use it in Broiler Starter or Layer diets rather use it in high density Broiler Grower and Finisher diets. The use of Multi-Mix 64

techniques eliminates the guesswork from this particular aspect. It allows for the optimization of an entire range of diets, simultaneously considering their relative volumes together with ingredient availability and cost. Use of Multi-Mix technology gives the feed miller an overall picture of the business and allows for meaningful ingredient purchasing strategies to be developed. Experience has shown that the use of Multi-Mix will reduce overall feed costs by 2 to 3%.

Make use of ranging data: Modern feed formulation programs will

mostly show a Range of ingredient costs between which the formulation will not change. The nutritionist can use this information for both buying and formulation decisions. The use of some form of parametric evaluation may be useful in this instance. Parametric evaluation is a technique whereby a number of formulations to be carried out over a range of prices. It is possible to draw step supply curves with this information to better understand the impact that changing cost will have not only on an individual diet, but also the whole feed milling operation.

Use enough premixes: For logistical reasons we are often tempted

to use a limited range of premixes. Ideally, we should use different premixes for every diet, so realizing significant savings. For example, we tend to use a Broiler Grower premix in Broiler Finisher diets as a routine practice. This practice has no nutritional basis and is an expensive practice. Nutritional Aspects: There are a number of techniques that fall under the heading Use the Correct Feed Specifications. This is a huge topic and will only be dealt with briefly. In practical terms, nutritionists are often faced with a dilemma of choosing which diets to feed. The breeding companies (who supply the genotypes that we use) publish values but they make little allowance for maximizing returns or for local conditions. Other sources would include recent scientific literature 65

and old standards such as the NRC (1994). Mostly, these are of little help, because nutritionists are either interested in the level of animal performance that will lead to maximum profit, or in formulating diets that will allow their companies to compete in the market place. All decisions regarding feed specifications need to be made bearing these two aspects in mind.

Evaluate and use feed additives carefully: There are a wide range
of feed additives on the market. Although they may not always show the type of response that nutritionists like to see, or represent good value for money, ignore them at your peril. A good example of a new additive is phytase. This is an ingredient that has allowed for a reduction of the phosphorus levels in our diets at considerable cost saving. As a rule of thumb - for every Euro spent on an additive, expect a two Euro return.

Use meaningful nutrients: Costs can be reduced by using the

appropriate nutrient profiles when formulating. Formulating diets using digestible amino acid constraints is now widely practiced. This saves money and makes using alternative ingredients easier and more predictable in terms of animal performance. It also enables us to more accurately determine and meet the animals nutrient requirements. The use of more advanced energy systems, such as the Net Energy system for pigs will lead to additional savings.

Use enough diets: Using the correct number of phases allows us to

meet the animals changing requirement for nutrients as they age. In broad terms phase feeding eliminates the over and undersupply of protein and energy during the different life stages. Increasing the number of phases leads to reduced feeding costs and improved animal performance. However, the greater the number of different diets used on a farm, the greater the chance is of mistakes being made.

Use the correct nutrient density:

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Diets that contain a high nutrient density (high in energy and amino acids) often result in the

best growth and technical performance. However, these diets may not always result in the most profitable production systems. It is therefore essential to consider the value of enhanced performance relative to the cost of the diet. The optimum nutrient density is circumstance unique and should thus be determined for each production system.

Reduce crude protein constraints: The NRC protein constraint for a

Turkey Starter ration is 28%. This can be safely reduced by several percentage units. The same can be shown in the case of laying hens. Do not to reduce the protein specification of broiler diets too much as current research shows that there is a finite requirement for protein relative to lysine (amino acid).

Examine Calcium and Phosphorus levels: From a nutritional

perspective, Ca and P are regarded together. There is increasing pressure to reduce the levels of P in animal waste: as a result of which there is a large amount of research currently being carried out in this regard. From this, it would appear that for most monogastric animals the levels of P that are currently being used in our diets are too high. There are sound reasons for reducing P and Ca levels in all of our diets. However, the latest data being published by the breeding companies is at odds with these findings, with most companies increasing their recommendations for Ca and P.

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Appendix II HOARD'S RULES OF THUMB FOR DAIRY FEEDING How much cows should eat?
Cows should be eating at least 4 percent of their body weight (BW) per day at peak intake. Example: 600 kg cow x 0.04 = 24 kilograms dry matter intake per day. Cows milked three times per day will eat about 5 to 6 percent more dry matter per day than if milked twice. With proper feeding, estimate dry matter intake in kilograms as : DMI (kg) = A x .02 BW + 0.3 FCM\day + B gain\day; where A (days in milk adjustment) = 1.0 - 0.2 x [(80-DIM)/80], FCM (4% fat-corrected milk) = (kg milk x % fat ) 15, and B (gain adjustment) = 1.0 if the cow is gaining weight and 0 if losing weight. Example: DMI for a 600 kg cow milking 45 kilograms of 4% milk, 70 days in milk and losing weight = {1.0 - 0.2[(80-70)80]} x 0.02 (600) + 0.3(45) + 0 = .975 x 12 + 13.5 + 0 = 25.2 kilograms DMI per day. For every 2 kg of expected milk production, cows should eat at least 1 kg of dry matter. Eating less than this causes excessive body condition loss and caws more prone to metabolic disorders. Cows will usually eat after milking, so have fresh feed available in the feed bunk or manger immediately to encourage total DMI. High producing cows will eat up to 12 meals per day each 68

averaging 23 minutes. Adapt your feeding program to the eating behaviour of your cows. If possible, have a separate milking/feeding group for first calvers. First calvers will spend 10 to 15 percent more time eating when housed separately from older cows. The best total ration dry matter is between 50 and 75 percent. Wetter or drier rations limit consumption. If silage is fed heavily, expect dry matter intake to decline 0.02 percent of body weight for every 1 percentage unit increase in total ration moisture above 50 percent. This is due to wetter feeds fermenting longer and raising acid levels and protein degradation products. Example: 60% moisture ration - 50% upper limit = 10 x 0.0002 x 600 kg cow = 1.2 kg less DMI/day causing up to a 2.5 to 3 kg drop in daily milk. If fermented feeds constitute a major portion of the diet, the amount of dry matter should be reduced by 0.02 kg/100 kg of liveweight for each 1 percent increase in the diet moisture content above 50 percent. If using a TMR mixer with weigh scales, check silage moisture on a routine weekly basis with a microwave and gram scale to ensure weighing in the proper amount of silage dry matter. Provide a chart in the feed room as to how much silage to add, depending on silage moisture levels. Silage moisture changes can alter the roughage : concentrate ratio of the ration causing offfeed and lowered fat test. If intakes are below normal, begin by checking the non-fibre carbohydrate (NFC) and fibre length and levels in the ration. Also, check water intake and whether feed is mouldy. Expect cows to reduce dry matter consumption about 2.7 percent for every 1o rise in temperature over 24o. Cows begin to 69

experience heat stress when temperature exceeds 27 o or relative humidity exceeds 80 percent.1 Provide clean water within 15 meters of the feed bunk. Expect cows to drink about 4 litres for each kilogram of milk. If you have electric fences or water heaters in winter then periodically check waterers for stray voltage. If water tests indicate high bacterial counts, consider water chlorination. Consider feed bunk\manger design. Cows spend more time eating, waste less feed and produce more saliva to buffer the rumen when forced to eat in a grazing-like, head-down position. Feed at least 60 percent of the ration at night during hot weather. Silage pH (acidity) should be less than 4.2 for maize or cereal silage and less than 5.0 for legume silage. Silage with higher pH (less acid) are more prone to excessive spoilage and poor bunk life. Feeds with mould counts in excess of 10 000 colony forming units (cfu) per gram may cause digestive upsets. Counts are of little use unless the individual moulds are identified. Mould growth does not automatically indicate mycotoxins are present. Test for mycotoxins if dangerous mould populations have been identified in the feed. Feed should be available to cows at least 20 hours per day. Try to manage so it takes less than 3 hours total per day to feed cows. Provide each cow 600 to 750 mm of bunk space. Sweep feed bunks or mangers clean daily, especially during hot weather.

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Encourage eating by sweeping up feed, routinely getting cows up to eat and providing periods of light during evening hours. Income over feeds costs is a more important profitability measure than simply monitoring feed costs per litre of milk.

Look at peaks
Cows should peak in milk in 8 to 10 weeks. First calvers peak a week or two later than older cows and have greater persistency. First calvers should peak within 25 percent of older cows. For each extra l kilogram of milk at peak a cow will produce 200 - 225 kilograms more milk for the entire lactation. If cows are peaking well but not persistent, check energy. After peak milk, first calvers will drop about 0.2 percent milk per day, and older cows will drop about 0.3 percent milk per day (or 3 percent every 10 days). High-genetic-potential cows tend to peak higher, reach that peak later and show more persistency. Summit milk (average of highest two milk yields during first three Official milk recording tests) should be within 2.5 kg of the average milk yield of all cows fresh less than 100 days. Greater differences indicate problems with maintaining early-lactation production. Milk protein:fat ratios should be near 0.90 for Brown Swiss and Milking Shorthorns, 0.85 to 0.88 for Holstein and Ayrshires and near 0.80 for Guernseys and Jerseys. Higher values could indicate fat test problems. Lower values could mean protein 71

test problems from too much fat or too little total or undegradable protein in the ration. When feeding to improve milk components, milk fat will respond the most, protein will change much less and lactose will hardly change at all. To maximise milk protein, rumen microflora must provide adequate protein\amino acid production to the small intestine. Watch protein ration levels, degradable intake protein (DIP); soluble intake protein (SIP); undegradable intake protein (UIP) and rumen fermentable carbohydrates (NFC). This will help reduce protein problems associated with supplementing fat. To boost butterfat test, maximise roughage intakes and the digestibility of roughages by harvesting at proper maturities. The better the quality of roughages, the larger portion of the ration they will be able to provide. Also watch "effective fibre" so cud chewing is maintained to buffer the rumen. To improve butterfat test, balance the types of carbohydrates and their degradation rates. For example: Barley is more quickly fermented in the rumen than maize. Monitoring ration fibre levels and feed sequencing can help offset potential rumen acidosis problems with rapidly degraded grain or commodity feeds. To maintain butterfat test through the heat of the summer, encourage roughage intakes by keeping feed fresh in the feed bunk, feeding more during evenings and considering additives such as direct-fed microbials and yeast cultures which can improve roughage intake and digestibility. Buffers also can compensate for reduced buffering from lowered roughage intake during hot weather.

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Target protein levels ...

Provide 180 to 190g/kg crude protein (CP) in the total ration dry matter. Excess protein is costly, will not significantly raise protein test and may reduce breeding efficiency. Provide 60 to 65 percent of the entire ration CP as degradable intake protein (DIP). Provide soluble intake protein (SIP) levels to equal about half (34 to 32 percent of CP) of the DIP levels. This ensures readily available nitrogen for rumen bacterial growth. Provide undegraded (bypass) intake protein (UIP) levels of 35 to 40 percent in the total ration CP. The upper range is suggested if feeding supplemental fat. Fat is not metabolised in the rumen, thus reducing nutrients for microbial growth. To make up for less microbial protein flow to the intestines, higher levels of bypass protein are required. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels exceeding 25 mg percent 2 or milk urea nitrogen (MUN) levels over 20 mg percent, may indicate improper ration formulation for degradable and undegradable protein. Conception may be affected. In maize silage or maize-based rations, restrict maize by-product feeds as a source of undegraded protein. Consider carcass meal, blood meal, Full fat Soya or dried brewers' grains to provide potentially limiting amino acids such as lysine and methionine. Commercial "blends" of protein sources attempt to prevent amino acid deficiencies. For cows milking more than 34 kg of 4 percent fat-corrected milk per day (36 kg, 37 percent), consider providing 0.5 kg of

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protein from an animal or marine source to lower the risk of amino acid and peptide deficiencies. Silages with nitrate levels up to 400 mg/kg nitrate - nitrogen should be diluted with other low-nitrate feeds to achieve 1000 mg/kg or less concentration in the total ration available to cattle.

Fibre for rumen health...

Roughage dry matter consumption should be near 2 percent of the cow's body weight (BW). Example: 600 kg cow x 0.02 = 12 kg dry matter from roughages. Provide at least 19 - 21 percent acid detergent fibre (ADF) in the total ration. Levels at 17 percent are adequate for high-maize silage-based rations or herds using total mixed rations. Provide at least 280 to 300 g/kg neutral detergent fibre (NDF) levels in the total ration. Make sure that roughages provide at least 210 g/kg NDF in the total ration DM. Boost this to 240 g/kg if maize silage makes up more than one-quarter of total roughage dry matter. Example: If roughage in the ration average 440 g/kg NDF, then 210 x 100 / 440 = 47.7% of the total ration DM should come from roughages. Roughage NDF should be about 0.9 percent of body weight. Example: 600kg cow x 0.009 = 5.4 kg of ration NDF supplied by roughages. Make sure that 65 to 75 percent of the total ration NDF is supplied by roughages. 74

The maximum kilograms of total ration NDF should be about 1.25 percent of BW. Example : 600 kg cow x .0125 = 7.5 kg NDF. 7.5 kg/total DMI = upper limit for NDF in the ration. 7500 g NDF/24 kg typical DMI = 310 g/kg upper limit for NDF in the total ration. Exceeding these NDF levels may result in lower dry matter consumption. Provide at least 2.5 kg of fibre per day (by weight) that is more than 40 mm long. Underfeeding of "effective" fibre can cause off-feed and milk fat test problems. Rumen pH should be above 6.0. A lower pH (more acid) could limit fibre digestion and protein synthesis, and the potential for acidosis could cause reduced feed intake. Fibre particles should be long enough to stimulate 30 minutes of cud chewing time per kilogram of dry matter. This will provide a cow eating 24 kg of dry matter with 130 - 150 litres of saliva production to buffer the rumen environment. Silages should be chopped at 10 to 12 mm theoretical length of cut (TLC) to ensure that 15 - 20 percent of the silage particles are more than 40 mm long. Finer-chopped silages do pack better in storage structures, but high silage based rations need adequate particle length to stimulate rumen buffering from cud chewing based rations need adequate particle length to stimulate rumen buffering from cud chewing.

Sodium bicarbonate, or its buffer equivalent should be added at 0.75 percent of the total ration dry matter, especially in high-maize-silage or high-moisture-corn rations. Example: 24 kg of dry matter x 0.0075 = 0.180 kg or 180 grams/cow/day.

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To meet energy needs ...

Energy density of your top cow ration should be up to 7.2 MJ, net energy of lactation (NE) per kg of dry matter in rations containing no added fat, up to 7.36 MJ NE for rations with added fat and up to 7.55 MJ NE, for rations adding ruminally inert (bypass) fat. In ME terms these ration densities are 11.4, 11.68 and 11.98 MJ ME/kg DM. If you're lead feeding, cows should be eating 2.5 to 3.5 kg of concentrates at calving. Boost concentrates 0.5 to 1 kg per day, from three days after calving until you have reached desired concentrate levels. Don't feed more than 2.3 to 3 kg of concentrate at any feeding. This reduces the changes in rumen acidity and prevents offfeed problems. At less than 18 kg milk, concentrate intake for Holsteins and Brown Swiss should be about 0.5 kg concentrate (as fed) per 2 kg milk, between 18 and 32 kg it should be near 0.5 kg concentrate for each 1.5 kg milk and above 32 kg it should be near 0.5 kg concentrate for each 1.25 kg milk. Higher-solids breeds should receive about 0.5 kg concentrate per 1.5 kg milk (up to 14 kg milk), 0.5 kg concentrate per 1.25 kg milk (14 to 27 kg) and 0.5 kg concentrate per 1 kg milk (over 27 kg). Concentrate intake should not exceed 60 percent of ration dry matter. If too much maize passes undigested into the manure, check concentrate level, extent of processing and harvest maturity (harvest maize silage at 1/2 to 2/3 milkline). Also check levels of DIP and SIP protein (important to rumen bacteria) and 76

amount of fibre intake that's more than 40 mm long (important for the rumen mat). Provide non-fibre carbohydrate (NFC) levels of 35 to 42 percent in the total ration. NFC (by difference) = 100 - (% crude protein + % NDF + % fat + % ash). Providing excess sugars and easily fermented carbohydrates can result in acidosis and fat test problems. Provide between 30 to 40 percent starch in the total ration. Manure pH levels should not be less than 6.0. Lower pH (more acid) mean excess starch is escaping the rumen and being fermented in the small intestines. Consider feeding added fat to cows milking more than 34 kg of 4 percent FCM milk per day (36 kg, 3.7 percent). As production rises, it becomes more difficult for cows to physically consume enough feed to meet energy requirements. Older cows generally will respond better than 2 year olds. Fat levels in excess of 5 to 6 percent of the ration are not recommended during the first five weeks of lactation. Supplement the first 100 g in the transition ration, up to a 450 g at freshening and, if needed additional fat after five weeks in milk.

Limit total fat to no more than 7 - 1/2 percent of the ration dry matter. Example: 1.8 kg total fat in the ration per 25 kg typical DMI = 7.2 %. Too much fat interferes with fibre digestion and lowers fat test. Provide the same amount of fat in the ration as kilograms of butterfat produced. Example: 45 kg milk per day x 4 % fat = 1.8 kg butterfat and 1.8 kg total fat in the ration. 77

Provide one-third of fat in the ration from normal ration feeds, one-third from oilseeds or fats and one-third from rumen inert (bypass) fats. Example: If 1. 8 kg of fat are to be provided in the ration, about 1.8 x 33 % = 590 g of fat should be from oilseeds such as whole cottonseed or Soya beans. If Soya beans are 20 percent fat, then 590 g/20% = 2.95 kg whole Soya beans in the ration. Any additional fat should be provided by commercially available inert courses because they bypass the rumen. Boost calcium to 1 percent and magnesium to 0.3 percent of ration dry matter when feeding supplemental fat. Fats bind with calcium reducing calcium and magnesium availability.

If feeding a TMR...
Total mixed rations (TMR's) conservatively can result in 1 kg more fat-corrected milk per day for older cows and up to 1.8 kg more milk in first calvers from improved feed consumption and utilisation. This will vary, depending upon the feeding program before switching to a TMR. A "poor man's TMR" consisting of blending roughages and multiple feedings of concentrates (3 to 4 x per day) can approximate the benefits of a TMR mixer. However, it is not quite as efficient or precise and may not allow for using or masking of more unpalatable commodity feeds. TMR mixers generally pay for themselves in 12 to 18 months through more milk, lower feed costs and improved animal digestive health. TMR's are only as good as the quality of the individual feed components. Roughage quality and feed bunklife still are critically important. 78

Base mixer capacity on 60 to 70 percent of the struck level capacity with a minimum requirement of 0.25 cubic meters per cow, assuming two feedings per day. Recommended mixing two feedings per day. Recommended mixing time is 3 to 6 minutes. Have magnets at feed-outs. Accurate scales are a must, and silage moisture should be monitored weekly. Several manufacturers have mixers with knives that permit the use of unchopped, long-stemmed hay. Using a single-group, TMR system in herds above 9000 kg milk may offer advantages in feeding simplicity, labour, cow movement and production potential but will result in more costly use of special ingredient and has the potential over condition some cows. Having two milking groups and a single dry group is workable for most herds. This also can be easily adapted to a tie stall barn by the use of a mechanised feed cart. To prevent digestive upsets, there should be a 15 percent change in nutrient density between TMR groups. Early-lactation cows will rebound from off-feed problems and re-establish production much more quickly and easily than mid to late-lactation cows. Cows moved to a new TMR group in later lactation usually drop in milk more than cows moved in early lactation. A workable system proven overseas challenges all cows for 45 days to establish milk potential. High-potential cows are maintained in the high group, and low cows are shifted to a lower TMR group.

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