(ISO) developed the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model to define functional communications standards.

This reference model is widely used by equipment manufacturers to assure their products will interoperate with products from other vendors. The OSI model describes the functions that are performed in data communications. The model architecture is seven layers those are listed below with each layer defining specific functions.

Layer 7 Application The Application layer provides the interface to the user. Any user application that requires network communication accesses the communication resources through this layer. This layer also is responsible for finding and determining the availability of communication partners. Typical applications in the TCP/IP protocols are Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Telnet, and File Transfer Protocol (FTP). Layer 6 Presentation The Presentation layer is responsible for encoding and decoding data that is passed from the application layer to another station on the internetwork. This layer is responsible for encoding data in a format that the receiving station can interpret and for decoding data received from other stations. Data compression and encryption are accomplished at this layer. Typical coding schemes include ASCII, EBCDIC, MPEG, GIF, and JPEG. Layer 5 Session The session layer is responsible for creating, managing and termination sessions that are used by entities at the presentation layer. The session layer is responsible for coordinating the service requests and responses generated and received by a station when it is communication with other entities on the internetwork. Layer 4 Transport The Transport layer implements reliable internetwork data transport services that are transparent to upperlayer protocols. The services include flow control, multiplexing, and error checking and recovery. If virtual circuits are needed for the communication to be accomplished, they are built and maintained at this layer. Flow control is responsible for making sure that a sending station does not transmit data faster than the receiving station can process it. Multiplexing allows multiple applications to share a common network interface. Error checking is implemented to discover errors on transmission and to provide a recovery mechanism when errors are found. Typical error recovery includes retransmission of the data. Layer 3 Network The Network layer defines routing services that allow multiple data links to be combined into an internetwork. The Network layer defines network-addressing schemes that logically identify network devices. The logical network addresses are different from the physical addresses defined at the MAC layer, and are used by routing protocols running at this level to transfer packets from one network to another. The most

common network addressing protocols are IP, IPX, and AppleTalk. Typical routing protocols that run at this level are RIP, OSPF, IGRP, and NLSP. Layer 2 Data Link The Data Link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical network link. The Data Link layer also defines the physical network-addressing scheme, such as the MAC Address on network interface cards in a workstation connected to a LAN. The Data Link layer also defines the topology of the network (bus, star, dual ring, and so on). Flow control at the Data Link layer is defined to ensure receiving stations are not overrun with data before they can process data already received. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has redefined the Data Link layer into two sublayers. The sublayers are the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) layer. The LLC and MAC sublayers are defined in the IEEE 802.2 standards. The LLC manages communications between devices over a single link of a network. The MAC sublayer manages access to the physical medium from multiple upper-level protocols. The MAC layer also defines the MAC address, which uniquely identifies devices at the Data Link layer. Layer 1 Physical The Physical layer defines the parameters necessary to build, maintain, and break the physical link connections. It defines the characteristics of the connectors, data transmission rates and distances, and the interface voltages. TCP/IP IP was created as a way to hide the complexity of physical addressing by creating a virtual addressing scheme that is independent of the underlying network. IP does not ensure that data is delivered to the application in the appropriate order; that responsibility is left to upper-layer protocols such as TCP and UDP. IP is a connectionless, Network-layer protocol. An IP address is 32 bits long. The bits can be broken down into four bytes. Each byte is expressed in decimal form and separated from other bytes by a dot (that is, x.x.x.x). This is called dotted-decimal format. Each bit within a byte carries a binary weight (starting from left to right) of 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1. If you add up these values, you get a range of 0-255 for each byte. For example, one byte can be translated from binary format to decimal format as follows: 128 0 0 64 1 64 32 1 32 16 1 + 16 8 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 0 1 1 1

= 113

IP addressing has been broken down into five separate classes based on the number of maximum hosts required by the network. IP Address Classes 8 Class A Class B Class C Class D Class E 0 10 110 1110 1111 Network Network Network Multicast Address Reserved 16 24 Host Host Host 32

You can see from above figure that each address class contains a network portion and a host portion. The

network portion identifies the data link that is in common with all the devices attached to that network. The host portion uniquely identifies an end device connected to the network. Class Decimal Value of First Byte Purpose Large organizations Max, Hosts 16,777,214

Class A 0127 Class B 128191 Class C 192223 Class D 224247 Class E 248255 Private IP Addresses

Medium-sized Organizations 65,543 Small organizations Multicast addresses Experimental 254 n/a n/a

Private address space is not recognized by the Internet and can be used by anyone for use within a private network. Public address space, on the other hand, is a unique address that is assigned to a company. Within Classes A, B, and C the following ranges have been defined as private. Starting Address 10.0.0.0 172.16.0.0 192.168.0.0 Address Masks The network mask is used in conjunction with an IP address to delineate the network portion of an IP address from the host portion. Each major network address within its designated class has a standard network mask. Ending Address 10.255.255.255 172.31.255.255 192.168.255.255

IOS Commands

Router modes Modes Router> Router# Router(config)# Description User mode Privileged mode Global configuration mode

Router(config-if)# Interface mode Basic IOS Commands Command Enable Disable Config Terminal Hostname Banner Enable Password Enable Secret Description Puts you into privileged mode Takes you from privileged mode back to user mode Puts you in global configuration mode and change the running-config Sets the name of a router Creates a banner for users who log into the router Sets the encrypted enable password Sets the encrypted enable secret. Supersedes the enable password if set Puts in the auxiliary interface configuration mode Syntax Router>enable Router>disable Router#config t

Router(config)#hostname R1 Router(config)#banner motd # Router(config)#enable password Router(config)#enable secret

Line Aux

Router(config)#line aux 0 Router(config-line)#login Router(config)# password cisco

Line Console 0 Puts you in the console configuration mode

Router(config)#line console 0 Router(config-line)#login Router(config)# password cisco

Line Vty

Puts you in VTY (Telnet) interface configuration mode

Router(config-line)#line vty 0 4 Router(config-line)#login Router(config)# password cisco

Service

Encrypts the user mode

Router(config)#service

Passwordencryption Terminal History Size Telnet

and enable password

password-encryption

Changes your history size Router#terminal history size from the default of 10 up to 25 256 Tests IP connectivity and configures a router Tests IP connectivity Telnet [destination ip] Router#telnet 172.16.10.2

Ping

Ping [destination ip] Router#ping 172.16.10.2

Interface Fastethernet 0/0 Interface Serial 1

Puts you in interface configuration mode for a fastethernet port Puts you in configuration mode for interface serial 1 and can be used for show commands Sets an IP address on an interface Sets the bandwidth on a serial interface

Router(config)#int fa 0/0

Router(config)#int serial 1

Ip Address Bandwidth

Router(config)#ip address 172.16.10.2 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#bandwidth 64 Router#copy run start

Copy Run Start Short for copy runningconfig, startup-config. Places a configuration into NVRAM Erase Startup Deletes the startup-config

Router#erase startup-config Router#sh controllers s 0 Router#sh history

Show Show the DTE or DCE Controllers S 0 status of an interface Show History Shows you the last 10 commands entered by default

Show Interface Shows the statistics of S0 interface serial 0 Show Run Short for show runningconfig. Shows the configuration currently running on the router Short for show startupconfig. Shows the backup configuration stored in NVRAM

Router#sh int s 0 Router#sh run

Show Start

Router#sh start

Show Terminal Shows you your configured Router#sh terminal history size Show Version Shutdown Shows you statistic of the router Puts an interface in administratively-down Router#sh ver Router(config-if)#shutdown

mode IP Routing Commands Command Ip route Description Creates static and default routes on a router Syntax Ip route [destination_network] [mask] [next_hop_address or exitinterface] [administrative_distance] [permanent] Example: Router(config)#ip route 172.16.20.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.2 No ip route Removes a static default Router(config)#no ip route rout 172.16.20.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.2 Turns on ip rip routing on a router Router(config)#router rip

Router RIP Network

Tells the routing protocol Router(config-if)#network what network to 172.16.20.0 advertise Turns on ip igrp routing on a router Router igrp[Autonomous system no.] Router(config)#router igrp 10

Router igrp AS

Debug ip rip

Sends console messages Router#debug ip rip displaying information about rip packets being sent and received on a router interface Router#debug ip igrp events

Debug ip igrp Provides a summary of events the igrp routing information running on the network Debug ip igrp Shows message transactions requests from neighbor routes asking for an update and the broadcast sent from your router to that neighbor router Show ip route Displays the ip routing table Show protocols

Router#debug ip igrp transactions

Router#sh ip route

Shows the routed Router#sh protocols protocols and network addresses configured on each interface Shows the routing protocols and timers associated with each Router#sh ip protocols

Show ip protocols

routing protocol configured on a router Managing Internetwork Command Cdp enable No cdp enable Cdp run No cdp run Description Turns on cdp on an individual interface Turns off cdp on an individual interface Turns on cdp on a router Turns off cdp completely on router Syntax Router#cdp enable Router#no cdp enable Router#cdp run Router#no cdp run Router(config)#cdp holdtime 240 Router(config)#cdp timer 90 Router#clear line 2 Router(config)#configregister 0x0101 Router# copy flash tftp Router#copy run start Router#copy run tftp

Cdp holdtime Changes the holdtime of cdp packets Cdp timer Clear line Configregister Copy flash tftp Copy run start Changes the cdp update timer Clears a connection connected via telnet to your router Tells the router how to boot and to change the configuration register setting Copies a file from flash memory to a tftp host Copies the running-config file to the startup-config file

Copy run tftp Copies the running-config file to a tftp host Copy tftp flash

Copies a file from a tftp host to Router#copy tftp flash flash memory Router#copy tftp run

Copy tftp run Copies a configuration from a tftp host to the running-config file Erase startupconfig Ip host

Deletes the contents of NVRAM Router#erase startup-config on a router Creates a host table on a router Ip host[hostname] [ip address] Example: Router(config)#ip host router2 172.16.10.2

No ip host Show cdp Show cdp entry

Removes a hostname from a host table Displays the cdp timer and holdtime frequencies Same as show cdp neighbor detail, but does not work on a

Router(config)#no ip host router2 172.16.10.2 Router#sh cdp Router#sh cdp entry

1900 switch Show cdp interface Show cdp neighbor Show cdp neighbor detail Show cdp traffic Show flash Show hosts Show sessions Shows the individual interfaces Router#sh cdp interface enabled with cdp Shows the directly connected neighbors and the details about them Shows the ip address and IOS version and type, and includes all of the information from the show cdp neighbor command Shows the cdp packets sent and received on a device and any errors Shows the files in flash memory Router#sh cdp nei

Router#sh cdp neighbor detail

Router#sh cdp traffic

Router#sh flash

Shows the contents of the host Router#sh hosts table Shows your connections via telnet to remote device Router#sh sessions

Routing
Routing is the process of forwarding packets from one network to another. All the information needed for a router to forward packets to a hop (router/relay device) can be found in the router's routing table. Static Routing Static routing occurs when you manually add routes in each router's routing table. Static routes are routes that are administratively configured in routers. They are typically used when dynamic protocols are either unnecessary or unwanted. Static routing has following benefits:

There is no overhead on the routers CPU There is no bandwidth usage between routers, which mean u could possibly save money on WAN links

Static routing has following disadvantages:

The administrator must really understand the internetwork and how each router is connected in order to configure routes properly If a network is added to internetwork, the administrator has to add a route to it on all routers

Default Routing Default routing useto send packets with a remote destination network not in the routing table to the next-hop router. You can only use default routing on stub networks-those with only one exit path out of

the network. Dynamic Routing Dynamic routing is the process of using protocols to find and update routing tables on routers and to maintain a loop-free, single path to each network. This is easier than using static routing but it will cost u in terms of router CPU processes and bandwidth on the network links. There are two types of dynamic routing protocols used in internetwork.Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP) and Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP). IGP routing protocol are used to exchange routing information with routers in the same autonomous system (AS). An AS is a collection of network under a common administrative domain. EGP's are used to communicate between ASes. BGP is an example of EGP. Link State versus Distance Vector Routing Protocols In determining the best route to a destination, different routing protocols use a number of different measurements. These measurements are called metrics. Each routing protocol uses one or more metric to calculate the best route to a particular destination. The most common metrics include path length (hop count), reliability, delay, bandwidth, load, and financial cost of a link. Another major difference between routing protocols is how they handle updating each other with current information. There are many methods of doing this. Given these major differences, routing protocols are broken into two main categories: Distance Vector and Link State. Distance Vector protocols include RIP and IGRP. They send their entire routing tables out in all directions at regularly scheduled intervals. Link State protocols are more advanced than distance vector protocols because, unlike distance vector, they do not send periodic routing updates. Link State protocols include OSPF, NLSP, BGP, and IS-IS. They send partial routing tables (of their own networks) to everyone and then send updates when necessary. Classful Versus Classless Routing The basic definition of classful routing is that subnet mask information is not carried within the routine, periodic routing updates. This means that every interface and host on the network must use the same subnet mask. In other words, a classful routing protocol abides strictly to the bit boundaries of the IP address classes. For example, the 10.0.0.0 network-a Class A network-cannot be advertised as anything Other than a route to 10.0.0.0, since the default network mask of a Class A network is 255.0.0.0. In other words, VLSMs are effectively useless. This is because the routing update packet has no field for subnet mask, so the default mask according to the class is assumed. Classful routing protocols include RIP v1 and IGRP. Classless routing protocols include the subnet mask information when an update is sent. This allows different length subnet masks to be used on the network called Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM). Default Administrative Distances Administrative distances are used to rate the trustworthiness of routing information received on a router from a neighbor router. If a router learns of different types of routes to the same destination (statically configured or advertised via a dynamic routing protocol), it must select which route to include in its routing table. Typically, only one route to a specific destination (same address and mask) is in a router's routing table. One method of route "selection" is accomplished by comparing the administrative distance of all the routes to the same destination. Administrative Distance is a value, which rates the reliability of

the source of the route. If the source that provides a route to a router is considered to be less reliableless trustworthy-it receives a higher administrative distance value. The lowest administrative distance becomes the preferred route entered in the routing table. Administrative distance values range from 0 to 255. If desired, the administrator can configure administrative distances so that the default administrative distance is not used. Routing Protocols In determining the best route to a destination, different routing protocols use a number of different measurements. These measurements are called metrics. Each routing protocol uses one or more metric to calculate the best route to a particular destination. The most common metrics include path length (hop count), reliability, delay, bandwidth, load, and financial cost of a link. Another major difference between routing protocols is how they handle updating each other with current information. There are many methods of doing this. Given these major differences, routing protocols are broken into two main categories: Distance Vector and Link State. Distance Vector protocols include RIP and IGRP. They send their entire routing tables out in all directions at regularly scheduled intervals. Link State protocols are more advanced than distance vector protocols because, unlike distance vector, they do not send periodic routing updates. Link State protocols include OSPF, NLSP, BGP, and IS-IS. They send partial routing tables (of their own networks) to everyone and then send updates when necessary. RIP (Routing Information Protocol) RIP is a true distance vector routing protocol. It sends the complete routing table out to all other active interfaces every 30 seconds. RIP uses Hop Count as it's only metric. The maximum number of hops in a RIP network is 15, one hop is a directly connected network, and 16 hops is an unreachable network. RIP v1 uses only classful routing. RIP v2 uses classless routing. RIP uses three different kinds of timers to regulate its performance: Route Update timer sets the interval (30 seconds) between periodic routing updates in which the routers sends a complete copy of its routing table out to all neighbors. Route Invalid timer determines the length of time that must expire (90 seconds) before a router determines that a route has become invalid. Router Flush timer sets that time between a route becoming invalid and its remove from the routing table (240 seconds). RIP Configurations RIP is very simple to configure. All you need to do is enable RIP and add each network that uses RIP. However, RIPv2 has a few more possible commands; you can use two of them: version and no auto-summary. Because the router will by default use RIPv1, you must use the version command to tell the router to use RIPv2. In addition, by default RIPv2 will summarize major networks across boundaries. Use the no auto-summary

command to stop summarization. RIPv1 Configuration Example

Router A (config)#router rip Router A (config_router)#network 208.28.3.0 Router A (config_router)#network 192.38.56.0 Router Router Router Router Router B B B B B (config)#router rip (config-router)#network (config-router)#network (config-router)#network (config-router)#network

134.80.0.0 192.38.56.0 192.38.57.0 192.38.58.0

Router C (config)#router rip Router C (config-router)#network 192.38.58.0 Router C (config-router)#network 208.28.1.0 Router D (config)#router rip Router D (config-router)#network 192.38.57.0 Router D (config-router)#network 208.28.2.0 Monitoring and Verifying RIP Command Show ip protocols Show ip route Debug ip rip Description Shows the entire routing table Shows routing protocol parameters and current timer values Issues log message for each RIP update

Ping trace

Sends and receive ICMP echo messages to verify connectivity Sends a series of ICMP echoes with increasing TTL value IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)

The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a Cisco proprietary protocol. Like RIP, IGRP is a distancevector interior routing protocol. However, unlike RIP, IGRP can be used in larger autonomous systems due to its large maximum hop-count limit of 255, compared to RIP's maximum hop count of 16. IGRP uses bandwidth and delay of the line by default as metric for determining the best route to an internetwork. This is called a composite metric. Reliability, load and maximum transmission unit (MTU) can also be used, although they are not used by default. To control performance IGRP uses different kind of timers: Update Timers specifies how frequently IGRP routing messages will be sent. The default is 90 seconds. Invalid Timer specifies how long a router should wait in the absence of a routing-update message of a specific route before declaring it invalid. The default is three times the Update timer, 270 seconds. Holddown Timer specifies the holddown period. The default is three times the update timer plus 10 seconds, 280 seconds. Flush Timer indicates how much time should pass before an IGRP route is flushed from the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update period, 630 seconds. IGRP Configurations Configuring IGRP is similar to configuring RIP in that after the router command you must specify only directly connected (system routes) networks. The only difference is in the command to enable the routing protocol. You must specify an AS number when enabling IGRP. The AS number parameter specifies the autonomous system number that is supported by this IGRP process and allows multiple IGRP processes to run on a single router. The AS number can be between 1 and 65,655. For example: RTR(config)# router igrp 10 RTR(config-router)# network 200.40.0.0 RTR(config-router)# network 200.30.0.0 Monitoring and Verifying IGRP Command Show ip protocols Debug ip igrp transactions Debug ip igrp events Ping trace Show ip route Description Shows routing protocol parameters and current timer values Issues log messages with details of the IGRP updates. Issues log messages for each igrp updates Sends and receive ICMP echo messages to verify connectivity Sends a series of ICMP echoes with increasing TTL value Shows routing protocol parameters and current timer values