(c) crown copyright

Catalogue Reference:cab/66/56/20

Image Reference:0001

s o

^-

THIS DOCUMENT IS T H E P R O P E R T Y OF H I S BRITANNIC M A J E S T Y ' 8 GOVERNM ENT

9 2

Printed

for the War Cabinet.

October

1944.
m

T h e circulation of this paper h a s been strictly limited, for the personal use of . T ^ r r V ? f ^ f ^ T ^ ^ TOP S E C R E T W . P . ( 4 4 ) 570. 13th October, 1944. YIAR CABINET. ,

i t is issued

Copy N o .

31

S.O.E.

ASSISTANCE

TO

" OVERLORD."

M E M O R A N D U M BY T H E M I N I S T E R O F E C O N O M I C W A R F A R E .

I t h i n k t h a t my colleagues w o u l d be i n t e r e s t e d to see t h e a t t a c h e d a c c o u n t of the c o n t r i b u t i o n m a d e by S.O.E. a n d t h e p a t r i o t a r m i e s t o " O v e r l o r d . " 2. I n p r e s e n t i n g it, I s h o u l d l i k e to p a y a t r i b u t e to t h e zeal a n d a b i l i t y -with w h i c h t h e officers of my D e p a r t m e n t h a v e l a b o u r e d these f o u r y e a r s t o achieve such r e s u l t s , a n d also t o m y p r e d e c e s s o r , M r . D a l t o n , u n d e r w h o s e a u s p i c e s the f o u n d a t i o n s of t h i s n o w very l a r g e o r g a n i s a t i o n w e r e l a i d .
S.

Ministry

of Economic Warfare, 13th October, 1944.

W. 1,

THE

TASK.

S.O.E. c a m e i n t o e x i s t e n c e a s t h e r e s u l t of a W a r C a b i n e t M e m o r a n d u m of the 1 9 t h J u l y , 1940,* w h i c h c o m b i n e d u n d e r t h e M i n i s t e r of E c o n o m i c W a r f a r e the t h r e e s e p a r a t e D e p a r t m e n t s f o r m e r l y i n t e r e s t e d in S a b o t a g e w o r k , a n d l a i d clown t h a t the n e w o r g a n i s a t i o n w a s " T o c o - o r d i n a t e a l l a c t i o n , by w a y of s u b version a n d s a b o t a g e , a g a i n s t t h e e n e m y o v e r s e a s . " I n c a r r y i n g o u t t h i s w o r k S.O.E. w o u l d receive t h e c o - o p e r a t i o n of t h e Services I n t e l l i g e n c e D e p a r t m e n t s and of S . I . S . , w o u l d be r e s p o n s i b l e for o b t a i n i n g t h e a g r e e m e n t of t h e F o r e i g n Office or o t h e r M i n i s t r i e s to o p e r a t i o n s likely t o affect t h e i r i n t e r e s t s , a n d b y close liaison w i t h t h e C h i e f s of Staff w o u l d e n s u r e t h a t t h e p l a n n i n g of i r r e g u l a r operations w a s i n s t e p w i t h t h e g e n e r a l s t r a t e g i c a l c o n d u c t of t h e w a r . 2. So w i d e a d i r e c t i v e h a s led t o t h e g r a d u a l b u i l d u p of a l a r g e G o v e r n m e n t D e p a r t m e n t w i t h m a n y r a m i f i c a t i o n s , i n w h i c h officers f r o m t h e N a v y , A r m y a n d Air Force h a v e c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h d i p l o m a t i s t s , s c i e n t i s t s , e n g i n e e r s a n d civil servants, p e r m a n e n t a s well as t e m p o r a r y . U n d e r g r o u n d w a r f a r e w a s a n u n k n o w n art in E n g l a n d in 1 9 4 0 ; t h e r e w e r e n o t e x t - b o o k s for n e w c o m e r s , n o old h a n d s t o initiate them i n t o e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e l a s t w a r . A n e w t e c h n i q u e h a d to be evolved and lessons h a d to be l e a r n e d i n t h e h a r d school of p r a c t i c e . N e w i n s t r u m e n t s a n d weapons h a d to be i n v e n t e d , a n d for t h i s r e s e a r c h s t a t i o n s a n d f a c t o r i e s h a d t o be provided. B r i t i s h subject;? w i t h i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e of the o c c u p i e d t e r r i t o r i e s had to be collected a n d t a u g h t t h e i r j o b . A b o v e all, n a t i v e s of those c o u n t r i e s h a d to be o b t a i n e d , t e s t e d a n d t r a i n e d .
INITIAL STEPS.

3. I t w a s e v i d e n t f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g t h a t S.O.E. could n o t h o p e to fulfil i t s directive w i t h o u t t h e s y m p a t h y a n d c o - o p e r a t i o n of t h e e x i l e d G o v e r n m e n t s of

* W . P . (40) 271.

[28366]

the occupied countries, a n d every effort w a s t h e r e f o r e m a d e to i m p r e s s u p o n them the possibilities a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e of subversive w a r f a r e . T h i s was not a l w a y s a n easy task when d e a l i n g w i t h M i n i s t e r s more accustomed to, and more i n t e r e s t e d in, political a n d p r o p a g a n d a w o r k t h a n in c l a n d e s t i n e sabotage a n d p a r a m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s ; b u t as c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w i t h occupied E u r o p e were r e - e s t a b l i s h e d , ' t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e r e s i s t a n c e feeling became a p p a r e n t , a n d by 1942 S.O.E. could count on the co-operation of all t h e a u t h o r i t i e s r e p r e s e n t i n g the oppressed peoples.
4. T h e f o u n d a t i o n s of a n y p l a n for b u i l d i n g u p resistance a c t i v i t y were c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d supplies. W / T o p e r a t o r s w e r e a m o n g t h e first A g e n t s to be d e s p a t c h e d to occupied c o u n t r i e s , t h e i r messages a t first being h a n d l e d by S.I.S. T h i s traffic, however, increased so much t h a t in 1942 S.O.E. established its own s i g n a l s s t a t i o n s to h a n d l e it. A t t h e t i m e of Overlord " we h a d a very large n u m b e r of W / T sets in o p e r a t i o n in N o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n d a s m a n y as 260 messages w e r e b e i n g received i n a day, i n c r e a s i n g by D + 80 t o 720 p e r d a y . A staff of 350 o p e r a t o r s a n d c y p h e r i n e s w a s necessary to deal w i t h t h i s from three specially c o n s t r u c t e d s t a t i o n s i n E n g l a n d . B u t in 1941 t h e commencement was on a very humble' scale. O t h e r m e t h o d s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n were a very limited courier a n d p a s s e n g e r traffic m a i n t a i n e d by " p i c k - u p " o p e r a t i o n s : a Lysander or a H u d s o n l a n d i n g in F r a n c e w a s able to b r i n g back not only a g e n t s b u t also p a p e r s a n d r e p o r t s w h i c h could n o t be t r a n s m i t t e d by W / T . " Landlines " ( t h a t is to say, c h a i n s of " safe " houses a n d couriers) for the p a s s a g e of S.O.E. a g e n t s a n d p a p e r s were also established a n d controlled by a Section specialising in c l a n d e s t i n e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s .
EECEPTION COMMITTEES.

5. S u p p l i e s of a r m s a n d sabotage e q u i p m e n t were sent both by sea a n d by a i r . B y M . T . B . , fishing b o a t a n d fellucca stores w e r e delivered in bulk, particu l a r l y . t o N o r w a y and, in the e a r l y years, to F r a n c e ; b u t t h e difficulties of this m e t h o d of t r a n s p o r t , e n h a n c e d by t h e i n c r e a s i n g G e r m a n s u r v e i l l a n c e of the coastal a r e a s , r e s t r i c t e d t h e o u t p u t a n d served t o p u t the e m p h a s i s o n supply by a i r . T h i s in itself involved a developed o r g a n i s a t i o n on t h e g r o u n d , to lay o n t h e o p e r a t i o n by W / T a n d t o p r o v i d e a " r e c e p t i o n c o m m i t t e e " to control a n d l i g h t u p t h e g r o u n d , a n d t o dispose of the c o n t a i n e r s . 6. T h e r e c e p t i o n c o m m i t t e e h a d to be c a r e f u l l y t r a i n e d . I t s p i v o t was the o r g a n i s e r , a n d second to h i m only, t h e W / T o p e r a t o r , w h o himself h a d undergone m o n t h s of t r a i n i n g in E n g l a n d w h i c h i n c l u d e d not only morse b u t also codes, security, m a i n t e n a n c e a n d self-defence. T h e o r g a n i s e r , h a v i n g collected his team of p a t r i o t s , a n d i n s t r u c t e d them, selected a reception g r o u n d f a r from any b u i l d i n g s a n d w h i c h t h e R . A . F . h a d to a p p r o v e . T h e n all a r r a n g e m e n t s were m a d e by W / T between t h e o r g a n i s e r a n d S.O.E. L o n d o n for t h e delivery. The o r g a n i s e r would s t i p u l a t e w h a t " s t o r e s " h e r e q u i r e d , so m a n y sten guns, explosive c h a r g e s , W / T sets, telephone w i r e c u t t e r s , silent pistols, t i m e fuses, i n c e n d i a r i e s , &c. These h a d t o be carefully p a c k e d i n t h e S.O.E. p a c k i n g station in specially c o n s t r u c t e d " c o n t a i n e r s " d e s i g n e d to fit i n t o t h e bomb-racks of a i r c r a f t a n d a t t a c h e d to p a r a c h u t e s . They m e a s u r e d 5 feet 8 inches by 15 inches, c o n t a i n e d e n o u g h a r m s a n d stores ( i n c l u d i n g in w i n t e r food a n d clothing) for seven men, a n d weighed a b o u t 2 cwt. loaded, b u t w e r e mostly m a d e so as to divide u p i n t o p o r t a b l e s e p a r a t e sections i m m e d i a t e l y they w e r e received. W h e n it is realised t h a t by m i d - 1 9 4 4 S.O.E. w a s sometimes d e s p a t c h i n g as m a n y as T.OO0 c o n t a i n e r s a n i g h t , it will be a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t t h e p a c k i n g a n d despatching o r g a n i s a t i o n g r e w to v e r y l a r g e dimensions. 7. T h e d r o p h a d t o be m a d e on a m o o n l i g h t n i g h t (which i n itself reduced o p e r a t i o n a l t i m e by 50 p e r cent.), u n t i l late in 1943 special r a d i o a p p a r a t u s and t e c h n i q u e w e r e invented t h a t r e n d e r e d p r a c t i c a b l e a l i m i t e d e x t e n t of d a r k night d r o p p i n g . E v e r y d e t a i l h a v i n g been a r r a n g e d a n d confirmed on W / T , the pro blem r e m a i n e d t h a t t h e w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s m u s t be suitable a n d local enemy a c t i v i t i e s n o t too g r e a t . T h e s e f a c t o r s were n o t k n o w n u n t i l a few h o u r s before t h e s t a r t of the a i r c r a f t , by w h i c h t i m e i t w a s difficult to a p p r i s e t h e organiser in t i m e for h i m to i n f o r m h i s r e c e p t i o n c o m m i t t e e , w h o w e r e s c a t t e r e d a n d often h a d to come long d i s t a n c e s . T h e r e w a s only one w a y of d o i n g thisby pre a r r a n g e d code messages on t h e B . B . C . e v e n i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n . A w a r m tribute of g r a t i t u d e m u s t be p a i d by S.O.E. to the B . B . C . for t h e i r c o n t i n u e d co-operation d u r i n g these long y e a r s - a c o - o p e r a t i o n given a t the d i r e c t expense of the services for w h i c h the B . B . C . w a s p r i m a r i l y responsible. O t h e r s w h o l i s t e n e d in to the

B.B.C. f o r e i g n service m u s t often h a v e been p e r p l e x e d a n d p e r h a p s i r r i t a t e d by long s t r e a m s of i n c o h e r e n t a n d r i d i c u l o u s sentences called ' ' m e s s a g e s p e r s o n n e l s " (by 1944 as m a n y a s e i g h t y or n i n e t y every n i g h t ) such a s " L e c h a t cle m o n oncle a cles ycux bleus " or " J o s e p h i n e a i m e V i c t o r . " b u t w h e n t h e m e m b e r s of t h e reception c o m m i t t e e h e a r d t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r m e s s a g e t h e y t r u d g e d f o r t h i n t o the n i g h t . 8. O n t h e r e c e p t i o n g r o u n d they h a d to w a i t long h o u r s i n t h e cold, o f t e n in vain, for s o m e t i m e s t h e a i r c r a f t w o u l d g e t shot d o w n , s o m e t i m e s i t w o u l d m i s s the g r o u n d , s o m e t i m e s it w o u l d f a i l t o see or n o t be satisfied w i t h t h e r e c e p t i o n c o m m i t t e e ' s s i g n a l s . B u t w h e n t h e w a i t i n g m e n h e a r d t h e h u m of t h e e n g i n e , they w o u l d e m e r g e from t h e s h a d o w s a n d flash w i t h e l e c t r i c t o r c h e s ( a n y t h i n g b r i g h t e r w a s too d a n g e r o u s ) t h e p r e a r r a n g e d morse l e t t e r a n d t h e a i r c r a f t w o u l d answer. T h e n d o w n came t h e p a r a c h u t e s , some of t h e m b e a r i n g stores, some of them b e a r i n g men. T h e r e c e p t i o n c o m m i t t e e t h e r e u p o n h a d to h i d e a n d d i s t r i b u t e these as q u i c k l y a s possible, because e n e m y a g e n t s h a d also h e a r d t h e a i r c r a f t and w o u l d soon be on t h e s e a r c h . THE R.A.F. 9. I n 1940 a n d 1941 S . O . E . a n d S . I . S . h a d o n l y a flight of a i r c r a f t a t t h e i r joint d i s p o s a l . T h e s e w e r e i n c r e a s e d i n t h e w i n t e r of 1 9 4 1 - 4 2 to a s q u a d r o n ; and i n M a r c h 1942 t w o s q u a d r o n s w e r e a s s i g n e d to S . O . E . a n d S . I . S . o p e r a t i o n s . The n a t u r e of t h e w o r k d e m a n d e d s p e c i a l i s e d a i r c r e w t r a i n i n g a n d n a v i g a t i o n of a very h i g h o r d e r , a n d no p i l o t could achieve such a h i g h p e r c e n t a g e of successful " d r o p s " a t t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t of h i s p e r i o d of d u t y a s a t t h e e n d of it. T h e limits of h u m a n e n d u r a n c e involve t a k i n g p i l o t s off d u t y a f t e r a p r e s c r i b e d number of o p e r a t i o n a l h o u r s , so t h e w o r k w a s n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g d o n e by n e w c o m e r s a s well a s by m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d m e n . w h i c h s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e d the n u m b e r of successes. T a k e n as a whole, however, t h e p e r c e n t a g e b e c a m e steadily b e t t e r . W i t h o u t t h e s u s t a i n e d effort a n d c o u r a g e of the R . A . F . i n d r o p p i n g s u p p l i e s , often a f t e r long j o u r n e y s i n t h e face of a d v e r s e w e a t h e r conditions a n d e n e m y o p p o s i t i o n , t o a n i n c o n s p i c u o u s p i n - p o i n t m a r k e d by feeble torches, E u r o p e ' s c r y for h e l p w o u l d h a v e g o n e u n a n s w e r e d .
THE ORGANISERS.

10. T h e officers w h o u n d e r t o o k t h e w o r k of o r g a n i s a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r s u p p o r t e r s , k n o w i n g l y took r i s k s m o r e f e a r f u l t h a n t h e o d d s of b a t t l e . F o r t h e Gestapo n e t of a g e n t s a n d i n f o r m e r s w a s w i d e l y t h r o w n ; e v e r y m e e t i n g , m e s s a g e or m o v e m e n t w a s a source of d a n g e r , a n d t h e w i r e l e s s o p e r a t o r w a s a specially weak l i n k on a c c o u n t of t h e r i s k of b e i n g D / F d . N o o r g a n i s e r in t h e s e y e a r s ever w e n t to sleep w i t h o u t w o n d e r i n g w h e t h e r he w o u l d s u r v i v e t h e m o r n i n g . Those a r r e s t e d w e r e f o r t u n a t e if t h e y w e r e killed i n r e s i s t i n g , or w e r e a f t e r w a r d s shot, for p r o l o n g e d a n d b a r b a r o u s t o r t u r e a w a i t e d t h e m a t t h e h a n d s of t h e Gestapo. M a n y c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e i n o r d e r n o t t o b e t r a y t h e i r c o m r a d e s , a n d others d i e d w i t h t h e i r secrets i n v i o l a t e . B u t i n e v i t a b l y t h e s e m e r c i l e s s i n t e r r o g a tions p r o d u c e d some evidence a n d led t o f u r t h e r a r r e s t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e w o r k went on, a n d t h e very a t r o c i t i e s of t h e enemy e m b i t t e r e d a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d Resistance t h r o u g h i t s m a r t y r s . A t t h e t i m e of " O v e r l o r d " S.O.E. h a d some 293 o r g a n i s e r s a n d a g e n t s w h o h a d been t r a i n e d in E n g l a n d a t w o r k i n t h e S.H.A.E.F. area. Over 1,200 m e n h a d been s e n t to t h e " f i e l d " since t h e 1st October, 1943, of w h o m 297 h a d d i s a p p e a r e d . Of t h e s e , i t is k n o w n t h a t 64 had given t h e i r lives, o f t e n i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s of g r e a t h e r o i s m , a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g decorations h a d been a w a r d e d for g a l l a n t r y i n t h e field : Distinguished Service Order D i s t i n g u i s h e d Service Cross M i l i t a r y Cross O r d e r of t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e M e m b e r of t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e D i s t i n g u i s h e d C o n d u c t Medal Military Medal B r i t i s h Empire. M e d a l ... Mention in Despatches ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 13 1 23 5 11 11 24 6 4

...
...

...
... ...

...
... ...

If foreigners h a d been eligible for t h e V i c t o r i a Cross, t h e r e h a d c e r t a i n l y been actions w h i c h h a d w a r r a n t e d i t s b e s t o w a l . [28366]

11. W i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k l a i d d o w n by t h e W a r C a b i n e t , a n d u p o n t h e twin p i l l a r s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d supplies, S.O.E. b e g a n to b u i l d u p subversive o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n all the occupied c o u n t r i e s of E u r o p e . Coup-de-main attacks a g a i n s t specific t a r g e t s w e r e t h e first o p e r a t i o n s t o be m o u n t e d by S.O.E., a n d the r e p o r t s of t h e members of t h e t e a m s u p o n t h e i r r e t u r n to t h i s c o u n t r y gave an e n c o u r a g i n g p i c t u r e of t h e g e n e r a l h a t r e d of, a n d o p p o s i t i o n to, t h e G e r m a n i n v a d e r . Of t h e c o u n t r i e s concerned, F r a n c e inevitably held a l e a d i n g place' in all p l a n n i n g a n d p r e p a r a t i o n by r e a s o n of h e r size a n d of h e r s t r a t e g i c position b u t o w i n g to h e r special p o l i t i c a l circumstances, t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n of Resistance t h e r e p r o v e d p a r t i c u l a r l y sluggish a n d complicated. W h e r e a s in t h e case of H o l l a n d , B e l g i u m a n d N o r w a y , S.O.E. w e r e able t o co-operate w i t h t h e legitimate a n d a c k n o w l e d g e d Governments, i n t h e case of F r a n c e t h e r e w a s n o such a u t h o r i t y qualified t o s p e a k for h e r people, w h i l e i n t e r n a l l y t h e V i c h y r e g i m e gave an excuse for i n a c t i o n a n d a p a t h y . T h e r e is little d o u b t t h a t i n 1940 P e t a i n c o m m a n d e d t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g s u p p o r t of t h e F r e n c h people. G e n e r a l de Gaulle w a s r e g a r d e d as a m a d b r i g a d i e r ( s u r r o u n d e d by a h a n d f u l of a d v e n t u r e r s ) who h a d p i n n e d h i s f a i t h t o t h e broken reed of E n g l a n d . N o t even t h e B a t t l e of B r i t a i n aroused a n y s p i r i t i n t h e F r e n c h people as a whole,, b u t thenceforward a t r i c k l e of t h e b r a v e r h e a r t s b e g a n to filter out of F r a n c e t o j o i n us.
T R A I N I N G OF A G E N T S .

12. One of t h e first p r e l i m i n a r y steps t h a t S.O.E. h a d t o t a k e w a s the r e c r u i t m e n t of n a t i o n a l s of the o c c u p i e d t e r r i t o r i e s w h o h a d f o u n d shelter i n this c o u n t r y or a b r o a d . M o s t of t h e m came from t h e refugee " a r m i e s / b u t their selection w a s a delicate m a t t e r i n v i e w of t h e difficulty a n d secrecy of t h e work. T h e y h a d t o be brave, i n t e l l i g e n t y o u n g m e n n o t given to w i n e or womenfor such m e n " t a l k . " T h e i r p a t r i o t i s m h a d to be above suspicion. I t w a s therefore n e c e s s a r y n o t only t o t r a i n t h e m b u t also t o give t h e m a l o n g p e r i o d of testing a n d p r o b a t i o n before w e could b e s u r e t h a t t h e y w e r e m a d e of t h e r i g h t stuff.
5

13! V o l u n t e e r s w e r e called for t o serve as " P a r a t r o o p s . " W h e n t h e y had been accepted a f t e r i n t e r v i e w , t h e y w e r e sent t o schools i n t h e c o u n t r y where they w e r e t a u g h t p a r a m i l i t a r y f i g h t i n g in successive s t a g e s . A l l t h i s t i m e they w e r e b e i n g c a r e f u l l y w a t c h e d . I f t h e y w e r e considered u n s u i t a b l e , they were r e t u r n e d to t h e i r u n i t s ; if they m a d e good, they w e r e p a s s e d o n t o t h e successive schools w h e r e they l e a r n e d p a r a c h u t e d r o p p i n g , W / T , codes, s e c u r i t y , sabotage, secret i n k s , cyphers, &c. I t w a s n o t u n t i l t h e final stages t h a t t h e y w e r e told w h a t t h e y w e r e really w a n t e d for, a n d a s k e d if t h e y w o u l d v o l u n t e e r for the w o r k . T h i s very e l a b o r a t e s i f t i n g a n d t r a i n i n g w a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n of S.O.E. w o r k , a n d u l t i m a t e success h a s a m p l y justified t h e syllabus, b u t t h e system involved long m o n t h s of t r a i n i n g , a n d the" e s t a b l i s h m e n t of over fifty schools, because for s e c u r i t y r e a s o n s n e i t h e r t h e v a r i o u s stages n o r t h e v a r i o u s nationalities could be m i x e d . T h e y all h a d t o be k e p t s e p a r a t e . T h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e w o r k that fell t o S.O.E. i n t h i s respect w a s t h e r e f o r e v e r y g r e a t , a n d i t m u s t be remembered t h a t n o t only t h e p u p i l s b u t also t h e i n s t r u c t o r s h a d t o be t r a i n e d . 14. A corollary of t h e t r a i n i n g of a g e n t s w a s t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of forged p a p e r s , p a s s p o r t s , r a t i o n c a r d s , & c , for them. A f o r g i n g f a c t o r y w a s therefore e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t i n c l u d e d t h e special m a n u f a c t u r e of t h e different sorts of paper r e q u i r e d . H e r e t h e most b e a u t i f u l f o r g e r i e s w e r e t u r n e d o u t t h a t w o u l d have p r o v o k e d t h e envy of P r o f e s s o r M o r i a r t y . Of t h e t h o u s a n d s of f o r g e d documents e m a n a t i n g from t h i s f a c t o r y n o t 1 p e r cent, w a s ever detected by t h e enemy. The a g e n t s also h a d to be p r o v i d e d w i t h local c u r r e n c y . S u p p l i e s of these currencies i n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m w e r e e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d or n o n - e x i s t e n t a n d S.O.E. there fore h a d recourse to d e a l i n g s on t h e B l a c k M a r k e t of E u r o p e . Before long d e m a n d s w e r e also received from t h e Service D e p a r t m e n t s for c u r r e n c y particu l a r l y from t h e A i r M i n i s t r y for " E s c a p e P u r s e s " for a i r c r e w s . T o d a t e S.O.E.'s s u r r e p t i t i o u s p u r c h a s e s include :' 700 m i l l i o n 22-5 ,, 8-5 ,, 4 ,, 6-5 ,, French francs. Belgian francs. Dutch Gulden. Norwegian Kroner. Fceichsmark.

N e a r l y all these notes a r e i n small d e n o m i n a t i o n s a n d i t h a s been n o m e a n feat t o o b t a i n such a b u l k c l a n d e s t i n e l y from t h e c o u n t r i e s concerned a n d b r i n g the n o t e s safely to t h i s c o u n t r y . B u t t h i s is a n t i c i p a t i n g t h e story.

T H E ' B R I T I S H AND F R E N C H S E C T I O N S I N F R A N C E .

'

15. B y M a r c h 1941, S . O . E . ' s first r e c r u i t s w e r e r e a d y to go t o t h e field. T h e i r a c t i v i t i e s a n d r e p o r t s convinced G e n e r a l de G a u l l e t h a t R e s i s t a n c e w a s a force to be reckoned w i t h , a n d a f t e r some p e r s u a s i o n , t h e F i g h t i n g F r e n c h proceeded t o m a k e t h e i r o w n c o n t a c t s t h r o u g h S.O.E. A second F r e n c h Section was a c c o r d i n g l y c r e a t e d t o w o r k i n l i a i s o n w i t h G e n e r a l de G a u l l e ' s staff. T h e B r i t i s h c i r c u i t s a l r e a d y i n b e i n g w e r e , however, m a i n t a i n e d a n d e x p a n d e d , since it w a s recognised i n t h i s c o u n t r y t h a t m a n y F r e n c h m e n , a l t h o u g h , definitely a n t i G e r m a n w e r e n o t p r o - d e G a u l l e , a n d from t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g H i s M a j e s t y ' s G o v e r n m e n t reserved i t s r i g h t to c o n t a c t a n y R e s i s t a n c e e l e m e n t s i n F r a n c e of w h a t e v e r p o l i t i c a l f a c t i o n , w h i l e g i v i n g G e n e r a l de G a u l l e such f a c i l i t i e s as he needed for h i s o w n w o r k . 16. T h e c o n t i n u e d existence of t h e B r i t i s h - c o n t r o l l e d c i r c u i t s became a bone of c o n t e n t i o n between G e n e r a l de G a u l l e a n d H i s M a j e s t y ' s G o v e r n m e n t , b u t t h e soundness of our policy w a s p r o v e d by t h e success of t h e section a n d t h e e x t e n t of t h e s u p p o r t given by F r e n c h m e n i n F r a n c e . A second r e a s o n for m a i n t a i n i n g the B r i t i s h section i n F r a n c e w a s t h e very low s e c u r i t y " s t a n d a r d of F i g h t i n g F r e n c h H e a d q u a r t e r s . S e c u r i t y is a n i n d i s p e n s a b l e c o n d i t i o n of e x i s t e n c e to clandestine o r g a n i s a t i o n s , a n d t h e B r i t i s h S e c t i o n w a s able to benefit a l l t h e t i m e from i t s m o r e s t r i n g e n t p r e c a u t i o n s b o t h a t H e a d q u a r t e r s a n d in t h e field. I f all the subversive o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n F r a n c e h a d been u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l of F i g h t i n g F r e n c h F l e a d q u a r t e r s , i t is p r o b a b l e t h a t a n e t w o r k of efficient a n d a c t i v e c i r c u i t s could never h a v e been m a i n t a i n e d in t h e face of t h e r e p e a t e d G e s t a p o d r i v e s . A s it was, t h e existence of t h e two o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n F r a n c e allowed for c o m p l e m e n t a r y activities, a n d t h e y w e r e of c o n s i d e r a b l e a s s i s t a n c e to each o t h e r . The British Section became k n o w n t h r o u g h o u t u n d e r g r o u n d F r a n c e a s t h e ' ' R e s e a u B u c k m a s t e r " f r o m t h e n a m e of t h e B r i t i s h colonel w h o c o m m a n d e d i t a n d w h o also h a d t h e h o n o u r of b e i n g " P u b l i c E n e m y N o . 1 " on t h e G e s t a p o list. T h e r e w e r e some seventy B r i t i s h officers s e r v i n g t h e S e c t i o n in F r a n c e ; m o s t of t h e m w e r e B r i t i s h subjects, w h o were, of course, b i l i n g u a l , b u t a b o u t a q u a r t e r w e r e F r e n c h men w h o w e r e given B r i t i s h commissions. O n t h e L i b e r a t i o n of F r a n c e G e n e r a l de G a u l l e p a i d us t h e c o m p l i m e n t of offering all these officers c o m m i s s i o n s i n t h e F r e n c h A r m y of t h e s a m e r a n k as t h e y h e l d i n S . O . E . a g r a c e f u l t r i b u t e t o t h e i r t r a i n i n g a n d efficiency. 17. T h e m e t h o d s u s e d by the t w o sections w e r e very different. T h e n u c l e u s of the B r i t i s h c i r c u i t w a s t h e O r g a n i s e r w i t h h i s W / T o p e r a t o r , a n d r o u n d these nuclei small w a t e r t i g h t c i r c u i t s w e r e g r a d u a l l y b u i l t u p all over F r a n c e . I f t h e Gestapo succeeded i n b r e a k i n g u p a c i r c u i t , a n e w o r g a n i s e r w o u l d - b e s e n t to t h e area concerned a n d t h e w o r k w o u l d b e g i n a g a i n . I n g e n e r a l , t h e size of t h e circuits w a s l i m i t e d ; i n some cases i t became c o n s i d e r a b l e , b u t a large, o r g a n i s a tion n e a r l y a l w a y s p r o v e d i n s e c u r e i n t h e long r u n , a n d t h e o r g a n i s e r s w e r e t o l d to confine themselves to e s t a b l i s h i n g small bodies of w e l l - t r a i n e d a n d e n t i r e l y reliable, men. F i g h t i n g F r e n c h H e a d q u a r t e r s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , for p o l i t i c a l reasons a i m e d a t r e a c h i n g t h e masses of t h e F r e n c h people. G e n e r a l d e G a u l l e , having f a i l e d to c r e a t e h i s o w n R e s i s t a n c e M o v e m e n t r e s p o n s i b l e d i r e c t l y to h i m , began i n 1942 to t r y t o m a k e c o n t a c t w i t h those i n d i g e n o u s R e s i s t a n c e M o v e m e n t s already i n existence. T o t h i s e n d F r e n c h l i a i s o n officers a n d W / T o p e r a t o r s w e r e despatched, t o g e t h e r w i t h a c o - o r d i n a t o r t o c o n t r o l t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , a n d Resistance l e a d e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s r e p r e s e n t i n g every s h a d e of F r e n c h p o l i t i c a l opinion w e r e b r o u g h t b a c k to t h i s c o u n t r y . B y t h e e n d of t h e y e a r m o s t of t h e great R e s i s t a n c e M o v e m e n t s h a d a g r e e d t o recognise de G a u l l e ' s m i l i t a r y , t h o u g h not his p o l i t i c a l , l e a d e r s h i p .
THE P U R P O S E OF SABOTAGE.

18. 1941 a n d 1942 w e r e t h e l e a n y e a r s for R e s i s t a n c e . E u r o p e h a d been stunned by t h e l i g h t n i n g G e r m a n a d v a n c e s . A p a t h y a n d c o n f u s i o n w e r e s t i l l widespread. A s t h e m o n t h s w e n t by, however, G e r m a n d o m i n a t i o n w i t h i t s restrictions a n d b r u t a l i t i e s itself a c t e d a s a s t i m u l u s to revolt. B u t t i m e w a s needed for a c t i o n a n d r e a c t i o n to develop to a s t a g e a t w h i c h S . O . E . could take a d v a n t a g e of a w i d e s p r e a d a n t i - G e r m a n feeling. M e a n w h i l e , t h e b u i l d i n g hp of subversive g r o u p s p r o v e d a slow process, p r o l o n g e d a l w a y s b y t h e s p e c i a l risks a n d c a s u a l t i e s of u n d e r g r o u n d w a r f a r e , i n w h i c h one a r r e s t w o u l d w i p e o u t months of p a t i e n t w o r k . F u r t h e r , t h e a m o u n t of m a t e r i a l t h a t S . O . E . ' s v e r y limited a i r t r a n s p o r t r e s o u r c e s e n a b l e d i t t o d e s p a t c h to t h e field w a s t a n t a l i s i n g l y small; A l t h o u g h o u r o u t p u t of a i r c r a f t w a s n o w m o u n t i n g r a p i d l y , a n d t h e A i r

M i n i s t r y w e r e ever a n x i o u s to h e l p S.O.E., n e w c l a i m a n t s for a i r c r a f t were i n c r e a s i n g even more r a p i d l y , a n d S.O.E. f o u n d t h e a n t i - U - b o a t c a m p a i g n c o m p e t i n g w i t h i t for l o n g - r a n g e bombers. 19. S a b o t a g e w a s u n d e r t a k e n for two p u r p o s e s : F i r s t , t o a t t a c k selected enemy t a r g e t s of m i l i t a r y or economic significance; secondly, a n d even more i m p o r t a n t , to c r e a t e a n d foster t h e s p i r i t of r e s i s t a n c e to t h e A x i s . T h e hounds will not. follow unless t h e h o r n is blown. J u s t as t h e Y u g o s l a v s r a l l i e d r o u n d Tito because he gave t h e m t h e lead, a n d d e s e r t e d t h e s u p i n e M i h a i l o v i c , so occupied E u r o p e g a t h e r e d i n e v e r - g r o w i n g circles r o u n d t r a i n e d S.O.E. a g e n t s w h o showed t h e m how t h e y could s t r i k e blows for t h e i r liberty. G e r m a n r e p r e s s i o n only added fuel to t h e flames. 2 0 . A t h i r d result g r a d u a l l y emerged a n d p r o v e d of h i g h i m p o r t a n c e to " Overlord." T h e f e r m e n t c r e a t e d a m o n g the o p p r e s s e d p o p u l a t i o n s by the a l t e r n a t e process of sabotage a n d r e p r e s s i o n forced H i t l e r to s p r e a d h i s forces all over E u r o p e to p r o t e c t h i s i n s t a l l a t i o n s a n d to t e r r o r i s e t h e p o p u l a c e . Thus D - d a y f o u n d t h e G e r m a n s insufficiently c o n c e n t r a t e d . H o w S.O.E. a n d the F . F . I . t h e n assisted to delay t h e G e r m a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i l l be r e l a t e d l a t e r . , O.S.S. 2 1 . I n 1 9 4 2 the e n t r y of A m e r i c a i n t o t h e w a r led to t h e f o r m a t i o n of an A m e r i c a n o r g a n i s a t i o n u n d e r G e n e r a l D o n o v a n (a p r o m i n e n t N e w Y o r k lawyer) k n o w n as O.S.S. w i t h a d i r e c t i v e a n a l o g o u s to those of S.O.E., S . I . S . a n d P . W . E . combined. I t a c c o r d i n g l y became i m p o r t a n t for S.O:E. to c o - o r d i n a t e i t s activities w i t h our n e w Allies, because n o t h i n g w o u l d h a v e been m o r e d i s a s t r o u s t h a n c o m p e t i n g a n d conflicting A m e r i c a n " lines " over E u r o p e . T h e t a s k w a s not a l w a y s easy. H o w e v e r , very c o r d i a l p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s w e r e established, a n d a c o - o r d i n a t i o n m a i n t a i n e d w h i c h w a s f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n s w e r e u n a b l e to p r o v i d e a n y p r o p e r l y t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l , a n d u n t i l t h e last stages were t h e r e f o r e obliged to leave n e a r l y all the w o r k to S.O.E. T h e y could, however, c o n t r i b u t e s u b s t a n t i a l l y to t h e l a r g e a i r l i f t r e q u i r e d to p r e p a r e the " field " for D - d a y a n d t h e i r a i r b o r n e resources w e r e of very m a t e r i a l h e l p to the F . F . I . a t t h a t s t a g e .

THE TIDE TURNS.

2 2 . B y t h e b e g i n n i n g of 1 9 4 3 , S.O.E. h a d succeeded in e s t a b l i s h i n g sub versive g r o u p s i n all t h e occupied c o u n t r i e s of W e s t e r n E u r o p e . T h i s h a d meant a g r e a t e x p a n s i o n of t h e H o m e o r g a n i s a t i o n to m e e t t h e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d demand for services from a b r o a d . N e w w e a p o n s h a d been devised a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d , a n d ever more p o w e r f u l a n d smaller wireless sets camouflaged i n m a n y different w a y s . A camouflage factory w a s s t a r t e d to c a t e r for t h e different c o n d i t i o n s of every country. N o t only w i r e l e s s sets b u t all sorts of " stores " w e r e camouflaged to assume t h e m o s t i n n o c e n t a p p e a r a n c e . T h e i m p r o v e m e n t in t h e A l l i e d fortunes h a d given n e w hope. T h e w i l l to r e s i s t h a d s t r e n g t h e n e d , a n d s a b o t a g e w a s on t h e i n c r e a s e in N o r w a y , H o l l a n d , B e l g i u m a n d D e n m a r k . I n F r a n c e t h e British Section w a s i n c r e a s i n g t h e n u m b e r of i t s c i r c u i t s a n d i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e i r activities. T h e F i g h t i n g F r e n c h o r g a n i s a t i o n in t h e field h a d t a k e n definite s h a p e : the S u p r e m e R e s i s t a n c e Council, p r e s i d e d over by a p e r s o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of G e n e r a l de G a u l l e , controlled t h e civilian, p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y affairs of the R e s i s t a n c e M o v e m e n t s t h r o u g h a r i g i d s t r u c t u r e of Z o n a l a n d Regional C o m m i t t e e s ; b u t w h i l e t h e p o l i t i c a l side of t h e w o r k h a d p r o g r e s s e d well, the efforts of S.O.E. t o o r g a n i s e s a b o t a g e a n d p a r a m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s in co-operation w i t h F i g h t i n g F r e n c h H e a d q u a r t e r s h a d , e x c e p t for t h e b l o w i n g u p of Radio P a r i s , m e t w i t h l i t t l e success. T h e effect of t h e i n v a s i o n a n d l i b e r a t i o n of North A f r i c a w a s to e n h a n c e t h e F r e n c h sense of a l l i a n c e a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a n d make , a v a i l a b l e e n l a r g e d resources of p e r s o n n e l a n d n e w bases. T h e c o n s e q u e n t German o c c u p a t i o n of S o u t h e r n F r a n c e , w h i l e i m m e d i a t e l y d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s a s i t resulted in m a n y a r r e s t s , caused a p o w e r f u l r e s u r g e n c e of R e s i s t a n c e feeling of which S.O.E. w a s n o t slow t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e f o r m e r A r m e e de r A r m i s t i c e n o w b e g a n to come i n t o t h e o p e n a n d t o m a k e c o n t a c t w i t h S.O.E. o r g a n i s e r s ( a l t h o u g h on t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t G e n e r a l d e G a u l l e w a s n o t to be i n f o r m e d of t h e i r position), a n d t h e i r n u m b e r s swelled t h e r a n k s of t h e resistants by several t h o u s a n d .
1943 PLANS.

2 3 . I n t h e i r d i r e c t i v e for 1 9 4 3 t h e C h i e f s of Staff, w h i l e still emphasising t h e p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e of p l a n n e d sabotage, i n s t r u c t e d S.O.E. t o strengthen t h e p a r a m i l i t a r y side of t h e i r o r g a n i s a t i o n s . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s side or

S.O.E. w o r k w a s a c c o r d i n g l y i m p r e s s e d u p o n t h e G o v e r n m e n t s of t h e o c c u p i e d countries a n d u p o n t h e R e s i s t a n c e M o v e m e n t s themselves. I n all t h e c o u n t r i e s of W e s t e r n E u r o p e t h e tempo of R e s i s t a n c e quickened, inspired, in p a r t b y t h e belief t h a t t h e A l l i e s w o u l d i n v a d e the c o n t i n e n t t h a t y e a r . I n F r a n c e t h e R e s i s t a n c e Movements showed m o r e w i l l i n g n e s s to r e s p o n d to d i r e c t i v e s on t a r g e t p r i o r i t i e s , and t h e r a t e of s a b o t a g e i n c r e a s e d enormously. B y t h e s u m m e r of 1943 t h e d a i l y a v e r a g e of blocks, r a i l c u t s a n d d e r a i l m e n t s h a d risen to over 100, a n d t h i s w a s a c c o m p a n i e d by a seasonal o u t b r e a k of a g r i c u l t u r a l s a b o t a g e of crops, f a r m m a c h i n e r y , &c. A t t a c k s on electricity i n s t a l l a t i o n s , on G e r m a n D e t a c h m e n t s a n d collaborators also increased, a n d S.O.E. were successful in c a r r y i n g o u t two m a j o r sabotage o p e r a t i o n s : t h e first a g a i n s t t h e G i g n y b a r r a g e on t h e Saone, w h i c h p r e v e n t e d t h e t r a n s p o r t s o u t h w a r d of G e r m a n n a v a l c r a f t for five weeks a t t h e time of t h e invasion of Sicily, a n d t h e second a c o n c e r t e d a t t a c k o n t h e p o w e r s u p p l y of L e Creusot. I n o r d e r to save F r e n c h lives, a n a g r e e m e n t w a s r e a c h e d w i t h t h e A i r M i n i s t r y t h a t R . A . F . a t t a c k s on locomotives should cease, w h i l e S.O.E., t h r o u g h i t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t h e " f i e l d , " i n s t r u c t e d t h e r a i l w a y w o r k e r s to s a b o t a g e t h e i r own e n g i n e s . T h i s policy w a s to t h e m u t u a l a d v a n t a g e of t h e F r e n c h a n d of F i g h t e r C o m m a n d a n d p r o v e d very successful. B o t h t h e B r i t i s h and t h e F i g h t i n g - F r e n c h c i r c u i t s took p a r t i n t h e i n c r e a s e d a c t i v i t y a n d t h e G i r a u d i s t g r o u p s of t h e A r m e e de 1'Armistice w e r e by n o w also fully o p e r a t i o n a l a g a i n s t t h e enemy.
T H E R E L E V E AND T H E M A Q U I S .

24. A b o u t t h i s t i m e t h e G e r m a n s a n d L a v a l i n s t i t u t e d t h e ' ' Releve ' ' u n d e r w h i c h F r e n c h m e n w e r e p r e s s - g a n g e d to w o r k i n G e r m a n y . ' T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y d a n g e r o u s t o R e s i s t a n c e , since i t r e s u l t e d i n t h e r e m o v a l to G e r m a n y of t h e y o u n g men w h o w e r e t h e m o s t active e l e m e n t of t h e p o p u l a t i o n , a n d m a n y of t h e m chose o u t l a w r y in t h e m o u n t a i n s r a t h e r t h a n d e p o r t a t i o n . S.O.E. p o l i c y was n o t to e n c o u r a g e o p e n g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e , since t h i s w a s p r e m a t u r e i n e v e r y sense, b u t to contact such M a q u i s g r o u p s a s h a d f o r m e d themselves i n s u i t a b l e areas a n d to s u p p l y t h e m w i t h sufficient m a t e r i a l t o m a i n t a i n m o r a l e . Liaison missions of B r i t i s h , A m e r i c a n a n d F r e n c h officers were d e s p a t c h e d t o c o n t a c t t h e largest g r o u p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e m o u n t a i n o u s c o u n t r y E a s t of t h e R h o n e , w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s to c o n s o l i d a t e t h e s o u n d elements a n d o r g a n i s e t h e m for p a r a m i l i t a r y work. 25. S.O.E. also f o r g e d m a n y t h o u s a n d s of F r e n c h R a t i o n c a r d s a n d provided m a n y m i l l i o n s of F r e n c h F r a n c s (since r e p a i d ) t o enable i s o l a t e d r e f u g e e s from t h e Releve t o s u s t a i n themselves on f a r m s w i t h t h e h e l p of e l d e r m e n o r women who w e r e i n t h i s w a y e n a b l e d to buy necessaries on t h e i r behalf. T h u s t h e M a q u i s movement c a m e i n t o b e i n g a n d c o n t i n u e d to g r o w . 26. T h r o u g h o u t 1943 t h e A i r M i n i s t r y w e r e able t o place m o r e a i r c r a f t a t our d i s p o s a l a n d stores deliveries increased, a l t h o u g h t h e y never satisfied t h e enormous a n d g r o w i n g a p p e t i t e of t h e " f i e l d . " A t t h e e n d of t h e y e a r , a number of a i r c r a f t b a s e d i n N o r t h A f r i c a w e r e m a d e a v a i l a b l e to S.O.E., a n d these w e r e able t o n i a k e deliveries to S o u t h e r n F r a n c e . R e g u l a r W / T com m u n i c a t i o n s w e r e m a i n t a i n e d a n d t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n the S.O.E. H e a d q u a r t e r s a n d the field w e r e s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e v i s i t s of S.O.E. officers t o t h e field on t o u r s of i n s p e c t i o n .
THE GESTAPO STRIKES.

i I ! I

27. T h e i n t e n s i v e a c t i v i t y i n F r a n c e d u r i n g 1943 w a s c e r t a i n , w i t h i n t h e normal cycle of R e s i s t a n c e , t o provoke s t r o n g G e r m a n c o u n t e r - m e a s u r e s . I n J u n e the G e s t a p o s t r u c k : fifteen p r i n c i p a l s a n d several h u n d r e d s u b o r d i n a t e s of t h e Fighting French organisation were arrested. G e n e r a l de G a u l l e ' s p e r s o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e is believed to h a v e d i e d u n d e r t o r t u r e , a n d i t became c l e a r t h a t t h e enemy, by i n f i l t r a t i o n a n d b e t r a y a l , h a d o b t a i n e d e x t e n s i v e k n o w l e d g e of t h e central set u p of t h e G a u l l i s t o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d of i t s l e a d e r s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e a c o n c e n t r a t e d G e s t a p o d r i v e succeeded i n b r e a k i n g u p t h e very i m p o r t a n t B r i t i s h controlled c i r c u i t b a s e d on P a r i s , but" i n s o m u c h as t h e essence of t h e S . O . E . system Avas control f r o m L o n d o n b y W / T a n d w a t e r t i g h t c i r c u i t s i n F r a n c e , t h e p e n e t r a t i o n w a s confined t o t h a t a r e a a n d t h e r e s t of t h e B r i t i s h o r g a n i s a t i o n w a s unimpaired. 28. Officers s e n t f r o m E n g l a n d to t h e F i g h t i n g F r e n c h o r g a n i s a t i o n w e r e able to hold t o g e t h e r t h e e s s e n t i a l elements of R e c e p t i o n C o m m i t t e e s a n d com munications, a n d S.O.E. took a d v a n t a g e of t h e occasion t o i n s i s t on t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of a new system on a r e g i o n a l basis, a v o i d i n g t h e o v e r - c e n t r a l i s a t i o n w h i c h we h a d
v

c o n s t a n t l y c r i t i c i s e d a n d whose f a i l u r e h a d been so d i s a s t r o u s . I n t h e case of the B r i t i s h Section, a n S.O.E. officer w a s s e n t to P a r i s to review t h e p o s i t i o n , a n d as a r e s u l t of h i s r e p o r t , p a r t of t h e old g r o u p w a s r e c o n s t i t u t e d , w h i l e a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e m a d e for t h e d e s p a t c h of n e w o r g a n i s e r s t o t h a t a r e a . T h e blow was a severe one, especially in i t s effect on p a r a m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s , b u t R e s i s t a n c e is e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y r e s i l i e n t a n d t h e w a v e of sabotage d i d n o t a b a t e .
low C O U N T R I E S AND SCANDINAVIA.

29. I n t h e o t h e r c o u n t r i e s of W e s t e r n E u r o p e t h e s t o r y w a s , i n general, t h e same. Severe losses w e r e inflicted i n B e l g i u m , N o r w a y ' a n d D e n m a r k , and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n H o l l a n d w h e r e the G e s t a p o w e r e successful in p e n e t r a t i n g our o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d w o r k i n g t h e W / T c o m m u n i c a t i o n s for some t i m e before they were discovered. N e w o r g a n i s e r s were, however, sent to t h e field, to r e s t a r t the w o r k . T h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r sabotage'' increased, a n d i n D e n m a r k especially a m a j o r c a m p a i g n w a s p l a n n e d a n d c a r r i e d o u t w i t h m a r k e d success. 30. O u r chief o r g a n i s e r in D e n m a r k is a r e m a r k a b l e m a n . A t t h e t i m e of the i n v a s i o n of h i s c o u n t r y h e w a s e n g a g e d in commerce in a -British colony, and w a s a t once i n t e r n e d by t h e B r i t i s h a u t h o r i t i e s as a possible F i f t h Columnist. H a v i n g cleared himself a f t e r several m o n t h s ' effort, he o b t a i n e d h i s release and u l t i m a t e l y succeeded in w o r k i n g h i s p a s s a g e to t h i s c o u n t r y . D i r e c t l y h e a r r i v e d in E n g l a n d h e w a s , of course, t a k e n over by the R o y a l P a t r i o t i c Schools, a n d a g a i n p l a c e d i n d e t e n t i o n , from w h i c h he w a s rescued by t h e h e a d of t h e S.O.E. D a n i s h Section on t h e look o u t for n e w r e c r u i t s . A long p e r i o d of i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g followed in w h i c h h i s o u t s t a n d i n g q u a l i t i e s m a n i f e s t e d themselves a n d he was given a B r i t i s h commission. I t w a s not u n t i l A p r i l 1943. t h a t h e w a s d r o p p e d i n t o D e n m a r k , a n d by A u g u s t he h a d t h e whole c o u n t r y ablaze. H e h a s well e a r n e d t h e D . S . O . w h i c h h a s been a w a r d e d h i m .
CORSICA.

31. A s t h e c a m p a i g n in I t a l y developed, the r a r e o p p o r t u n i t y presented itself of a small-scale dress r e h e a r s a l for " O v e r l o r d . " Corsica h a d been allotted to S.O.E. as a field of a c t i o n because t h e s h o r t a g e of s h i p p i n g p r e c l u d e d a r e g u l a r i n v a s i o n . C o n d i t i o n s w e r e i d e a l . " M a q u i s " is a C o r s i c a n w o r d m e a n i n g the g r e a t t r a c t s of m o u n t a i n o u s scrub t h a t e x i s t in t h a t island, t h e p o p u l a t i o n largely consist of h i g h - s p i r i t e d h e r e d i t a r y g u e r i l l a s , a n d t h e b u l k of the o c c u p y i n g forces w e r e s e c o n d - g r a d e I t a l i a n s . A f t e r a n i n i t i a l set-back, the m a n w a s f o u n d who w o u l d u n i t e t h e a c t i v i t i e s of all t h e clans and p a r t i e s , a n d t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n and a r m i n g of the g r o u p s from t h e A l g i e r s base (by s u b m a r i n e a s well as by a i r c r a f t ) w e n t f o r w a r d r a p i d l y . W h e n t h e I t a l i a n s u r r e n d e r came, S.O.E. s t r u c k , a n d the G e r m a n s h a d no longer a n y p o s s i b i l i t y of h o l d i n g t h e i s l a n d . T h e C o r s i c a n s rose t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y a n d inflicted some 2,000 c a s u a l t i e s on t h e w i t h d r a w i n g enemy. B r i t i s h p r e s t i g e rose to t h e e m b a r r a s s i n g p o i n t t h a t m a n y Corsicans d e m a n d e d t h a t t h e i r c o u n t r y should j o i n the B r i t i s h E m p i r e !
" OVERLORD " PLANNING.

32. T h e first a n d m o s t difficult t a s k in t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n of R e s i s t a n c e t h e r a i s i n g of m o r a l e from t h e slough of V i c h y d e f e a t i s m , a n d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of w i d e s p r e a d c i r c u i t s sufficiently d e e p - r o o t e d to s u r v i v e t h e G e s t a p o i n q u i s i t i o n s h a d by n o w i n t h e m a i n been accomplished. I n t h e a u t u m n of 1943 t h e Chiefs of Staffs d i r e c t i v e s t o S.O.E. b e g a n to p l a c e i n c r e a s i n g e m p h a s i s on t h e assistance t h a t could be given by R e s i s t a n c e t o t h e m i l i t a r y i n v a s i o n of t h e C o n t i n e n t , and a c c o r d i n g l y S.O.E. p l a n n i n g became o r i e n t a t e d more a n d m o r e t o w a r d s D-day. I n S e p t e m b e r , p e n d i n g t h e a p p o i n t m e n t of t h e S u p r e m e C o m m a n d e r , S.O.E. in W e s t e r n E u r o p e w a s p l a c e d u n d e r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l control of C O S S A C , under w h o s e d i r e c t i o n (and l a t e r t h a t of S . H . A . E . F . ) all p l a n s w e r e t h e n c e f o r t h d r a w n u p . I n J a n u a r y 1944 t h e a p p r o p r i a t e sections of S.O.E. a n d of O.S.S. were i n t e g r a t e d to c o n s t i t u t e a combined H e a d q u a r t e r s c o v e r i n g R e s i s t a n c e i n W e s t e r n E u r o p e , l a t e r k n o w n as S p e c i a l F o r c e ' H e a d q u a r t e r s ( S . F . H . Q . ) . A similar i n t e g r a t i o n w a s effected a t A l g i e r s to cover t h e A . F . H . Q . a r e a .
PRELIMINARY PHASE.

33. S.O.E. a s s i s t a n c e t o " O v e r l o r d " w a s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o stages p r e l i m i n a r y a t t a c k s on t h e G e r m a n w a r machine in the West, a n d preparations for a c t i o n on a n d a f t e r t h e a s s a u l t . F o r t h e former, S.O.E. a l r e a d y h a d t h e means t o h a n d for n o r m a l s a b o t a g e w o r k , a n d d u r i n g t h e six m o n t h s before D-day

a c t i v i t i e s w e r e intensified a n d d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t a r g e t s a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r p r i o r i t y . T h e efforts of t h e G e r m a n s to r e p a i r t h e d a m a g e gave evidence of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e t a r g e t s , m a n y of w h i c h w e r e a t t a c k e d a g a i n w h e n r e p a i r e d , t h u s a d d i n g t o the s t r a i n i m p o s e d on t h e enemy. I n d u s t r i a l w o r k s of v a l u e to t h e G e r m a n a r m y were a t t a c k e d by g r o u p s i n t h e field a n d by special coup-de-main p a r t i e s ; dozens of factories, especially a l u m i n i u m , b a l l - b e a r i n g , r u b b e r a n d l i q u i d oxygen, w e r e sabotaged. B e t w e e n S e p t e m b e r 1943 a n d J u n e 1944, 98 m a j o r a t t a c k s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t a g a i n s t v i t a l i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s , a n d t h o u s a n d s of m i n o r a c t s of sabotage c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e f u r t h e r d i s o r g a n i s a t i o n of t h e G e r m a n w a r effort. A " B l a c k m a i l " campaign r u n in conjunction w i t h Bomber Command was successful i n i n d u c i n g a n u m b e r of f a c t o r y m a n a g e m e n t s to s a b o t a g e t h e i r o w n factories r a t h e r t h a n suffer a i r b o m b i n g , t h e P e u g e o t M o t o r W o r k s a n d t h e T i m k e n b a l l - b e a r i n g factory, a m o n g s t o t h e r s , b e i n g p u t o u t of a c t i o n i n t h i s m a n n e r . A t t a c k s on c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w e r e given h i g h p r i o r i t y , a n d t h e intensified c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t locomotives achieved c o n s i d e r a b l e success. B y D - d a y 1,000 locomotives h a d been s a b o t a g e d , for t h e most p a r t by t h e r a i l w a y m e n themselves. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e w e r e i n n u m e r a b l e a t t a c k s on t u r n t a b l e s , c r a n e s a n d o t h e r r a i l t a r g e t s a n d countless d e r a i l m e n t s a n d r a i l c u t s . I n D e n m a r k on t w o occasions s y s t e m a t i c r a i l c u t t i n g over a w i d e a r e a p a r a l y s e d traffic for several d a y s . T h e m a i n i n l a n d w a t e r - w a y systems of B e l g i u m a n d F r a n c e w e r e c o n t i n u a l l y u n d e r attack, a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s o r g a n i s a t i o n w a s c a u s e d by t h e f r e q u e n t closing of key c a n a l s . T h e R h i n e - R h o n e traffic, a l r e a d y once s u s p e n d e d by t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e G i g n y b a r r a g e i n t h e s u m m e r of 1943, w a s once m o r e h e l d u p by a second a t t a c k i n J a n u a r y . A t one m o m e n t M . E . W . a n d t h e A d m i r a l t y r e p o r t e d t h a t only one w a t e r - w a y r e m a i n e d open to serve t h e i m p o r t a n t i n d u s t r i a l N o r t h - E a s t of F r a n c e , a n d w i t h i n a few d a y s S.O.E. succeeded i n c u t t i n g t h a t l a s t l i n k also.
t

34. E l e c t r i c i t y i n s t a l l a t i o n s w e r e f a v o u r i t e t a r g e t s : in t h e n i n e m o n t h s before D - d a y , 52 m a j o r a t t a c k s on t r a n s f o r m e r s w e r e c a r r i e d out, a t l e a s t five power s t a t i o n s w e r e d a m a g e d , a n d h u n d r e d s of h i g h - t e n s i o n cables a n d p y l o n s were d e s t r o y e d . P a r t i c u l a r l y effective w e r e a t t a c k s on t h e h y d r o e l e c t r i c p o w e r supplies for P a r i s . M a n y f a c t o r i e s w e r e forced t o close d o w n a s a r e s u l t of t h e r e d u c t i o n i n e l e c t r i c i t y o u t p u t a n d t h e difficulties of d i s t r i b u t i o n t h u s effected. G e r m a n t r a n s p o r t p l a n s w e r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y e m b a r r a s s e d by t h e c o n s e q u e n t e x h a u s t i o n of coal stocks. A t t a c k s on p e t r o l a n d oil w e r e h i g h i n p r i o r i t y , a n d many r e p o r t s w e r e received of t h e s a b o t a g e of t r a i n s , m o t o r t r a n s p o r t a n d s h i p s c a r r y i n g these m a t e r i a l s . O n e p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e is r e p o r t e d of 300,000 l i t r e s of oil a n d 200,000 l i t r e s of p e t r o l b e i n g d e s t r o y e d . 35. S.O.E. h a d been a s k e d t o c a r r y o u t s a b o t a g e d e s i g n e d t o i m p e d e t h e G.A.F., b u t i t w a s f o u n d impossible to a t t a c k G e r m a n a i r c r a f t on t h e i r airfields. Nine m a j o r a t t a c k s were, however, c a r r i e d o u t on f a c t o r i e s m a k i n g a i r c r a f t p a r t s and accessories, of w h i c h a n o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p l e w a s t h e s a b o t a g e of the R a t i e r airscrew f a c t o r y a t Toulouse, as a r e s u l t of w h i c h t h e G e r m a n s lost a n o u t p u t of 300 v a r i a b l e p i t c h a i r s c r e w s p e r m o n t h . S h i p p i n g w a s a t t a c k e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e period, p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s . I n t h e n i n e m o n t h s b e f o r e D-day a t o t a l of 18 s h i p s w e r e sunk, 14 in D e n m a r k a n d 4 i n N o r w e g i a n p o r t s . Most of t h i s w a s achieved by ' ' L i m p e t s ' ' w h i c h a r e t i m e - f u s e o p e r a t e d bombs t h a t a d h e r e to s h i p ' s b o t t o m s u n d e r w a t e r by p o w e r f u l m a g n e t s . T h e y a r e p l a c e d in p o s i t i o n w h i l e t h e s h i p s a r e in h a r b o u r by d i v e r s o r m e n l e a n i n g over t h e sides of r o w i n g b o a t s on d a r k n i g h t s . 36. E v e r y effort w a s m a d e to w e a k e n G e r m a n m o r a l e by p r o p a g a n d a , by t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of false R a t i o n C a r d s a n d by m o r e d i r e c t a t t a c k s . I n F r a n c e alone confirmation w a s received of t h e e x e c u t i o n by R e s i s t a n c e of 103 G e s t a p o a g e n t s and 51 c o l l a b o r a t o r s , a n d t h e d e r a i l m e n t , w i t h h e a v y c a s u a l t i e s , of a t l e a s t 12 t r o o p t r a i n s . T h e evidence of c a p t u r e d G e r m a n d o c u m e n t s seems t o s h o w t h a t a l a r g e m e a s u r e of success w a s achieved by these a t t a c k s , a n d t h e G e r m a n s b e c a m e increasingly conscious a n d a f r a i d of t h e u n r e l e n t i n g h o s t i l i t y of t h e p o p u l a t i o n s of those c o u n t r i e s t h e y h a d p r o f e s s e d t o " l i b e r a t e . " T h e d i s p e r s a l of enemy t r o o p s and t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a r e a s r e m o v e d from t h e b r i d g e h e a d became one of t h e most i m p o r t a n t t a s k s d e m a n d e d of S.O.E. U n r e s t a n d sabotage throughout occupied t e r r i t o r i e s forced t h e G e r m a n s n o t only t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r forces of troops a n d police in these c o u n t r i e s , b u t also to d i s p e r s e t h e m w i d e l y i n t h e t o w n s and villages to enable t h e m to m a i n t a i n o r d e r a n d p r o t e c t i n s t a l l a t i o n s . I n a r e a s where t h e M a q u i s h a d a l r e a d y s t a r t e d o v e r t r e s i s t a n c e , t h e y w e r e forced to m o u n t p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s d u r i n g w h i c h t h e y suffered a p p r e c i a b l e c a s u a l t i e s . In D e n m a r k t h e r e w a s a g a r r i s o n of 4 d i v i s i o n s i n A u g u s t 1943. B y J a n u a r y t h i s had been i n c r e a s e d to 6, by M a r c h to 8, a n d in A u g u s t 7 d i v i s i o n s w e r e still t h e r e . [28366]
c

INCREASED A I R L I F T .

37. T h e second p h a s e of S . O . E . a s s i s t a n c e to " O v e r l o r d , " c o v e r i n g a c t i v i t i e s on a n d a f t e r D - d a y , involved first t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of reserved p l a n s a i m i n g at h a m p e r i n g a n d o b s t r u c t i n g enemy r e i n f o r c e m e n t movements, p r i n c i p a l l y by the d i s r u p t i o n , a t a given moment, of h i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w h e r e v e r vulnerable, w h e t h e r by r o a d , r a i l , t e l e p h o n e or t e l e g r a p h ; a n d secondly t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t in s u i t a b l e a r e a s of forces e q u i p p e d to u n d e r t a k e g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e a n d so to d i v e r t enemy t r o o p s f r o m t h e b r i d g e h e a d d u r i n g t h e v i t a l p e r i o d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r D - d a y . T o c a r r y o u t t h i s S . H . A . E . F . d i r e c t i v e , it w a s e s s e n t i a l t h a t deliveries of supplies, to t h e field should be vastly i n c r e a s e d . A t the b e g i n n i n g of the year t w o s q u a d r o n s of L i b e r a t o r s were a l l o t t e d to O . S . S . : t h i s b r o u g h t o u r resources u p to a t o t a l of f o u r s q u a d r o n s based in E n g l a n d . I n a d d i t i o n , a very Large s u p p l e m e n t a r y effort from Bomber C o m m a n d (3 G r o u p ) a n d A . E . A . F . (38 G r o u p ) w a s m a d e a v a i l a b l e e a r l y i n t h e y e a r a t t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r . D e l i v e r i e s w e r e a i m e d a t covering the reserved D - d a y p l a n s a s first p r i o r i t y , w h i l e t h e s u p p l e m e n t a r y effort w a s e m p l o y e d p r i n c i p a l l y on o p e r a t i o n s t o the M a q u i s a r e a s of S o u t h - E a s t a n d C e n t r a l F r a n c e . I t w a s no s i m p l e m a t t e r to i n c r e a s e deliveries a t such a r a t e . M a n y n e w r e c e p t i o n c o m m i t t e e s were i m m e d i a t e l y r e q u i r e d a n d i t took t h e m some t i m e to become efficient a t the d r i l l . A b o u t 5 p e r cent, of t h e l a r g e d e l i v e r i e s of a r m s fell i n t o t h e h a n d s of t h e G e r m a n s w h o h a d t a k e n to s t a t i o n i n g false r e c e p t i o n c o m m i t t e e s a t likely spots w i t h t o r c h e s w h i c h t h e y flashed a t a i r c r a f t . B u t in s p i t e of these setbacks a n d of very b a d w e a t h e r a steadily m o u n t i n g t o t a l of stores w a s d e s p a t c h e d and c o n t a i n e r s w e r e n o w c o u n t e d by t h e t h o u s a n d i n s t e a d of by tihe h u n d r e d . In p l a n n i n g a n d s u p p l y , p r i o r i t y w a s n a t u r a l l y given to F r a n c e .
THE MAQUIS's PART.

38. R e s i s t a n c e g r o u p s i n t h e i m m e d i a t e c o a s t a l zones could n o t be counted u p o n to give m u c h a s s i s t a n c e , o w i n g to t h e p r e s e n c e of so m a n y enemy troops, a n d this, h a d also m a d e t h e i r e q u i p m e n t specially difficult. Efforts w e r e t h e r e f o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d on b u i l d i n g u p R e s i s t a n c e in t h e a r e a s of G e r m a n local reserves, w i t h t h e object of i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h t h e m o v e m e n t s of e n e m y a r m o u r by c a u s i n g s e r i o u s d i s l o c a t i o n on t h e r a i l w a y s a n d r o a d s ; a n d i n t h e strategic, b a c k a r e a for t h e a t t a c k on s u p p l y d u m p s , i n s t a l l a t i o n s a n d h e a d q u a r t e r s . On t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s of t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r , s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n h a d been p a i d to b u i l d i n g u p s t r o n g R e s i s t a n c e F o r c e s i n the m o u n t a i n o u s c o u n t r y e a s t of t h e R h o n e valley in o r d e r to c a u s e a m a j o r d i v e r s i o n ; w h i l e , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , p r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e m a d e for t h e - d e v e l o p m e n t of l a r g e M a q u i s g r o u p s i n o t h e r s u i t a b l e areas such a s t h e Vosges, M a s s i f C e n t r a l a n d B r i t t a n y .
P E N E T R A T I O N OF A D M I N I S T R A T I O N S .

39. I n t h e o t h e r c o u n t r i e s of W e s t e r n E u r o p e R e s i s t a n c e w a s developed a n d m a i n t a i n e d a t full s t r e n g t h i n o r d e r to force t h e G e r m a n s to r e t a i n l a r g e t r o o p f o r m a t i o n s in t h e s e a r e a s , a n d to a i d d e c e p t i o n . R e s i s t a n c e t h e r e w a s n o t i n t e n d e d to be called i n t o t h e open, b u t w a s t o c o n t i n u e w i t h s a b o t a g e a n d c l a n d e s t i n e a c t i v i t i e s , t h u s c o n s t i t u t i n g a c o n s t a n t t h r e a t of a large-scale r i s i n g i n t h e enemy's r e a r . I n t h e L o w C o u n t r i e s a c t i v i t i e s w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d a g a i n s t e n e m y communi c a t i o n s , a n d in S c a n d i n a v i a a g a i n s t t h e e n e m y ' s p r o d u c t i o n of w a r m a t e r i a l . 40. I n all c o u n t r i e s a n o t h e r t e c h n i q u e w a s b e i n g developed a t t h e s a m e time t h e p e n e t r a t i o n of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e services s u c h a s police, fire-brigades, r a i l w a y m a n a g e m e n t o r u n i o n s . I n every c o u n t r y t h e t r a n s p o r t w o r k e r s w e r e i n the van of R e s i s t a n c e a n d t h e i r o r g a n i s a t i o n s d i r e c t e d t h e c a m p a i g n . A t e l l i n g example of t h e u n o b t r u s i v e t e c h n i c a l sabotage c a r r i e d o u t by t h e r a i l w a y m e n c a m e to light w h e n a C a n a d i a n officer v i s i t e d t h e r o u n d house a t D i e p p e i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r its c a p t u r e in o r d e r t o r e - e s t a b l i s h t r a n s p o r t on t h e i m p o r t a n t s u p p l y r o u t e to N e u f c h a t e l . S i x e n g i n e s w e r e in t h e shed, all b e a r i n g p l a c a r d s s t a t i n g their d e f e c t s ; t h e m i n i m u m r e p a i r p e r i o d w a s s t a t e d a t t h r e e m o n t h s . A s t h e officer was e x p r e s s i n g h i s d i s g u s t t h e f o r e m a n came i n t o t h e shed a n d took d o w n t h e p l a c a r d s , s a y i n g " P o u r les A l l i e s d e m a i n s o i r . " T h e police w e r e m o r e p a t c h y , t h o u g h often h e l p f u l , a n d i n D e n m a r k c o n s t i t u t e d a n i n v a l u a b l e s h i e l d . T h e s e t y p e s of a c t i v i t y w e r e t h e m o s t difficult for t h e G e r m a n s to combat, a n d t h e i r r e s u l t s cannot be assessed even n o w , t h o u g h t h e i m p o r t a n t p a r t p l a y e d by t h e police w a s demon s t r a t e d i n t h e l i b e r a t i o n of P a r i s .
T H E E V E OF D - D A Y .

4 1 . B y t h e b e g i n n i n g of J u n e 1944 t h r e e m a i n p l a n s for a c t i o n a g a i n s t r a i l w a y s , r o a d s a n d t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w e r e r e a d y in d e t a i l . I n F r a n c e 570

r a i l w a y t a r g e t s , 30 r o a d c u t s on i m p o r t a n t r o u t e s a n d 32 t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n t a r g e t s were p r e p a r e d for i m m e d i a t e action, w h i l e a v e r y l a r g e n u m b e r , i n a d d i t i o n , h a d been p l a n n e d a n d w o u l d be e x e c u t e d if t h e necessary explosives a n d w e a p o n s could be delivered. E a c h p l a n h a d i t s g e n e r a l s t a n d - b y m e s s a g e a n d each i n d i v i d u a l t a r g e t i t s a c t i o n m e s s a g e all to be t r a n s m i t t e d over t h e B . B . C . I n t h e M a q u i s a r e a s , R e s i s t a n c e w a s p r e p a r e d a n d e a g e r for o p e n w a r f a r e a g a i n s t t h e enemy. I t w a s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e F r e n c h forces of R e s i s t a n c e n u m b e r e d 276,000, of w h i c h 152,000 w e r e a r m e d . T h e F r e n c h h a d a t l a s t l e a r n e d t h e necessity for local devolution a n d for d e s p a t c h i n g good officers to t a k e c o m m a n d , a n d inspec tions by F r e n c h a n d B r i t i s h officers f o u n d efficiency r a p i d l y i m p r o v i n g . - 42. I n B e l g i u m t h e t w o m a i n R e s i s t a n c e o r g a n i s a t i o n s , one m i l i t a r y a n d one " c i v i l , " w e r e r e a d y to p l a y t h e i r p a r t . T h e B e l g i a n p l a n w a s d i v i d e d i n t o three p h a s e s : (i) C l a n d e s t i n e s a b o t a g e of t h e key r a i l w a y s , t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d bridges. (ii) G e n e r a l h a r a s s i n g a c t i o n by i n d e p e n d e n t s a b o t a g e a n d m i n o r g u e r r i l l a , action. (iii) G u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e b a s e d on chosen s t r o n g p o i n t s or l a a g e r s u n d e r t h e complete c o n t r o l of t h e m i l i t a r y o r g a n i s a t i o n . T h e t o t a l s t r e n g t h of R e s i s t a n c e i n B e l g i u m w a s r e t u r n e d a t 65,000, of w h o m i t h a d only been possible t o a r m 7-8,000. 43. A t t e m p t s to c o n t a c t t h e D u t c h R e s i s t a n c e M o v e m e n t s a f t e r t h e b r e a k u p of t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n i n t h a t c o u n t r y h a d f a i l e d a n d it w a s t h e r e f o r e impossible to m a k e a n y f o r w a r d p l a n s for t h e i r e m p l o y m e n t . I n N o r w a y 20,000 a n d i n D e n m a r k 18,000 m e n w^ere r e a d y for action, b u t of these only a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e - q u a r t e r w e r e a r m e d . T h e d a y s of p r e p a r a t i o n w e r e over a n d R e s i s t a n c e t h r o u g h o u t o c c u p i e d E u r o p e w a s a w a i t i n g t h e call t o action.
" JEDBTJRGHS."

44. P l a n s w e r e also m a d e for e s t a b l i s h i n g a d e q u a t e l i a i s o n w i t h t h e v a r i o u s m i l i t a r y f o r m a t i o n s o p e r a t i n g in t h e field a n d to t h i s end " S p e c i a l F o r c e " staffs of B r i t i s h , C a n a d i a n a n d A m e r i c a n officers w e r e r e c r u i t e d a n d t r a i n e d for a t t a c h ment t o A r m y G r o u p s a n d A r m i e s . T h e f u n c t i o n s of these Staffs w e r e t o p r o v i d e the c o m m a n d e r of t h e f o r m a t i o n to- w h i c h t h e y w e r e a t t a c h e d w i t h i n f o r m a tion a n d advice on r e s i s t a n c e a n d i t s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , a n d t o s e n d b a c k t o S.F.H.Q. i n d i c a t i o n s of o p e r a t i o n s w h i c h w o u l d assist t h e a r m i e s . O n t h e o t h e r hand, i n o r d e r t o g u a r d a g a i n s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a b r e a k d o w n of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w i t h t h e field, specially t r a i n e d r e s e r v e s w e r e p r e p a r e d a n d held r e a d y i n E n g l a n d and N o r t h A f r i c a . T h e s e w e r e of f o u r t y p e s : small t e a m s of B r i t i s h , F r e n c h and A m e r i c a n officers w i t h a W / T o p e r a t o r n a m e d " J e d b u r g h s , " w h o could be d r o p p e d t o R e s i s t a n c e G r o u p s n e e d i n g a s s i s t a n c e , a n d whose f u n c t i o n w a s to provide l e a d e r s h i p , W / T c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d u p - t o - d a t e o r d e r s f r o m S . F . H . Q . ; A m e r i c a n O p e r a t i o n a l G r o u p s , c o n s i s t i n g of h i g h l y t r a i n e d p a r a t r o o p s w i t h W / T o p e r a t o r s ; " B a r d s e a " t e a m s w h o could be sent t o r e i n f o r c e t h e P o l i s h Resistance g r o u p s in t h e L i l l e a r e a of N o r t h e r n F r a n c e , w h e r e some 200,000 P o l e s work i n t h e m i n e s ; a n d lastly, a n u m b e r of t r a i n e d o r g a n i s e r s w h o w e r e held in readiness f o r s p e c i a l m i s s i o n s . '
THE

B.B.C. CALLS.

45. B y t h e S p r i n g of 1944 a r m s deliveries h a d become so f r e q u e n t t h a t t h e " messages p e r s o n n e l s " on' t h e B . B . C . w e r e d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e i r t r a n s m i s s i o n s to F r a n c e a t 1330, 1430, 1930 a n d 2115 h o u r s . T o t h e s e t h e l e a d e r s of t h e Resistance G r o u p s u s e d to l i s t e n w h e n e v e r t h e y could, n o t only w h e n t h e y w e r e expecting a d e s p a t c h of a r m s to t h e i r g r o u p , b u t also because t h e y k n e w t h a t i n this w a y t h e y w o u l d be w a r n e d w h e n t h e ' A l l i e d i n v a s i o n w a s c o m i n g . Each group h a d i t s a l l o t t e d t a r g e t s a n d e a c h w a s e x p e c t i n g a ' ' s t a n d - b y ' ' m e s s a g e as well as a s u b s e q u e n t " a c t i o n " m e s s a g e . 46. A t 1-30 p . m . on t h e a f t e r n o o n of t h e 1st J u n e , 1944, t h e R e s i s t a n c e leaders l i s t e n i n g to t h e i r home w i r e l e s s sets or to t h e m i d g e t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s receivers w h i c h S.O.E. h a d sent o u t for t h e p u r p o s e , s u d d e n l y h e a r d t h e m e s s a g e they h a d m e m o r i s e d for m o n t h s , a n d w h i c h S . H . A . E . F . h a d n o w i n s t r u c t e d S.O.E. to t r a n s m i t . I t w a s t h e " S t a n d - b y ! " C o u l d i t a t l a s t be t r u e ? T h e w o r d quickly w e n t r o u n d . M o r e e a r s w e r e l i s t e n i n g t o t h e 2 - 3 0 p . m . b r o a d c a s t a n d a g a i n t h e r e w a s t h e " S t a n d - b y . " I t w a s r e p e a t e d a t 7 - 30 p.m. a n d a t 9 -15 p . m . [ 2 8 3 6 6 ] D

T h e next- d a y on all four t r a n s m i s s i o n s t h e same ' ' S t a n d - b y ' ' messages came along. E v e n t h e n R e s i s t a n c e G r o u p s could scarcely believe it. T h e d a t e had been so long p o s t p o n e d ; t h e G e r m a n s seemed so s t r o n g . B u t t h e y m a d e their p r e p a r a t i o n s , t h e i r t a r g e t s w e r e r e c o n n o i t r e d , t h e i r a r m s w e r e d u g u p from their h i d i n g places. T h e n came t h e 3 r d J u n e . T h e r e w e r e p l e n t y of " m e s s a g e s p e r s o n n e l s , " b u t n o n e of t h e m w e r e " s t a n d - b y " or " a c t i o n " messages. The same t h i n g o c c u r r e d on t h e 4 t h J u n e . W h a t h a d h a p p e n e d ? . H a d t h e p l a n m i s c a r r i e d ? W a s . t h e w e a t h e r i n t h e c h a n n e l too b a d ? E v e r y o n e w a s l i s t e n i n g a g a i n a t . l -30 p.m. on t h e 5 t h J u n e , b u t a g a i n t h e r e w e r e n o " s t a n d - b y " messages a n d n o " a c t i o n " messages. T h e n e x t t w o t r a n s m i s s i o n s w e r e t h e same. Then a t 9 - 1 5 p.m. o n t h e e v e n i n g of t h e 5 t h J u n e t h e r e c a m e t h e " action " messages, w h i c h R e s i s t a n c e h a d been w a i t i n g for for t h r e e y e a r s a n d more. T h e h o u r h a d at last come! 47. R e s i s t a n c e w e n t i n t o a c t i o n a t once; t h e t r a n s i t i o n between t h e two p h a s e s , from s a b o t a g e to g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e , w a s c l e a r l y m a r k e d by t h e execution of D - d a y p l a n s . I n F r a n c e , w h e r e t h e g r e a t e s t i m m e d i a t e effort w a s expected, R e s i s t a n c e w a s n o w u n i t e d i n t o a single f e d e r a t i o n a s t h e " Forces F r a n c h i s e s de l T n t e r i e u r " E . F . I . - a n d its c o m m a n d w a s vested by S . H . A . E . F . i n General K o e n i g a n d p a s s e d o u t of t h e d i r e c t o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l of S . F . H . Q . a n d of S . O . E . 48.. T h e g r e a t g a m b l e w a s no longer on t h e s p i r i t n o r even on t h e p r e p a r e d ness of t h e F r e n c h , b u t on t h e G e r m a n r e a c t i o n . W o u l d they, i n a n t i c i p a t i o n or c o n c u r r e n t l y , t a k e such r e p r e s s i v e a n d p u n i t i v e m e t h o d s as to overwhelm R e s i s t a n c e e n t i r e l y ? I n t h e event t h e G e r m a n s r e a c t e d a s t a r d i l y a n d inefficiently a g a i n s t t h e i n t e r i o r as a g a i n s t t h e e x t e r i o r enemy. T h i s , combined w i t h the i n c r e a s e d s u p p l i e s a n d a w a v e of e n t h u s i a s m t h r o u g h o u t t h e occupied countries, e n s u r e d a d e g r e e of success beyond t h e d r e a m s even of S . O . E .
THE

F.F.I. STRIKE.

49. I n F r a n c e t h e D - d a y p l a n s w e r e e x e c u t e d w i t h efficiency a n d despatchP r e a r r a n g e d r a i l w a y t a r g e t s w e r e a t t a c k e d all over t h e c o u n t r y , a n d t h e general chaos w a s e n h a n c e d by s p o n t a n e o u s acts. T h e local congestion b u i l t u p valuable t a r g e t s for t h e A i r F o r c e ; for i n s t a n c e , ' a t L i l l e 51 t r a i n s w e r e held u p a t once. M e s s a g e s from t h e field r e p o r t e d 486 successful r a i l cuts i n F r a n c e a n d the d e r a i l m e n t of 180 G e r m a n t r a i n s i n t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p o s t - D - d a y period. Moreover, t h i s level of s a b o t a g e w a s m a i n t a i n e d . I n m i d - J u l y t h e n i n e main a r t e r i e s i n t h e N o r t h w e r e still b e i n g c u t f r o m t w o to five times d a i l y ; a n d by A u g u s t 668 locomotives h a d been d e s t r o y e d a n d 2,900 a t t a c k s on r a i l w a y s had been r e p o r t e d . T h e confusion on t h e r a i l w a y s d r o v e t h e enemy to t h e employ m e n t of r o a d t r a n s p o r t , a n d h e r e a g a i n t h e F . F . I . w e r e w a i t i n g for them. S i g n p o s t s w e r e c h a n g e d r o u n d to p o i n t t h e w r o n g w a y ; i n m a n y p l a c e s t h e tall p o p l a r trees t h a t o r n a m e n t F r e n c h r o a d s w e r e felled across t h e m ; scores of t h o u s a n d s of m i d g e t m i n e s t h e size of a pill-box, d e s i g n e d in t h e S.O.E. research s t a t i o n a n d k n o w n as " t y r e b u r s t e r s " (which m a k e a hole t h e size of a n orange i n any t y r e t h a t passes over t h e m ) , w e r e s t r e w n on all t h e r o a d s t h e G e r m a n s were likely to use. Convoys of vehicles a n d m a r c h i n g t r o o p s suffered numerous c a s u a l t i e s in a m b u s h e s , a n d w e r e c o n t i n u a l l y forced to h a l t a n d d r i v e back the p a t r i o t forces before p r o c e e d i n g . By A u g u s t 220 i m p o r t a n t r o a d a n d r a i l bridges h a d been e i t h e r d e s t r o y e d or b a d l y d a m a g e d a n d traffic e v e r y w h e r e was slowed d o w n . 50. T h e t h i r d D - d a y p l a n w a s also b e i n g e x e c u t e d . B y A u g u s t 380 cuts on t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s h a d been r e p o r t e d a n d n u m e r o u s p o w e r lines h a d been p u t o u t of action, p a r t i c u l a r l y those c o n v e r g i n g on B o r d e a u x , T a r b e s , L y o n s , Dole, L e M a n s , O r l e a n s , L i l l e a n d P a r i s . A t t h e r e q u e s t of 2 1 A r m y G r o u p , successful a t t a c k s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t by R e s i s t a n c e on m i l i t a r y t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s i n the i m m e d i a t e n e i g h b o u r h o o d of the b r i d g e h e a d a t such c e n t r e s as St. L o , A v r a n c h e s , C a e n , R o u e n a n d A m i e n s , a n d t h e enemy w a s forced to m a k e e x t e n s i v e use of w i r e l e s s for o p e r a t i o n a l m a t t e r s .
T H E GERMAN PINNED.

5 1 . T h e effect of t h i s a c t i v i t y , combined w i t h t h e a c t i o n of t h e A l l i e d A i r F o r c e s , w a s t r e m e n d o u s . T h e G e r m a n t r o o p s m o v i n g to t h e b r i d g e h e a d a r e a found t h e i r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s e v e r y w h e r e i n a s t a t e of chaos, a n d i t w a s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e n o r m a l d e l a y on t h e f o r w a r d m o v e m e n t of t h e i r a d v a n c e w a s between 48 a n d 7 2 h o u r s , w h i l e in e x c e p t i o n a l cases i t w a s m u c h longer. W h e n t h e y finally reached t h e b a t t l e a r e a , t h e y w e r e f r e q u e n t l y i n a s t a t e of c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s o r g a n i s a t i o n , s h o r t of vehicles, e q u i p m e n t a n d m e n . T h e e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e ' ' D a s R e i c h ' ' D i v i s i o n o r d e r e d f r o m Toulouse t o t h e b a t t l e a r e a w e r e t y p i c a l . I t s first elements

left t h e Toulouse a r e a on D - d a y : b u t t h e l a s t elements, of t h e D i v i s i o n d i d not reach t h e St. L o a r e a u n t i l D * 1 7 . T h e t o t a l d i s t a n c e involved w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 450 miles a n d i t h a s been e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h i s D i v i s i o n took twice or even t h r e e t i m e s as long t o do t h i s j o u r n e y t h a n i t w o u l d n o r m a l l y h a v e done. M u c h of t h e c r e d i t for t h e delay i m p o s e d m u s t go to R e s i s t a n c e , for t h e r e is a m p l e evidence t h a t t h e D i v i s i o n w a s d i r e c t l y a t t a c k e d a n d d e l a y e d by t h e F . F . I . i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of i t s move before i t w a s affected by a i r a t t a c k s . O n e G e r m a n c o m p a n y , w h i c h took t h e e a s t e r l y r o u t e , f o u g h t t h e F . F T . a t T u l l e a n d again a t a n o t h e r p o i n t f u r t h e r N o r t h . T h e y h a n g e d 80 p r i s o n e r s i n t h e first e n g a g e m e n t a n d ' s h o t 200 a f t e r t h e second. A n o t h e r e l e m e n t of f o u r c o m p a n i e s was a t t a c k e d on t h e 9 t h J u n e some. 10 miles N o r t h of T o u r s . I n t h e course of a p r o t r a c t e d fight, w h i c h h e l d u p t h e e n e m y for t h r e e d a y s , 20 F . F . I . w e r e t a k e n p r i s o n e r a n d l a t e r h a n g e d . T h e 4 S.S. P a n z e r G r e n . R e g t . l e f t M o n t a u b a n by road on D + 2 a n d took n e a r l y t w o weeks t o r e a c h N o r m a n d y - a delay a l m o s t entirely d u e t o d i v e r s i o n s forced u p o n t h e m by t h e F . F . I . A t L i m o g e s o n t h e 10th J u n e t h e R e g i m e n t e n c o u n t e r e d an F . F . I . force a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10,000 s t r o n g . This force h a d d e s t r o y e d a n u m b e r of b r i d g e s a n d w a s t r y i n g t o occupy t h e t o w n . On t h e p r e v i o u s d a y t h e R e g i m e n t h a d s e n t a d e t a c h m e n t t o t h e a i d of one of i t s b a t t a l i o n s w h i c h h a d been s u r r o u n d e d by a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4,000 F . F . I . a t G u e r e t , 50 miles to t h e N . W . I t w a s n o t u n t i l t h e 1 4 t h J u n e t h a t t h e b a t t a l i o n w a s able to leave for T o u r s , a d e l a y of five d a y s . T h e d e t a c h m e n t t h e n r e t u r n e d to L i m o g e s to r e j o i n t h e m a i n body. M e a n w h i l e t h e b a t t a l i o n c o m m a n d e r of I I I B n . h a d been k i d n a p p e d w h i l s t p a s s i n g t h r o u g h a v i l l a g e 20 miles S.W. of L i m o g e s , a n d the b a t t a l i o n s p e n t t h r e e d a y s i n a useless s e a r c h . I t is believed t h a t t h i s w a s t h e incident w h i c h c a u s e d t h e G e r m a n s t o p e r p e t r a t e t h e m o s t wholesale a n d d e l i b e r a t e of t h e i r a t r o c i t i e s in F r a n c e , t h e m a s s a c r e of O r a d o u r - s u r - G l a n e .
T H E MAQUIS R I S E S .

52. M e a n w h i l e , i n a r e a s w h e r e R e s i s t a n c e w a s o r d e r e d to r e m a i n c l a n d e s t i n e , . continued successful s a b o t a g e w a s c a r r i e d o u t a n d over n i n e t y sujch a t t a c k s were m a d e i n t h e p o s t D - d a y p e r i o d , c o v e r i n g a w i d e r a n g e of t a r g e t s . In other r e g i o n s , s u c h a s B r i t t a n y , t h e M a s s i f C e n t r a l , t h e M o r v a n , t h e J u r a a n d the Savoy A l p s , R e s i s t a n c e w a s b e c o m i n g s t r o n g e r a n d m o r e active. " J e d b u r g h s " were d e s p a t c h e d to m a n y a r e a s a n d m o s t successfully fulfilled t h e i r r o l e of leavening t h e m a s s a n d f o c u s s i n g i t s a c t i v i t i e s . T h e v a l u e of a w e l l - b r i e f e d Liaison Officer w a s i l l u s t r a t e d in t h e s u r r e n d e r of G e n e r a l E l s t e r a n d h i s 18,000 troops a t B e a u g e n c y , w h e r e t h e " " J e d b u r g h " w a s l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e triangular negotiations between the American a n d G e r m a n Commanders a n d the F.F.I. 53. On a h i g h e r level, a n d t o cover w i d e r a r e a s , s p e c i a l L i a i s o n M i s s i o n s were s e n t to c o - o r d i n a t e a n d control a c t i v i t i e s . T h e a r r i v a l of t h e s e A l l i e d officers i n t h e field a t t h i s s t a g e s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n S . H . A . E . F . a n d the F . F . I . a n d e n s u r e d t h a t t h e full w e i g h t of R e s i s t a n c e w a s d i r e c t e d i n accordance w i t h m i l i t a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s i n s t e a d of b e i n g d i s p e r s e d and unco-ordinated. L a r g e n u m b e r s of e n e m y t r o o p s w e r e c o n t a i n e d by t h e s e M a q u i s groups. W h e r e m a j o r G e r m a n f o r m a t i o n s w e r e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t specific a r e a s as in C o r r e z e a n d t h e V e r c o r s (where t h e e n e m y e m p l o y e d p a r a c h u t e t r o o p s ) t h e Maquis w e r e b r o k e n u p a n d d i s p e r s e d ; b u t i n g e n e r a l , i t w a s t h e G e r m a n s w h o were on t h e r u n , a n d w h e r e v e r t r u e g u e r r i l l a " t a c t i c s w e r e u s e d t h e F . F . I . w e r e able t o inflict c a s u a l t i e s a t a n a v e r a g e r a t e of p e r h a p s five to one. I n all these directions t h e F . F . I . r e a c h e d a crescendo of a c t i v i t y i n t h e course of w h i c h they freed m a n y t o w n s a n d w r o u g h t i n c a l c u l a b l e d a m a g e to G e r m a n t r a n s p o r t , signals a n d s u p p l i e s . 54. I n selected' a r e a s t h e S p e c i a l A i r Service, whose a c t i v i t i e s w e r e co-ordinated t h r o u g h a n S . A . S . L i a i s o n S e c t i o n a t S . F . H . Q . , w e r e also u s i n g t h e help of R e s i s t a n c e t o e x e c u t e t h e i r i n t e n s i v e t a s k s . I n B r i t t a n y a j o i n t S . A . S . / S.F.H.Q. effort r e s u l t e d i n a g e n e r a l r i s i n g of t h e F r e n c h , w h i c h a s s u m e d such p r o p o r t i o n s t h a t all o r g a n i s e d o p p o s i t i o n w a s absorbed, a n d t h e a d v a n c e of t h e Third U n i t e d States A r m y w a s considerably assisted.
"THE BELGIANS ACT.

55. O n t h e flank of t h e l a n d i n g , t h e B e l g i a n s , t h o u g h s a d l y u n d e r e q u i p p e d , were also p l a y i n g t h e i r p a r t w i t h p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y even g r e a t e r success. B e t w e e n the 10th a n d 2 0 t h J u n e , 153 s a b o t a g e o p e r a t i o n s w e r e c a r r i e d out, i n c l u d i n g a high p r o p o r t i o n of r a i l w a y a n d r o a d o b s t r u c t i o n s . S a b o t a g e of t e l e c o m m u n i c a tions w a s w i d e s p r e a d a n d effective. D u r i n g J u l y c l a n d e s t i n e a t t a c k s o n a l l t y p e s

of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s increased, 800 r a i l c u t s w e r e r e p o r t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h 42 derail m e n t s a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n or d a m a g e of 65 r a i l w a y a n d r o a d b r i d g e s . I n the S c a n d i n a v i a n countries^ R e s i s t a n c e w a s n o t called i n t o t h e open, b u t clandestine s a b o t a g e w a s c o n t i n u e d . I n N o r w a y , a t t a c k s w e r e c a r r i e d , out a g a i n s t p e t r o l and oil stocks. I n D e n m a r k , t h e tension p r e v a i l i n g as a r e s u l t of t h e A l l i e d invasion a n d t h e increase of sabotage c u l m i n a t e d d u r i n g t h e first w e e k of J u l y in a s p o n t a n e o u s g e n e r a l s t r i k e i n C o p e n h a g e n , i n w h i c h t h e G e r m a n a u t h o r i t i e s were forced to give w a y to t h e d e m a n d s of t h e F r e e d o m Council. 56. B y D -f- 6 or 7, R e s i s t a n c e h a d a l r e a d y accomplished i t s p r i m a r y task i n " O v e r l o r d . " F r o m then on, t h e i n c r e a s i n g w e i g h t of e x t r a s u p p l i e s a n d the s t i m u l u s of t h e A l l i e d successes m a d e themselves felt i n g r o w i n g g u e r r i l l a pressure on t h e G e r m a n movements. L a r g e - s c a l e deliveries of stores w e r e m a d e to t h e most i m p o r t a n t M a q u i s a r e a s i n d a y l i g h t by t h e 8th U . S . A . A . F . a n d t h e b u i l d - u p of R e s i s t a n c e continued. I n d e e d , r e s t r a i n i n g the F . F . I . from p r e c i p i t a t e action became q u i t e a problem. I t is n o t possible to assess a c c u r a t e l y t h e casualties inflicted on t h e enemy by R e s i s t a n c e , b u t claims a m o u n t to a b o u t 30,000 killed a n d w o u n d e d , a n d 35,000 p r i s o n e r s .
GENERAL KOENIG IN CHARGE.

57. R e s i s t a n c e w a s able to h e l p in o t h e r w a y s t o a n u n e x p e c t e d degree. C o u n t e r - s c o r c h i n g p l a n s succeeded in p r e s e r v i n g i m p o r t a n t b r i d g e s a n d port facilities, especially in t h e south of F r a n c e a n d a t A n t w e r p . Experienced R e s i s t a n c e elements showed a n a p t i t u d e for i n f i l t r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e enemy lines for t a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s . R e s i s t a n c e also a s s u m e d d i r e c t m i l i t a r y f u n c t i o n s of a secondary order. T h a n k s to t h e unification of c o m m a n d on a m i l i t a r y basis under G e n e r a l K o e n i g , t h e F . F . I . w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e t a s k of dealing w i t h t h e G e r m a n s o v e r r u n in t h e speed of t h e a d v a n c e a n d g e n e r a l l y a c t i n g as flank g u a r d s a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n t r o o p s . T h i s t a s k became very i m p o r t a n t as the sweep of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s 3 r d A r m y developed. B y t h e d a t e of t h e l a n d i n g on t h e R i y i e r a , the F . F . I w e r e d e a l i n g p r a c t i c a l l y u n a i d e d w i t h t h e whole of Central and South-West France. 58. T h e l a t e r t h r u s t s in t h e B r i t i s h a r e a w e r e s i m i l a r l y s u p p o r t e d by R e s i s t a n c e in B e l g i u m and, a c c o r d i n g to i t s l i m i t e d scope, in H o l l a n d . Only in t h e A r d e n n e s w a s g u e r r i l l a a c t i o n o r d e r e d , b u t r o u n d i n g - u p a c t i v i t i e s developed close b e h i n d t h e drive, a n d in B e l g i u m t h e R e s i s t a n c e forces p r o v e d to have a s t r o n g e r i n t e r n a l d i s c i p l i n e t h a n t h e F r e n c h a n d t h e r e f o r e w e r e b e t t e r a d a p t e d to fill t h e i r a n c i l l a r y role. A successful r a i l w a y s t r i k e i n H o l l a n d a n d t h e provision by R e s i s t a n c e of a secret u n d e r g r o u n d telephone line, w h i c h l a t e r w a s for some t i m e t h e only m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n between t h e 1st A i r b o r n e D i v i s i o n at A r n h e m a n d 30 C o r p s , were m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of the military situation. 59. I n fulfilment of t h e t a s k s a l l o t t e d to t h e m , R e s i s t a n c e everywhere achieved a d e g r e e of success t h a t is p a r t l y t o be a c c o u n t e d for by t h e . w e a k n e s s and p r e o c c u p a t i o n of t h e G e r m a n s . B u t t h e m a i n f a c t o r w a s , as i t a l w a y s m u s t be, t h e c o u r a g e a n d zeal of t h e p a t r i o t s a n d of t h e g a l l a n t officers w h o o r g a n i s e d and led t h e m . T h e long delay before the A l l i e d i n v a s i o n of E u r o p e h a d proved d i s h e a r t e n i n g to t h e R e s i s t a n c e g r o u p s , a n d h a d afforded o p p o r t u n i t y to the G e s t a p o to p e n e t r a t e m a n y a n d b r e a k u p a few of t h e m ; b u t in every o t h e r respect t h e t i m e - f a c t o r w a s f a v o u r a b l e a n d h e l p e d i n t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e b a s i c problems of o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d s u p p l y . P a r t i c u l a r l y v a l u a b l e w a s t h e p r o g r e s s i v e . stretching of G e r m a n effort a n d m a n - p o w e r in all d i r e c t i o n s , w i t h the r e s u l t t h a t their r e a c t i o n on D - d a y w a s feeble a n d suffered from c r u c i a l delay. U p o n t h e founda tions l a i d by S.O.E. from 1940 o n w a r d s , a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d in t h e t h r e e years before t h e invasion, s t r o n g a n d flexible R e s i s t a n c e o r g a n i s a t i o n s h a d been built u p in- every c o u n t r y of W e s t e r n E u r o p e , r e a d y to p l a y t h e i r p a r t in t h e liberation of t h e i r c o u n t r i e s . W h e n t h e t i m e came, t h e c o u r a g e , devotion a n d d i s c i p l i n e of these p a t r i o t forces p r o v e d to be a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in t h e success of the Allied invasion. I t is w o r t h reflecting on w h a t m i g h t h a v e been t h e s i t u a t i o n h a d there been n o o r g a n i s a t i o n t h i n k i n g of a n d w o r k i n g for these g a l l a n t m e n d u r i n g the dark y e a r s from 1940 o n w a r d s . I t w a s t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e r e w a s someone in the free w o r l d o u t s i d e F e s t u n g E u r o p a w h o h a d n o t f o r g o t t e n t h e m a n d w h o w a s t r y i n g to h e l p t h e m see t h e l i g h t a t t h e end of t h e t u n n e l w h i c h k e p t R e s i s t a n c e alive. The fact t h a t t h e s p i r i t of R e s i s t a n c e i n E u r o p e d i d n o t d i e d u r i n g f o u r b i t t e r years of o c c u p a t i o n m a y well be l o o k e d . u p o n a s t h e m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n of S.O.E. to the A l l i e d cause.