Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

INTRODUCTION
I) COMPUTER DEFINITION: The acronym of COMPUTER C O M P U T E R Calculation Operator Memory Prints Utilities Tabulation Editing Reliability

Definition 1: The computer is an Electronic Device. Definition 2: The computer is an Electro-Mechanical Device. Definition 3: The computer is an Electronic Device, which takes the data as input and processes the data and then gives the processed data as the output. The computer is made of these 3 wares. The Hardware are physicals parts of computer which are seen and they are all Electronic Devices which are interconnected each other. The Hardware parts of computer are SMPS (Switching Mode Power Supply), Motherboard (It consists of C.P.U processor, RAM, BIOS (ROM), NIC (network card), Display Card, Keyboard Connector, Mouser Connector and etc), Hard Disk Drive, Floppy Disk Drive and etc,,.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

The Software is set of Electronic Instruction consisting of complex codes (also known as programs) that make the computer perform tasks. In other word software tells the computer what to do. The software are like System Software like Operating System and Application Software like High level languages, Packages, and etc,,. The Human ware is important because the computer only the Electronic device but it not a mechanical until we give it some instruction or data to it, it is dummy system. So it requires the human ware that way it is called as Electron-Mechanical Device. II) Characteristics of Computer a) Speed b) Accuracy c) Reliability d) Memory Capacity or Storage Capability e) Versatility f) Deligence g) Networking capacity
a) Speed: The computer generates signals during the operation process therefore the speed

of computer is usually measure in mega hertz (MHz) or gega hertz (GHz). It means million cycles units of frequency is hertz per second. Different computers have different speed. To measure the time taken by a computer is in second. That is the speed of computer to do process (work or task). The speed varies in the computer as follows:
Micro second 10-3 (1/1,000) Milli second 10-6 (1/10,00,000)

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers b) Accuracy: The word accuracy means correctness. Computers are very accurate. They

can perform their hundreds of thousands of operations with great accuracy. Their circuits have no mechanical parts to wear and malfunction. In computer terminology it is known as garbage-in garbage-out (GIGO).
c) Reliability: The electronic components in modern computer have very low failure rate.

The modern computer can perform very complicated calculations without creating any problem and produces consistent (reliable) results. In general, computers are very reliable. Many personal computers have never needed a service call. Communications are also very reliable and generally available whenever needed.
d) Memory Capacity or Storage Capability: Computer can store huge amount of data.

This data can be used whenever it is required. The computer has storage or memory space of more than billion character space.
e) Versatility: The word versatility means usefulness or flexibility. This means that the

computers are capable of performing any type of task, provided the activity could be put into logical steps.
f) Deligence: The computer work for all people at the same kind of jobs at the same type.

As computer does not show any signs of fatigue, tiredness, lack of concentration or lose of interest.
g) Networking capacity: The latest use of computer is data sharing between 2 computers

by the mean of networks. With help of network exchange of data has become fast. Example is internet (connection of networks). III) BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTER EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER MACHINE As we know that history means the old memories or old record that means it has information of the past era. As we know that in 1000 BC Abacus introduced a rudimentary computing device.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

As the time passed on the in the year 1642 a French mathematician cum physicist built the first mechanical digital calculator. Which was named after him called Blaise Pascal. In between more experiment was carried out but they were not successful. In 1833, a mathematics professor at Cambridge University, invented a machine to add the numbers and store the number in the memory. His name was Charles Babbage; the machine name is ANALYTICAL ENGINE. The parts of its are input device (generally a punched cards), output device (same punched cards), control unit (flow of program sequence), mill (to perform all arithmetic operations like +, -, *, /) and the last the storage device (magnetic tapes). The working or diagram of the analytical engine is as follows
Mill Arithmetic Unit

Store 1,000 words of 50 digits each

Input Punched Cards

Control Program sequence

Output Punched Cards

Mill Arithmetic Unit

Fig: Analytical Engine

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

It was the being of computer and all the history of computer start from here. The Charles Babbage is known as Father of the Computer After that Dr. John Vincient and professor Howard Aiken in the year 1937 38 invented first electronic prototype computer and named it as Mark-I. After 10 years, in 1947 John von Neumann introduced first electronic general purpose computer which was named as ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator And calculator). The instrument used was vacuum tubes. From this era we started classifying computer generation. ENIAC was only the general-purpose computer. After 4 years in year 1951 the first commercial computer was designed and sold in the market, the name of computer was UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer). Mr.Maculy and Mr.Eckert designed it

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
The types of computers are classified into 2 types, they are as follows: (I) Based on Operational Principle. (II) Based on Physical Structures and the Purpose of their use. (I) Based on Operational Principle Based on Operational Principle the Computers are classified into 3 categories, they are as follows: (1) Analog Computer. (2) Digital Computer. (3) Hybrid Computer.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

(1) Analog Computer: An analog computer (spelled analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities rather than numerical data. In analog computers, computations are often performed by using properties of electrical resistance, voltages and so on. .

Fig: A slide rule (2) Digital Computer: The Digital computers, which work on the principle of binary digit system. The binary digits are 2 numbers, 0 or 1. In digital computers, even letters, words and whole texts are represented digitally. (3) Hybrid Computer: These types of computers are, as the name suggests, a combination of both Analog and Digital computers. In this type of computers, the digital segments perform process control by conversion of analog signals to digital ones.

(II) Based on Physical Structures and the Purpose of their use

Based on physical structure and the purpose of their usage the computers are classified in 4 types, they are as follows:
(1) Microcomputer (2) Minicomputer

(3) Mainframe computer (4) Super computer

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

(1) Microcomputer: A microcomputer is a computer with a microprocessor as its

central processing unit. Another general characteristic of these computers is that they occupy physically small amounts of space. Personal computers are available in two models. These are: (a) (b)
(a)

Desktop PCs Tower PCs Desktop PCs: The system unit of the desktop personal computer can

lie flat on th desk or table. In desktop personal computer, the monitor is usually placed on the system unit.

(b)

Tower PCs: The system unit of the tower PC is vertically placed on

the desk of table. Usually the system unit of the tower model is placed on the floor to make desk space free and user can place other devices such as printer, scanner etc. on the desktop.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

Microcomputers are further divided into following categories.

1. Laptop computer: Laptop computer is also known as notebook computer. It is

small size (85-by-11 inch notebook computer and can fit inside a briefcase. The laptop computer is operated on a special battery and it does not have to be plugged in like desktop computer. The laptop computer is portable and fully functional microcomputer. It is mostly used during journey.

2. Workstation: Workstations are special single user computers having the same

features as personal computer but have the processing speed equivalent to minicomputer or mainframe computer. Workstation computers are expensive and powerful computers. These have advanced processors, more RAM and storage capacity than personal computers. These are usually used as single-user applications but these are used as servers on computer network and web servers as well.
3. Network computer: Network computers are also version of personal computers

having less processing power, memory and storage. These are specially designed as terminals for network environment. Some types of network computers have no storage. The network computers are designed for network, Internet or Intranet for data entry or to access data on the network. The network computers depend upon the networks server for data storage and to use software. These computers also use the networks server to perform some processing tasks.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

4. Handheld computer: These computers are also referred to as Palmtop Computers.

The handheld computers sometimes called Mini-Notebook Computers. The type of computer is named as handheld computer because it can fit in one hand while you can operate it with the other hand. Because of its reduced size, the screen of handheld computer is quite small. Similarly it also has small keyboard. The handheld computers are preferred by business traveler. Some handheld computers have a specialized keyboard. These computers are used by mobile employees, such as meter readers and parcel delivery people, whose jobs require them to move from place to place. The examples of handheld computers are:
1.

Personal Digital Assistance (PDA): The PDA is one of the more popular

lightweight mobile devices in use today. A PDA provides special functions such as taking notes, organizing telephone numbers and addresses. Most PDAs also offer a variety of other application software such as word processing, spreadsheet and games etc. Some PDAs include electronic books that enable users to read a book on the PDAs screen.

2.

Cellular telephones: A cellular phone is a web-based telephone having features

of analog and digital devices. It is also referred to as Smart Phone. In addition to basic phone capabilities, a cellular phone also provides the functions to receive and send emails & faxes and to access the Internet.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

3. H/PC Pro devices: H/PC Pro dive is new development in handheld technology. These systems are larger than PDAs but they are not quite as large as typical notebook PCs. These devices have features between PDAs and notebook PCs. The H/PC Pro device includes a full-size keyboard but it does not include disk. These systems also have RAM with very low storage capacity and slow speed of processor.

(2) Minicomputers: These are smaller in size, have lower processing speed and also have lower cost than mainframe. These computers are known as minicomputers because of their small size as compared to other computers at that time. The capabilities of a minicomputer are between mainframe and personal computer. These computers are also known as midrange computers. The minicomputers are used in business, education and many other government departments. Minicomputers are commonly used as servers in network environment and hundreds of personal computers can be connected to the network with a minicomputer acting a server like mainframes, minicomputers are used as web servers.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

(3) Mainframe Computer: Mainframe computers are also large-scale computers but supercomputers are larger than mainframe. These are also very expensive. The mainframe computer specially requires a very large clean room with air-conditioner. This makes it very expensive to buy and operate. It can support a large number of various equipments. It also has multiple processors. Large mainframe systems can handle the input and output requirements of several thousand of users. For example, IBM, S/390 mainframe can support 50,000 users simultaneously. The users often access then mainframe with terminals or personal computers.

(4) Super Computer: Supercomputer is the most powerful and fastest, and also very expensive. It was developed in 1980s. It is used to process large amount of data and to solve the complicated scientific problems. It can perform more than one trillions calculations per second. It has large number of processors connected parallel. So parallel processing is done in this computer. In a single supercomputer thousands of users can be connected at the same time and the supercomputer handles the work of each user separately. Supercomputers are mainly used for:

Weather forecasting. Nuclear energy research. Aircraft design. Automotive design. Online banking. To control industrial units.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

The overall look of the all types of computers is as follows:

Super Computer

Mainframe Computer 1

Mainframe Computer 2

Mainframe Computer 3

Mainframe Computer N

Minicomputer1

Minicomputer2

Minicomputer1

Minicomputer2

...

..

INPUT DEVICES
An input device is any device that is used to supply information to a computer. An input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system. Some of the input devices like: keyboards, mouse, joystick, light pen, magnetic strips, optical reader and touch screens etc. The input devices are broadly divided into few categories depending on their usage.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

They are as follows: Direct Input Device. Pointing Input Device. Optical Input Device. Audio Input Device. Visual Input Device. Special Purpose Input Device. Direct Input Devices: The only one direct input device used by computer to enter data and information into system is keyboard. The most common input device is the keyboard, which is used both for text-based data input and for selecting commands. A keyboard is a human interface device, which is represented as a layout of buttons. Each button, or key, can be used to either input a linguistic character to a computer, or to call upon a particular function of the computer. Standard keyboards, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-key Windows keyboards Keyboards: This is the most common and popular input device. It is just similar to the ordinary type writer with QWERTY layout because the first six characters on the top row letters are Q,W,E,R,T and Y keys for all characters, numbers, special characters and special function keys which are special instructions. Using keyboard a user types in the data and instruction, which are usually visible on video display unit.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

This is easy to work and operate for a user. Keyboards usually contain the following keys:

1. Numeric keys, which are usually located on the right side of the keyboard looks like an

adding machine, with its ten digits and mathematical operators (+.-./ and *).
2. Character keys, which are used for inputting characters 3. Function keys, which are preprogrammed for specific operations. The function keys

(F1, F2F12).
4. Special keys, which are usually used for cursor controls, special symbols, and other

specific purposes. The 104 Standard Keys Keyboard is shown below:

The Multi-Media Keys Keyboard is shown below:

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

Pointing Input Device: The pointing devices used by computer are indirect input device. They are generally using the pointer to input the device by either by selecting the application file or application options on the GUI environments. The pointing devices used by computer are as follows: 1) Mouse Mouse: Computers are usually operated through a graphical user interface. This means that the user selects a command from the computer's screen display by moving a pointer and clicking an icon. A mouse is the device usually used to control the movement of the pointer on the screen.

2) Trackball

3) Joystick

4) Light-Pen

A mouse is used by moving it across a mouse mat or other flat surface. This moves a ball on the bottom of the mouse. The movement of the ball sends a signal to the computer. Software interprets this signal and performs an operation, such as moving a cursor or drawing a line. A mouse has two or more buttons on top of it, the function of which depend upon the software being used. In computing, a mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional

motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons. It sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various system-dependent operations, or extra buttons or features can add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a Graphical User Interface.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

Click - pressing and releasing a button.

(left) Single-click - clicking the main button. (left) Double-click - clicking the button two times in quick succession counts as a different gesture than two separate single clicks. (left) Triple-click - clicking the button three times in quick succession. Right-click - clicking the secondary button.

Drag - pressing and holding a button, then moving the mouse without releasing. Button chording (a.k.a. Rocker navigation).

Combination of right-click then left-click. Combination of left-click then right-click or keyboard letter. Combination of left or right-click and the mouse wheel. A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball held by a socket containing sensors

Trackball: to detect a rotation of the ball about two axeslike an upside-down mouse with an exposed protruding ball. The user rolls the ball with the thumb, fingers, or the palm of the hand to move a cursor.

A trackball can be used as an alternative to a mouse. It has buttons, like a mouse, but the pointer is moved using a rotating ball set into the top of the device (basically an upsidedown mouse). Some people find a trackball easier to use than a mouse. One advantage is that it does not need a flat area to use it. For this reason, trackballs are sometimes included on laptop computers.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

Joystick: It is the most popular input device used to play video games. A joystick, uses a lever to control the position and speed with which the joystick is moved into digital signals that are sent to the computer to control the cursor movements. A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction to the device it is controlling. A joystick consists of a base and a stick perpendicular to the base. The stick can be moved in any direction, enabling the user to move an object around the computer screen. A joystick can perform a similar function to a mouse or trackball, but is only commonly used for playing games.

Joystick elements: 1. Stick 2. Base 3. trigger 4. Extra buttons 5. Autofire switch 6. Throttle 7. Hat Switch (POV Hat) 8. Suction Cup Light Pen: A Light Pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen and is connected to a VDU. The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive element which, when placed against the screen, detects the light from the screen enabling the computer to identify the location of the pen on the screen.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

A light pen

Light pens have the advantage of 'drawing' directly onto the screen, but this can become uncomfortable, and they are not as accurate as digitizing tablets.

Optical Input Device:

In these type of input device, the device uses optical light as input source to take values. These are few optical input devices used by computer to input the data, they are as follows: 1) OCR 2) OMR 3) OBR OCR (Optical character recognition: Usually abbreviated to OCR, is the mechanical or electronic translation of images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text (usually captured by a scanner) into machine-editable text. OCR reading devices are fundamentally classified with two categories, Text Input and Data Capture. Text input devices are page readers or document scanners that scan entire documents or large portions of documents. The source data is entered with the intention of someone editing it during or after it is scanned. Text input devices have varying degrees of automation from hand fed to having automatic feeding, reading, sorting, and stacking capabilities. Data Capture devices are designed to capture repetitive data and to perform formatting functions on the data as it is being entered. The data delivered from the scanner to the computer must be very accurate because it is entered without the intention of being edited later, so accuracy must be higher than text input.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

OMR Optical Mark Recognition:(also called Optical Mark Reading and OMR) is the process of capturing human-marked data from document forms such as surveys and tests. Optical Mark Reading (OMR) uses paper based forms which responses simply mark (using a dash) to answer a question. Needs no special equipment to mark a form other than a pen/pencil. Can achieve very high throughput speeds with very low error rates (less than half percent). An OMR scanner then processes the forms directly into the required database.

Optical Bar Reader: A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is an electronic device for reading printed barcodes. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a light source, a lens and a light sensor translating optical impulses into electrical ones. Additionally, nearly all barcode readers contain decoder circuitry analyzing the barcode's image data provided by the sensor and sending the barcode's content to the scanner's output port. One of the most widely used direct entry devices is the bar code scanner that reads bar codes. This is usually seen on back of some books as well on some products, like greeting cards etc. these lines are known as Bar codes with different widths and spacing that convey alphabetic and numeric data such as name of manufacturer, type of product etc. an optical bar reader recognizes and interprets these bar codes depending on

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

Bar Code Image

the width of lines, and the price and products are then matched by the computer. 5 digits to represent manufacturer and second 5 digits represents product.

The most

widely known bar code is the Universal Product Code (UPC) is decoded as 10 digits. The first

Audio Input Device:

Audio input devices allow a user to send audio signals to a computer for processing, recording, or carrying out commands. Audio input devices such as microphones allow users to speak to the computer in order to record a voice message or navigate software. Other types of audio input devices are made to interface a computer with a CD audio source, digital audio, or MIDI instrument such as a synthesizer. Microphone: A microphone, colloquially called a mic or mike (both pronounced /mak/), is an acoustic-to-electric transducer or sensor that converts sound into an electrical signal. Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, tape recorders, hearing aids, motion picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, in radio and television broadcasting and in computers for recording voice, VoIP, and for non-acoustic purposes such as ultrasonic checking.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

Visual Input Device The visual input devices are used to input the data in form of pictures, which are converted into digital signals and send to CPU. The visual input device are Web cam, Digital Camera, Cellular Phones and etc,,.

Web-Cam: A web cam is a video capture device connected to a computer or computer network, often using a USB port or, if connected to a network, Ethernet or Wi-Fi. Their most popular use is for video telephony, permitting a computer to act as avideophone or video conferencing station. Other popular uses, which include the recording of video files or even still-images, are accessible via numerous software programs, applications and devices.

Video Camera: A video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition, initially developed by the television industry but now common in other applications as well. The earliest video cameras were those of John Logie Baird, based on the electromechanical Nikon disk and used by the BBC in experimental broadcasts through the 1930s. All-electronic designs based on the cathode ray tube, such as Vladimir Zworykin's Iconoscope and Philo T. Farnsworth's Image dissector, supplanted the Baird system by the 1940s and remained in wide use until the 1980s, when cameras based on solid-state image sensors such as CCDs (and later CMOS active pixel sensors) eliminated common problems with tube technologies such as burnin and made digital video workflow practical.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

List of Digital Camera Name of Companies

Canon - Ixus, Powershot compact cameras, and Digital EOS/Digital Rebel DSLRs Casio - Exilim compact digital cameras Fujifilm - FinePix compacts, and FinePix Pro DSLRs in collaboration with Nikon

Olympus - C-, D-, and FE-series and Stylus compacts and E-series DSLRs based on the Panasonic - Lumix compacts and Lumix DMC-L DSLRs based on the Four Thirds System

Samsung - compacts, and GX-series DSLRs in Sony - Cyber-shot compacts and DSLRs

collaboration with Pentax

Special Purpose Input Device

Touch Screen: These input devices are very user friendly, the term touch screen implies a system that accepts input by allowing the user to touch the screen with fingertip. These are similar to video display units, which are having the same appearance, the difference being they take input directly. Touch screens takes input as when a finger or object cones in contact with the screen. Touch screen are well suited for simple applications such as automatic teller machine (ATM).

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): The MICR reader reads the characters which are written using special magnetic ink. These are also human readable. This way of input using magnetic ink is used in banking where the cheque numbers, accountnumbers and banks identification number printed using special magnetic ink. This information is processed using MICR reader, which updates the accounts etc.

Bar Code Reader

MICR Code on Cheque Leaf.

OUTPUT DEVICES
Any peripheral that receives and/or displays output from a computer. To the right is a picture of an inkjet printer and a good example of an output device. Output are 2 types, they are 1) Soft Copy and 2) Hard Copy. Example for Soft Copy is Monitor; result is viewed until we have power supply. Hard Copy is Printer or Plotter; result is viewed as permanently on the paper. Below is a listing of all the different types of computer output devices found on a computer. 1. Monitor 2. Printer

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

3. Projector 4. Plotter 5. Speakers

1.MONITOR:
It is also called as video display terminal (VDT), a monitor is a video display screen and the hard shell that holds it. In its most common usage, monitor refers only to devices that contain no electronic equipment other than what is essentially needed to display and adjust the characteristics of an image. Like most TVs, the computer monitor has a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) that is found inside the computer monitor as illustrated in the picture to the right. The CRT is the main component and most expensive part within your computer monitor. Monitors that measure 12 to 21 inches across the screen are also available. They even come equipped with controls like brightness, contrast and screen adjustments, very similar to our TV. Most of the VDU monitors use a cathode ray tube (CRT) that looks like a television picture tube. The depression of the key on the keyboard causes binary code to be generated, which identifies the key. The information typed in goes into the memory unit of the VDU, which is used to refresh the display. The display is refreshed at a minimum of 50 cycles per second to avoid a flicker. The video controller controls the formation of images. The video controller along with the memory is termed as the display adaptor.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

In the graphics mode the display screen can be divided into thousands of picture elements called Pixels. By turning each pixel on or off, the processor draws a graphic image on the screen. The number of dots (pixels) on the screen is the measure of resolution of the monitor. DOT pitch is a distance between pixels on a computer display screen measured in millimeters.

Display adaptors are of various types and are normally classified on the basis of the resolution, color, and display mode. Some of the types of display adaptors are MGA

Monochrome Graphics Adaptor, CGA Color Graphics Adaptor, HGA Hercules Graphics Adaptor, EGA Enhanced Graphics Adaptor, and VGA Video graphics Array. There are two types of monitors available. a) Monochrome: These monitors have a dark background and the letters appear in either green or white color. Since there is only one color being used. They are called monochrome monitors. b) Color: These monitors can display text and pictures in all colors. Such monitors are called color monitors.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

(i). LCD: The Latest Technologies after the monitor is the use LCD (Liquid-Crystal Display) Monitors. A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat panel used for electronically displaying information such as text, images, and moving pictures. Its uses include monitors for computers, televisions, instrument panels, and other devices ranging from

aircraft cockpit displays, to every-day consumer devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. Among its major features are its lightweight construction, its portability, and its ability to be produced in much larger screen sizes than are practical for the construction of cathode ray tube (CRT) display technology. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome. The earliest discovery leading to the development of LCD technology, the discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888. By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units. Important factors to consider when evaluating an LCD monitor:
Resolution:

The horizontal and vertical size expressed in pixels (e.g., 1024x768). Unlike

CRT monitors, LCD monitors have a native-supported resolution for best display effect.
Dot

pitch: The distance between the centers of two adjacent pixels. The smaller the dot

pitch size, the less granularity is present, resulting a sharper image. Dot pitch may be the same both vertically and horizontally, or different (less common).
Viewable

size: The size of an LCD panel measured on the diagonal (more specifically

known as active display area).

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

Response Matrix

time: The minimum time necessary to change a pixel's color or brightness.

type: Active or Passive. angle: (coll., more specifically known as viewing direction).

Viewing

(ii).TFT: TFT Monitors: A Thin Film Transistor Liquid Crystal Display (TFT-LCD) is a variant of liquid crystal display (LCD), which uses thin-film transistor (TFT) technology to improve image quality (e.g., address ability, contrast). TFT LCD is one type of active matrix LCD, though all LCD-screens are based on TFT active matrix addressing. TFT LCDs are used in television sets, computer monitors, mobile phones and computers, handheld video game systems, personal digital assistants, navigation systems, projectors, etc. The benefit of a TFT monitor is a separate, tiny transistor for each pixel on the display. Because each transistor is so small, the amount of charge needed to control it is also small. This allows for very fast re-drawing of the display, as the image is re-painted or refreshed several times per second. A typical 17-inch TFT monitor has about 1.3 million pixels and 1.3 million transistors. That leaves a significant chance for a malfunctioning transistor or two on the panel. Upon delivery, a TFT monitor can have "dead pixels" for this reason. A dead pixel is a pixel whose transistor has failed, thereby creating no display image. On a solid black background, dead pixels will stand out as tiny dots of red, white or blue. Most manufacturers will not replace a TFT monitor that has less than 11 dead pixels. Often, a

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

TFT monitor won't have any dead pixels - always the hope for any buyer, though dead pixels are not noticeable unless located in a critical position on the screen. 2. PRINTERS: The paper print or hard copy can be produced with the help of a printer. There are many different kinds of printers available in the market. Printers are classified in to two types:

(i).Impact printers (ii).Non-impact printers (i). IMPACT PRINTER: - These are those types of printers, which have direct mechanical contact between the head of the printer and paper. The general typewriter works with a key containing the letter hits a ribbon. This ribbon is coated with ink on one side. This side that is coated with ink, in turn, hits the paper. Thus an impression of letter is formed. Computer printers use this same principle to print information on paper. This hit is called an impact. Examples of Impact Printers are Dot matrix printers Daisy wheel printers Line printers a) Dot Matrix Printers: - The Dot Matrix Printer prints one character at a time. The print head comprises a matrix of tiny needles, usually seven rows with nine needles in each row, which hammers out characters in a pattern of tiny dots. The dot pattern (i. e the shape of characters) is obtained from information held electronically in the printer. The speed of the

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

printer is generally in the range of 30 to 600 Characters Per Second (CPS). These printers can print characters in draft quality, standard as well as near letter quality.

b) Daisy wheel printer:- A daisy wheel printer is also a character printer and derives its name from the shape of the print wheel used in it. The wheel rotates at high speed and when the required character is positioned over the ribbon, a tiny hammer strikes it against the ribbon thus transferring the character symbol to the paper. Daisy wheels are interchangeable and different sizes and styles of letters can be used. These are slow printers, with speeds ranging from 17 to 200 CPS. But they produce good quality printing and are often used in word processing applications.

c) Line printers: - These are the printers which prints an entire line at a time is called line printer. These printers use special mechanisms to print one line at a time. Its speed varies from 1000 to 5000 Lines Per Minute (LPM). It has been used in data processing Line printers generally produce only uppercase letters though some have provision for both upper and lower case letters. The quality of printing is poor in terms of style and

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

density for office use. How ever, they are used for producing large volume of reports in big organizations.

(ii). NON-IMPACT PRINTER: - These are those types of printers where there is no direct mechanical contact between the head of the printer and paper. The most commonly used categories on Non-Impact Printers are: a) Laser Printer Printer etc.
a) Laser printers:- The Laser Printer use

b) Ink Jet Printer c) Thermal

combination of electronics, laser and

photocopier technology, these printers print information page by page. Laser Printers use the Non-Impact method of printing. Speeds are high and a very high quality of printing is achieved using a wide selection of fonts. Print speeds vary from 15000-20000 LPM. The cost of these printers is very high, gradually laser printers are becoming more and more popular with desktop publishing systems.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

b). Ink-jet printers:- Ink-jet Printers are significantly less expensive than laser printers. Electronically charged ink is sprayed through a jet nozzle and passed through an electronic field, which deflects the ink to form a dot matrix character. Color Ink-jet Printers, which use multiple nozzles, are available at very reasonable prices. It is

capable to print about 500 Characters Per Second (CPS). A well equipped office at home or at workplace includes an Ink-jet printer, a Fax machine, a Copier and a full sheet Scanner. C).Thermal printers:

A printer that adheres a wax-based ink onto paper. A thermal print head melts wax-based

ink from the transfer ribbon onto the paper. When cool, the wax is permanent. This type of thermal printer uses an equivalent panel of ink for each page to be printed, no matter if

a full page or only one line of print is transferred. Monochrome printers have a black page for each page to be printed, while color printers have either three (CMY) or four (CMYK) colored panels for each page. Unlike thermal dye transfer printers , also called dye sublimation printers, these printers print images as dots, which means that images must be dithered first. As a result, images are not quite photo-realistic, although they are very good. The big advantages of these printers over thermal dye transfer printers are that they don't require special paper and they are faster.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

3. PROJECTOR: A hardware device that enables an image, such as a computer screen, to be projected onto a flat surface. These devices are commonly used in meetings and presentations as they allow for

a large image to be shown so everyone in a room can see. To the right is a View Sonic projector and an example image of what a projector may look like. As can be seen in this image the projectors is a small device often a little bigger than a toaster and typically weigh a few pounds.

4. PLOTTER: A plotter is a vector graphics-printing device to print graphical plots, that connects to a computer. There are two types of main plotters. Those are pen plotters and electrostatic plotters. With the availability of multi-color plotters, they are increasingly used for preparing financial documents, annual reports and engineering drawings.

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

5. SPEAKERS: A term used to describe the user who is giving vocal commands to a software program. A hardware device connected to a computer's sound card that outputs sounds generated by the card. To the right is a picture example of the Altec Lansing VS2221 speakers with subwoofer; speakers like the ones shown below are an example of what most computer speakers resemble today.

When computers were originally released they had onboard speakers that generated a series of different tones and beeps. As multimedia and games became popular, higher quality computers speakers began to be released for higher quality sound effects and music. Computer sound cards today are not powerful enough to power a nice set of speakers. Today, good quality speakers are self-powered, relatively small in size to fit on desks or on the side of monitors and contain magnetic shielding.

Speakers are generally rated in Frequency response, Total Harmonic Distortion and Watts. The Frequency response is the rate of measurement of the highs and lows of the sounds the speaker

Project Report on Fundamentals Of Computers

and produce. The THD, or Total Harmonic Distortion, is the amour of distortion created by amplifying the signal. The Watts is the amount of amplification available for the speakers.