Tepehua Thought-Song: A Case of Semantic Signaling Charles L. Boils Ethnomusicology, Vol. 11, No. 3. (Sep., 1967), pp. 267-292.

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TEPEHUA THOUGHT-SONG:
A CASE OF SEMANTIC SIGNALING*

Charles L. Boil& he ritual music of the Tepehua tribe of northern Veracruz p r e sents for the ethnomusicologist a most fascinating case of s e mantic signaling. In the context of ritual actions, these songs a r e textless; however, investigation has shown that all the participants in the ritual a r e capable, outside the ritual situation, of quoting consistent texts for the songs. This would indicate that the music stimulates the participants to associate semantic content with melodic outline in an essentially wordless environment. I have called these songs "thought-songs" to indicate both the nature of the semantic signaling and the religious nature of the communication. Thought-songs a r e used in the cult of ~ a l a k i h t h t i , "the moving of the things." Within its ritual, instrumentalists play this music a t ceremonies for curing psychosomatic illness, f o r securing rain and good crops, for restoring harmony to daily life, and for preparing the proper departure of the dead to the other world. A p r i e s t officia t e s a t these ceremonies, and, when they a r e realized on a grand s c a l e , he i s accompanied by a violinist and a guitarist. The Tepehuas s a y that the music is speaking, and the highest p r a i s e for a violinist i s to be told that one can hear "all the people talking" in his performance. This music holds communication with a l l deities and humans, living o r dead, who a r e present a t the c e r e mony. It can call people o r spiritual entities to the ritual center and can instruct them in something they must do o r comment on what i s occurring. At times it p r e p a r e s them for events about t o occur. These thought-songs a r e the non-verbal adjunct to every a c t of the participants. Anyone present a t the ceremony can tell a questioner what the music is saying. Some informants have tried to sing the texts out of the ritual context; however, the brevity of the melody line made it impossible t o sing them in other than two modified f o r m s . One of these i s a strophic song with a shortened version of the text. The other i s a l s o strophic in character but it uses lengthy sentences. This results in a type of psalmody with great distortion of original rhythmic values. One can better appreciate the nature of this communication by
"Ed. note: This paper was awarded the Jaap Kuilst P r i z e of the Society for Ethnon~usicologyfor 1966.
267

knowing something of the ceremony itself. The whole ritual o r any of its p a r t s may be performed wherever its symbolic objects a r e a s sembled in front of an a l t a r . These objects represent a l l the mat e r i a l and spiritual elements which a r e believed to affect the macrocosm of a person, group of persons, o r the community. The p r i e s t is manipulating material objects, but to the tribesmen, the "moving of the things" implies that the s p i r i t s a r e being moved. The f i r s t duty of the p r i e s t is t o determine the magnitude of the ceremony to be realized. He performs a divination by lighting a candle and burning copal incense. While invoking his deities, he pours a libation on the ground in front of his a l t a r . Then a bit of beeswax i s dropped into the incense b r a z i e r , and in the smoke that r i s e s from it, the p r i e s t discerns the shape o r nature of the s p i r i t that i s molesting the s i c k person. Perhaps a s p i r i t of anger was born of a family q u a r r e l and i s causing the illness. If the s i c k p e r son had been frightened while in a particular location, he would be told that the s p i r i t of that place had stolen an animus from a p a r t of his body and that it must be restored. The diagnosis will decide which p a r t s of the ritual a r e to receive more importance. Then the priest announces the type of ceremony needed and the day on which it will begin. About half an hour before the ceremony, the musicians a r r i v e and tune their instruments. If everything is not quite ready, they will play a song telling the people to hurry and assemble all the things. At the proper moment they play the song which indicates that the p r i e s t and his s p i r i t companion have a r r i v e d and a r e anxious to begin their work. Ritual cleansing occupies the f i r s t section of the ceremony. A marigold dipped in a mixture of cane alcohol and wild honey is used to "wash" the objects placed on two tables in front of the a l t a r . The music announces that s p i r i t s a r e entering the ceremonial center. In o r d e r to avoid malevolence from them, paper dolls representing these s p i r i t s a r e painted with the blood of a s m a l l chick. Throughout every activity, an appropriate song is played over and over, from s i x to twenty-five t i m e s , until the sequence i s finished. The person o r persons f o r whom the ceremony i s performed must be purified by the priest. A bundle made of palm fronds, s p r i g s of box hedge, marigolds, and a chicken i s brought forth. The p r i e s t holds this over the incense before using it to make twenty brushing strokes in the a i r around the person's body. While the music speaks of the imminent death of the chicken, the p r i e s t s l i t s its throat and drips its blood over a l l the objects and dolls on the tables. The chicken is then taken outside the dwelling and left to die near a c r o s s that stands in front of the doorway. With this, the f i r s t section of the ceremony concludes. The p r i e s t and musicians r e s t a bit while others finish making

bouquets of palm fronds, a marigold, and a beeswax candle. These bouquets a r e called makshsnti and symbolically represent a hand. When the musicians begin to play again, everyone takes his makshsnti and assembles near the tables. The song tells that a ceremony for asking favor and pardon is t o begin. All who a r e present must a s k pardon of one another and of the fathers and mothers of the gods, people, and things. This i s effected by exchanging the bouquets and making a reverential gesture, which consists of nodding one's head toward each shoulder of the other person. The song of the intercess o r is played while the p r i e s t directs this activity. Then the music tells the people to exchange their makshsnti for others that a r e lying on the a l t a r . These latter acquire the power to represent members of the s p i r i t world from their association with the a l t a r . Through this exchange, the participants a s k pardon of the s p i r i t s . Afterward, everyone places his bouquet on the tables. Chickens a r e again s a c rificed and their blood dripped over a l l the things that a r e on the table. All the objects that have received this blood a r e then wrapped in a banana leaf and r e s e r v e d for burial after the ceremony. During the r e s t period that ensues, the chickens a r e cleaned and boiled. When the musicians begin to play songs of offering, the cooked chickens a r e placed on the tables and a l t a r . The music continues while bread, tortillas, and cups of coffee a r e placed beside the chickens. Cigarettes a r e lit for the s p i r i t s . Libations of soda pop, b e e r , and cane alcohol a r e poured a t strategic points about the tables and in front of the a l t a r . Beeswax candles a r e lighted and placed among the food offerings. After the s p i r i t s have received the essence of the food, everything i s removed from the tables during a lull in the ritual activity. F r e s h coffee has been brewed and is now s e r v e d to a l l who a r e present. At this point, the roles of many of the participants become r e defined. In a l l the preceding activities, the people acted a s worshipp e r s . Everyone participated in lighting candles, putting copal in the incense b r a z i e r s , placing offerings on the tables, o r lighting cigar e t t e s . Even the many p r a y e r s of the p r i e s t were those of an earthly being invoking deities. Now the music says he has become a s p i r i t p r i e s t officiating in the other world. The tables, a l t a r , and ritual objects turn to gold. The p r i e s t e s s who a s s i s t s him becomes the great midwife, "our-grandmother-of-the-vapor-bath," who i s the patroness of midwives and cureTs ~f p r e - ~ o l u m b i a ntimes (Sahagiin 1956:1,48). Two men and two women become the four guardians of the great table which is the world. Others become the spiritual godfathers of the person o r persons f o r whom the ritual i s performed. The rhythm of the music has changed to a dance pattern a s s o ciated with lakatuhiin hatupasdfqab, the marijuana goddess known in Spanish a s Santa Rosa. The Tepehuas believe that s h e represents the seven s a c r e d thoughts of god. In o r d e r to understand these divine

thoughts, the participants masticate a leaf of marijuana, the plant endowed by the goddess with a power that will now control them and cause them to speak wisely. The music now s a y s Santa Rosa is coming to them, singing happily and dancing a s s h e nears the c e r e monial center. As the marijuana and its music suffuse their minds, they truly become the surrogate representatives of the spirit world. The scene that i s now enacted demonstrates what the gods a r e doing in the s p i r i t world in o r d e r to bring the r e a l world and the f cosmos back to a state of o r d e r . I a person has lost an animus from s o m e p a r t of his body, it is restored. If the candle which represents his life i s about to be extinguished, a new one is lighted for him. If phantom jaguars have come out of the earth, the earth must be propitiated and the phantoms exorcised. In effect, any factor which is awry in the scheme of the cosmos is dramatically r e p r e sented and put in o r d e r . At the conclusion of these activities, the four guardians of the world s e i z e the c o r n e r s of the table and begin to dance, moving the table around, causing the e a r t h to resume its proper movement. The ceremonies conclude with general dancing around the table. The p r i e s t , in both his spiritual and physical capacity, has completed his handiwork. The things have been moved. The musicians gradually change from dancing tunes to those which announce the dep a r t u r e of the s p i r i t s . After a l l dancing has ceased and a l l the gods have gone, the musicians play the song of the table which announces that food is about to be served. After the feasting, the p r i e s t enjoins three days of sexual abstinence upon a l l who have participated in the ceremony. If he has been officiating a t a house other than his own, the musicians and men of the family will accompany him, and a walking song i s played a s he returns t o his dwelling. The complexity of this ritual illustrates some of the ways in which ascribed meaning functions through its melodies. Supernatural participation i s a s s u r e d by attracting deities to the ceremonial cent e r . These songs also prompt the human participants in their activities and thereby maintain o r d e r in the ceremony. In addition, songs associated with the marijuana s p i r i t can induce euphoria even without actual use of the drug. Any time that the songs a r e played, it is believed that the physical and spiritual worlds a r e drawn together and that candles and incense must be burned and a libation poured for the s p i r i t s . Among the Tepehuas, these songs a r e considered to be a p a r t of a ritual tradition that has been handed down through many generations. In o r d e r to learn the music, the instrumentalists must s i t through many ceremonial sessions. They practice in private until they have mastered the style. The violinist is the master musician, for it is through his melodies that the music speaks. Anyone who a s p i r e s to his position must f i r s t play guitar accompaniment a t the

B O I L ~ S : TEPEHUA THOUGHT-SONG

271

ceremonies. During r e s t periods, the guitarist will be allowed to t r y out some of the tunes, and the violinist will give him pointers on his style. The s i x songs presented a t this time a r e p a r t of a collection of forty-five that were recorded in P i s a f l o r e s , Veracruz, in June of 1966. All the songs of this s e t , a s well a s s o m e of those not p r e sented h e r e , were consulted in order t o decipher the complex musical code. In the near future, a study of the complete collection will be ready for publication. The accompanying texts were recorded by P e d r o Hernandez, a Tepehua p r i e s t , and were translated into Spanish by J o s e Marquez, one of the village elders. Much of the material of these texts constitutes information which is already known by the Tepehua and f o r m s a subliminal context that is automatically associated with the ritual music. Shorter versions of some of these texts were collected in 1963. In the s h o r t e r versions, only the kernel ideas were given. A comparison of a short text with a longer one Song 6) shows that the basic message content i s identical in both of them, but the wealth of detail given in the longer version explains the subliminal context in which the song i s heard and understood. All the songs used for this paper a r e based on equitonic modes in which the steps a r e 175 cents a p a r t . This feature of the violin melodies is also present in unaccompanied vocal renditions of the s a m e music. The equitonic consistency is further demonstrated by the tuning of the lower two s t r i n g s of the violin an interval of 525 cents a p a r t , while the second, third, and fourth s t r i n g s a r e tuned 700 cents a p a r t . In Figure 1, the open strings of the violin a r e r e p r e sented by white notes and intermediary pitches a r e shown by black notes. The cents value placed over each of those notes i s relative to the lowest s t r i n g , which i s sounded a t 205 v.d. These tunings and the pitches used in performance were checked on the Strobotuner of the Laboratory of Ethnomusicology a t Tulane University. Variance from the indicated pitches i s r a r e l y m o r e than 5 cents. With r e spect to the preciseness of these tunings, it must be stated that Tepehuas a r e not concerned with absoluteness of pitch a s a phenomenon and that this exactitude only reflects a pitch memory that i s accustomed to the production of these particular sounds.

(see

272

B O I L ~ S : TEPEHUA THOUGHT-SONG

Semantic signaling in Tepehua ritual music occurs a t various levels of discourse. Musical elements which have semantic meaning can be glossed by associating sound pattern X of songs A , B, and C with idea Y that is unique to the texts for these songs. These sound patterns may involve a single element such a s a n interval, a rhythmic pattern, a complex motive, the position of motives within a mus i c a l continuum, the transposition of a previously heard motive, o r any combination of these. In effect, these songs constitute communication a s complex a s any spoken linguistic code and can be analyzed according to linguistic procedures. Therefore, a transformational g r a m m a r has been written t o show how the semantic code is signaled by various types of melodic and rhythmic motives. Rhythm and accent a r e the means for distinguishing individual motives in these songs. The f i r s t tone of each motive receives a heavy accent, and each motive has the duration of four minimal time units which a r e grouped in figures of an eighth and two sixteenth notes, two eighth notes, an eighth note triplet, o r a q u a r t e r note. These rhythmic figures form the motival nuclei that, in the continua of each song, occupy positions corresponding to p a r t s of speech. Each nucleus i s modified by the meanings of the intervals combined with it. The continua of a song a r e those sections of music in timespace which can be descriptively identified by the presence of any features functioning a s continuum boundary m a r k e r s . In these songs, such boundary m a r k e r s a r e the static silences a t the beginning and end of each song and the quarter notes that terminate every group of sixteen minimal time units. Usually, four motives form a continuum, and there a r e a t least two continua in every song. The f i r s t two motives of a continuum form a noun p h r a s e , and the last two function a s a verb phrase. The noun phrase consists of a noun (motive A ) and a prepositional phrase o r a relative clause (motive B), the latter being an imbedded sentence. The verb phrase is composed of an optional gerund, a participle (motive C), and a v e r b (motive D). P r e p ositions, adjectives, verbal adjectives, adverbs, and gerunds a r e denoted by the intervals which join one motive to another. Gerunds and prepositions a r e indicated by the intervals preceding a motival nucleus, but adjectival and adverbial modifiers a r e the intervals that follow these nuclei. Verb tense is established according to the absence, increase, o r decrease of cycles p e r second, i.e., type of interval direction used, in approaching the final pitch of a continuun~. Basic meanings a r e assigned to intervals r e g a r d l e s s of the pitch level at which they occur (see Figure 2). In these examples, an a s t e r i s k is used t o indicate a n o n - g r a m m a t i c a l o r incorrect interpretation of the material.

3501 = the act of asking pardon

But not:
3501 = *the act of offering

"

350f = the act of asking pardon

Figure 2 .

New meanings can be derived when one o r m o r e intervals a r e combined to form complex motives of various types. Such motives in Tepehua songs usually have one factor in common, i.e., s a m e n e s s of proportion and/or direction in t e r m s of intervals (see Figure 3). The meaning assigned to these reduplicating intervals% sometimes related to that of the simple interval. This i s a l s o t r u e of c a s e s in which dissimilar intervals form a complex motive. However, in the latter c a s e , the type of motival nucleus and its position within the continuum determine the meaning given the complex motive E ( Figu r e 4).

But not:
350f 3501 350f 3501

Figure 3.

I \

-I'

I )

But not:

r
350r

rl

w
I

350r

525r = near the altar

525r = *near the altar

Figure 4 ,

Most of the complex motives subject to rhythmic contexts a r e coterminous with the rhythmic pattern of an eighth and two sixteenth

notes and a r e found within the noun phrase portion of the music. Those that occur in nominative positions will have meanings relating to the semantic interpretations given for a single interval. When this rhythmic pattern occupies the position assigned to relative clauses, it i s associated with the intercessor; and in this case the intervals, whether single o r reduplicating, will retain their original meanings although it i s the intercessor that executes the action indicated by each interval. In any song, repetition of one of its p r i o r musical statements (i.e., continua o r p a r t s of them) affects the message in two ways. Redundancy i s used to establish the context of a song. The rhythmic pattern of a continuum must be heard a t least once before its full context i s understood. Usually, the f i r s t continuum of a song, o r its rhythmic pattern, is repeated s o that signals which were heard during the f i r s t playing can be correctly interpreted. Another type of redundancy utilizes repetition by means of melodic transposition. The transposition adds a new context, altering the original meaning of the message, in which the divine Father-Mother becomes involved in the action associated with the original motives (see Figure 5). -

350r

350f = arriving for asking pardon

350r

3501 = arriving for asking pardon of our Father-Mother

Figure 5.

The conventions of the transformational g r a m m a r a r e fairly standard; however, it has been necessary to add some new signs and amplify the interpretations of others in o r d e r to accommodate mus i c a l material to a linguistic scheme. Therefore, the following definitions of a l l the signs a r e given s o that they may be easily interpreted. The # i s used for indicating boundary m a r k e r s of a song, and // shows the boundary m a r k e r s of continua within a song. A single a r r o w means that the element listed by the rule can be written a s whatever follows the a r r o w . Thus rule 1 of the g r a m m a r s t a t e s that a song can be written a s a continuum plus another continuum. A s e t of parentheses around an element shows that it is optional in the s e n s e that it might o r might not be used in a s t r u c ture being described. Braces show that the elements enclosed within them a r e optional in the s e n s e that one o r the other of those elements must be used in that position of the s t r u c t u r e . In this way, rule 3 s t a t e s that a noun phrase is written a s a noun plus a possible adjective plus either a prepositional p h r a s e o r a relative clause. Brackets denote that each level of elements designated within them

can be written according to the respective level of elements included within corresponding brackets on the other side of the arrow. A diagonal line means "in the environment of," and if the environment must be specified, a horizontal line in front of the environmental element shows that what i s being described precedes the environment o r , if the line i s placed after the environmental element, the described feature follows said environment. An illustration of these conventions is found in rule 9. Here, it is shown that a noun can be written a s a motive if it occurs before an adjective o r after a preposition and that a participle can a l s o be written a s a motive if it occ u r s before a v e r b m a r k e r . The f i r s t sixteen rules of this g r a m m a r a r e its base r u l e s . Whatever is stated in these rules is always operative in any song unless a specific transformational rule is applicable. These t r a n s formational rules a r e written with a double a r r o w which denotes that whatever is given in the domain of the rule will be "rewritten a s " whatever is indicated after the arrow. Thus the specific intervals listed in rule 15 a r e made the object of an obligatory transformation (Tob) in rule 17. This rule s t a t e s that when these intervals a r e joined to a verb m a r k e r they will be rewritten a s the v e r b tenses indicated. Another type of obligatory transformation is illustrated by rule 23. In this rule the letter X denotes any element of a continuum which, in the environment of transposition, i s automatically conside r e d to be in a context associating the element's indicated action with the divine Father-Mother. Optional transformations (Topt) a r e r a r e in this g r a m m a r . Rule 24 illustrates the optional organization of continua within a song. The colon placed inside the continua boundary m a r k e r s used in this rule indicates that the continuum in that particular position may be repeated. Conjoining of p a r t s of s e v e r a l continua i s shown in rule 25 (Tconj). This rule s t a t e s that the various continua shown in its domain can be combined in the manner indicated to the right of the transformational a r r o w if the participles and verbs of each of the continua a r e equal and if their respective nouns and relative clauses a r e not. A transformational rule covering embedded sentences (Temb) i s illustrated in rule 26. The s t r u c t u r e written on the upper level of the single brace i s the matrix sentence which has a relative dummy embedded in it. On the lower level of this brace, the symbols N 1 + Verbal adjective define the sentence which is t o be embedded in the position indicated by the relative dummy. The use of a relative dummy and the embedding of a relative clause is indicated in the phrase t r e e s of Figures 6a and 6b by the symbol WH which signifies who, whom, whose, which, e - - - -t c . The r e a d e r will note that a l l intervals used in the g r a m m a r a r e

276

B O I L ~ S : TEPEHUA THOUGHT-SONG

expressed in t e r m s of cents. I should method f o r writing these intervals, but one of them corresponds to those used p r e f e r r e d to note the number of cents, the intervals used in Tepehua music.

like to have used Kolinski's in view of the fact that only in Western music, I have rising o r falling, that identify

GRAMMAR FOR TEPEHUA CULT SONGS

2.

//c//

. Noun )

Phrase

+ Verb P h r a s e
Prepositional P h r a s e

3. NP

+ Noun

+ (Adjective) +

4. Relative >
5. Prep. Phrase
)

Relative dummy Preposition + Noun

6. Verb P h r a s e - (Gerund) + P a r t i c i p l e + Verb +

7. Verb

+ Tense + Verb M a r k e r
= -

8. Tense

P a s t , P r e s e n t , Future

10. Motive

fn1
Participle

j Motive

Motival Nucleus

+ Modifier(s)

Mod

1
+ Interval (s)

[/ Motival Nucleus

12.

Motival Nucleus

]+
Verb M a r k e r Intl, Int2

13. Interval

being in a place presence, a c t of being present consolation, a c t of consoling a r r i v a l , a c t of arriving a c t of asking pardon salutation, a c t of greeting -happy, state of happiness 17.. Tob agreement

-place,

18. Tob interval reduplication -place, being in a place a c t of giving (offering) act of coming a c t of bringing a c t of kneeling (asking pardo _being n e a r tables and a l t e r

19. Tob dissimilar intervals

1 '

E:: :
A J

yonder-place (of asking pardon) thought

y'ilr]+[divine

I
-

20. Tob positional rhythmic motive

/ / ~ o u n+

+Intercessor

21. Tob complex positional motive

/ / ~ o u n+

==+ I ntercessor intervals J T

Jby executes action indicated
,-

22. Tob rhythmic context

+ J- J

sacrifice context

m + n +n , J
Tob transposition

asking pardon context

intercession context

transposition = X )

Father-Mother context

Topt

Tconj

where: Vbl' = Vb, Vb' P a r t " = Part, P a r t ' NP # NP', NP1'

NP' # NP1' Re1 # Rel', Rel" Re1 ' # Rel"

26. T e m b N' + VbAdj

N + A d j-Rd-P a r t + V b

= N +Adj-N1 )

+VbAdj-P a r t + Vb

where: N # N' An analysis of the songs will illustrate how thoughts a r e communicated through this music. P h r a s e t r e e s f o r song 1 show the exa c t nature of its construction (see Figures 6a and 6b). F o r the sake of clarity, diacritical m a r k i n g s y e not used above any tone; the r e a d e r may r e f e r to Figure 1 in o r d e r to a s c e r t a i n the exact pitches represented. Song 1.

Text : The music surely m u s t know What they will give to the thought
F o r whom it is needed

O r where it will a r r i v e
And who it i s that will a s k pardon,

J u s t a s the music knows what is to be played.

Where it has gone to be present,
T h e r e i s that one who went to a r r i v e in the home of a poor friend,
Because he wants them to a s k favor f o r him,
Because he wants them to give him what he needs f o r his life
Thus did they do it when the light was given,
When they commanded in this world.
F o r yonder will be used the thought they gave him,
That with which he will e n t e r where he a r r i v e d .
And with it will begin that (ceremony)
Where he went to visit.
Song 1 consists of two continua, each of which is repeated (rules 1 and 24). The initial playing of the f i r s t continuum allows the listener to identify the rhythmic pattern, which signals the context for the whole

B O I L ~ S : TE PEHUA THOUGHT-SONG

Tense V M

N P.

mottve

motive

Motval

Nucleus

Mot. Nuc.

11: 1925

1575

1750

'Mod.4 4 ' ' Mod.

350f
175r
a c t of g i v ~g n
D ~ v i n e~ h o u g h t

M od.

0
WH
Presence Being in

3507
Asking pardon

175r
FUTURE

a place

Figure Ga.

message, and to interpret the melodic m a t e r i a l accordingly. This p a r ticular pattern i s played when the participants in the ritual must form a group f o r asking pardon of one another and of the gods (rule 22). Therefore, the context of this m e s s a g e i s that of asking pardon. The f i r s t motive of this continuum h a s a nucleus of an eighth and two sixteenth notes which i s covered by the transformational rule applying to complex motives with d i s s i m i l a r intervals (rule 19). Comparison with other songs shows that in the position of f i r s t motive in any continuum the intervals 350f + 175r jointly r e f e r to the divine thought. Furtherm o r e , the interval 175r that connects the f i r s t motive to the second i s

Ad1

Rel

Part.

Verb

Tense VM

NP

V P

VbAdj

Mot~ve

M otrve

Mot~ve

Mot Nuc.

Mot. Nuc.

1925

'-4""'
Mod

1575

1575

1225

n r-77 r
1400 1575 1750 1575

M o t Nuc

J
1225

1400

//

Mod

350f

0 350f
Askiq pal-don

Ldh!
WH

%' h
175f 175f
Act o f c m ~ l q

175r 1751- 175r

?75f

Yonder-place

G ~ v i n go f l e r l n g

Intercessor

Figure 6b.

subject to a reduplication rule under which the combination of 1751- + 1'751-i s associated with the a c t of giving (rule 18). Thus the combination of 350f + 1751- + 1'751-f o r m s a noun phrase which i s translated "the given divine thought ." The use of a conjoining interval in association with a noun automatically indicates that the following motive will be a relative clause. Motive

two has only one interval, 175r, which m e a n s the "act of being present." This motive i s joined to motive three by an unchanging pitch for which the interval 0 signifies 'being in a place." In the context of a relative clause, these intervals signal something related to the nominative case. In this instance, the message i s "whose presence is in that place." The third motive i s always related in s o m e way to the v e r b (rules 6 and 9). Usually, its function i s that of a participle which defines the action of the verb. In this case, this motive i s formed around the interval 350f which, in the environment of a v e r b m a r k e r , indicates asking pardon. The final motive of the continuum i s a single pitch with the duration of a q u a r t e r note. This motive always a c t s a s a v e r b m a r k e r (rule 12)) and i t s tense i s interpreted according to the type of interval that joins the third motive to it (rules 7, 11, 15 and 17). In this continuum, that interval i s 1751- which indicates future tense when placed in this environment. Thus the full m e s s a g e of the f i r s t continuum i s in future tense and should read, "The given divine thought, whose presence will be in that place, where there will be pardon asked." In the second continuum of Song 1, the f i r s t three motives a r e complex and a l l of them have the motival nucleus of an eighth and two sixteenth notes. The intervals 350f + 0 of the f i r s t motive, in conjunction with the following interval 350f, r e f e r to "yonder pardonasking place." When the above-mentioned motival nucleus i s used in the second position of any continuum, the "intercessor" becomes the subject of the relative clause (rule 20)) and the i n t e r c e s s o r executes the action of the intervals which modify this positional motive (rule 21). Within the motival nucleus of this relative clause, the intervals 175r + 175r signify the "act of giving" (rule 18)) and the conjoining interval of 1751- i s a verbal adjective (rule 26) which means the "act of being present" (rule 16). The full statement of this relative clause is "whose offering-giving i n t e r c e s s o r i s present." The third motive i s composed of the intervals 175f + 175f. These take the meaning of the "act of coming." They modify the v e r b which is in past tense a s indicated by the conjoining interval 175f. The message f o r this continuum should read, "The yonder pardon-asking place, whose offering-giving i n t e r c e s s o r i s present, where it (the divine thought) was coming." If considered together, the two continua for Song 1 musically make the following statement: "The given divine thought will be present in yonder pardon-asking place whose offering-giving int e r c e s s o r i s there where it was coming." An examination of the corresponding text f o r Song 1 shows that these kernel ideas a r e the basic message f o r this song.

Song 2.

Text: T h e r e was the thought, Which though it had been,

Yet it s t i l l is.
Hardly had i t been born
When there existed lads and l a s s e s .
Even though they w e r e not Old Ones,
In this m a n n e r they grasped the way.
Thus w e r e they given the thought;
Thus was the life given them by t h e i r f a t h e r s .
When the m u s i c begins, It r e f e r s to when the thought entered.
It wants to s a y it i s happy.
Yonder it has to g r a s p the m u s i c
Because i t knows where i t i s .
Now i t knows where to come in,
F o r when it a r r i v e d where w e r e i t s fathers,
It greeted them.
I. Continuum A. A. Rhythmic context: asking pardon. B. Noun P h r a s e . 1. Noun: 350f + 175r = divine thought. 2. Adjective: (in combination with previous interval) 175r = a c t of giving. 2. Relative clause. a . Noun: 5251- = salutation. b . Verbal adjective: 700f = being happy. C. Verb P h r a s e . 1. Participle: 350r = a c t of arriving. 2. Verb: 175f/ v e r b m a r k e r = past tense. D. Message: The g i v e n divine thought, whose salutation was happy, has a r r i v e d .

11. Continuum B. A. Rhythmic context: asking pardon. B. Noun P h r a s e . 1. Noun: 350f + 0 = yonder-place. 2. Adjective: 350f = act of asking pardon. 3. Relative clause. a . Transposition context: Father-Mother. b. Noun: 525r = salutation. c . Verbal adjective: 700f = b e i n g happy. C. Verb P h r a s e . 1. Participle: 350r = a c t of arriving. 2. Verb: 175f / v e r b m a r k e r = past tense. 3. ~ r a n s ~ o s i t i o ~ c o n t e x t : Father-Mother. D. Message: Yonder pardon-asking place, whose Father-Mother received its happy salutation, where it a r r i v e d to be with them. 111. Continuum C. A. Rhythmic context: asking pardon. B. Transposition context: Father-Mother. C. P h r a s e organization: the s a m e a s that of continuum A. D. M essage: The divine thought given by Father-Mother, whose salutation f o r Father-Mother was happy, has a r r i v e d to be with them.

Song 3.

Text : When they play thusly in the place where everyone is present, Everyone i s t h e r e . All who a r e there a r e seeing what is being done,
What they a r e doing (things they a r e moving).
In that place a r e intervening those who a r e moving things, Those who a s k favor. This song is like that of the old midwives and old c u r e r s ; Thus did they do it. F o r this reason they a r e there, And favor and pardon i s asked of them. The asking of favor of those who a r e there
I s the s a m e a s what is being played,

The s a m e a s what i s being spoken,

The s a m e a s what i s being done.
That i s the only reason f o r playing this music. Conjoined sentence. A. Noun P h r a s e 1. 1. Noun: 0 = place. 2. Adjective: 0 = being in a place. 3. Relative clause. a . Rhythmic context: noun = i n t e r c e s s o r . b . Modifiers .
(1). 350r = a c t of arriving.
(2). 175f = a c t of consoling.
c . Verbal adjective: 350f = asking pardon. B. Noun P h r a s e 2. I. Noun. a . Transposition context: Father-Mother. b. Interval: 0 = place. 2. Adjective: 350r = arriving. 3. Relative clause. a . Rhythmic context: noun = i n t e r c e s s o r . b Modifiers (1). 0 = being in a place.
(2). 350f = asking pardon.
c . Verbal adjective: 175f = a c t of consoling. C. Noun P h r a s e 3. 1. Noun. a . Transposition context: Father-Mother. b. Interval: 0 = place. 2. Adjective: 350f = asking pardon. 3. Relative clause. a . Rhythmic context: noun = i n t e r c e s s o r . b. Modifiers.
(1). 0 = being in a place.
(2). 350r = a c t of arriving.
c . Verbal adjective: 175f = a c t of consoling. D. Verb P h r a s e . 1. Participle: 0 = being in a place. 2. Verb: 0 /-verb m a r k e r = present tense.

11. Message: This i s the being in a place whose i n t e r c e s s o r by a r r i v -

ing with consolation a s k s pardon, the being in the a r rival place of o u r Father-Mother whose i n t e r c e s s o r by asking pardon in that place i s consoling, the being of Father-Mother in the pardon-asking place whose interc e s s o r arriving to be in that place i s consoling.

BOILES:

TEPEHUA THOUGHT-SONG

Song 4.

Text : There i s the table,

All of the tables.
T h e r e a r e two tables f o r moving the things. T h e r e is an a l t a r . Now they a r e there,
They who intervene a t the a l t a r .
Now a l l the tables a r e prepared,
And they a s k favor and pardon of those who a r e there.
All who a r e participating m u s t again a s k pardon,
And a l l have their m a k s h h t i (floral hand).
Yonder they a r e asking pardon a t each c o r n e r of the table.
Yonder they m u s t a s k pardon a t four c o r n e r s of the table.
They m u s t a l s o a s k pardon a t four c o r n e r s of the other table.
They m u s t pass by the a l t a r .
T h e r e (at the a l t a r ) they a s k pardon of our father, o u r mother.
Though they were s a d in other times,
Now they a r e there dispensing pardon to each one.
The music a s k s pardon of o u r mother.
That i s why o u r mother i s there,
Because they a r e asking pardon.

I. Continuum A. A. Noun P h r a s e . 1. Noun: 350f + 3 50f = a c t of kneeling f o r asking pardon. 2. Prepositional phrase: 350r + 525r = n e a r tables and a l t a r . B. Verb P h r a s e . 1. Gerund + Participle : 3 50f + 3 50f = a c t of kneeling f o r asking pardon. 2 . Verb: 0 / v e r b m a r k e r = present tense. C. Message: hea act of kneeling n e a r tables and a l t a r is asking pardon by kneeling.

II. Continuum B.
A. Noun P h r a s e . 1. Noun: 350f + 0 = yonder place of asking pardon. 2. Prepositional phrase. a . Preposition: 0 = place, being in a place. b. Noun: 525r = salutation. B. Verb P h r a s e . 1. Transposition context = Father-Mother. 2. Gerund + Participle: 3 50f + 3 50f = kneeling a c t of asking pardon. 3. Verb: 0 /-verb m a r k e r = present tense. C. M essage: The yonder pardon-asking place in which place of salutation t h e r e i s kneeling pardon asked of our F a t h e r Mother.

Song 5.

Text : This music is played when they a r e going to make offering; T h e r e a t the ritual place where they make offering to t h e i r fathers, their mothers. Where there is a table, there i s the portion of the Mother-Father. Because they a s k pardon, they a r e making offering; They make offering a t the a l t a r . T h e r e a t the a l t a r , they offer up the turkeys. They offer up two turkeys.

In the place where t h e r e i s another table, There they give offering for o u r Father-Mother god in o r d e r to a s k pardon.
This i s for consoling those who a r e our grandfathers, o u r grandmothers, F o r those who a r e the companions of o u r s p i r i t s , F o r those who made offering yesterday and in times past,

F o r those who a r e present a t the g r e a t table where they a r e happy and joyous, both standing and seated. It i s in a place where t h e r e i s a table of gold,
Where t h e r e i s a s e a t of gold,
Where t h e r e a r e plates of gold,
Where o u r grandfathers and grandmothers drink from goblets of
gold, They whose names w e r e spoken yesterday and before then. It i s they who a r e caring (for u s ) now,
And thus they a r e doing it.

I. Continuum A. A. Noun P h r a s e . 1. Noun: 175f = a c t of consolation. 2. Adjective: 0 + 0 = place. 3. Relative clause. a . Rhythmic context: i n t e r c e s s o r . b. Modifiers.
(1). 350f = a c t of asking pardon.
(2). 175r = being present.
c . Verbal adjective: 350r = a c t of arriving. B. Verb P h r a s e . 1. Participle: 175f = a c t of consolation. 2. Verb: 0 / v e r b m a r k e r = present tense. C. Message: his place's consolation, whose i n t e r c e s s o r f o r p a r don-asking here has a r r i v e d , is being consoled.
11. Continuum B. A. Noun P h r a s e . 1. Rhythmic context: s a c r i f i c e . 2. Transposition context: Father-Mother. 3. Noun. a . 175f = a c t of consoling. b. 0 = place. 4. Prepositional phrase. a . Preposition: 0 + 0 . b. Noun: a c t of consoling. B. Verb P h r a s e . 1. Gerund + Participle: 175r + 175r = a c t of giving offering. 2. Verb: 175r / v e r b m a r k e r = future tense. C. M essage: The s a c r i f i c e f o r qur Father-Mother's consolation place in which place of consolation it will b e offered.

B O I L ~ S : TEPEHUA THOUGHT-SONG

111. Continuum C A. Transposition context: Father-Mother. B. Noun P h r a s e : the s a m e a s continuum A. C. Verb P h r a s e : the s a m e a s continuum A . D. Message: This place's consolation of o u r Father-Mother, whose i n t e r c e s s o r a r r i v e s h e r e to a s k pardon of o u r F a ther-Mother, i s the consolation of o u r F a t h e r Mother. Song 6.

Text: Short Version F o r giving salutation,

F o r asking pardon of a l l who a r e present,
All those who a r e s a i d to be o u r F a t h e r s .
Long Version This i s f o r asking pardon h e r e where one has a r r i v e d ,
Where one comes to visit and a s k favor of his Father-Mother,
In the place where they have come to be seated,
In the place where they a r e resting.
One kneels,
One k i s s e s the e a r t h
Asking pardon of o u r Father-Mother
Because one has come to the place where they a r e .
I I I I come come come come father,
mother,
to visit.
to visit where you a r e seated.

Because you a r e m y f a t h e r and mother,

I bring you something.
That which I bring you,
I come to give it to you.

290

B O I L ~ S : TEPEHUA THOUGHT-SONG

I. Continuum A. A. Noun P h r a s e . 1. Noun: 175r + 175r = a c t of giving offering. 2. Relative clause. a . Rhythmic context: i n t e r c e s s o r . b. Modifier: 0 = being in a place. c . Verbal adjective: 350r + 350r = a c t of bringing. B. Verb P h r a s e . 1. Participle: 0 = being in a place. 2. Verb: 0 / v e r b m a r k e r = present tense. C. Message: ~ h e g i v i n ~offering, whose i n t e r c e s s o r brings it of here, i s in this place.
1 . Continuum B. 1

A. Noun P h r a s e . 1. Noun: 350r = a c t of arriving. 2. Relative clause. a . Rhythmic context: i n t e r c e s s o r . b. Modifiers: 350f + 350f = kneeling a c t of pardon-asking. c. Verbal adjective: 525r = a c t of greeting. B. Verb P h r a s e . 1. Transposition context: Father-Mother. 2 . Participle: 0 = being in a place. 3. Verb: 0 / v e r b m a r k e r = present tense. C. Message: hearr rival, when the i n t e r c e s s o r kneels giving greeting, where o u r Father-Mother i s being.
1 1 Continuum C. 1.

A. Noun P h r a s e . 1. Transposition context: Father-Mother. 2. Noun: 350r = a c t of a r r i v a l . 3. Adjective: 3 50f = pardon-asking. 4. Relative clause. a . Rhythmic context: i n t e r c e s s o r . b . Modifiers.
(1). 0 = being in a place.
(2). 350f = a c t of asking pardon.
c. Verbal adjective: 175r = being present. B. Verb P h r a s e . 1. Transposition context: Father-Mother. 2. Participle: 0 = being in a place. 3. Verb: 0 /-verb m a r k e r = present tense. C. Message: The a r r i v a l asking pardon of o u r Father-Mother, whose i n t e r c e s s o r i s present in that place to a s k pardon, where o u r Father-Mother i s being.

IV. Continuum D.
A. Noun P h r a s e . 1. Noun: 175r = a c t of being present. 2. Adjective: 350f = a c t of asking pardon. 3. Relative clause. a . Rhythmic context: i n t e r c e s s o r . b. Modifier: 0 + 0 = being in a place. c. Verbal adjective: 175f = a c t of consoling. B. Verb P h r a s e . 1. Transposition context: Father-Mother. 2. Participle: 0 = being in a place. 3. Verb: 0 / v e r b m a r k e r = present tense. C. Message : he presence of pardon-asking, whose i n t e r c e s s o r i s here consoling, where o u r Father-Mother i s being. Several features of spoken Tepehua seem to be present in this music. The economy of basic intervals i s s i m i l a r to that of root f o r m s in the composition of Tepehua words. Although there a r e twenty-six possible intervals that could be derived from the fourteen pitches utilized by the Tepehua violinist, only seven intervallic relationships appear in these songs. One might object that, in the g r a m m a r , too many meanings a r e being assigned a limited amount of m a t e r i a l . However, this particular economy i s a common feature of many languages. A given morpheme, when associated with others, can have a variety of unrelated meanings. The intervallic analysis used in this study a s s u m e s that Tepehua cult music operates on the s a m e principle and i s confirmed, furthermore, by s i m i l a r types of reduplication and positioning of morphemes in Tepehua words. The overall s t r u c t u r e of each continuum is somewhat s i m i l a r to that of Tepehua words which a r e mostly agglutinative. An excellent example of this feature i s illustrated by anlakapuchiwin, "town hall." The components of this word a r e a s follows: an is a d e t e r m i n e r that can be translated "the" although it signifies "this is" o r "it is"; denotes being "inside"; pu means "the place where"; chuwi i s the root of the v e r b "to speakn; n i s a nominalizer. Literally, this word i s like a sentence stating, " I t i s inside the place where t h e r e is speaking." The r e a d e r will have noted that the meanings of the component motives of each musical continuum, when interpreted according to positional, rhythmic, intervallic, and transpositional contexts, a r e subject to a s i m i l a r type of sentence organization. The various types of formal organization of the songs (see rule 24 of the g r a m m a r ) reflect the numerous varieties of couplet that a r e present in the spoken texts. Edmonson (1965) has pointed out that couplet is common to d r a m a and f o r m a l o r a t o r y in Middle and South

292

BOIL&:

TEPEHUA THOUGHT-SONG

America and that parallelistic poetry in which a l l repetitions a r e synonymous i s the formal style of discourse f o r this a r e a . The repetitions of continua, a p a r t from the importance of establishing rhythmic context referents, seem to be a stylistic feature that is related to the utilization of couplet. The Tepehuas have a practical purpose in their use of melodies with ascribed meaning. They have evolved a method f o r signaling much information with a nice economy of effort. This non-verbal communication f r e e s the p r i e s t s o that he may attend to o t h e r duties. The ritual music a s s u r e s that a l l those present a r e informed and participating correctly in each p a r t of the ceremony. Also, these songs induce a worshipful attitude, heighten the emotional experience, and help to achieve the "moving of the things." F o r a few pitches s c a t t e r e d o v e r a minute segment of time, that is an impressive amount of activity. Tulane University New Orleans, Louisiana
Field r e s e a r c h f o r this paper was sponsored under the program of investigation of the Instituto de ~ n t r o ~ o l o g l 'de l a Universidad Veracmzana of a Jalapa, Veracmz, hl6xico. The conclusions and opinions presented here a r e those of the author and a r e not necessarily those of the Instituto de Anthropologia. REFERENCES CITED Edmonson, Munro S. 1965 "Literary form i n the Dresden Codex." A paper read at the American Anthropology meeting in Denver, Colorado, November 21, 1965. S a h a h , Bernardino de
1956 Historia general de l a s cosas de Nueva Espafia. hl6xic0, D.F.:
Porrua Hermanos.