CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) is the channel access mechanism used by most wireless LANs in the

ISM bands. A channel access mechanism is the part of the protocol which specifies how the node uses the medium : when to listen, when to transmit... The basic principles of CSMA/CA are listen before talk and contention. This is an asynchronous message passing mechanism (connectionless), delivering a best effort service, but no bandwidth and latency guarantee (you are still following ?). It's main advantages are that it is suited for network protocols such as TCP/IP, adapts quite well with the variable condition of traffic and is quite robust against interferences. CSMA/CA is fundamentally different from the channel access mechanism used by cellular phone systems. CSMA/CA is derived from CSMA/CD (Collision Detection), which is the base of Ethernet. The main difference is the collision avoidance : on a wire, the transceiver has the ability to listen while transmitting and so to detect collisions (with a wire all transmissions have approximately the same strength). But, even if a radio node could listen on the channel while transmitting, the strength of its own transmissions would mask all other signals on the air. So, the protocol can't directly detect collisions like with Ethernet and only tries to avoid them. Under CSMA/CD, when a station has data to send, it first listens to determine whether any other station on the network is occupying the medium. If the channel is busy, the station will wait until it becomes idle before transmitting data. Since it is possible for two stations to listen at the same time and discover an idle channel, it is also possible that two stations could then transmit at the same time. When this occurs a collision will take place, and then a jamming signal is sent throughout the network in order to notify all stations of the collision. The stations will then wait for a random period of time before retransmitting their respective frames. Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance CSMA/CA -Short for Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance, a network contention protocol that listens to a network in order to avoid collisions, unlike CSMA/CD that deals with network transmissions once collisions have been detected. CSMA/CA contributes to network traffic because, before any real data is transmitted, it has to broadcast a signal onto the network in order to listen for collision scenarios and to tell other devices not to broadcast . In CSMA/CA, as soon as a node receives a packet that is to be sent, it checks to be sure the channel is clear (no other node is transmitting at the time). If the channel is clear, then the packet is sent. If the channel is not clear, the node waits for a randomly chosen period of time, and then checks again to see if the channel is clear. Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection CSMA/CD is a type of contention protocol. Networks using the CSMA/CD procedure are simple to implement but do not have deterministic transmission characteristics. The CSMA/CD method is internationally standardized in IEEE 802.3 and ISO 8802.3. A set of rules determining how network devices respond when two devices attempt to use a data channel simultaneously (called a collision). Standard Ethernet networks use CSMA/CD to physically monitor the traffic on the line at participating stations. If no transmission is taking place at the time, the particular station can transmit. If two stations attempt to transmit simultaneously, this causes a collision, which is detected by all participating stations. After a random time interval, the stations that collided attempt to transmit again. If another collision

This period of time is called the backoff factor, and is counted down by a backoff counter. If the channel is clear when the backoff counter reaches zero, the node transmits the packet. If the channel is not clear when the backoff counter reaches zero, the backoff factor is set again, and the process is repeated. Carrier Sense on Multiple Access / Collision detection is wired network's ethernet 802.3 protocol

occurs, the time intervals from which the random waiting time is selected are increased step by step. This is known as exponential back off.

Carrier Sense on Multiple Access / Collision Avoidance is Wireless (802.11) access control protocol.

10 Gigabit Ethernet
Initially, gigabit Ethernet was deployed in high-capacity backbone network links (for instance, on a high-capacity campus network). In 2000, Apple's Power Mac G4 and PowerBook G4 were the first mass produced personal computers featuring the 1000BASE-T connection. Higher bandwidth 10 Gigabit Ethernet standards have since become available as the IEEE ratified a fiber-based standard in 2002, and a twisted pair standard in 2006. As of 2009 10Gb Ethernet is replacing 1Gb as the backbone network and has begun to migrate down to high-end server systems. There are five physical layer standards for gigabit Ethernet using optical fiber (1000BASE-X), twisted pair cable (1000BASE-T), or balanced copper cable (1000BASE-CX). The IEEE 802.3z standard includes 1000BASE-SX for transmission over multi-mode fiber, 1000BASE-LX for transmission over single-mode fiber, and the nearly obsolete 1000BASE-CX for transmission over balanced copper cabling. These standards use 8b/10b encoding, which inflates the line rate by 25%, from 1000 Mbit/s to 1250 Mbit/s, to ensure a DC balanced signal. The symbols are then sent using NRZ. IEEE 802.3ab, which defines the widely used 1000BASE-T interface type, uses a different encoding scheme in order to keep the symbol rate as low as possible, allowing transmission over twisted pair. Ethernet in the First Mile later added 1000BASE-LX10 and -BX10. Name 1000BASE-C Twinaxial cabling X 1000BASE-S Multi-mode fiber X 1000BASE-L Multi-mode fiber X 1000BASE-L Single-mode fiber X 1000BASE-L Single-mode fiber using 1,310 nm X10 wavelength Medium Specified distance 25 meters 220 to 550 meters dependent on fiber diameter and bandwidth 550 meters 5 km 10 km

1000BASE-Z Single-mode fiber at 1,550 nm wavelength ~ 70 km

X 1000BASE-B Single-mode fiber, over single-strand fiber: 10 km X10 1,490 nm downstream 1,310 nm upstream 1000BASE-T Twisted-pair cabling (Cat-5, Cat-5e, Cat-6, 100 meters or Cat-7) 100 meters

1000BASE-T Twisted-pair cabling (Cat-6, Cat-7) X 1000BASE-X

1000BASE-X is used in industry to refer to gigabit Ethernet transmission over fiber, where options include 1000BASE-CX, 1000BASE-LX, and 1000BASE-SX, 1000BASE-LX10, 1000BASE-BX10 or the non-standard -ZX implementations. 1000BASE-CX 1000BASE-CX is an initial standard for gigabit Ethernet connections over twinaxial cabling with maximum distances of 25 meters using balanced shielded twisted pair and either DE-9 or 8P8Cconnector. The short segment length is due to very high signal transmission rate. Although, it is still used for specific applications where cabling is done by IT professionals, for instance the IBM BladeCenter uses 1000BASE-CX for the Ethernet connections between the blade servers and the switch modules, 1000BASE-T has succeeded it for general copper wiring use. 1000BASE-SX 1000BASE-SX is a fiber optic gigabit Ethernet standard for operation over multi-mode fiber using a 770 to 860 nanometer, near infrared (NIR) light wavelength. The standard specifies a distance capability between 220 metres (62.5/125 m fiber with low modal bandwidth) and 550 metres (50/125 m fiber with high modal bandwidth). In practice, with good quality fiber, optics, and terminations, 1000BASE-SX will usually work over significantly longer distances. This standard is highly popular for intra-building links in large office buildings, co-location facilities and carrier neutral internet exchanges. Optical power specifications of SX interface: Minimum output power = 9.5 dBm. Minimum receive sensitivity = 17 dBm. 1000BASE-LX 1000BASE-LX is a fiber optic gigabit Ethernet standard specified in IEEE 802.3 Clause 38 which uses a long wavelength laser (1,2701,355 nm), and a maximum RMS spectral width of 4 nm. 1000BASE-LX is specified to work over a distance of up to 5 km over 10 m single-mode fiber. 1000BASE-LX can also run over all common types of multi-mode fiber with a maximum segment length of 550 m. For link distances greater than 300 m, the use of a special launch conditioning patch cord may be required.This launches the laser at a precise offset from the center of the fiber which causes it to spread across the diameter of the fiber core, reducing the effect known as differential mode delay which occurs when the laser couples onto only a small number of available modes in multi-mode fiber.

1000BASE-LX10 1000BASE-LX10 was standardized six years after the initial gigabit fiber versions as part of the Ethernet in the First Mile task group. It is very similar to 1000BASE-LX, but achieves longer distances up to 10 km over a pair of single-mode fiber due to higher quality optics. Before it was standardized 1000BASE-LX10 was essentially already in widespread use by many vendors as a proprietary extension called either 1000BASELX/LH or 1000BASE-LH. 1000BASE-BX10 1000BASE-BX10 is capable of up to 10 km over a single strand of single-mode fiber, with a different wavelength going in each direction. The terminals on each side of the fibre are not equal, as the one transmitting downstream (from the center of the network to the outside) uses the 1,490 nm wavelength, and the one transmitting upstream uses the 1,310 nm wavelength. 1000BASE-ZX 1000BASE-ZX is a non-standard but industry accepted term to refer to gigabit Ethernet transmission using 1,550 nm wavelength to achieve distances of at least 70 km over single-mode fiber. 1000BASE-T 1000BASE-T (also known as IEEE 802.3ab) is a standard for gigabit Ethernet over copper wiring. Each 1000BASE-T network segment can be a maximum length of 100 meters (328 feet), and must use Category 5 cable or better. Category 5e cable orCategory 6 cable may also be used.Autonegotiation is a requirement for using 1000BASE-T according to Section 28D.5 Extensions required for Clause40 (1000BASE-T).At least the clock source has to be negotiated, as one has to be master and the other slave. In a departure from both 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX, 1000BASE-T uses all four cable pairs for simultaneous transmission in both directions through the use ofadaptive equalization and a 5-level pulse amplitude modulation (PAM-5) technique. The symbol rate is identical to that of 100BASE-TX (125 Mbaud) and the noise immunity of the 5-level signaling is also identical to that of the 3-level signaling in 100BASE-TX, since 1000BASET uses 4-dimensional trellis coded modulation(TCM) to achieve a 6 dB coding gain across the 4 pairs. Since negotiation takes place on only two pairs, if two gigabit devices are connected through a cable with only two pairs, the devices will successfully choose 'gigabit' as the highest common denominator (HCD), but the link will never come up. Most gigabit physical devices have a specific register to diagnose this behaviour. Some drivers offer an "Ethernet@Wirespeed" option where this situation leads to a slower yet functional connection. The data is transmitted over four copper pairs, eight bits at a time. First, eight bits of data are expanded into four 3-bit symbols through a non-trivial scrambling procedure based on a linear feedback shift register; this is similar to what is done in 100BASE-T2, but uses different parameters. The 3-bit symbols are then mapped to voltage levels which vary continuously during transmission. An example mapping is as follows:

Symbol Line signal level

00 00 01 01 10 10 11 111 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 +1 +2 1 0 +1 2 1

Automatic MDI/MDI-X Configuration is specified as an optional feature in the 1000BASE-T standard, meaning that straight-through cables will often work between gigabit-capable interfaces. This feature eliminates the need for crossover cables, making obsolete the uplink/normal ports and manual selector switches found on many older hubs and switches and greatly reduces installation errors. 1000BASE-TX The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) created and promoted a standard similar to 1000BASE-T that was simpler to implement, calling it 1000BASE-TX (TIA/EIA854). The simplified design would, in theory, have reduced the cost of the required electronics by only using one pair of wires in each direction. However, this solution required Category 6 cable and has been a commercial failure, likely due to the cabling requirement as well as the rapidly falling cost of 1000BASE-T products. Many 1000BASET products are advertised as 1000BASE-TX due to lack of knowledge that 1000BASE-TX is actually a different standard. The confusion between 1000BASE-T and 1000BASE-TX probably stems from the fact that most popular form of Fast Ethernet (100 Mbit/s) is known as100BASE-TX, and the fact that many products support multiple speeds of 10/100/1000Mb/sec and are often promoted as 10/100/1000BASE-TX. BACKBONE NETWORK A backbone network or network backbone is a part of computer network infrastructure that interconnects various pieces of network, providing a path for the exchange of information between different LANs or subnetworks.[1] A backbone can tie together diverse networks in the same building, in different buildings in a campus environment, or over wide areas. Normally, the backbone's capacity is greater than the networks connected to it. A large corporation that has many locations may have a backbone network that ties all of the locations together, for example, if a server cluster needs to be accessed by different departments of a company that are located at different geographical locations. The pieces of the network connections (for example: ethernet, wireless) that bring these departments together is often mentioned as network backbone. Network congestion is often taken into consideration while designing backbones.

The backbone network is an important architectural element for building enterprise networks. It provides a path for the exchange of information between different LANs or subnetworks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks in the same building, in different buildings in a campus environment, or over wide areas. Generally, the backbone's capacity is greater than the networks connected to it.There are distributed backbones that snake throughout a building or campus to provide a connection point for LANs, and there are collapsed backbones that exist as wiring hubs and switches. The two topologies are illustrated in above diagram. A hybrid configuration ties together several collapsed backbone hubs or switches with a distributed backbone.